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Pashto is an S-O-V language with split ergativity. Adjectives come before nouns. Nouns and adjectives are inflected for gender (masc./fem.), number (sing./plur.), and case (direct, oblique, ablative and vocative). The verb system is very intricate with the following tenses: Present; simple past; past progressive; present perfect; and past perfect. In any of the past tenses (simple past, past progressive, present perfect, past perfect), Pashto is an ergative language; i.e., transitive verbs in any of the past tenses agree with the object of the sentence. The dialects show some non-standard grammatical features, some of which are archaisms or descendants of old forms.

In the following article stress is represented by the following markers over vowels: ә́, á, ā́, ú, ó, í and é.

Pronouns

• Note: هغه as a demonstrative pronoun (that) has initial stress whereas the personal pronoun (he, she, it) has final stress .

Personal pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns

Possessive pronouns

There is no plural form with nouns.

Interrogative pronouns

Indefinite

• In order to distinguish sentences with indefinites from questions, یو /yaw/ 'one' may be added, to yield یو څوک /yaw ʦok/ 'someone' and یو څه /yaw ʦə/ 'something'.
• When هر /har, ar/ 'every' precedes the indefinite pronouns, the combination can mean everyone , everything , each one

Nouns

Case and gender

Pashto inflects nouns into four grammatical cases: direct, oblique, ablative (also known as oblique II) and vocative. The oblique case is used as prepositional case as well as in the past tense as the subject of transitive verbs (i.e. in ergative construction), and the ablative case is used with certain prepositions and with some numerals.

There are two genders: masculine and feminine. Gender of a noun is indicated by its ending. Animate nouns' gender agrees with biological gender regardless of the ending.

Pashto has no definite article. But when necessary, definiteness may be indicated by other means such as demonstratives. Likewise, it may be contraindicated by use of the word for "one", يو; as in "يو روغتون" – "a hospital".

Class 1

Masculine nouns

Generally, animate masculine nouns take ان -ā́n in plural, and inanimate ones take ونه -úna. Masculine nouns ending in ۀ -ә lose it when attaching the suffixes. The grammatical animacy usually corresponds with physical animacy, but there are some exceptions, like مېړۀ meṛә́ "husband" is inanimate grammatically with plural مېړونه meṛúna, and پل pul "bridge" is animate — پلان pulā́n.

The nouns ending in -i, -ā (these are always animate) or -u (these can be both animate and inanimate) take ان with -g-, -y- or -w- inserted between vowels.

Words ending in -āCә́ pattern (like وادۀ wādә́ "wedding") have short -a- in plural.

Examples

Feminine nouns

Feminine nouns generally have final -a. They change it to -e in the oblique cases and direct plural and to -o in oblique plural, independently of their animacy. A few feminine nouns end in a consonant, they still take the same endings.

In Southern Pashto, the final -e is pronounced -i when unstressed. For example, the plural of سترګه stә́rga "eye" and لار lār "way" would be سترګې stә́rge and لارې lā́re in the North, but سترګي stә́rgi and لاري lā́ri in the South, while مڼه maṇá "apple" and تخته taxtá "board" would be مڼې maṇé and تختې taxté in both dialect groups.

There are also feminine nouns ending in other vowels, particularly -e (they take یانې -yā́ne in the plural) and -ā or -o (they take either ګانې -gā́ne or وې -we). In Southern Pashto they are یاني -yā́ni, ګاني -gā́ni and وي -wi (the last one is not as common as in Northern Pashto and is mostly restricted to a few nouns).

Examples

Class 2

In class 2 there's only masculine nouns, both animate and inanimate. They are subject to various alterations inside the stems. The take -ə́ in the plural and oblique forms.

Nouns with -ú- or -ó- in the last syllable change them to -ā-. Some nouns like تنور tanúr "oven" belong to the mixed conjugation, they form their oblique forms as Class 2 nouns, but their plurals are derived according to Class 1 pattern (but the -ú/ó- may be reduced to -a- in Southern dialects or -ə- in Northern dialects). The word پالېز paléz "kitchen garden" is often cited as an example of a noun that belongs to class 2, but doesn't undergo any stem changes.

There are some animate masculine nouns ending in -á (مېلمه melma "guest", اسبه asba "(horse) shepherd", غوبه ğoba "(cow) shepherd", کوربه korba "owner of the house" etc.), they also belong to Class 2.

Monosyllabic nouns with -a- lose it and take -ə in the oblique and plural forms. There several exceptions here: غر ğar "mountain", ور war "door", ګز gaz "gaz (unit of length)", من man "man (unit of weight)", ټغر ṭağar "rug" take ونه -úna in the plural form (غرونه ğrúna, ورونه warúna/wrúna etc).

Nouns with -á- in the last syllable change it to -ə́-. Most of them are mixed in their conjugation: they can take (or not take) -ā́n or -úna in the plural form. A lot of inanimate nouns in this class can take both suffixes. The only exception here is سخر sxar "stone", which is always sxə́r in plural. This subclass also contains words suffixed with ګر, ور, ن, زن.

Examples

Class 3

Nouns in Class 3 are related to adjectives ending in -ay, -əy, -e.

Masculine -áy (note the stress) nouns, especially if animate, sometimes have alternative plurals in -yā́n. Its usage is somewhat dialect-dependent, they aren't as common in Southern Pashto.

Among feminine -əy nouns, even inanimate ones can take یانې or ګانې, they also can stay unchanged in the plural. Some abstract nouns suffixed with ي -i (such as دوستي "friendship", چلاکي "trickiness", ګرمي "heatness" etc.) also belong here.

Examples

Uncountable nouns

They don't have plural forms. They take و -o in the oblique and ablative forms.

Feminine Examples include اوړه , اوبه , پۍ etc.

Example: اوبه – water

Example: پۍ – milk

Masculine Examples include: ږدن , دال , شراب

Example: دال – lentils

Irregular nouns

These are limited to nouns denoting kinship.

Feminine – "or" stem These include:

مور /mor/ 'mother'; plural stem /máynd-/

خور /xor/ 'sister'; plural stem /xwáynd-/

ترور /tror/ 'paternal aunt'; plural stem /tráynd-/

نګور /ngor/ 'daughter-in-law'; plural stem /ngáynd-/

Example:

Brother and daughter ورور= brother takes وڼه in direct plural

لور= daughter takes وڼې in direct plural

Son

Adjectives

An adjective is called stāynúm in Pashto . The adjectives or stāynumúna agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case.

Notes:

• In the plural, both obliques and the vocative merge into a single form.
• Singular Oblique I and plural Direct always merge into a single form.
• The above two conditions mean that there can be at most five distinct forms for masculine adjectives (but in fact, no class distinguishes more than four).
• For feminine adjectives, singular Oblique I and Vocative merge, while singular Direct and Oblique II merge; combined with mergers noted previously, there can be at most three distinct forms for feminine adjectives.
• Categories 2 and 3 have stem and stress alternations among different cases. Category 3 has a basic distinction between the masculine singular Direct, Oblique II and Vocative, with stem stress, and all other forms, with a (sometimes) different stem and with ending stress (e.g. masc. trīx, fem. traxá "bitter"; masc. sūr, fem. srá "red"; masc. sōṛ, fem. saṛá "cold"; fem. raṇā "light" with only one stem). Category 2 has the same stress alternation, but has three distinct stems, with stressed stem vowel 'o' or 'u' in masculine singular Direct, Oblique II and Vocative, unstressed stem vowel 'ā' in masculine singular Oblique I and plural Direct, and unstressed stem vowel 'a' in all other forms (e.g. masc. sing. pōx, masc. plur. pāxǝ́, fem. paxá "ripe, cooked").

Class 1

Case-marking suffixes

Class I adjectives are consonant-final in their citation form and keep the stress on the final syllable of the stem.

Stem allomorphy

In the Southern dialects, Class I adjectives with certain stem shapes will undergo mutation either:

1. Vowel harmony

or

1. Centralization

In other dialects these vowels do not mutate.

Vowel harmony

Class I adjectives with the stressed stem vowel /ə́/ (Southern), such as دنګ /dəng/ 'tall', undergo regressive harmony in the feminine direct plural and in both oblique plural forms—when the suffix vowel is /o/.

Centralization

Class I adjectives for which the last syllable in the masculine direct singular form is ور /‑wár/, ګر /‑gár/, جن /‑ján/, or م ن /‑mán/, as well as ordinal numbers ending in م /‑ám/, undergo a different vowel alternation: the vowel /á/ of the final syllable centralizes to /ə́/ in feminine non-direct singulars and in all plural forms, irrespective of gender.

Class I forms with stem allomorphy

Example 1 = سپک (light – in weight)

The paradigm for the adjective سپک /spək/ 'light' in above shows the Southern dialect's Vowel harmony rule.

Example 2 = زړور (brave)

The paradigm for the adjective زړور /zṛawár/ 'brave' illustrates centralization rule for the Southern dialect.

Animacy

When modifying animate nouns, some Class I adjectives may take the animate plural suffixes of Class I nouns example:

Məʃarɑn

wruɳa

Məʃarɑn wruɳa

'Elder brothers'

Class 2

Class 2 adjectives can end in either a consonant or a stressed schwa ( ه /‑ə́/). Except for the masculine singular ablative and vocative suffixes, the suffixes of Class II are inherently stressed. These stressed suffixes are the chief difference between Class 1 and Class 2, although there are a few differences in suffix shape as well. Whether a consonant-final adjective belongs to Class 1 (stem-stressed) or Class II (suffix-stressed) is a property of the lexeme and is not predictable.

Case-marking suffixes

Stem allomorphy

Some Class2 adjectives undergo stem allomorphy processes upon inflection, all of them stress-conditioned. The first, Syncope I, affects the final vowels of /ə́/-final Class 2 adjectives; the rest affect the stem vowels of consonant-final Class 2 adjectives (which either lower or delete when unstressed). Lowering affects only back vowels, but not all of them. It is not possible to predict which rule, Back vowel lowering or Syncope II, applies to a given consonant-final adjective. The rules are:

1. Syncope I
2. Back vowel lowering
3. Monophthongization
4. Lengthening
5. Syncope II
6. Epenthesis

Syncope I

• V2 → Ø/ V́1_
• V́1 → Ø/ _V́2

If suffixation results in two adjacent vowels and only one is stressed, the unstressed vowel deletes. If both are stressed, the first vowel deletes. This rule applies to vowel-final adjectives.

Examole: Vowel-final adjectives that end in stressed ۀ /‑ə́/

Vowel-final adjectives that end stressed ه /‑ə́/ in their citation form include تېره /terə/́ 'sharp'. These can be reliably identified from this citation form as belonging to Class 2; no other class has adjectives ending in /-ə́/. The final stem-vowel of these adjectives undergoes one or other of the morphophonemic rules of Syncope I.

Back vowel lowering

• V-stress] / C_

Inmost Class 2 consonant-final adjectives with non-initial back vowels, و /o/, /u/ lowers to /a/ when unstressed.

In most consonant-final adjectives where the stem vowel is a back vowel, و /o/, /u/, it will undergo vowel lowering in unstressed position, followed by lengthening when the next syllable contains /ə́/ such as for the words, پو خ /pox/ 'cooked, ripe' and ړوند /ṛund/ 'blind', illustrated above.

Monophthongization

• aw → V-high] [+back,
• wa → V-high] [+back,

In adjectives with /aw/ or /wa/ in the stem , those sequences simplify to /o/ when stressed.

Back vowel breaking: تود /tod/ 'hot'; stem = /tawd/.

Lengthening

• a → ā /_(C)Cə́

Short /a/ lengthens to long /ā/ when the syllable following it contains /ə́/. This rule affects those adjectives that undergo back vowel lowering, such as for پاخۀ → پوخ and ړاندۀ → ړوند and those that undergo monophthongization, such as تاودۀ → تود.

Lengthening

• V → Ø

In a few consonant-final adjectives the stem vowel is deleted when not stressed.

Example = سور /sur/ – red

Epenthesis

• Ø → a/C_CC or CC_C

If syncope results in a triple consonant cluster, an /a/ might be inserted after the first or second consonant.

Class 3

These adjectives end in the diphthong participial suffix, ی /‑ay/, in the masculine direct singular form/. This suffix may be stressed or unstressed.

Case-marking suffixes

Stressed

Unstressed

Stressed

Example = زلمی (young/youth – the ی is stressed)

Unstressed

Example = سوی (burnt- the ی is unstressed)

Class 4

This the "non-declining" class – these do not decline. These adjectives are generally borrowed from other languages. They do not have masculine-feminine or singular-plural distinction.

But some speakers use the oblique suffixes  و /‑o/, وو /‑wo/ on these adjectives in the plural oblique, ablative and vocative cases.

Example = شمالي (Persian-Arabic borrowing)

Example = شمالي (Southern Dialect)

Derivational affixes

Pashto utilities morphological derivation: there is an addition to the base form or stem of a word in order to modify its meaning .

Prefixes

These are attached at the beginning of words. Here is a list of the most common ones:

A list of examples:

Suffixes

These are attached at the end of a word. Here is a list of the most common ones:

A list of examples:

Creating new words

Other than the recognised words above; new words can be coined by speakers through these affixes

Example:

Infinitive

This is called Kaṛnúmay in Pashto that is "the name of a verb". It shows an infinite action or occurrence. It is used as a noun. It acquires the gender and number of a masculine plural noun.

Example: وکړل shows agreement with masculine plural object that is the infinitive وهل.

Hağúi

they:DIR:3:PL

pә

on:PREP

xpә́lo

own:OBL:M:PL

ke

on:POST

wahә́l

to-beat:PST:CONT:3:M:PL

wә́kṛəl

do:PST:PRF:3:PL

Hağúi pә xpә́lo ke wahә́l wә́kṛəl

they:DIR:3:PL on:PREP own:OBL:M:PL on:POST to-beat:PST:CONT:3:M:PL do:PST:PRF:3:PL

They have fought amongst themselves

Double infinitives

These are formed by combining two infinitives
– either by combining a simple infinitive with a prefixed infinitive.

– or by combining two simple infinitives:

Verb

• Pashto has three tenses: Past, present and future.
• The future tense is the same as present tense with the exception of markers.
• Aspect: Pashto in every tense has perfective aspect and imperfective aspect . The perfective aspect indicates completion of an action while the imperfective aspect indicates continuous or habitual action.
• Pashto verbs are of four categories: simple verbs, prefixed verbs, a-initial verbs and compound verbs.
• Prefixed verbs, a-initial verbs and compound verbs are separable.
• Pashto verbs can be conjugated by the bases they have.
• Present and imperative forms are formed on present bases. Past, optative, and infinitive forms are formed on past bases.
• Based on the stems they classed as either single stemmed, two stemmed or multiple stemmed
• Verbs agree in person and in number with either the objects or subjects of sentences, depending on tense and construction.
• Agreement is indicated with verbal suffixes following the verb stem which indicate person and number.

Verbs: categories

Simple verbs

They are in the morpheme state.

Examples:

Prefixed verbs

These are described below as doubly irregular.

They take the form of a derivational prefix plus a verb base.

Deictic prefixed verb

These correspond to the oblique pronominal and directionals clitics.

Non-productive prefixed verbs

Like deictic prefixed these are subject to the same rules of stress movement to show perfective aspect, as well as to separation from the rest of the verb by negative morphemes and second-position clitics. But generally their meanings are not synchronically separable from the verbal lexeme of which they are a part of.

Example: پرېکول – to cut. The prefix is separated from the verb stem by a second position clitic

pré

cut:VB:PREFIX:AOR

ye

it/he/she:3:WK

kṛá

cut:VB:AOR:IMP:SG

pré ye kṛá

cut:VB:PREFIX:AOR it/he/she:3:WK cut:VB:AOR:IMP:SG

Cut it

a-initial verbs

These begin with ا /a/; but they do not include compound verbs beginning with /a/.

Examples:

Their syntactic behaviour resembles that of prefixed verbs: the initial /a/ can separate from the rest of the verb as though it were a prefix. Unlike prefixed verbs, a-initial verbs differ in that

they take the prefix و  /wə́/ for perfective forms.

وا

wā́

buy:AOR

مې

me

I:SG:WK

خيستل

xistəl

buy:PST:3PL:M

وا مې خيستل

wā́ me xistəl

buy:AOR I:SG:WK buy:PST:3PL:M

I bought them

Unlike all the verbs; they are unusual, in that their stress is variable in the imperfective aspect: it can be either be initial or non-initial. Other verbs can not have initial stress. When the /a/ is separated from the rest of the verb in the imperfective aspect it has initial stress.

Example: initial stress

ا

á

buy:CONT

مې

me

I:SG:WK

خيستل

xistəl

buy:PST:3PL:M

ا مې خيستل

á me xistəl

buy:CONT I:SG:WK buy:PST:3PL:M

I was buying them

Example: non-initial stress

اخيستل

axistə́l

buy:CONT:PST:3PL:M

مې

me

I:SG:WK

اخيستل مې

axistə́l me

buy:CONT:PST:3PL:M I:SG:WK

I was buying them

Compound verbs

There are two categories of compound verbs. There are also some exceptions to these.

First category

These are formed by adding ول and ېدل verbal-suffixes to nouns, adjectives or adverbs. The attaching noun, adjective and adverb should not end in a vowel.

Example:

Exceptions

There are also exceptions to this category. Example: سوچ کول etc.

Second category

These are formed adding auxiliary verbs کول and کېدل to the noun and adjectives. The attaching noun and adjective end in a vowel.

Examples:

Verbs: conjugation classes

These can be divided in reference to the verb categories as above:

• First Conjugation Class: Simple Verbs and A-Initial Verbs
• Second Conjugation Class: Prefixed Verbs
• Third Conjugation Class: Compound Verbs

Verbs: bases

Pashto verb bases are formed according to the tense (present/past) and aspect (perfective/imperfective) of a verb.

Aspect

The perfective aspect is indicated by the stressed prefix و /wә́/ or in the case of complex verbs by stress on the prefix or complement. The imperfective aspect is indicated by the absence of و /wə/ or stress on the verb itself rather than the prefix or complement.

Tense

The present tense either by the absence of this suffix (transitives), or by the suffix ېږ /ég/ (intransitives).

For single stem verbs: the past tenses is indicated by either the suffix ل /ə́l/ (for transitive verbs) or ېد /ed(ə́l)/ (for intransitives).

For two or more stemmed verbs: the past tense is indicated by stem allomorphy.

Bases

Therefore, the following four-fold-method to differentianate of bases:

1. present perfective

2. present imperfective

3. past perfective

4. past impefective

Inflection

In order to make fully inflected verbs, you add either of the following to these bases:

• a verbal suffix
• an imperative or optative suffix, or
• an adjectival suffix (to form a participle)

Verbs: Single Stems

These are referred to as Weak Verbs by Anna Boyle. These have one stem. From this single stem from all four bases are predictable.

First Conjugation Class

Transitve

Here is an example first conjugation class transitive verb: "to tie"

Notes:

• present imperfective base = stem
• present perfective base: و /wә́/ + stem
• past imperfective base: stem+ ل /ə́l/ (suffix obligatory)
• past perfective base: و /wә́/ + stem+ ل /əl/(suffix obligatory)

Intransitve

Here is an example first conjugation class intransitive verb: "to reach"

Notes:

• present imperfective base: stem+ ېږ /eg/
• present perfective base: و /wә́/ + stem+ ېږ /eg/
• past imperfective base: stem + ېد /ed/ (+ ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)
• past perfective base: و /wә́/ + stem + ېد /ed/( + ل /əl/— prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)

Second Conjugation Class

In the second conjugation, perfectives are formed by a shift of stress to the existing prefix, rather than the addition of the و /wә́/ prefix.

Here is an example first conjugation class transitive verb: "to bring (to speaker)"

Notes:

• present imperfective base = stem
• present perfective base: stressed prefix + stem
• past imperfective base: prefix + stem+ ل /ə́l/(suffix obligatory)
• past perfective base: stressed prefix + stem+ ل /ə́l/(suffix obligatory)

Verbs: Two Stems

These are referred to as Strong Verbs by Anna Boyle

These have two stems: present stem and a past stem.

First Conjugation Class

The stems can either share initial sounds as in example:

Or they can be share no similar sounds

Example: the verb لیدل

In either case the same rules apply, as noted by Anna Boyle:

Notes:

• present imperfective base = present stem
• present perfective base: و  /wә́/ + present stem
• past imperfective base: past stem (+ ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)
• past perfective base: و  /wә́/ + past stem(+ ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)

Second Conjugation Class

As above, in the second conjugation, perfectives are formed by a shift of stress to the existing prefix, rather than the addition of the و /wә́/ prefix.

Example one: the verb پرېښودل

Notes:

• present imperfective base = present stem
• present perfective base: stressed prefix + present stem
• past imperfective base: prefix + past stem (+ ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc.; optional elsewhere)
• past perfective base: stressed prefix + past stem(+ ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)

Verbs: Multiple Stems

These are referred to as Strong Verbs by Anna Boyle.

These are verbs whose imperfective and perfective stems differ as well as their present and past stems. The difference between perfective and imperfective is carried by stress; in perfective the stress is on the first part of the verb whereas in imperfective the stress is on the last syllables.

These examples have been taken from Anna Boyle, pages 219–224 with the tables rearranged:

Examples:

Observation: either three stemmed or four stemmed

Observation: Four stems

Observation: Four Stems

Observation: This example contains locative prefixes را,در,ور

Observation:Three stems:وړ for imperfective and یوس + یووړ for the perfectives . Note – Prefixed وړل /wṛә́l/ 'to carry', use its weak stem

Notes:

• Present imperfective base = (present) imperfective stem

• Present perfective base: initial-stressed present perfective stem

• Past imperfective base: (past continuous) stem+ (ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)

• Past perfective base: initial-stressed past perfective stem + (ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)

کول and کېدل

Here there use as main verbs are alluded to. To the verb – to do: The brackete in the present perfective base of کول /kawә́l/ 'to do' indicates that it sometimes is not pronounced in speech

Important: Here there use as main verbs are alluded to - when کول and کېدل are used as verbalizers, their perfective forms are not formed with the first conjugation prefix و  /wә́/, but are irregular.

To the verb – to become

Notes:

• Present imperfective base = (present) imperfective stem

• Present perfective base: و  /wә́/ + present perfective stem

• Past imperfective base: (past continuous) stem+ ( ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)

• Past perfective base: و  /wә́/ + past perfective stem + ( ل  /‑ə́l-/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)

Verbs: aspect

Pashto in every tense has an aspect: perfective aspect and imperfective aspect . The perfective aspect indicates completion or termination of an action. The imperfective aspect indicates continuity of an action or the habitual nature of the action.

Stress

In both aspects the stress is applied to the verb. In perfective, the stress is applied to the initial part of the verb, while in the imperfective it is generally applied to the final part of the verb.

First conjugation

First conjugation verbs, e.g. وهل as above, can be recognised by perfective form, which begin with the prefix و /wə́/, which carries an inherent stress. In a-initial verbs, the perfecive prefix و /wə́/ coalesces with the /a/ to form a prefix وا /wā́/. Example:

Second conjugation

These are referred to as prefixed verbs aboves: all of the form prefix + stem. These behave morphosyntactically: they undergo stress shift to form the perfectived, and they can be separated from the stem by a second-position clitic or the negative morpheme.

Example:

Third conjugation

These are called compound verbs above – those with adjective complements and noun complements + forms of کول /kawə́l/ or کېدل /kedə́l/. Here the perfective is formed by:

• shifting stress from the verbalizer to the noun or adjective complement, according to the lexical stress of noun or adjective
• using the irregular perfective forms of the verbalizer (rather than the forms with و /wə́/).

Many third conjugation verbs are contracted in the imperfective aspect, in perfective constructions, the complement is always separate from the verbalizer.

Example 1:

Example 2:

Verbs: verbal suffixes

Pashto utilises verbal suffixes .

Personal suffixes

Verbal suffixes in Pashto denote person, gender and number.

It is easy to demonstrate these in with intransitive verbs in the imperfective.

Present imperfective tense

Gəḍéẓ̌ is the present imperfective stem of the verb gaḍedəl .

Past imperfective tense

Gəḍēd is the past stem of the verb gaḍēdəl .

Note: In the plural the 3rd person past masculine can denote both genders when talking about a group. While in the plural the 3rd person past feminine is only used when talking about a group of individuals classed in the female gender.

Example:

• هغوی ګډېدل – can imply only males dancing or both males and females dancing
• هغوی ګډېدې – implies only women were dancing. It can also be used for transgenders by itself. But you can not say ايجړاګان ګډېدې since ايجړا is a masculine noun so one would use ايجړاګان ګډېدل.

3rd Person Past Singular Masculine

Generally ه or no-stem suffix is employed. But sometimes ئ is found also.

Plural suffix of وتل watəl

With وتل the plural suffix ل(əl) is not used instead:

Verbs: agreement

Intransitive verbs

As can be seen from the intransitive verb above – the verb agrees with the subject.

Agreement – transitive verbs

• Ergative construction is used in the past tense of transitive verbs: the predicate agrees in person, number and gender with the object. The subject changes to into the oblique case.
• In the present tense the transitive verb agrees with the subject: in person, number and gender.

Example 1: خوړل – transitive verb – to eat

Compare:

Example 2: اغوستل – transitive verb – to put on/dress

Compare:

Compound transitive verbs – split agreement

In the present tense the nominal/adjectival part of the compound verb agrees with the object. But the auxiliary کول agrees with the subject.

Example: پاکول – compound transitive verb – to clean

In the past both nominal/adjectival and auxiliary components agree with the object.

Example: پاکول – compound transitive verb – to clean

Verbs: participle

Present participle

The present participle is formed with the past imperfective stem without ل (əl) + ونک (unk) and declension follows the pattern of unstressed ی (ay).

Example ليکل – writer → ليک past imperfective stem → ليکونکی – writer

Past participle

Past participle suffix

The past participle employs the following stems. It is used in perfect constructions of the verb.

Present perfect

This is formed in the following ways:

Category 1 : Past imperfective stem + past participle suffix + present imperfective of "to be"

Category 2 : Past perfective stem of کېدل-ېدل and کول-ول + past participle suffix + present imperfective of "to be"

Example: of Category 1 verb رسېدل

Future perfect

Formed by به +present perfect

Past perfect

This is formed in the following ways:

Category 1 : Past imperfective stem + past participle suffix + past imperfective of "to be"

Category 2 : Past perfective stem of کېدل-ېدل and کول-ول + past participle suffix + past imperfective of "to be"

Example:

Agreement

1. Transitive verbs uses ergative construction: Past participle + verb "to be" agree with object; subject is in oblique case
2. Intransitive verbs: Past participle+ verb "to be" agree with the subject

Example: Intransitive Category 2 verb پخېدل

Verbs: potential construction

Optative

The imperfective optative = past imperfective base of verb+ ای-āy , ی-ay , ې

The perfective optative = past perfective base of verb+ ای-āy , ی-ay , ې

Present potential

Formed by:

Imperfective optative + present perfective of کېدل

Example:

Past potential

Past potential 1

To indicate:

1. Event did not take place: مونږ تېر کال جوار کرلی شوه
2. Event carried out over extended period of time: مونږ ډرامې ليدلی شوې

Formed by:

Imperfective optative + present perfective of کېدل

Example:

Past potential 2

To indicate:

1. Where the event was actually carried out e.g. تۀ هلته په وخت ورسېدلی شوې؟

Formed by:

Perfective optative + past perfective of کېدل

Auxiliary: "to be"

The verb "to be" is irregular in Pashto and does not have an infinitive form.

Present imperfective

Present imperfective tense of "to be":

Present perfective form

Present perfective tense of "to be":

Past form

Past tense of "to be":

Future tense

In Pashto the future tense is the same as the present tense with the exception that in the future tense the marker به is added.

In the third person future tense, also, irrespective of number or gender وي is used.

Future tense of "to be":

Imperative Form

Also known as Command Form

"Wi" – usage

وي is also used; this is the third person singular and plural of the present tense of the verb to be. وي is used when an assumption or a given fact is being discussed where as دی/ده/دي are used reporting an observation. شته functions as "there is" in English.

Verbs: causative construction

This is used to make verbs that mean "to make (someone/something) do X" .

Formation: verb stem + an affix و  /‑aw‑/.

The causative can either use the present stem or past stem – depending on the original verb.

Example:

Verbs: imperative form

This is used to make commands. The present stems of the verbs are used to make commands:

Number

The two verbal suffixes are employed:

Example:

The singular is told to one person; the plural is told to more than one person or as form of respectful command.

Positive command

Pashto positive imperative have two aspects: perfective (initial stress) an imperfective (final stress)

In general the perfective aspect is used to make commands. However, for doubly irregular verbs, the imperfective aspect is used.

Intensive

The imperfective aspect in the imperative is also used to convey a sense of an urgent command example:

—Finish eating, so we go.

Compound verbs

Transitive

For compounds in the transitive, the nominal/adjective part of the verb agrees with the direct object.

Where the is no object, the nominal/adjective part of the verb agrees with the subject

Intransitive

For compounds in the intransitive, the nominal/adjective part of the verb agrees with the subject

Negative command

Pashto Negative Imperatives only employs the Imperfective Aspect with stress on the particle مه /má/.

Compare:

Prefixed verbs

North Eastern Pashto treats negative forms differently for prefixed verbs, placing the negative particle before the entire verb, whereas some other dialects place it between the prefix and the stem.

Verbs: phrasal verbs

These by adding noun to verbs to make verbs phrase-like meaning.

Verbalisers: Kawə́l and Kedə́l

These two verbs, کول and کېدل, are used to form compound verbs (denominal verbs). They use the irregular form in the perfective: without prefix و  /wə́/.

Kawə́l

Here are the forms of Kawə́l as a verbaliser :

As mentioned by Anna Boyle : ړ /ṛ/ in present perfective forms is written, and pronounced in careful speech, but is unpronounced in many dialect. She mentions that in past 3rd person, even the /ṛ/ can be dropped, since the

personal suffixes differ from those in the present: past  ه /ə, a/ as opposed present ي /i/; thus revealing tense without need of ړ /ṛ/.

Kedə́l

Here are the forms of Kedə́l as a verbaliser :

As mentioned by Anna Boyle the 1st and 2nd person forms of Kedə́l are the same to those of the present perfective forms of "to be".

Future Tense

The future tense is formed with the addition of به /bә/; which has been defined by Tegey as a "future marker" and as a "modal clitic" by Boyle.

Future Expression

The clitic به /bә/ is added to the present perfective verb to convey future time event, speculation, or doubt.

plār

father:M:DIR

bә

will:FUT

me

I:1:SG:WK

paisé

money:F:DIR:PL

wә́leẓ̌i

send:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M

plār bә me paisé wә́leẓ̌i

father:M:DIR will:FUT I:1:SG:WK money:F:DIR:PL send:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M

My father will send money

With Present Imperfective Tense

The clitic به /bә/ is added to the present imperfective verb to convey future event – but with. different nuances explained below.

• To describe a future reference that is repeated or ongoing:

plār

father:M:DIR

bә

will:FUT

me

I:1:SG:WK

paisé

money:F:DIR:PL

léẓ̌i

send:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M

aw

and

zә

I:1:SG:STR:DIR

bә

will:FUT

xwrә́ma

eat:CONT:PRS:3:SG:F

plār bә me paisé léẓ̌i aw zә bә xwrә́ma

father:M:DIR will:FUT I:1:SG:WK money:F:DIR:PL send:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M and I:1:SG:STR:DIR will:FUT eat:CONT:PRS:3:SG:F

My father will send money and I will (continue to) eat

• Present Imperfective verb base is also used where future marker like "tomorrow", "next week" etc. is used:

plār

father:M:DIR

bә

will:FUT

me

I:1:SG:WK

paisé

money:F:DIR:PL

gā́nda

tomorrow:F:DIR

léẓ̌i

send:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M

plār bә me paisé gā́nda léẓ̌i

father:M:DIR will:FUT I:1:SG:WK money:F:DIR:PL tomorrow:F:DIR send:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M

My father will send money tomorrow

• To contrast a future action with another future action:

tә

you:2:SG:STR:DIR

bә

will:FUT

dzé

go:CONT:PRS:2:SG

zә

I:1:SG:STR:DIR

bә

will:FUT

pāte

behind:F

kéẓ̌әm

become:CONT:PRS:1:SG

tә bә dzé zә bә pāte kéẓ̌әm

you:2:SG:STR:DIR will:FUT go:CONT:PRS:2:SG I:1:SG:STR:DIR will:FUT behind:F become:CONT:PRS:1:SG

You'll be going, I'll be staying.

Negative Future Expressions

With Present Perfect Base, negative future expressions can be created with the negative marker نه /nә/ and future marker به /bә/.

First Conjugation Class

Simple Verbs

If there is a grammatical subject or object:

Subject/Object + به /bә/ + و /wә́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix

mewá

fruit:F:SG:DIR

bә

will:FUT

wә́

eat...:AOR:PRS:3

nə

not:NEG

xwri

...eat:AOR:PRS:3

mewá bә wә́ nə xwri

fruit:F:SG:DIR will:FUT eat...:AOR:PRS:3 not:NEG ...eat:AOR:PRS:3

He/She/They will not eat the fruit

If there is both a grammatical subject and object:

Subject + به /bә/ + object+ و /wә́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix

zә

I:1:SG:STR:DIR

bә

will:FUT

lik

letter:SG:M:DIR

wә́

send...:AOR:PRS:1:SG

nə

not:NEG

léẓ̌әm

...send:AOR:PRS:1:SG

zә bә lik wә́ nə léẓ̌әm

I:1:SG:STR:DIR will:FUT letter:SG:M:DIR send...:AOR:PRS:1:SG not:NEG ...send:AOR:PRS:1:SG

I will not send the letter

If there is no grammatical subject nor grammatical object:

و /wә́/ + به /bә/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix

wә́

walk...:AOR:PRS:3

bә

will:FUT

nə

not:NEG

gardzi

...walk:AOR:PRS:3

wә́ bә nə gardzi

walk...:AOR:PRS:3 will:FUT not:NEG ...walk:AOR:PRS:3

He/She/They will not walk

a-initial verbs

The و /wә́/ changes to وا /wā́/. Thereby:

If there is a grammatical subject or object:

Subject/Object + به /bә/ + وا /wā́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix

Verb: اخستل

mewá

fruit:F:SG:DIR

bә

will:FUT

wā́

buy...:AOR:PRS:3

nə

not:NEG

xli

...buy:AOR:PRS:3

mewá bә wā́ nə xli

fruit:F:SG:DIR will:FUT buy...:AOR:PRS:3 not:NEG ...buy:AOR:PRS:3

He/She/They will not buy the fruit

If there is both a grammatical subject and object:

Subject + به /bә/ + object+ وا /wā́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix

Verb: استول

munẓ̌

we:1:PL:STR:DIR

bә

will:FUT

lik

letter:SG:M:DIR

wā́

send...:AOR:PRS:1:SG

nə

not:NEG

stawu

...send:AOR:PRS:1:SG

munẓ̌ bә lik wā́ nə stawu

we:1:PL:STR:DIR will:FUT letter:SG:M:DIR send...:AOR:PRS:1:SG not:NEG ...send:AOR:PRS:1:SG

We will not send the letter

If there is no grammatical subject nor grammatical object:

وا /wā́/ + به /bә/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix

Verb: اچول

wā́

put...:AOR:PRS:2:SG

bә

will:FUT

nə

not:NEG

čawe

...put:AOR:PRS:2:SG

wā́ bә nə čawe

put...:AOR:PRS:2:SG will:FUT not:NEG ...put:AOR:PRS:2:SG

You will not put it

Second Conjugation Class

First: Between the prefix and the verb base نه /nә́/ is placed

Second: به /bә/ can then be placed

Before verb:

kor

house:M:SG:DIR

ta

to:POST

bә

will:FUT

lāṛ

go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL

nә́

not:NEG

šu

go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL

kor ta bә lāṛ nә́ šu

house:M:SG:DIR to:POST will:FUT go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL not:NEG go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL

We wont got to the house

Or before the object (likely where there is a subject)

muẓ̌

we:1:PL:STR:DIR

bə

will:FUT

kor

house:M:SG:DIR

ta

to:POST

lāṛ

go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL

nә́

not:NEG

šu

go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL

muẓ̌ bə kor ta lāṛ nә́ šu

we:1:PL:STR:DIR will:FUT house:M:SG:DIR to:POST go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL not:NEG go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL

We wont got to the house

Third Conjugation Class

With compound verbs: نه /nә/ is inserted between the verb element and the noun/adjective element.

Example: روغېدل

tə

you:2:SG:STR:DIR

bә

will:FUT

róğa

recover...:F:ADJ:SG

nə

not:NEG

še

...become:AOR:PRS:2:SG

tə bә róğa nə še

you:2:SG:STR:DIR will:FUT recover...:F:ADJ:SG not:NEG ...become:AOR:PRS:2:SG

You won't recover

"Bә" With Past Imperfective Tense

The marker به /bә/ is also used to convey habitual actions in the past.

kála

when

če

that:COMP

bә

would

hağә́

he:3:SG:M:STR:OBL

ḍol

drum:SG:M:DIR

ğaẓ̌awә́

sound:PST:3:SG:M

zә

I:1:SG:STR:DIR

bә

would

gaḍedә́m

dance:PST:1:SG

kála če bә hağә́ ḍol ğaẓ̌awә́ zә bә gaḍedә́m

when that:COMP would he:3:SG:M:STR:OBL drum:SG:M:DIR sound:PST:3:SG:M I:1:SG:STR:DIR would dance:PST:1:SG

When he would play the drum, I would dance

Adverbs

Adverbs that modify adjectives, verbs or verb phrases, and sentences; can be divided into the classes of time, place, manner, and degree.

These adverbs can act alone or as part of an adpositional phrase.

Acting alone:

mə́xkx̌e

before:ADV

rā́ğla

come:AOR:PST:3:SG:F

mə́xkx̌e rā́ğla

before:ADV come:AOR:PST:3:SG:F

She came earlier

Acting as adipositional phrase:

də

of

māmā́

maternal-uncle:DIR:M:SG

na

from

mə́xkx̌e

before:ADV

rā́ğla

come:AOR:PST:3:SG:F

də māmā́ na mə́xkx̌e rā́ğla

of maternal-uncle:DIR:M:SG from before:ADV come:AOR:PST:3:SG:F

She came before (my) uncle

Adverbs of time

These include adverbs with time reference and quantifier-like items.

Common adverbs of time:

təl

always:ADV

de

NEC

xwdā́y

god:DIR

lará

have:CONT:PRS:IMP:SG

təl de xwdā́y lará

always:ADV NEC god:DIR have:CONT:PRS:IMP:SG

May God keep you (well/alive) forever!

Adverbs of place

This informs us where something takes place.

Common adverbs of time:

kx̌ə́ta

underneath:ADV

kx̌éna

sit:AOR:PRS:IMP:SG

kx̌ə́ta kx̌éna

underneath:ADV sit:AOR:PRS:IMP:SG

Sit down.

Demonstrative pronouns

These are both adverbs and demonstrative pronouns

Example sentence in Waziri:

déle

hereADV

dzə̃

go:CONT:PRS:1:SG

déle dzə̃

hereADV go:CONT:PRS:1:SG

I am going here

Adpositions

Pashto has pre-positions, post-positions and pre-post-positions. Adpositions generally govern either oblique or ablative case assignment to their objects.

Prepositions

List of prepositions

Postpositions

Ambipositions

Pashto uses a significant amount of ambipositions (circumpositions). These usually have two elements, with the noun object positioned between the two elements.

The initial element is likely to be one of these four elements:

The final element is likely to be one of these words:

Here is a list of the simple formations: