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'{{Infobox Former Country |native_name = {{plainlist| * تیموریان * <big>{{lang|fa|گورکانیان}}</big> <small>([[Persian language|Persian]])</small> *''Gūrkāniyān''}} |conventional_long_name = Timurid Empire |common_name = Timurid Empire |continent = Asia |region = Central Asia |era = [[Middle Ages]] |government_type = [[Monarchy]] [[emirate]] |year_start = 1370 |date_start = 9 April |year_end = 1507 |event_pre = [[Timur]] begins conquests |date_pre = 1363 |event_start = Establishment of Timurid Empire |event1 = Westward expansion begins |date_event1 = 1380 |event2 = [[Battle of Ankara]] |date_event2 = 20 July 1402 |event3 = Fall of [[Samarkand]] |date_event3 = 1505 |event_end = Fall of [[Herat]] |event_post = Founding of the [[Mughal Empire]] |date_post = 21 April 1526 |image_flag = Timurid.svg |flag_type = |flag_border = |image_map = Timurid Empire (greatest extent).svg |image_map_caption = The Timurid Empire at Timur's death (1405) |p1 = Chagatai Khanate |flag_p1 = Flag of Chagatai khanate.svg |p2 = Sufi Dynasty |flag_p2 = |p3 = Jalayirids |flag_p3 = |p4 = Kurt Dynasty |flag_p4 = Kartid-Kurtdynasty1244-1389.png |p5 = Muzaffarids of Iran{{!}}Muzaffarids |flag_p5 = MuzaffaridDynastyofIranMapHistoryofIran.png |p6 = Sarbadars |flag_p6 = Sarbadar map 1345.png |s1 = Mughal Empire |flag_s1 = Flag of the Mughal Empire.svg |border_s1 = |s2 = Khanate of Bukhara |flag_s2 = |s3 = Safavid dynasty |flag_s3 = Safavid Flag.svg |s4 = Khanate of Khiva |flag_s4 = Bandera de Khiva 1917-1920.svg |s5 = Kara Koyunlu |flag_s5 = Karakoyunlular devleti.PNG |s6 = Ag Qoyunlu |flag_s6 = AkkoyunluFlag.png | |capital = {{plainlist| *[[Samarkand]] <small>(1370–1405)</small> *[[Herat]] <small>(1405–1507)</small>}} |common_languages = {{plainlist| *[[Persian language|Persian]]<ref>Manz, Beatrice Forbes (1999). ''The Rise and Rule of Tamerlane''. Cambridge University Press, p.109. ISBN 0-521-63384-2. {{google books|2xDm2DCPRKMC|Limited preview}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2xDm2DCPRKMC&pg=PA109 p.109]. "In almost all the territories which Temür incorporated into his realm Persian was the primary language of administration and literary culture. Thus the language of the settled 'diwan' was Persian."</ref> *[[Chagatai language|Chatagai]]{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}}} |religion = [[Islam]] |currency = |title_leader = [[Timurid dynasty|Emir]] |leader1 = [[Timur]] <small>(first)</small> |leader2 = [[Badi' al-Zaman Mirza|Badi' al-Zaman]] <small>(last)</small> |year_leader1 = 1370–1405 |year_leader2 = 1506–1507 |stat_year1 = 1405 est.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Turchin|first1=Peter|last2=Adams|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Hall|first3=Thomas D | title = East-West Orientation of Historical Empires | journal = Journal of world-systems research|date=December 2006 |volume=12|issue=2 |page=222 |url =http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381|accessdate=14 September 2016 |issn= 1076-156X}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=September 1997|title=Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia|journal=[[International Studies Quarterly]]|volume=41|issue=3|page=500|doi=10.1111/0020-8833.00053|author=Rein Taagepera|authorlink=Rein Taagepera|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2600793|accessdate=14 September 2016}}</ref> |stat_area1 = 4400000 |today = {{Collapsible list |titlestyle=font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left;|title=&nbsp;|{{plainlist| *{{flag|Iran}} *{{flag|Uzbekistan}} *{{flag|Turkmenistan}} *{{flag|Tajikistan}} *{{flag|Kyrgyzstan}} *{{flag|Kazakhstan}} *{{flag|China}} *{{flag|Azerbaijan}} *{{flag|Georgia}} *{{flag|Armenia}} *{{flag|Afghanistan}} *{{flag|Pakistan}} *{{flag|India}} *{{flag|Iraq}} *{{flag|Kuwait}} *{{flag|Syria}} *{{flag|Turkey}} *{{flag|China}} *{{flag|Russia}} *{{flag|Saudi Arabia}}}} }} }} The '''Timurid Empire''' ({{lang-fa|تیموریان}}), self-designated as '''Gurkani''' ({{lang-fa|گورکانیان}}, ''Gūrkāniyān''), was a [[Persianate]]<ref>Maria Subtelny, ''Timurids in Transition'', 40: "Nevertheless, in the complex process of transition, members of the Timurid dynasty and their Persian Mongol supporters became acculturate by the surrounding Persianate millieu adopting Persian cultural models and tastes and acting as patrons of Persian culture, painting, architecture and music." pg 41: "The last members of the dynasty, notably Sultan-Abu Sa'id and Sultan-Husain, in fact came to be regarded as ideal Perso-Islamic rulers who develoted as much attention to agricultural development as they did to fostering Persianate court culture."</ref><ref name="EI">B.F. Manz, ''"Tīmūr Lang"'', in [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]], Online Edition, 2006</ref> [[Turco-Mongol]] [[empire]] comprising modern-day [[Iran]], the [[Caucasus]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[Afghanistan]], much of [[Central Asia]], as well as parts of contemporary [[Pakistan]], [[Syria]], and [[Turkey]]. The empire was founded by [[Timur]] (also known as Tamerlane), a [[warlord]] of [[Turco-Mongol]] lineage who established the empire between 1370 and his death in 1405. He envisioned himself as the great restorer of the [[Mongol Empire]] of [[Genghis Khan]], and, while not descended from him, regarded himself as his [[heir]] and associated much with the [[Borjigin]]. The ruling [[Timurid dynasty]] or Timurids lost most of Persia to the [[Ag Qoyunlu]] confederation in 1467, but members of the dynasty continued to rule smaller states, sometimes known as '''Timurid emirates''', in Central Asia and parts of India. In the 16th century, [[Babur]], a Timurid prince from [[Ferghana]] (modern [[Uzbekistan]]), invaded [[Kabulistan]] (modern Afghanistan) and established a small kingdom there, and from there 20 years later he invaded [[Medieval India|India]] to establish the [[Mughal Empire]]. ==History== {{History of Greater Iran}} {{main|Timur|History of Iran}} Timur conquered large parts of Central Asia, primarily [[Transoxiana]] and [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], from 1363 onwards with various alliances ([[Samarkand]] in 1366, and [[Balkh]] in 1369), and was recognized as ruler over them in 1370. Acting officially in the name of [[Suurgatmish]], the [[List of Chagatai khans|Chagatai khan]], he subjugated [[Transoxania]] and [[Khwarazm]] in the years that followed. Already in the 1360s he had gained control of the western [[Chagatai Khanate]] and while as emir he was nominally subordinate to the khan, in reality it was now Timur that picked the khans who became mere puppet rulers. The western Chagatai khans were continually dominated by Timurid princes in the 15th and 16th centuries and their figurehead importance was eventually reduced into total insignificance. ===Rise=== {{See also|Siege of Balkh (1370)}} Timur began a campaign westwards in 1380, invading the various successor states of the [[Ilkhanate]]. By 1389, he had removed the [[Kartid]]s from [[Herat]] and advanced into mainland Persia where he enjoyed many successes. This included the capture of [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]] in 1387, the removal of the [[Muzaffarids (Iran)|Muzaffarids]] from [[Shiraz, Iran|Shiraz]] in 1393, and the expulsion of the [[Jalayirids]] from [[Baghdad]]. In 1394–95, he triumphed over the [[Golden Horde]], following his successful [[Timur's invasions of Georgia|campaign in Georgia]], after which he enforced his sovereignty in the [[Caucasus]]. [[Tokhtamysh]], the khan of the Golden Horde, was a major rival to Timur in the region. He also subjugated [[Multan]] and [[Dipalpur]] in modern-day Pakistan in 1398. Timur gave the north Indian territories to a non-family member, [[Khizr Khan]], whose [[Sayyid dynasty]] replaced the defeated [[Tughlaq dynasty]] of the [[Sultanate of Delhi]].{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} Delhi became a [[vassal]] of the Timurids but obtained independence in the years following the death of Timur.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}}{{dubious|date=April 2016}} In 1400–1401 he conquered [[Aleppo]], [[Damascus]] and eastern [[Anatolia]], in 1401 he destroyed Baghdad and in 1402 defeated the Ottomans in the [[Battle of Ankara]]. This made Timur the most preeminent Muslim ruler of the time, as the [[Ottoman Empire]] [[Ottoman Interregnum|plunged into civil war]]. Meanwhile, he transformed Samarkand into a major capital and seat of his realm. Timur appointed his sons and grandsons to the main governorships of the different parts of his empire, and outsiders to some others. After his death in 1405, the family quickly fell into disputes and civil wars, and many of the governorships became effectively independent. However, Timurid rulers continued to dominate Persia, Mesopotamia, Armenia, large parts of Azerbaijan, Afghanistan, Pakistan,{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} minor parts of India,{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} and much of Central Asia, though the Anatolian and Caucasian territories were lost by the 1430s. Due to the fact that the Persian cities were desolated by wars, the seat of Persian culture was now in Samarkand and Herat, cities that became the center of the Timurid renaissance.<ref name="Columbia">{{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia = The Columbia Encyclopedia | title = Timurids | url = http://www.bartleby.com/65/ti/Timurids.html | edition = Sixth | publisher = [[Columbia University]] | location = New York City |accessdate=2006-11-08 }}</ref> The cost of Timur's conquests amount to the deaths of possibly 17 million people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://necrometrics.com/pre1700a.htm#Timur |title=Selected Death Tolls: Timur Lenk (1369–1405) |publisher=Necrometrics.com |date= |accessdate=2013-02-11}}</ref> [[Shahrukh Mirza]], fourth ruler of the Timurids, dealt with [[Kara Koyunlu]], who aimed to expand into Iran. But, [[Jahan Shah]] ([[bey]] of the Kara Koyunlu) drove the Timurids to eastern Iran after 1447 and also briefly occupied Herat in 1458. After the death of Jahan Shah, [[Uzun Hasan]], bey of the [[Ak Koyunlu]], conquered the holdings of the Kara Koyunlu in Iran between 1469 and 1471. ===Fall=== By 1500, the divided and wartorn Timurid Empire had lost control of most of its territory, and in the following years was effectively pushed back on all fronts. Persia, the Caucasus, Mesopotamia, and Eastern Anatolia fell quickly to the [[Shia Islam|Shiite]] [[Safavid dynasty]], secured by Shah [[Ismail I]] in the following decade. Much of the Central Asian lands was overrun by the Uzbeks of [[Muhammad Shaybani]] who conquered the key cities of [[Samarkand]] and [[Herat]] in 1505 and 1507, and who founded the [[Khanate of Bukhara]]. From Kabul, the [[Mughal Empire]] was established in 1526 by [[Babur]], a descendant of Timur through his father and possibly a descendant of [[Genghis Khan]] through his mother. The dynasty he established is commonly known as the Mughal dynasty though it was directly inherited from the Timurids. By the 17th century, the Mughal Empire ruled most of India but eventually declined during the following century. The Timurid dynasty finally came to an end as the remaining nominal rule of the Mughals was abolished by the [[British Empire]] following the [[1857 rebellion]]. ==Culture== [[File:Timur reconstruction01.jpg|thumb|Timur – Forensic facial reconstruction by M.Gerasimov, 1941]] Although the Timurids hailed from the [[Barlas]] tribe, which was of Turkicized Mongol origin,<ref name="UNESCO">M.S. Asimov & [[Clifford Edmund Bosworth|C. E. Bosworth]], ''History of Civilizations of Central Asia'', [[UNESCO]] Regional Office, 1998, ISBN 92-3-103467-7, p. 320: ''"...&nbsp;One of his followers was [...] Timur of the Barlas tribe. This Mongol tribe had settled [...] in the valley of Kashka Darya, intermingling with the Turkish population, adopting their religion (Islam) and gradually giving up its own nomadic ways, like a number of other Mongol tribes in Transoxania ..."''</ref> they had embraced [[Persian culture]],<ref name="Iranica">{{cite encyclopedia | last = Lehmann | first = F. | encyclopedia = [[Encyclopædia Iranica]] | title = Zaher ud-Din Babor&nbsp;— Founder of Mughal empire | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/babor-zahir-al-din | accessdate = 2012-09-17 | edition = Online | publisher = [[Columbia University]] Center for Iranian (Persian) Studies | location = New York City | pages = 320–323 | quote = "...&nbsp;''His origin, milieu, training, and culture were steeped in Persian culture and so Babor was largely responsible for the fostering of this culture by his descendants, the Mughals of India, and for the expansion of Persian cultural influence in the Indian subcontinent, with brilliant literary, artistic, and historiographical results'' ..."}}</ref> converted to Islam, and resided in [[Turkestan]] and [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]. Thus, the Timurid era had a dual character,<ref name="Columbia"/> reflecting both its Turco-Mongol origins and the Persian literary, artistic, and courtly high culture of the dynasty.<ref name=Iranica2/><ref name=Iranica2/><ref name="Muhakamat Al-Lughatain"/> ===Language=== During the Timurid era, Central Asian society was bifurcated, with the responsibilities of government and rule divided into military and civilian spheres along ethnic lines. At least in the early stages, the military was almost exclusively Turko-Mongolian, while the civilian and administrative element was almost exclusively Persian. The spoken language shared by all the Turko-Mongolians throughout the area was [[Chagatai language|Chaghatay]]. The political organization hearkened back to the steppe-nomadic system of patronage introduced by [[Genghis Khan]].<ref>Babur, Emperor of Hindustan (2002). The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor. translated, edited and annotated by W.M. Thackston. Modern Library.</ref> The major language of the period, however, was [[Persian language|Persian]], the native language of the ''[[Tājik people|Tājīk]]'' (Persian) component of society and the language of learning acquired by all literate and/or urban people. Timur was already steeped in Persian culture<ref>Gérard Chaliand, Nomadic Empires: From Mongolia to the Danube translated by A. M. Berrett, Transaction Publishers, 2004. pg 75</ref> and in most of the territories he incorporated, Persian was the primary language of administration and literary culture. Thus the language of the settled "[[Divan|diwan]]" was Persian, and its scribes had to be thoroughly adept in Persian culture, whatever their ethnic origin.<ref>Beatrice Forbes Manz. The Rise and Rule of Tamerlane. Cambridge University Press, 1999. pg 109: "...''In Temür's government, as in those of most nomad dynasties, it is impossible to find a clear distinction between civil and military affairs, or to identify the Persian bureaucracy solely civil, and the Turko-Mongolian solely with military government. It is in fact difficult to define the sphere of either side of the administration and we find Persians and Chaghatays sharing many tasks. (In discussiong the settled bureaucracy and the people who worked within it I use the word Persian in a cultural rather than ethnological sense. In almost all the territories which Temür incorporated into his realm Persian was the primary language of administration and literary culture. The language of the settled population and the chancery ("diwan") was Persian, and its scribes had to be thoroughly adept in Persian culture, whatever their ethnic origin.) Temür's Chaghatay emirs were often involved in civil and provincial administration and even in financial affairs, traditionally the province of Persian bureaucracy.''..."</ref> Persian became the official state language of the Timurid Empire<ref name="Muhakamat Al-Lughatain">{{cite book |others=Robert Devereux (ed.) |title=Muhakamat Al-Lughatain (Judgment of Two Languages) |author=Mir 'Ali Shir Nawāi |location= Leiden |publisher=E.J. Brill |year=1966 |oclc=3615905 |id={{LCC|PL55.J31 A43}} |quote=Any linguist of today who reads the essay will inevitably conclude that Nawa'i argued his case poorly, for his principal argument is that the Turkic lexicon contained many words for which the Persian had no exact equivalents and that Persian-speakers had therefore to use the Turkic words. This is a weak reed on which to lean, for it is a rare language indeed that contains no loan words. In any case, the beauty of a language and its merits as a literary medium depend less on size of vocabulary and purity of etymology that on the euphony, expressiveness and malleability of those words its lexicon does include. Moreover, even if Nawā'ī's thesis were to be accepted as valid, he destroyed his own case by the lavish use, no doubt unknowingly, of non-Turkic words even while ridiculing the Persians for their need to borrow Turkic words. The present writer has not made a word count of Nawa'i's text, but he would estimate conservatively that at least one half the words used by Nawa'i in the essay are Arabic or Persian in origin. To support his claim of the superiority of the Turkic language, Nawa'i also employs the curious argument that most Turks also spoke Persian but only a few Persians ever achieved fluency in Turkic. It is difficult to understand why he was impressed by this phenomenon, since the most obvious explanation is that Turks found it necessary, or at least advisable, to learn Persian – it was, after all, the official state language – while Persians saw no reason to bother learning Turkic which was, in their eyes, merely the uncivilized tongue of uncivilized nomadic tribesmen.}}</ref><ref name=Iranica2a>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Spuler |first=Bertold |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/central-asia-v |title=Central Asia |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |accessdate=2008-04-02 |quote=[Part] v. In the Mongol and Timurid periods:... Like his father, Olōğ Beg was entirely integrated into the Persian Islamic cultural circles, and during his reign Persian predominated as the language of high culture, a status that it retained in the region of Samarqand until the Russian revolution 1917... Ḥoseyn Bāyqarā encouraged the development of Persian literature and literary talent in every way possible... }}</ref> and served as the language of administration, history, belles lettres, and poetry.<ref name="EI - Manz">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Timurids |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |edition=Online |year=2007 |quote="During the Timurid period, three languages, Persian, Turkish, and Arabic were in use. The major language of the period was Persian, the native language of the Tajik (Persian) component of society and the language of learning acquired by all literate and/or urban Turks. Persian served as the language of administration, history, belles lettres, and poetry." |author1=B.F. Manz |author2=W.M. Thackston |author3=D.J. Roxburgh |author4=L. Golombek |author5=L. Komaroff |author6=R.E. Darley-Doran }}</ref> The Chaghatay language was the native and "home language" of the Timurid family,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Timurids |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |edition=Online |year=2007 |quote=What is now called Chaghatay Turkish, which was then called simply türki, was the native and 'home' language of the Timurids... |author1=B.F. Manz |author2=W.M. Thackston |author3=D.J. Roxburgh |author4=L. Golombek |author5=L. Komaroff |author6=R.E. Darley-Doran }}</ref> while Arabic served as the language ''par excellence'' of science, philosophy, theology and the religious sciences.<ref name="EI - Manz2">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Timurids |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |edition=Online |year=2007 |quote="As it had been prior to the Timurids and continued to be after them, [[Arabic language|Arabic]] was the language par excellence of science, philosophy, theology and the religious sciences. Much of the astronomical work of Ulugh Beg and his co-workers... is in Arabic, although they also wrote in Persian. Theological works... are generally in Arabic. |author1=B.F. Manz |author2=W.M. Thackston |author3=D.J. Roxburgh |author4=L. Golombek |author5=L. Komaroff |author6=R.E. Darley-Doran }}</ref> ===Literature=== ====Persian==== [[File:Sultan 'Ali Mashhadi (Persian, 1442-1519). Folio of Poetry From the Divan of Sultan Husayn Mirza, ca. 1490.jpg|thumb|''Folio of Poetry From the Divan of Sultan Husayn Mirza'', ca. 1490. [[Brooklyn Museum]].]] [[File:Jami Rose Garden.jpg|thumb|Illustration from [[Jami|Jāmī's]] ''"Rose Garden of the Pious"'', dated 1553. The image blends [[Persian literature|Persian poetry]] and [[Persian miniature]] into one, as is the norm for many works of the Timurid era.]] Persian literature, especially Persian poetry, occupied a central place in the process of assimilation of the Timurid elite to the Perso-Islamic courtly culture.<ref>David J. Roxburgh. The Persian Album, 1400–1600: From Dispersal to Collection. Yale University Press, 2005. pg 130: "Persian literature, especially poetry, occupied a central in the process of assimilation of Timurid elite to the Perso-Islamicate courtly culture, and so it is not surprising to find Baysanghur commissioned a new edition of Firdawsi's Shanameh</ref> The Timurid sultans, especially [[Shah Rukh (Timurid dynasty)|Šāhru<u>kh</u> Mīrzā]] and his son [[Ulugh Beg|Mohammad Taragai Oloğ Beg]], patronized Persian culture.<ref name=Iranica2>B. Spuler, "Central Asia in the Mongol and Timurid periods", published in [[Encyclopædia Iranica]]. ([http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/central-asia-v]) Note:"...&nbsp;Like his father, Olōğ Beg was entirely integrated into the Persian Islamic cultural circles, and during his reign Persian predominated as the language of high culture, a status that it retained in the region of Samarqand until the Russian revolution 1917 [...] Ḥoseyn Bāyqarā encouraged the development of Persian literature and literary talent in every way possible ..."</ref> Among the most important literary works of the Timurid era is the Persian biography of [[Timur]], known as ''"Zafarnāmeh"'' ({{lang-fa|ظفرنامه}}), written by Sharaf ud-Dīn Alī Yazdī, which itself is based on an older ''"Zafarnāmeh"'' by Nizām al-Dīn Shāmī, the official biographer of Timur during his lifetime. The most famous poet of the Timurid era was [[Jami|Nūr ud-Dīn Jāmī]], the last great medieval [[Sufi]] [[mysticism|mystic]] of Persia and one of the greatest in [[Persian poetry]]. In addition, some of the [[astronomy|astronomical]] works of the Timurid sultan [[Ulugh Beg]] were written in Persian, although the bulk of it was published in Arabic.<ref name="EI&nbsp;— Manz2">B.F. Manz/W.M. Thackston/D.J. Roxburgh/L. Golombek/L. Komaroff/R.E. Darley-Doran; "Timurids", in [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]; Brill; Online Edition (2007): ''"...&nbsp;As it had been prior to the Timurids and continued to be after them, Arabic was the language par excellence of science, philosophy, theology and the religious sciences. Much of the astronomical work of Ulugh Beg and his co-workers [...] is in Arabic, although they also wrote in Persian. Theological works [...] are generally in Arabic. ..."''</ref> The Timurid ruler Baysunğur also commissioned a new edition of the Persian national epic [[Shahnameh|Shāhnāmeh]], known as ''Shāhnāmeh of Baysunğur'', and wrote an introduction to it. According to T. Lenz:<ref>"[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/baysongori-sah-nama BĀYSONḠORĪ ŠĀH-NĀMA]" in Encyclopædia Iranica by T. Lenz</ref> {{quote|It can be viewed as a specific reaction in the wake of Timur's death in 807/1405 to the new cultural demands facing Shahhrokh and his sons, a Turkic military elite no longer deriving their power and influence solely from a charismatic steppe leader with a carefully cultivated linkage to Mongol aristocracy. Now centered in Khorasan, the ruling house regarded the increased assimilation and patronage of Persian culture as an integral component of efforts to secure the legitimacy and authority of the dynasty within the context of the Islamic Iranian monarchical tradition, and the Baysanghur Shahnameh, as much a precious object as it is a manuscript to be read, powerfully symbolizes the Timurid conception of their own place in that tradition. A valuable documentary source for Timurid decorative arts that have all but disappeared for the period, the manuscript still awaits a comprehensive monographic study.}} ====Chagatai==== The Timurids also played a very important role in the history of [[Turkic languages|Turkic literature]]. Based on the established Persian literary tradition, a national Turkic literature was developed in the [[Chagatai language]]. Chagatai poets such as [[Mir Ali Shir Nava'i|Mīr Alī Sher Nawā'ī]], [[Husayn Bayqarah|Sultan Husayn Bāyqarā]], and [[Babur|Zāher ud-Dīn Bābur]] encouraged other Turkic-speaking poets to write in their own vernacular in addition to Arabic and Persian.<ref name="Columbia"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.persianpaintings.com/history.html |title=Persian Paintings |publisher=Persian Paintings |date= |accessdate=2013-02-11}}</ref><ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761577725_5/Islamic_Art_and_Architecture.html ''MSN Encarta''. Islamic Art and Architecture.]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.art-arena.com/safavidart2.htm |title=Art Arena. Persian art – the Safavids |publisher=Art-arena.com |date= |accessdate=2013-02-11}}</ref> The [[Baburnama|Bāburnāma]], the autobiography of Bābur (although being highly Persianized in its sentence structure, morphology, and vocabulary),<ref>Stephen Frederic DaleThe Garden of the Eight Paradises: Babur and the Culture of Empire. BRILL, 2004. pg 150</ref> as well as Mīr Alī Sher Nawā'ī's Chagatai poetry are among the best-known Turkic literary works and have influenced many others. ===Art=== {{main|Persian art}} The golden age of Persian painting began during the reign of the Timurids.<ref>New Orient, By Czechoslovak Society for Eastern Studies, Czechoslovak Society for Eastern Studies, 1968. pg 139.</ref> During this period — and analogous to the developments in [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid Persia]] — [[Chinese art]] and artists had a significant influence on Persian art.<ref name="Columbia"/> Timurid artists refined the Persian art of the book, which combines paper, calligraphy, illumination, illustration and binding in a brilliant and colourful whole.<ref>John Onians, Atlas of World Art, Laurence King Publishing, 2004. pg 132.</ref> The Mongol ethnicity of the [[Chagatai Khanate|Chaghatayid]] and Timurid [[Khan (title)|Khans]] was the source of the stylistic depiction of [[Persian art]] during the Middle Ages. These same Mongols intermarried with the Persians and Turks of Central Asia, even adopting their religion and languages. Yet their simple control of the world at that time, particularly in the 13th–15th centuries, reflected itself in the idealised appearance of Persians as Mongols. Though the ethnic make-up gradually blended into the [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] and [[Mesopotamia]]n local populations, the Mongol stylism continued well after and crossed into [[Asia Minor]] and even North Africa. ===Timurid architecture=== Timurid architecture drew on and developed many [[Great Seljuq Empire|Seljuq]] traditions. Turquoise and blue tiles forming intricate linear and geometric patterns decorated the facades of buildings. Sometimes the interior was decorated similarly, with painting and stucco relief further enriching the effect.<ref name="Britannica">''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', "[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9072546/Timurid-Dynasty Timurid Dynasty]", Online Academic Edition, 2007. (Quotation:...''Turkic dynasty descended from the conqueror Timur (Tamerlane), renowned for its brilliant revival of artistic and intellectual life in Iran and Central Asia.''...''Trading and artistic communities were brought into the capital city of Herat, where a library was founded, and the capital became the centre of a renewed and artistically brilliant Persian culture.''..)</ref> Timurid architecture is the pinnacle of [[Islamic art]] in [[Central Asia]]. Spectacular and stately edifices erected by [[Timur]] and his successors in [[Samarkand]] and [[Herat]] helped to disseminate the influence of the [[Ilkhanid]] school of art in India, thus giving rise to the celebrated ''Mughal'' (or ''Mongol'') school of architecture. Timurid architecture started with the [[Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasavi|sanctuary of Ahmed Yasawi]] in present-day [[Kazakhstan]] and culminated in Timur's mausoleum [[Gur-e Amir]] in [[Samarkand]]. Timur's Gur-I Mir, the 14th-century mausoleum of the conqueror is covered with ‘’turquoise Persian tiles’’<ref name="John Julius Norwich 2001. pg 278">John Julius Norwich, Great Architecture of the World, Da Capo Press, 2001. pg 278.</ref> Nearby, in the center of the ancient town, a ''Persian style Madrassa (religious school)''<ref name="John Julius Norwich 2001. pg 278"/> and a ''Persian style Mosque''<ref name="John Julius Norwich 2001. pg 278"/> by Ulugh Beg is observed. The mausoleum of Timurid princes, with their turquoise and blue-tiled domes remain among the most refined and exquisite [[Persian architecture]].<ref>Hugh Kennedy, "The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In", Da Capo Press, 2007. pg 237</ref> [[Axial symmetry]] is a characteristic of all major Timurid structures, notably the [[Shah-i-Zinda|Shāh-e Zenda]] in [[Samarkand]], the ''Musallah'' complex in Herat, and the mosque of [[Goharshad|Gowhar Shād]] in [[Mashhad]]. Double [[dome]]s of various shapes abound, and the outsides are perfused with brilliant colors. Timur's dominance of the region strengthened the influence of his capital and Persian architecture upon India.<ref>Banister Fletcher, Dan Cruickshan, "Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture", Architectural Press, 1996. pg 606</ref> <center> <gallery> File:Akhangan.jpg|''"Akhangan" tomb'', where [[Goharshad|Gowharšād's]] sister Gowhartāj is buried. The architecture is a fine example of the Timurid era in Persia. <!-- Deleted image removed: File:Gure Amir.JPG|''[[Gur-e Amir|Gūr-e Amīr]] complex'' with its azure dome. --> File:SamarkandBibiKhanym.jpg|Façade [[Bibi Khanym Mosque]] </gallery> </center> ==Rulers== ===Emperors=== {{Main|Timurid dynasty}} * [[Timur]] * [[Pir Muhammad ibn Jahangir]] * [[Khalil Sultan]] * [[Shahrukh Mirza]] * [[Ulugh Beg]] * [[Abdal-Latif Mirza]] * [[Abdallah Mirza]] * [[Sultan Muhammad bin Baysonqor]] * [[Abul-Qasim Babur Mirza]] * [[Sultan Ahmed Mirza]] * [[Sultan Mahmud Mirza]] * [[Mirza Shah Mahmud]] * [[Ibrahim Mirza bin Ala-ud-Daulah]] * [[Abu Sa'id Mirza]] * [[Sultan Husayn Mirza Bayqara]] * [[Yadgar Muhammad Mirza]] * [[Badi' al-Zaman Mirza]] ===Governors of Iraq-e-Ajam/Iraq-e-Arab/Fars/Azerbaijan & other Persian Territories=== * Qaidu bin Pir Muhammad bin Jahāngīr 808–811 AH * Abu Bakr bin [[Miran Shah|Mīrān Shāh]] 1405–07 (807–09 AH) * Pir Muhammad bin Umar Shei<u>kh</u> 807–12 AH * Rustam 812–17 AH * Sikandar 812–17 AH * Alaudaullah 851 AH * Abu Bakr bin Muhammad 851 AH * Sultān Muhammad 850–55 AH * Muhammad bin Hussayn 903–06 AH * Abul A'la Fereydūn Hussayn 911–12 AH * Muhammad Mohsin <u>Kh</u>ān 911–12 AH * Muhammad Zamān <u>Kh</u>ān 920–23 AH * Shāhru<u>kh</u> II bin Abu Sa’id 896–97 AH * Ulu<u>gh</u> Beg Kābulī 873–907 AH * Sultān Uways 1508–22 (913–27 AH) ==See also== *[[Timurid dynasty]] *[[Turkic peoples]] *[[List of Turkic dynasties and countries]] *[[List of Mongol states]] *[[History of Iran]] *[[List of Sunni Muslim dynasties]] *[[Mughal Empire]] *[[Afghanistan]] ==References and notes== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Further reading== * [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/baysongori-sah-nama BĀYSONḠORĪ ŠĀH-NĀMA] in ''[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]'' * {{cite journal |last=Aka |first=Ismail |year=1996 |title=The Agricultural and Commercial Activities of the Timurids in the First Half of the 15th Century |journal=Oriente Moderno |volume=15 |issue=76/2 |publisher=Istituto per l'Oriente C. A. Nallino |pages=9–21 |jstor=25817400 }} * Elliot, Sir H. M.; edited by Dowson, John. ''[[The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period]]''; published by London Trubner Company 1867–77. (Online Copy: [http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp?serv=pf&file=80201010&ct=0 The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877] — This online copy has been posted by: [http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List]) * {{cite journal |last=Subtelny |first=Maria Eva |year=1988 |title=Centralizing Reform and Its Opponents in the Late Timurid Period |journal=Iranian Studies |volume=21 |issue=1/2 |publisher=International Society for Iranian Studies |pages=123–51 |jstor=4310597 }} ==External links== {{Commons category|Timurid dynasty}} * [http://empirehistory.weebly.com/timurid-empire.html Timurid Empire 1370–1506] * [http://www.art-arena.com/timurid.htm Timurid Art] {{Timurid Empire}} {{Empires}} {{Iran topics}} {{Inner Asia}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Timurid Empire}} [[Category:Timurid Empire| ]] [[Category:History of the Turkic peoples]] [[Category:Turkic states]] [[Category:Mongol states]] [[Category:History of the Caucasus]] [[Category:Medieval Armenia]] [[Category:Medieval Georgia (country)]] [[Category:Medieval Azerbaijan]] [[Category:Medieval Anatolia]] [[Category:History of Central Asia]] [[Category:Historical Turkic states]] [[Category:Former empires]] [[Category:Medieval Syria]] [[Category:Medieval Iraq]] [[Category:History of Uzbekistan]] [[Category:Nomads of the Eurasian steppe]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1370]] [[Category:1507 disestablishments]] [[Category:History of Herat]]'
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'{{Infobox Former Country |native_name = {{plainlist| * تیموریان * <big>{{lang|fa|گورکانیان}}</big> <small>([[Persian language|Persian]])</small> *''Gūrkāniyān''}} |conventional_long_name = Timurid Empire |common_name = Timurid Empire |continent = Asia |region = Central Asia |era = [[Middle Ages]] |government_type = [[Monarchy]] [[emirate]] |year_start = 1370 |date_start = 9 April |year_end = 1507 |event_pre = [[Timur]] begins conquests |date_pre = 1363 |event_start = Establishment of Timurid Empire |event1 = Westward expansion begins |date_event1 = 1380 |event2 = [[Battle of Ankara]] |date_event2 = 20 July 1402 |event3 = Fall of [[Samarkand]] |date_event3 = 1505 |event_end = Fall of [[Herat]] |event_post = Founding of the [[Mughal Empire]] |date_post = 21 April 1526 |image_flag = Timurid.svg |flag_type = |flag_border = |image_map = Timurid Empire (greatest extent).svg |image_map_caption = The Timurid Empire at Timur's death (1405) |p1 = Chagatai Khanate |flag_p1 = Flag of Chagatai khanate.svg |p2 = Sufi Dynasty |flag_p2 = |p3 = Jalayirids |flag_p3 = |p4 = Kurt Dynasty |flag_p4 = Kartid-Kurtdynasty1244-1389.png |p5 = Muzaffarids of Iran{{!}}Muzaffarids |flag_p5 = MuzaffaridDynastyofIranMapHistoryofIran.png |p6 = Sarbadars |flag_p6 = Sarbadar map 1345.png |s1 = Mughal Empire |flag_s1 = Flag of the Mughal Empire.svg |border_s1 = |s2 = Khanate of Bukhara |flag_s2 = |s3 = Safavid dynasty |flag_s3 = Safavid Flag.svg |s4 = Khanate of Khiva |flag_s4 = Bandera de Khiva 1917-1920.svg |s5 = Kara Koyunlu |flag_s5 = Karakoyunlular devleti.PNG |s6 = Ag Qoyunlu |flag_s6 = AkkoyunluFlag.png | |capital = {{plainlist| *[[Samarkand]] <small>(1370–1405)</small> *[[Herat]] <small>(1405–1507)</small>}} |common_languages = {{plainlist| *[[Persian language|Persian]]<ref>Manz, Beatrice Forbes (1999). ''The Rise and Rule of Tamerlane''. Cambridge University Press, p.109. ISBN 0-521-63384-2. {{google books|2xDm2DCPRKMC|Limited preview}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2xDm2DCPRKMC&pg=PA109 p.109]. "In almost all the territories which Temür incorporated into his realm Persian was the primary language of administration and literary culture. Thus the language of the settled 'diwan' was Persian."</ref> *[[Chagatai language|Chatagai]]{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}}} |religion = [[Islam]] |currency = |title_leader = [[Timurid dynasty|Emir]] |leader1 = [[Timur]] <small>(first)</small> |leader2 = [[Badi' al-Zaman Mirza|Badi' al-Zaman]] <small>(last)</small> |year_leader1 = 1370–1405 |year_leader2 = 1506–1507 |stat_year1 = 1405 est.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Turchin|first1=Peter|last2=Adams|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Hall|first3=Thomas D | title = East-West Orientation of Historical Empires | journal = Journal of world-systems research|date=December 2006 |volume=12|issue=2 |page=222 |url =http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381|accessdate=14 September 2016 |issn= 1076-156X}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=September 1997|title=Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia|journal=[[International Studies Quarterly]]|volume=41|issue=3|page=500|doi=10.1111/0020-8833.00053|author=Rein Taagepera|authorlink=Rein Taagepera|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2600793|accessdate=14 September 2016}}</ref> |stat_area1 = 4400000 |today = {{Collapsible list |titlestyle=font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left;|title=&nbsp;|{{plainlist| *{{flag|Iran}} *{{flag|Uzbekistan}} *{{flag|Turkmenistan}} *{{flag|Tajikistan}} *{{flag|Kyrgyzstan}} *{{flag|Kazakhstan}} *{{flag|China}} *{{flag|Azerbaijan}} *{{flag|Georgia}} *{{flag|Armenia}} *{{flag|Afghanistan}} *{{flag|Pakistan}} *{{flag|India}} *{{flag|Iraq}} *{{flag|Kuwait}} *{{flag|Syria}} *{{flag|Turkey}} *{{flag|China}} *{{flag|Russia}} *{{flag|Saudi Arabia}}}} }} }} The '''Timurid Empire''' ({{lang-fa|تیموریان}}), self-designated as '''Gurkani''' ({{lang-fa|گورکانیان}}, ''Gūrkāniyān''), was a [[Persianate]]<ref>Maria Subtelny, ''Timurids in Transition'', 40: "Nevertheless, in the complex process of transition, members of the Timurid dynasty and their Persian Mongol supporters became acculturate by the surrounding Persianate millieu adopting Persian cultural models and tastes and acting as patrons of Persian culture, painting, architecture and music." pg 41: "The last members of the dynasty, notably Sultan-Abu Sa'id and Sultan-Husain, in fact came to be regarded as ideal Perso-Islamic rulers who develoted as much attention to agricultural development as they did to fostering Persianate court culture."</ref><ref name="EI">B.F. Manz, ''"Tīmūr Lang"'', in [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]], Online Edition, 2006</ref> [[Turco-Mongol]] [[empire]] comprising modern-day [[Iran]], the [[Caucasus]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[Afghanistan]], much of [[Central Asia]], as well as parts of contemporary [[Pakistan]], [[Syria]], and [[Turkey]]. The empire was founded by [[Timur]] (also known as Tamerlane), a [[warlord]] of [[Turco-Mongol]] lineage who established the empire between 1370 and his death in 1405. He envisioned himself as the great restorer of the [[Mongol Empire]] of [[Genghis Khan]], and, while not descended from him, regarded himself as his [[heir]] and associated much with the [[Borjigin]]. The ruling [[Timurid dynasty]] or Timurids lost most of Persia to the [[Ag Qoyunlu]] confederation in 1467, but members of the dynasty continued to rule smaller states, sometimes known as '''Timurid emirates''', in Central Asia and parts of India. In the 16th century, [[Babur]], a Timurid prince from [[Ferghana]] (modern [[Uzbekistan]]), invaded [[Kabulistan]] (modern Afghanistan) and established a small kingdom there, and from there 20 years later he invaded [[Medieval India|India]] to establish the [[Mughal Empire]]. ==History== {{History of Greater Iran}} {{main|Timur|History of Iran}} Timur conquered large parts of Central Asia, primarily [[Transoxiana]] and [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], from 1363 onwards with various alliances ([[Samarkand]] in 1366, and [[Balkh]] in 1369), and was recognized as ruler over them in 1370. Acting officially in the name of [[Suurgatmish]], the [[List of Chagatai khans|Chagatai khan]], he subjugated [[Transoxania]] and [[Khwarazm]] in the years that followed. Already in the 1360s he had gained control of the western [[Chagatai Khanate]] and while as emir he was nominally subordinate to the khan, in reality it was now Timur that picked the khans who became mere puppet rulers. The western Chagatai khans were continually dominated by Timurid princes in the 15th and 16th centuries and their figurehead importance was eventually reduced into total insignificance. ===Rise=== {{See also|Siege of Balkh (1370)}} Timur began a campaign westwards in 1380, invading the various successor states of the [[Ilkhanate]]. By 1389, he had removed the [[Kartid]]s from [[Herat]] and advanced into mainland Persia where he enjoyed many successes. This included the capture of [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]] in 1387, the removal of the [[Muzaffarids (Iran)|Muzaffarids]] from [[Shiraz, Iran|Shiraz]] in 1393, and the expulsion of the [[Jalayirids]] from [[Baghdad]]. In 1394–95, he triumphed over the [[Golden Horde]], following his successful [[Timur's invasions of Georgia|campaign in Georgia]], after which he enforced his sovereignty in the [[Caucasus]]. [[Tokhtamysh]], the khan of the Golden Horde, was a major rival to Timur in the region. He also subjugated [[Multan]] and [[Dipalpur]] in modern-day Pakistan in 1398. Timur gave the north Indian territories to a non-family member, [[Khizr Khan]], whose [[Sayyid dynasty]] replaced the defeated [[Tughlaq dynasty]] of the [[Sultanate of Delhi]].{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} Delhi became a [[vassal]] of the Timurids but obtained independence in the years following the death of Timur.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}}{{dubious|date=April 2016}} In 1400–1401 he conquered [[Aleppo]], [[Damascus]] and eastern [[Anatolia]], in 1401 he destroyed Baghdad and in 1402 defeated the Ottomans in the [[Battle of Ankara]]. This made Timur the most preeminent Muslim ruler of the time, as the [[Ottoman Empire]] [[Ottoman Interregnum|plunged into civil war]]. Meanwhile, he transformed Samarkand into a major capital and seat of his realm. Timur appointed his sons and grandsons to the main governorships of the different parts of his empire, and outsiders to some others. After his death in 1405, the family quickly fell into disputes and civil wars, and many of the governorships became effectively independent. However, Timurid rulers continued to dominate Persia, Mesopotamia, Armenia, large parts of Azerbaijan, Afghanistan, Pakistan,{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} minor parts of India,{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} and much of Central Asia, though the Anatolian and Caucasian territories were lost by the 1430s. Due to the fact that the Persian cities were desolated by wars, the seat of Persian culture was now in Samarkand and Herat, cities that became the center of the Timurid renaissance.<ref name="Columbia">{{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia = The Columbia Encyclopedia | title = Timurids | url = http://www.bartleby.com/65/ti/Timurids.html | edition = Sixth | publisher = [[Columbia University]] | location = New York City |accessdate=2006-11-08 }}</ref> The cost of Timur's conquests amount to the deaths of possibly 17 million people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://necrometrics.com/pre1700a.htm#Timur |title=Selected Death Tolls: Timur Lenk (1369–1405) |publisher=Necrometrics.com |date= |accessdate=2013-02-11}}</ref> [[Shahrukh Mirza]], fourth ruler of the Timurids, dealt with [[Kara Koyunlu]], who aimed to expand into Iran. But, [[Jahan Shah]] ([[bey]] of the Kara Koyunlu) drove the Timurids to eastern Iran after 1447 and also briefly occupied Herat in 1458. After the death of Jahan Shah, [[Uzun Hasan]], bey of the [[Ak Koyunlu]], conquered the holdings of the Kara Koyunlu in Iran between 1469 and 1471. ===Fall=== By 1500, the divided and wartorn Timurid Empire had lost control of most of its territory, and in the following years was effectively pushed back on all fronts. Persia, the Caucasus, Mesopotamia, and Eastern Anatolia fell quickly to the [[Shia Islam|Shiite]] [[Safavid dynasty]], secured by Shah [[Ismail I]] in the following decade. Much of the Central Asian lands was overrun by the Uzbeks of [[Muhammad Shaybani]] who conquered the key cities of [[Samarkand]] and [[Herat]] in 1505 and 1507, and who founded the [[Khanate of Bukhara]]. From Kabul, the [[Mughal Empire]] was established in 1526 by [[Babur]], a descendant of Timur through his father and possibly a descendant of [[Genghis Khan]] through his mother. The dynasty he established is commonly known as the Mughal dynasty though it was directly inherited from the Timurids. By the 17th century, the Mughal Empire ruled most of India but eventually declined during the following century. The Timurid dynasty finally came to an end as the remaining nominal rule of the Mughals was abolished by the [[British Empire]] following the [[1857 rebellion]]. ==Culture== [[File:Timur reconstruction01.jpg|thumb|Timur – Forensic facial reconstruction by M.Gerasimov, 1941]] Although the Timurids hailed from the [[Barlas]] tribe, which was of Turkicized Mongol origin,<ref name="UNESCO">M.S. Asimov & [[Clifford Edmund Bosworth|C. E. Bosworth]], ''History of Civilizations of Central Asia'', [[UNESCO]] Regional Office, 1998, ISBN 92-3-103467-7, p. 320: ''"...&nbsp;One of his followers was [...] Timur of the Barlas tribe. This Mongol tribe had settled [...] in the valley of Kashka Darya, intermingling with the Turkish population, adopting their religion (Islam) and gradually giving up its own nomadic ways, like a number of other Mongol tribes in Transoxania ..."''</ref> they had embraced [[Persian culture]],<ref name="Iranica">{{cite encyclopedia | last = Lehmann | first = F. | encyclopedia = [[Encyclopædia Iranica]] | title = Zaher ud-Din Babor&nbsp;— Founder of Mughal empire | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/babor-zahir-al-din | accessdate = 2012-09-17 | edition = Online | publisher = [[Columbia University]] Center for Iranian (Persian) Studies | location = New York City | pages = 320–323 | quote = "...&nbsp;''His origin, milieu, training, and culture were steeped in Persian culture and so Babor was largely responsible for the fostering of this culture by his descendants, the Mughals of India, and for the expansion of Persian cultural influence in the Indian subcontinent, with brilliant literary, artistic, and historiographical results'' ..."}}</ref> converted to Islam, and resided in [[Turkestan]] and [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]. Thus, the Timurid era had a dual character,<ref name="Columbia"/> reflecting both its Turco-Mongol origins and the Persian literary, artistic, and courtly high culture of the dynasty.<ref name=Iranica2/><ref name=Iranica2/><ref name="Muhakamat Al-Lughatain"/> ===Language=== During the Timurid era, Central Asian society was bifurcated, with the responsibilities of government and rule divided into military and civilian spheres along ethnic lines. At least in the early stages, the military was almost exclusively Turko-Mongolian, while the civilian and administrative element was almost exclusively Persian. The spoken language shared by all the Turko-Mongolians throughout the area was [[Chagatai language|Chaghatay]]. The political organization hearkened back to the steppe-nomadic system of patronage introduced by [[Genghis Khan]].<ref>Babur, Emperor of Hindustan (2002). The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor. translated, edited and annotated by W.M. Thackston. Modern Library.</ref> The major language of the period, however, was [[Persian language|Persian]], the native language of the ''[[Tājik people|Tājīk]]'' (Persian) component of society and the language of learning acquired by all literate and/or urban people. Timur was already steeped in Persian culture<ref>Gérard Chaliand, Nomadic Empires: From Mongolia to the Danube translated by A. M. Berrett, Transaction Publishers, 2004. pg 75</ref> and in most of the territories he incorporated, Persian was the primary language of administration and literary culture. Thus the language of the settled "[[Divan|diwan]]" was Persian, and its scribes had to be thoroughly adept in Persian culture, whatever their ethnic origin.<ref>Beatrice Forbes Manz. The Rise and Rule of Tamerlane. Cambridge University Press, 1999. pg 109: "...''In Temür's government, as in those of most nomad dynasties, it is impossible to find a clear distinction between civil and military affairs, or to identify the Persian bureaucracy solely civil, and the Turko-Mongolian solely with military government. It is in fact difficult to define the sphere of either side of the administration and we find Persians and Chaghatays sharing many tasks. (In discussiong the settled bureaucracy and the people who worked within it I use the word Persian in a cultural rather than ethnological sense. In almost all the territories which Temür incorporated into his realm Persian was the primary language of administration and literary culture. The language of the settled population and the chancery ("diwan") was Persian, and its scribes had to be thoroughly adept in Persian culture, whatever their ethnic origin.) Temür's Chaghatay emirs were often involved in civil and provincial administration and even in financial affairs, traditionally the province of Persian bureaucracy.''..."</ref> Persian became the official state language of the Timurid Empire<ref name="Muhakamat Al-Lughatain">{{cite book |others=Robert Devereux (ed.) |title=Muhakamat Al-Lughatain (Judgment of Two Languages) |author=Mir 'Ali Shir Nawāi |location= Leiden |publisher=E.J. Brill |year=1966 |oclc=3615905 |id={{LCC|PL55.J31 A43}} |quote=Any linguist of today who reads the essay will inevitably conclude that Nawa'i argued his case poorly, for his principal argument is that the Turkic lexicon contained many words for which the Persian had no exact equivalents and that Persian-speakers had therefore to use the Turkic words. This is a weak reed on which to lean, for it is a rare language indeed that contains no loan words. In any case, the beauty of a language and its merits as a literary medium depend less on size of vocabulary and purity of etymology that on the euphony, expressiveness and malleability of those words its lexicon does include. Moreover, even if Nawā'ī's thesis were to be accepted as valid, he destroyed his own case by the lavish use, no doubt unknowingly, of non-Turkic words even while ridiculing the Persians for their need to borrow Turkic words. The present writer has not made a word count of Nawa'i's text, but he would estimate conservatively that at least one half the words used by Nawa'i in the essay are Arabic or Persian in origin. To support his claim of the superiority of the Turkic language, Nawa'i also employs the curious argument that most Turks also spoke Persian but only a few Persians ever achieved fluency in Turkic. It is difficult to understand why he was impressed by this phenomenon, since the most obvious explanation is that Turks found it necessary, or at least advisable, to learn Persian – it was, after all, the official state language – while Persians saw no reason to bother learning Turkic which was, in their eyes, merely the uncivilized tongue of uncivilized nomadic tribesmen.}}</ref><ref name=Iranica2a>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Spuler |first=Bertold |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/central-asia-v |title=Central Asia |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |accessdate=2008-04-02 |quote=[Part] v. In the Mongol and Timurid periods:... Like his father, Olōğ Beg was entirely integrated into the Persian Islamic cultural circles, and during his reign Persian predominated as the language of high culture, a status that it retained in the region of Samarqand until the Russian revolution 1917... Ḥoseyn Bāyqarā encouraged the development of Persian literature and literary talent in every way possible... }}</ref> and served as the language of administration, history, belles lettres, and poetry.<ref name="EI - Manz">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Timurids |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |edition=Online |year=2007 |quote="During the Timurid period, three languages, Persian, Turkish, and Arabic were in use. The major language of the period was Persian, the native language of the Tajik (Persian) component of society and the language of learning acquired by all literate and/or urban Turks. Persian served as the language of administration, history, belles lettres, and poetry." |author1=B.F. Manz |author2=W.M. Thackston |author3=D.J. Roxburgh |author4=L. Golombek |author5=L. Komaroff |author6=R.E. Darley-Doran }}</ref> The Chaghatay language was the native and "home language" of the Timurid family,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Timurids |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |edition=Online |year=2007 |quote=What is now called Chaghatay Turkish, which was then called simply türki, was the native and 'home' language of the Timurids... |author1=B.F. Manz |author2=W.M. Thackston |author3=D.J. Roxburgh |author4=L. Golombek |author5=L. Komaroff |author6=R.E. Darley-Doran }}</ref> while Arabic served as the language ''par excellence'' of science, philosophy, theology and the religious sciences.<ref name="EI - Manz2">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Timurids |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |edition=Online |year=2007 |quote="As it had been prior to the Timurids and continued to be after them, [[Arabic language|Arabic]] was the language par excellence of science, philosophy, theology and the religious sciences. Much of the astronomical work of Ulugh Beg and his co-workers... is in Arabic, although they also wrote in Persian. Theological works... are generally in Arabic. |author1=B.F. Manz |author2=W.M. Thackston |author3=D.J. Roxburgh |author4=L. Golombek |author5=L. Komaroff |author6=R.E. Darley-Doran }}</ref> ===Literature=== ====Persian==== [[File:Sultan 'Ali Mashhadi (Persian, 1442-1519). Folio of Poetry From the Divan of Sultan Husayn Mirza, ca. 1490.jpg|thumb|''Folio of Poetry From the Divan of Sultan Husayn Mirza'', ca. 1490. [[Brooklyn Museum]].]] [[File:Jami Rose Garden.jpg|thumb|Illustration from [[Jami|Jāmī's]] ''"Rose Garden of the Pious"'', dated 1553. The image blends [[Persian literature|Persian poetry]] and [[Persian miniature]] into one, as is the norm for many works of the Timurid era.]] Persian literature, especially Persian poetry, occupied a central place in the process of assimilation of the Timurid elite to the Perso-Islamic courtly culture.<ref>David J. Roxburgh. The Persian Album, 1400–1600: From Dispersal to Collection. Yale University Press, 2005. pg 130: "Persian literature, especially poetry, occupied a central in the process of assimilation of Timurid elite to the Perso-Islamicate courtly culture, and so it is not surprising to find Baysanghur commissioned a new edition of Firdawsi's Shanameh</ref> The Timurid sultans, especially [[Shah Rukh (Timurid dynasty)|Šāhru<u>kh</u> Mīrzā]] and his son [[Ulugh Beg|Mohammad Taragai Oloğ Beg]], patronized Persian culture.<ref name=Iranica2>B. Spuler, "Central Asia in the Mongol and Timurid periods", published in [[Encyclopædia Iranica]]. ([http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/central-asia-v]) Note:"...&nbsp;Like his father, Olōğ Beg was entirely integrated into the Persian Islamic cultural circles, and during his reign Persian predominated as the language of high culture, a status that it retained in the region of Samarqand until the Russian revolution 1917 [...] Ḥoseyn Bāyqarā encouraged the development of Persian literature and literary talent in every way possible ..."</ref> Among the most important literary works of the Timurid era is the Persian biography of [[Timur]], known as ''"Zafarnāmeh"'' ({{lang-fa|ظفرنامه}}), written by Sharaf ud-Dīn Alī Yazdī, which itself is based on an older ''"Zafarnāmeh"'' by Nizām al-Dīn Shāmī, the official biographer of Timur during his lifetime. The most famous poet of the Timurid era was [[Jami|Nūr ud-Dīn Jāmī]], the last great medieval [[Sufi]] [[mysticism|mystic]] of Persia and one of the greatest in [[Persian poetry]]. In addition, some of the [[astronomy|astronomical]] works of the Timurid sultan [[Ulugh Beg]] were written in Persian, although the bulk of it was published in Arabic.<ref name="EI&nbsp;— Manz2">B.F. Manz/W.M. Thackston/D.J. Roxburgh/L. Golombek/L. Komaroff/R.E. Darley-Doran; "Timurids", in [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]; Brill; Online Edition (2007): ''"...&nbsp;As it had been prior to the Timurids and continued to be after them, Arabic was the language par excellence of science, philosophy, theology and the religious sciences. Much of the astronomical work of Ulugh Beg and his co-workers [...] is in Arabic, although they also wrote in Persian. Theological works [...] are generally in Arabic. ..."''</ref> The Timurid ruler Baysunğur also commissioned a new edition of the Persian national epic [[Shahnameh|Shāhnāmeh]], known as ''Shāhnāmeh of Baysunğur'', and wrote an introduction to it. According to T. Lenz:<ref>"[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/baysongori-sah-nama BĀYSONḠORĪ ŠĀH-NĀMA]" in Encyclopædia Iranica by T. Lenz</ref> {{quote|It can be viewed as a specific reaction in the wake of Timur's death in 807/1405 to the new cultural demands facing Shahhrokh and his sons, a Turkic military elite no longer deriving their power and influence solely from a charismatic steppe leader with a carefully cultivated linkage to Mongol aristocracy. Now centered in Khorasan, the ruling house regarded the increased assimilation and patronage of Persian culture as an integral component of efforts to secure the legitimacy and authority of the dynasty within the context of the Islamic Iranian monarchical tradition, and the Baysanghur Shahnameh, as much a precious object as it is a manuscript to be read, powerfully symbolizes the Timurid conception of their own place in that tradition. A valuable documentary source for Timurid decorative arts that have all but disappeared for the period, the manuscript still awaits a comprehensive monographic study.}} ====Chagatai==== The Timurids also played a very important role in the history of [[Turkic languages|Turkic literature]]. Based on the established Persian literary tradition, a national Turkic literature was developed yhvyhvyhcggycyyggggfhvyvyhyhvyttggggtgcgcggghy yhycyyyvvyvyvhvcycyhvy the [[Chagatai language]]. Chagatai poets such as [[Mir Ali Shir Nava'i|Mīr Alī Sher Nawā'ī]], [[Husayn Bayqarah|Sultan Husayn Bāyqarā]], and [[Babur|Zāher ud-Dīn Bābur]] encouraged other Turkic-speaking poets to write in their own vernacular in addition to Arabic and Persian.<ref name="Columbia"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.persianpaintings.com/history.html |title=Persian Paintings |publisher=Persian Paintings |date= |accessdate=2013-02-11}}</ref><ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761577725_5/Islamic_Art_and_Architecture.html ''MSN Encarta''. Islamic Art and Architecture.]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.art-arena.com/safavidart2.htm |title=Art Arena. Persian art – the Safavids |publisher=Art-arena.com |date= |accessdate=2013-02-11}}</ref> The [[Baburnama|Bāburnāma]], the autobiography of Bābur (although being highly Persianized in its sentence structure, morphology, and vocabulary),<ref>Stephen Frederic DaleThe Garden of the Eight Paradises: Babur and the Culture of Empire. BRILL, 2004. pg 150</ref> as well as Mīr Alī Sher Nawā'ī's Chagatai poetry are among the best-known Turkic literary works and have influenced many others. ===Art=== {{main|Persian art}} The golden age of Persian painting began during the reign of the Timurids.<ref>New Orient, By Czechoslovak Society for Eastern Studies, Czechoslovak Society for Eastern Studies, 1968. pg 139.</ref> During this period — and analogous to the developments in [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid Persia]] — [[Chinese art]] and artists had a significant influence on Persian art.<ref name="Columbia"/> Timurid artists refined the Persian art of the book, which combines paper, calligraphy, illumination, illustration and binding in a brilliant and colourful whole.<ref>John Onians, Atlas of World Art, Laurence King Publishing, 2004. pg 132.</ref> The Mongol ethnicity of the [[Chagatai Khanate|Chaghatayid]] and Timurid [[Khan (title)|Khans]] was the source of the stylistic depiction of [[Persian art]] during the Middle Ages. These same Mongols intermarried with the Persians and Turks of Central Asia, even adopting their religion and languages. Yet their simple control of the world at that time, particularly in the 13th–15th centuries, reflected itself in the idealised appearance of Persians as Mongols. Though the ethnic make-up gradually blended into the [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] and [[Mesopotamia]]n local populations, the Mongol stylism continued well after and crossed into [[Asia Minor]] and even North Africa. ===Timurid architecture=== Timurid architecture drew on and developed many [[Great Seljuq Empire|Seljuq]] traditions. Turquoise and blue tiles forming intricate linear and geometric patterns decorated the facades of buildings. Sometimes the interior was decorated similarly, with painting and stucco relief further enriching the effect.<ref name="Britannica">''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', "[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9072546/Timurid-Dynasty Timurid Dynasty]", Online Academic Edition, 2007. (Quotation:...''Turkic dynasty descended from the conqueror Timur (Tamerlane), renowned for its brilliant revival of artistic and intellectual life in Iran and Central Asia.''...''Trading and artistic communities were brought into the capital city of Herat, where a library was founded, and the capital became the centre of a renewed and artistically brilliant Persian culture.''..)</ref> Timurid architecture is the pinnacle of [[Islamic art]] in [[Central Asia]]. Spectacular and stately edifices erected by [[Timur]] and his successors in [[Samarkand]] and [[Herat]] helped to disseminate the influence of the [[Ilkhanid]] school of art in India, thus giving rise to the celebrated ''Mughal'' (or ''Mongol'') school of architecture. Timurid architecture started with the [[Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasavi|sanctuary of Ahmed Yasawi]] in present-day [[Kazakhstan]] and culminated in Timur's mausoleum [[Gur-e Amir]] in [[Samarkand]]. Timur's Gur-I Mir, the 14th-century mausoleum of the conqueror is covered with ‘’turquoise Persian tiles’’<ref name="John Julius Norwich 2001. pg 278">John Julius Norwich, Great Architecture of the World, Da Capo Press, 2001. pg 278.</ref> Nearby, in the center of the ancient town, a ''Persian style Madrassa (religious school)''<ref name="John Julius Norwich 2001. pg 278"/> and a ''Persian style Mosque''<ref name="John Julius Norwich 2001. pg 278"/> by Ulugh Beg is observed. The mausoleum of Timurid princes, with their turquoise and blue-tiled domes remain among the most refined and exquisite [[Persian architecture]].<ref>Hugh Kennedy, "The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In", Da Capo Press, 2007. pg 237</ref> [[Axial symmetry]] is a characteristic of all major Timurid structures, notably the [[Shah-i-Zinda|Shāh-e Zenda]] in [[Samarkand]], the ''Musallah'' complex in Herat, and the mosque of [[Goharshad|Gowhar Shād]] in [[Mashhad]]. Double [[dome]]s of various shapes abound, and the outsides are perfused with brilliant colors. Timur's dominance of the region strengthened the influence of his capital and Persian architecture upon India.<ref>Banister Fletcher, Dan Cruickshan, "Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture", Architectural Press, 1996. pg 606</ref> <center> <gallery> File:Akhangan.jpg|''"Akhangan" tomb'', where [[Goharshad|Gowharšād's]] sister Gowhartāj is buried. The architecture is a fine example of the Timurid era in Persia. <!-- Deleted image removed: File:Gure Amir.JPG|''[[Gur-e Amir|Gūr-e Amīr]] complex'' with its azure dome. --> File:SamarkandBibiKhanym.jpg|Façade [[Bibi Khanym Mosque]] </gallery> </center> ==Rulers== ===Emperors=== {{Main|Timurid dynasty}} * [[Timur]] * [[Pir Muhammad ibn Jahangir]] * [[Khalil Sultan]] * [[Shahrukh Mirza]] * [[Ulugh Beg]] * [[Abdal-Latif Mirza]] * [[Abdallah Mirza]] * [[Sultan Muhammad bin Baysonqor]] * [[Abul-Qasim Babur Mirza]] * [[Sultan Ahmed Mirza]] * [[Sultan Mahmud Mirza]] * [[Mirza Shah Mahmud]] * [[Ibrahim Mirza bin Ala-ud-Daulah]] * [[Abu Sa'id Mirza]] * [[Sultan Husayn Mirza Bayqara]] * [[Yadgar Muhammad Mirza]] * [[Badi' al-Zaman Mirza]] ===Governors of Iraq-e-Ajam/Iraq-e-Arab/Fars/Azerbaijan & other Persian Territories=== * Qaidu bin Pir Muhammad bin Jahāngīr 808–811 AH * Abu Bakr bin [[Miran Shah|Mīrān Shāh]] 1405–07 (807–09 AH) * Pir Muhammad bin Umar Shei<u>kh</u> 807–12 AH * Rustam 812–17 AH * Sikandar 812–17 AH * Alaudaullah 851 AH * Abu Bakr bin Muhammad 851 AH * Sultān Muhammad 850–55 AH * Muhammad bin Hussayn 903–06 AH * Abul A'la Fereydūn Hussayn 911–12 AH * Muhammad Mohsin <u>Kh</u>ān 911–12 AH * Muhammad Zamān <u>Kh</u>ān 920–23 AH * Shāhru<u>kh</u> II bin Abu Sa’id 896–97 AH * Ulu<u>gh</u> Beg Kābulī 873–907 AH * Sultān Uways 1508–22 (913–27 AH) ==See also== *[[Timurid dynasty]] *[[Turkic peoples]] *[[List of Turkic dynasties and countries]] *[[List of Mongol states]] *[[History of Iran]] *[[List of Sunni Muslim dynasties]] *[[Mughal Empire]] *[[Afghanistan]] ==References and notes== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Further reading== * [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/baysongori-sah-nama BĀYSONḠORĪ ŠĀH-NĀMA] in ''[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]'' * {{cite journal |last=Aka |first=Ismail |year=1996 |title=The Agricultural and Commercial Activities of the Timurids in the First Half of the 15th Century |journal=Oriente Moderno |volume=15 |issue=76/2 |publisher=Istituto per l'Oriente C. A. Nallino |pages=9–21 |jstor=25817400 }} * Elliot, Sir H. M.; edited by Dowson, John. ''[[The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period]]''; published by London Trubner Company 1867–77. (Online Copy: [http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp?serv=pf&file=80201010&ct=0 The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877] — This online copy has been posted by: [http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List]) * {{cite journal |last=Subtelny |first=Maria Eva |year=1988 |title=Centralizing Reform and Its Opponents in the Late Timurid Period |journal=Iranian Studies |volume=21 |issue=1/2 |publisher=International Society for Iranian Studies |pages=123–51 |jstor=4310597 }} ==External links== {{Commons category|Timurid dynasty}} * [http://empirehistory.weebly.com/timurid-empire.html Timurid Empire 1370–1506] * [http://www.art-arena.com/timurid.htm Timurid Art] {{Timurid Empire}} {{Empires}} {{Iran topics}} {{Inner Asia}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Timurid Empire}} [[Category:Timurid Empire| ]] [[Category:History of the Turkic peoples]] [[Category:Turkic states]] [[Category:Mongol states]] [[Category:History of the Caucasus]] [[Category:Medieval Armenia]] [[Category:Medieval Georgia (country)]] [[Category:Medieval Azerbaijan]] [[Category:Medieval Anatolia]] [[Category:History of Central Asia]] [[Category:Historical Turkic states]] [[Category:Former empires]] [[Category:Medieval Syria]] [[Category:Medieval Iraq]] [[Category:History of Uzbekistan]] [[Category:Nomads of the Eurasian steppe]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1370]] [[Category:1507 disestablishments]] [[Category:History of Herat]]'
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'@@ -136,5 +136,5 @@ ====Chagatai==== -The Timurids also played a very important role in the history of [[Turkic languages|Turkic literature]]. Based on the established Persian literary tradition, a national Turkic literature was developed in the [[Chagatai language]]. Chagatai poets such as [[Mir Ali Shir Nava'i|Mīr Alī Sher Nawā'ī]], [[Husayn Bayqarah|Sultan Husayn Bāyqarā]], and [[Babur|Zāher ud-Dīn Bābur]] encouraged other Turkic-speaking poets to write in their own vernacular in addition to Arabic and Persian.<ref name="Columbia"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.persianpaintings.com/history.html |title=Persian Paintings |publisher=Persian Paintings |date= |accessdate=2013-02-11}}</ref><ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761577725_5/Islamic_Art_and_Architecture.html ''MSN Encarta''. Islamic Art and Architecture.]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.art-arena.com/safavidart2.htm |title=Art Arena. Persian art – the Safavids |publisher=Art-arena.com |date= |accessdate=2013-02-11}}</ref> The [[Baburnama|Bāburnāma]], the autobiography of Bābur (although being highly Persianized in its sentence structure, morphology, and vocabulary),<ref>Stephen Frederic DaleThe Garden of the Eight Paradises: Babur and the Culture of Empire. BRILL, 2004. pg 150</ref> as well as Mīr Alī Sher Nawā'ī's Chagatai poetry are among the best-known Turkic literary works and have influenced many others. +The Timurids also played a very important role in the history of [[Turkic languages|Turkic literature]]. Based on the established Persian literary tradition, a national Turkic literature was developed yhvyhvyhcggycyyggggfhvyvyhyhvyttggggtgcgcggghy yhycyyyvvyvyvhvcycyhvy the [[Chagatai language]]. Chagatai poets such as [[Mir Ali Shir Nava'i|Mīr Alī Sher Nawā'ī]], [[Husayn Bayqarah|Sultan Husayn Bāyqarā]], and [[Babur|Zāher ud-Dīn Bābur]] encouraged other Turkic-speaking poets to write in their own vernacular in addition to Arabic and Persian.<ref name="Columbia"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.persianpaintings.com/history.html |title=Persian Paintings |publisher=Persian Paintings |date= |accessdate=2013-02-11}}</ref><ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761577725_5/Islamic_Art_and_Architecture.html ''MSN Encarta''. Islamic Art and Architecture.]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.art-arena.com/safavidart2.htm |title=Art Arena. Persian art – the Safavids |publisher=Art-arena.com |date= |accessdate=2013-02-11}}</ref> The [[Baburnama|Bāburnāma]], the autobiography of Bābur (although being highly Persianized in its sentence structure, morphology, and vocabulary),<ref>Stephen Frederic DaleThe Garden of the Eight Paradises: Babur and the Culture of Empire. BRILL, 2004. pg 150</ref> as well as Mīr Alī Sher Nawā'ī's Chagatai poetry are among the best-known Turkic literary works and have influenced many others. ===Art=== '
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[ 0 => 'The Timurids also played a very important role in the history of [[Turkic languages|Turkic literature]]. Based on the established Persian literary tradition, a national Turkic literature was developed yhvyhvyhcggycyyggggfhvyvyhyhvyttggggtgcgcggghy yhycyyyvvyvyvhvcycyhvy the [[Chagatai language]]. Chagatai poets such as [[Mir Ali Shir Nava'i|Mīr Alī Sher Nawā'ī]], [[Husayn Bayqarah|Sultan Husayn Bāyqarā]], and [[Babur|Zāher ud-Dīn Bābur]] encouraged other Turkic-speaking poets to write in their own vernacular in addition to Arabic and Persian.<ref name="Columbia"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.persianpaintings.com/history.html |title=Persian Paintings |publisher=Persian Paintings |date= |accessdate=2013-02-11}}</ref><ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761577725_5/Islamic_Art_and_Architecture.html ''MSN Encarta''. Islamic Art and Architecture.]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.art-arena.com/safavidart2.htm |title=Art Arena. Persian art – the Safavids |publisher=Art-arena.com |date= |accessdate=2013-02-11}}</ref> The [[Baburnama|Bāburnāma]], the autobiography of Bābur (although being highly Persianized in its sentence structure, morphology, and vocabulary),<ref>Stephen Frederic DaleThe Garden of the Eight Paradises: Babur and the Culture of Empire. BRILL, 2004. pg 150</ref> as well as Mīr Alī Sher Nawā'ī's Chagatai poetry are among the best-known Turkic literary works and have influenced many others.' ]
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[ 0 => 'The Timurids also played a very important role in the history of [[Turkic languages|Turkic literature]]. Based on the established Persian literary tradition, a national Turkic literature was developed in the [[Chagatai language]]. Chagatai poets such as [[Mir Ali Shir Nava'i|Mīr Alī Sher Nawā'ī]], [[Husayn Bayqarah|Sultan Husayn Bāyqarā]], and [[Babur|Zāher ud-Dīn Bābur]] encouraged other Turkic-speaking poets to write in their own vernacular in addition to Arabic and Persian.<ref name="Columbia"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.persianpaintings.com/history.html |title=Persian Paintings |publisher=Persian Paintings |date= |accessdate=2013-02-11}}</ref><ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761577725_5/Islamic_Art_and_Architecture.html ''MSN Encarta''. Islamic Art and Architecture.]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.art-arena.com/safavidart2.htm |title=Art Arena. Persian art – the Safavids |publisher=Art-arena.com |date= |accessdate=2013-02-11}}</ref> The [[Baburnama|Bāburnāma]], the autobiography of Bābur (although being highly Persianized in its sentence structure, morphology, and vocabulary),<ref>Stephen Frederic DaleThe Garden of the Eight Paradises: Babur and the Culture of Empire. BRILL, 2004. pg 150</ref> as well as Mīr Alī Sher Nawā'ī's Chagatai poetry are among the best-known Turkic literary works and have influenced many others.' ]
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'{{Infobox Former Country |native_name = {{plainlist| * تیموریان * <big>{{lang|fa|گورکانیان}}</big> <small>([[Persian language|Persian]])</small> *''Gūrkāniyān''}} |conventional_long_name = Timurid Empire |common_name = Timurid Empire |continent = Asia |region = Central Asia |era = [[Middle Ages]] |government_type = [[Monarchy]] [[emirate]] |year_start = 1370 |date_start = 9 April |year_end = 1507 |event_pre = [[Timur]] begins conquests |date_pre = 1363 |event_start = Establishment of Timurid Empire |event1 = Westward expansion begins |date_event1 = 1380 |event2 = [[Battle of Ankara]] |date_event2 = 20 July 1402 |event3 = Fall of [[Samarkand]] |date_event3 = 1505 |event_end = Fall of [[Herat]] |event_post = Founding of the [[Mughal Empire]] |date_post = 21 April 1526 |image_flag = Timurid.svg |flag_type = |flag_border = |image_map = Timurid Empire (greatest extent).svg |image_map_caption = The Timurid Empire at Timur's death (1405) |p1 = Chagatai Khanate |flag_p1 = Flag of Chagatai khanate.svg |p2 = Sufi Dynasty |flag_p2 = |p3 = Jalayirids |flag_p3 = |p4 = Kurt Dynasty |flag_p4 = Kartid-Kurtdynasty1244-1389.png |p5 = Muzaffarids of Iran{{!}}Muzaffarids |flag_p5 = MuzaffaridDynastyofIranMapHistoryofIran.png |p6 = Sarbadars |flag_p6 = Sarbadar map 1345.png |s1 = Mughal Empire |flag_s1 = Flag of the Mughal Empire.svg |border_s1 = |s2 = Khanate of Bukhara |flag_s2 = |s3 = Safavid dynasty |flag_s3 = Safavid Flag.svg |s4 = Khanate of Khiva |flag_s4 = Bandera de Khiva 1917-1920.svg |s5 = Kara Koyunlu |flag_s5 = Karakoyunlular devleti.PNG |s6 = Ag Qoyunlu |flag_s6 = AkkoyunluFlag.png | |capital = {{plainlist| *[[Samarkand]] <small>(1370–1405)</small> *[[Herat]] <small>(1405–1507)</small>}} |common_languages = {{plainlist| *[[Persian language|Persian]]<ref>Manz, Beatrice Forbes (1999). ''The Rise and Rule of Tamerlane''. Cambridge University Press, p.109. ISBN 0-521-63384-2. {{google books|2xDm2DCPRKMC|Limited preview}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2xDm2DCPRKMC&pg=PA109 p.109]. "In almost all the territories which Temür incorporated into his realm Persian was the primary language of administration and literary culture. Thus the language of the settled 'diwan' was Persian."</ref> *[[Chagatai language|Chatagai]]{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}}} |religion = [[Islam]] |currency = |title_leader = [[Timurid dynasty|Emir]] |leader1 = [[Timur]] <small>(first)</small> |leader2 = [[Badi' al-Zaman Mirza|Badi' al-Zaman]] <small>(last)</small> |year_leader1 = 1370–1405 |year_leader2 = 1506–1507 |stat_year1 = 1405 est.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Turchin|first1=Peter|last2=Adams|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Hall|first3=Thomas D | title = East-West Orientation of Historical Empires | journal = Journal of world-systems research|date=December 2006 |volume=12|issue=2 |page=222 |url =http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381|accessdate=14 September 2016 |issn= 1076-156X}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=September 1997|title=Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia|journal=[[International Studies Quarterly]]|volume=41|issue=3|page=500|doi=10.1111/0020-8833.00053|author=Rein Taagepera|authorlink=Rein Taagepera|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2600793|accessdate=14 September 2016}}</ref> |stat_area1 = 4400000 |today = {{Collapsible list |titlestyle=font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left;|title=&nbsp;|{{plainlist| *{{flag|Iran}} *{{flag|Uzbekistan}} *{{flag|Turkmenistan}} *{{flag|Tajikistan}} *{{flag|Kyrgyzstan}} *{{flag|Kazakhstan}} *{{flag|China}} *{{flag|Azerbaijan}} *{{flag|Georgia}} *{{flag|Armenia}} *{{flag|Afghanistan}} *{{flag|Pakistan}} *{{flag|India}} *{{flag|Iraq}} *{{flag|Kuwait}} *{{flag|Syria}} *{{flag|Turkey}} *{{flag|China}} *{{flag|Russia}} *{{flag|Saudi Arabia}}}} }} }} The '''Timurid Empire''' ({{lang-fa|تیموریان}}), self-designated as '''Gurkani''' ({{lang-fa|گورکانیان}}, ''Gūrkāniyān''), was a [[Persianate]]<ref>Maria Subtelny, ''Timurids in Transition'', 40: "Nevertheless, in the complex process of transition, members of the Timurid dynasty and their Persian Mongol supporters became acculturate by the surrounding Persianate millieu adopting Persian cultural models and tastes and acting as patrons of Persian culture, painting, architecture and music." pg 41: "The last members of the dynasty, notably Sultan-Abu Sa'id and Sultan-Husain, in fact came to be regarded as ideal Perso-Islamic rulers who develoted as much attention to agricultural development as they did to fostering Persianate court culture."</ref><ref name="EI">B.F. Manz, ''"Tīmūr Lang"'', in [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]], Online Edition, 2006</ref> [[Turco-Mongol]] [[empire]] comprising modern-day [[Iran]], the [[Caucasus]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[Afghanistan]], much of [[Central Asia]], as well as parts of contemporary [[Pakistan]], [[Syria]], and [[Turkey]]. The empire was founded by [[Timur]] (also known as Tamerlane), a [[warlord]] of [[Turco-Mongol]] lineage who established the empire between 1370 and his death in 1405. He envisioned himself as the great restorer of the [[Mongol Empire]] of [[Genghis Khan]], and, while not descended from him, regarded himself as his [[heir]] and associated much with the [[Borjigin]]. The ruling [[Timurid dynasty]] or Timurids lost most of Persia to the [[Ag Qoyunlu]] confederation in 1467, but members of the dynasty continued to rule smaller states, sometimes known as '''Timurid emirates''', in Central Asia and parts of India. In the 16th century, [[Babur]], a Timurid prince from [[Ferghana]] (modern [[Uzbekistan]]), invaded [[Kabulistan]] (modern Afghanistan) and established a small kingdom there, and from there 20 years later he invaded [[Medieval India|India]] to establish the [[Mughal Empire]]. ==History== {{History of Greater Iran}} {{main|Timur|History of Iran}} Timur conquered large parts of Central Asia, primarily [[Transoxiana]] and [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], from 1363 onwards with various alliances ([[Samarkand]] in 1366, and [[Balkh]] in 1369), and was recognized as ruler over them in 1370. Acting officially in the name of [[Suurgatmish]], the [[List of Chagatai khans|Chagatai khan]], he subjugated [[Transoxania]] and [[Khwarazm]] in the years that followed. Already in the 1360s he had gained control of the western [[Chagatai Khanate]] and while as emir he was nominally subordinate to the khan, in reality it was now Timur that picked the khans who became mere puppet rulers. The western Chagatai khans were continually dominated by Timurid princes in the 15th and 16th centuries and their figurehead importance was eventually reduced into total insignificance. ===Rise=== {{See also|Siege of Balkh (1370)}} Timur began a campaign westwards in 1380, invading the various successor states of the [[Ilkhanate]]. By 1389, he had removed the [[Kartid]]s from [[Herat]] and advanced into mainland Persia where he enjoyed many successes. This included the capture of [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]] in 1387, the removal of the [[Muzaffarids (Iran)|Muzaffarids]] from [[Shiraz, Iran|Shiraz]] in 1393, and the expulsion of the [[Jalayirids]] from [[Baghdad]]. In 1394–95, he triumphed over the [[Golden Horde]], following his successful [[Timur's invasions of Georgia|campaign in Georgia]], after which he enforced his sovereignty in the [[Caucasus]]. [[Tokhtamysh]], the khan of the Golden Horde, was a major rival to Timur in the region. He also subjugated [[Multan]] and [[Dipalpur]] in modern-day Pakistan in 1398. Timur gave the north Indian territories to a non-family member, [[Khizr Khan]], whose [[Sayyid dynasty]] replaced the defeated [[Tughlaq dynasty]] of the [[Sultanate of Delhi]].{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} Delhi became a [[vassal]] of the Timurids but obtained independence in the years following the death of Timur.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}}{{dubious|date=April 2016}} In 1400–1401 he conquered [[Aleppo]], [[Damascus]] and eastern [[Anatolia]], in 1401 he destroyed Baghdad and in 1402 defeated the Ottomans in the [[Battle of Ankara]]. This made Timur the most preeminent Muslim ruler of the time, as the [[Ottoman Empire]] [[Ottoman Interregnum|plunged into civil war]]. Meanwhile, he transformed Samarkand into a major capital and seat of his realm. Timur appointed his sons and grandsons to the main governorships of the different parts of his empire, and outsiders to some others. After his death in 1405, the family quickly fell into disputes and civil wars, and many of the governorships became effectively independent. However, Timurid rulers continued to dominate Persia, Mesopotamia, Armenia, large parts of Azerbaijan, Afghanistan, Pakistan,{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} minor parts of India,{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} and much of Central Asia, though the Anatolian and Caucasian territories were lost by the 1430s. Due to the fact that the Persian cities were desolated by wars, the seat of Persian culture was now in Samarkand and Herat, cities that became the center of the Timurid renaissance.<ref name="Columbia">{{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia = The Columbia Encyclopedia | title = Timurids | url = http://www.bartleby.com/65/ti/Timurids.html | edition = Sixth | publisher = [[Columbia University]] | location = New York City |accessdate=2006-11-08 }}</ref> The cost of Timur's conquests amount to the deaths of possibly 17 million people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://necrometrics.com/pre1700a.htm#Timur |title=Selected Death Tolls: Timur Lenk (1369–1405) |publisher=Necrometrics.com |date= |accessdate=2013-02-11}}</ref> [[Shahrukh Mirza]], fourth ruler of the Timurids, dealt with [[Kara Koyunlu]], who aimed to expand into Iran. But, [[Jahan Shah]] ([[bey]] of the Kara Koyunlu) drove the Timurids to eastern Iran after 1447 and also briefly occupied Herat in 1458. After the death of Jahan Shah, [[Uzun Hasan]], bey of the [[Ak Koyunlu]], conquered the holdings of the Kara Koyunlu in Iran between 1469 and 1471. ===Fall=== By 1500, the divided and wartorn Timurid Empire had lost control of most of its territory, and in the following years was effectively pushed back on all fronts. Persia, the Caucasus, Mesopotamia, and Eastern Anatolia fell quickly to the [[Shia Islam|Shiite]] [[Safavid dynasty]], secured by Shah [[Ismail I]] in the following decade. Much of the Central Asian lands was overrun by the Uzbeks of [[Muhammad Shaybani]] who conquered the key cities of [[Samarkand]] and [[Herat]] in 1505 and 1507, and who founded the [[Khanate of Bukhara]]. From Kabul, the [[Mughal Empire]] was established in 1526 by [[Babur]], a descendant of Timur through his father and possibly a descendant of [[Genghis Khan]] through his mother. The dynasty he established is commonly known as the Mughal dynasty though it was directly inherited from the Timurids. By the 17th century, the Mughal Empire ruled most of India but eventually declined during the following century. The Timurid dynasty finally came to an end as the remaining nominal rule of the Mughals was abolished by the [[British Empire]] following the [[1857 rebellion]]. ==Culture== [[File:Timur reconstruction01.jpg|thumb|Timur – Forensic facial reconstruction by M.Gerasimov, 1941]] Although the Timurids hailed from the [[Barlas]] tribe, which was of Turkicized Mongol origin,<ref name="UNESCO">M.S. Asimov & [[Clifford Edmund Bosworth|C. E. Bosworth]], ''History of Civilizations of Central Asia'', [[UNESCO]] Regional Office, 1998, ISBN 92-3-103467-7, p. 320: ''"...&nbsp;One of his followers was [...] Timur of the Barlas tribe. This Mongol tribe had settled [...] in the valley of Kashka Darya, intermingling with the Turkish population, adopting their religion (Islam) and gradually giving up its own nomadic ways, like a number of other Mongol tribes in Transoxania ..."''</ref> they had embraced [[Persian culture]],<ref name="Iranica">{{cite encyclopedia | last = Lehmann | first = F. | encyclopedia = [[Encyclopædia Iranica]] | title = Zaher ud-Din Babor&nbsp;— Founder of Mughal empire | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/babor-zahir-al-din | accessdate = 2012-09-17 | edition = Online | publisher = [[Columbia University]] Center for Iranian (Persian) Studies | location = New York City | pages = 320–323 | quote = "...&nbsp;''His origin, milieu, training, and culture were steeped in Persian culture and so Babor was largely responsible for the fostering of this culture by his descendants, the Mughals of India, and for the expansion of Persian cultural influence in the Indian subcontinent, with brilliant literary, artistic, and historiographical results'' ..."}}</ref> converted to Islam, and resided in [[Turkestan]] and [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]. Thus, the Timurid era had a dual character,<ref name="Columbia"/> reflecting both its Turco-Mongol origins and the Persian literary, artistic, and courtly high culture of the dynasty.<ref name=Iranica2/><ref name=Iranica2/><ref name="Muhakamat Al-Lughatain"/> ===Language=== During the Timurid era, Central Asian society was bifurcated, with the responsibilities of government and rule divided into military and civilian spheres along ethnic lines. At least in the early stages, the military was almost exclusively Turko-Mongolian, while the civilian and administrative element was almost exclusively Persian. The spoken language shared by all the Turko-Mongolians throughout the area was [[Chagatai language|Chaghatay]]. The political organization hearkened back to the steppe-nomadic system of patronage introduced by [[Genghis Khan]].<ref>Babur, Emperor of Hindustan (2002). The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor. translated, edited and annotated by W.M. Thackston. Modern Library.</ref> The major language of the period, however, was [[Persian language|Persian]], the native language of the ''[[Tājik people|Tājīk]]'' (Persian) component of society and the language of learning acquired by all literate and/or urban people. Timur was already steeped in Persian culture<ref>Gérard Chaliand, Nomadic Empires: From Mongolia to the Danube translated by A. M. Berrett, Transaction Publishers, 2004. pg 75</ref> and in most of the territories he incorporated, Persian was the primary language of administration and literary culture. Thus the language of the settled "[[Divan|diwan]]" was Persian, and its scribes had to be thoroughly adept in Persian culture, whatever their ethnic origin.<ref>Beatrice Forbes Manz. The Rise and Rule of Tamerlane. Cambridge University Press, 1999. pg 109: "...''In Temür's government, as in those of most nomad dynasties, it is impossible to find a clear distinction between civil and military affairs, or to identify the Persian bureaucracy solely civil, and the Turko-Mongolian solely with military government. It is in fact difficult to define the sphere of either side of the administration and we find Persians and Chaghatays sharing many tasks. (In discussiong the settled bureaucracy and the people who worked within it I use the word Persian in a cultural rather than ethnological sense. In almost all the territories which Temür incorporated into his realm Persian was the primary language of administration and literary culture. The language of the settled population and the chancery ("diwan") was Persian, and its scribes had to be thoroughly adept in Persian culture, whatever their ethnic origin.) Temür's Chaghatay emirs were often involved in civil and provincial administration and even in financial affairs, traditionally the province of Persian bureaucracy.''..."</ref> Persian became the official state language of the Timurid Empire<ref name="Muhakamat Al-Lughatain">{{cite book |others=Robert Devereux (ed.) |title=Muhakamat Al-Lughatain (Judgment of Two Languages) |author=Mir 'Ali Shir Nawāi |location= Leiden |publisher=E.J. Brill |year=1966 |oclc=3615905 |id={{LCC|PL55.J31 A43}} |quote=Any linguist of today who reads the essay will inevitably conclude that Nawa'i argued his case poorly, for his principal argument is that the Turkic lexicon contained many words for which the Persian had no exact equivalents and that Persian-speakers had therefore to use the Turkic words. This is a weak reed on which to lean, for it is a rare language indeed that contains no loan words. In any case, the beauty of a language and its merits as a literary medium depend less on size of vocabulary and purity of etymology that on the euphony, expressiveness and malleability of those words its lexicon does include. Moreover, even if Nawā'ī's thesis were to be accepted as valid, he destroyed his own case by the lavish use, no doubt unknowingly, of non-Turkic words even while ridiculing the Persians for their need to borrow Turkic words. The present writer has not made a word count of Nawa'i's text, but he would estimate conservatively that at least one half the words used by Nawa'i in the essay are Arabic or Persian in origin. To support his claim of the superiority of the Turkic language, Nawa'i also employs the curious argument that most Turks also spoke Persian but only a few Persians ever achieved fluency in Turkic. It is difficult to understand why he was impressed by this phenomenon, since the most obvious explanation is that Turks found it necessary, or at least advisable, to learn Persian – it was, after all, the official state language – while Persians saw no reason to bother learning Turkic which was, in their eyes, merely the uncivilized tongue of uncivilized nomadic tribesmen.}}</ref><ref name=Iranica2a>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Spuler |first=Bertold |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/central-asia-v |title=Central Asia |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |accessdate=2008-04-02 |quote=[Part] v. In the Mongol and Timurid periods:... Like his father, Olōğ Beg was entirely integrated into the Persian Islamic cultural circles, and during his reign Persian predominated as the language of high culture, a status that it retained in the region of Samarqand until the Russian revolution 1917... Ḥoseyn Bāyqarā encouraged the development of Persian literature and literary talent in every way possible... }}</ref> and served as the language of administration, history, belles lettres, and poetry.<ref name="EI - Manz">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Timurids |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |edition=Online |year=2007 |quote="During the Timurid period, three languages, Persian, Turkish, and Arabic were in use. The major language of the period was Persian, the native language of the Tajik (Persian) component of society and the language of learning acquired by all literate and/or urban Turks. Persian served as the language of administration, history, belles lettres, and poetry." |author1=B.F. Manz |author2=W.M. Thackston |author3=D.J. Roxburgh |author4=L. Golombek |author5=L. Komaroff |author6=R.E. Darley-Doran }}</ref> The Chaghatay language was the native and "home language" of the Timurid family,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Timurids |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |edition=Online |year=2007 |quote=What is now called Chaghatay Turkish, which was then called simply türki, was the native and 'home' language of the Timurids... |author1=B.F. Manz |author2=W.M. Thackston |author3=D.J. Roxburgh |author4=L. Golombek |author5=L. Komaroff |author6=R.E. Darley-Doran }}</ref> while Arabic served as the language ''par excellence'' of science, philosophy, theology and the religious sciences.<ref name="EI - Manz2">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Timurids |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |edition=Online |year=2007 |quote="As it had been prior to the Timurids and continued to be after them, [[Arabic language|Arabic]] was the language par excellence of science, philosophy, theology and the religious sciences. Much of the astronomical work of Ulugh Beg and his co-workers... is in Arabic, although they also wrote in Persian. Theological works... are generally in Arabic. |author1=B.F. Manz |author2=W.M. Thackston |author3=D.J. Roxburgh |author4=L. Golombek |author5=L. Komaroff |author6=R.E. Darley-Doran }}</ref> ===Literature=== ====Persian==== [[File:Sultan 'Ali Mashhadi (Persian, 1442-1519). Folio of Poetry From the Divan of Sultan Husayn Mirza, ca. 1490.jpg|thumb|''Folio of Poetry From the Divan of Sultan Husayn Mirza'', ca. 1490. [[Brooklyn Museum]].]] [[File:Jami Rose Garden.jpg|thumb|Illustration from [[Jami|Jāmī's]] ''"Rose Garden of the Pious"'', dated 1553. The image blends [[Persian literature|Persian poetry]] and [[Persian miniature]] into one, as is the norm for many works of the Timurid era.]] Persian literature, especially Persian poetry, occupied a central place in the process of assimilation of the Timurid elite to the Perso-Islamic courtly culture.<ref>David J. Roxburgh. The Persian Album, 1400–1600: From Dispersal to Collection. Yale University Press, 2005. pg 130: "Persian literature, especially poetry, occupied a central in the process of assimilation of Timurid elite to the Perso-Islamicate courtly culture, and so it is not surprising to find Baysanghur commissioned a new edition of Firdawsi's Shanameh</ref> The Timurid sultans, especially [[Shah Rukh (Timurid dynasty)|Šāhru<u>kh</u> Mīrzā]] and his son [[Ulugh Beg|Mohammad Taragai Oloğ Beg]], patronized Persian culture.<ref name=Iranica2>B. Spuler, "Central Asia in the Mongol and Timurid periods", published in [[Encyclopædia Iranica]]. ([http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/central-asia-v]) Note:"...&nbsp;Like his father, Olōğ Beg was entirely integrated into the Persian Islamic cultural circles, and during his reign Persian predominated as the language of high culture, a status that it retained in the region of Samarqand until the Russian revolution 1917 [...] Ḥoseyn Bāyqarā encouraged the development of Persian literature and literary talent in every way possible ..."</ref> Among the most important literary works of the Timurid era is the Persian biography of [[Timur]], known as ''"Zafarnāmeh"'' ({{lang-fa|ظفرنامه}}), written by Sharaf ud-Dīn Alī Yazdī, which itself is based on an older ''"Zafarnāmeh"'' by Nizām al-Dīn Shāmī, the official biographer of Timur during his lifetime. The most famous poet of the Timurid era was [[Jami|Nūr ud-Dīn Jāmī]], the last great medieval [[Sufi]] [[mysticism|mystic]] of Persia and one of the greatest in [[Persian poetry]]. In addition, some of the [[astronomy|astronomical]] works of the Timurid sultan [[Ulugh Beg]] were written in Persian, although the bulk of it was published in Arabic.<ref name="EI&nbsp;— Manz2">B.F. Manz/W.M. Thackston/D.J. Roxburgh/L. Golombek/L. Komaroff/R.E. Darley-Doran; "Timurids", in [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]; Brill; Online Edition (2007): ''"...&nbsp;As it had been prior to the Timurids and continued to be after them, Arabic was the language par excellence of science, philosophy, theology and the religious sciences. Much of the astronomical work of Ulugh Beg and his co-workers [...] is in Arabic, although they also wrote in Persian. Theological works [...] are generally in Arabic. ..."''</ref> The Timurid ruler Baysunğur also commissioned a new edition of the Persian national epic [[Shahnameh|Shāhnāmeh]], known as ''Shāhnāmeh of Baysunğur'', and wrote an introduction to it. According to T. Lenz:<ref>"[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/baysongori-sah-nama BĀYSONḠORĪ ŠĀH-NĀMA]" in Encyclopædia Iranica by T. Lenz</ref> {{quote|It can be viewed as a specific reaction in the wake of Timur's death in 807/1405 to the new cultural demands facing Shahhrokh and his sons, a Turkic military elite no longer deriving their power and influence solely from a charismatic steppe leader with a carefully cultivated linkage to Mongol aristocracy. Now centered in Khorasan, the ruling house regarded the increased assimilation and patronage of Persian culture as an integral component of efforts to secure the legitimacy and authority of the dynasty within the context of the Islamic Iranian monarchical tradition, and the Baysanghur Shahnameh, as much a precious object as it is a manuscript to be read, powerfully symbolizes the Timurid conception of their own place in that tradition. A valuable documentary source for Timurid decorative arts that have all but disappeared for the period, the manuscript still awaits a comprehensive monographic study.}} ====Chagatai==== The Timurids also played a very important role in the history of [[Turkic languages|Turkic literature]]. Based on the established Persian literary tradition, a national Turkic literature was developed yhvyhvyhcggycyyggggfhvyvyhyhvyttggggtgcgcggghy yhycyyyvvyvyvhvcycyhvy the [[Chagatai language]]. Chagatai poets such as [[Mir Ali Shir Nava'i|Mīr Alī Sher Nawā'ī]], [[Husayn Bayqarah|Sultan Husayn Bāyqarā]], and [[Babur|Zāher ud-Dīn Bābur]] encouraged other Turkic-speaking poets to write in their own vernacular in addition to Arabic and Persian.<ref name="Columbia"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.persianpaintings.com/history.html |title=Persian Paintings |publisher=Persian Paintings |date= |accessdate=2013-02-11}}</ref><ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761577725_5/Islamic_Art_and_Architecture.html ''MSN Encarta''. Islamic Art and Architecture.]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.art-arena.com/safavidart2.htm |title=Art Arena. Persian art – the Safavids |publisher=Art-arena.com |date= |accessdate=2013-02-11}}</ref> The [[Baburnama|Bāburnāma]], the autobiography of Bābur (although being highly Persianized in its sentence structure, morphology, and vocabulary),<ref>Stephen Frederic DaleThe Garden of the Eight Paradises: Babur and the Culture of Empire. BRILL, 2004. pg 150</ref> as well as Mīr Alī Sher Nawā'ī's Chagatai poetry are among the best-known Turkic literary works and have influenced many others. ===Art=== {{main|Persian art}} The golden age of Persian painting began during the reign of the Timurids.<ref>New Orient, By Czechoslovak Society for Eastern Studies, Czechoslovak Society for Eastern Studies, 1968. pg 139.</ref> During this period — and analogous to the developments in [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid Persia]] — [[Chinese art]] and artists had a significant influence on Persian art.<ref name="Columbia"/> Timurid artists refined the Persian art of the book, which combines paper, calligraphy, illumination, illustration and binding in a brilliant and colourful whole.<ref>John Onians, Atlas of World Art, Laurence King Publishing, 2004. pg 132.</ref> The Mongol ethnicity of the [[Chagatai Khanate|Chaghatayid]] and Timurid [[Khan (title)|Khans]] was the source of the stylistic depiction of [[Persian art]] during the Middle Ages. These same Mongols intermarried with the Persians and Turks of Central Asia, even adopting their religion and languages. Yet their simple control of the world at that time, particularly in the 13th–15th centuries, reflected itself in the idealised appearance of Persians as Mongols. Though the ethnic make-up gradually blended into the [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] and [[Mesopotamia]]n local populations, the Mongol stylism continued well after and crossed into [[Asia Minor]] and even North Africa. ===Timurid architecture=== Timurid architecture drew on and developed many [[Great Seljuq Empire|Seljuq]] traditions. Turquoise and blue tiles forming intricate linear and geometric patterns decorated the facades of buildings. Sometimes the interior was decorated similarly, with painting and stucco relief further enriching the effect.<ref name="Britannica">''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', "[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9072546/Timurid-Dynasty Timurid Dynasty]", Online Academic Edition, 2007. (Quotation:...''Turkic dynasty descended from the conqueror Timur (Tamerlane), renowned for its brilliant revival of artistic and intellectual life in Iran and Central Asia.''...''Trading and artistic communities were brought into the capital city of Herat, where a library was founded, and the capital became the centre of a renewed and artistically brilliant Persian culture.''..)</ref> Timurid architecture is the pinnacle of [[Islamic art]] in [[Central Asia]]. Spectacular and stately edifices erected by [[Timur]] and his successors in [[Samarkand]] and [[Herat]] helped to disseminate the influence of the [[Ilkhanid]] school of art in India, thus giving rise to the celebrated ''Mughal'' (or ''Mongol'') school of architecture. Timurid architecture started with the [[Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasavi|sanctuary of Ahmed Yasawi]] in present-day [[Kazakhstan]] and culminated in Timur's mausoleum [[Gur-e Amir]] in [[Samarkand]]. Timur's Gur-I Mir, the 14th-century mausoleum of the conqueror is covered with ‘’turquoise Persian tiles’’<ref name="John Julius Norwich 2001. pg 278">John Julius Norwich, Great Architecture of the World, Da Capo Press, 2001. pg 278.</ref> Nearby, in the center of the ancient town, a ''Persian style Madrassa (religious school)''<ref name="John Julius Norwich 2001. pg 278"/> and a ''Persian style Mosque''<ref name="John Julius Norwich 2001. pg 278"/> by Ulugh Beg is observed. The mausoleum of Timurid princes, with their turquoise and blue-tiled domes remain among the most refined and exquisite [[Persian architecture]].<ref>Hugh Kennedy, "The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In", Da Capo Press, 2007. pg 237</ref> [[Axial symmetry]] is a characteristic of all major Timurid structures, notably the [[Shah-i-Zinda|Shāh-e Zenda]] in [[Samarkand]], the ''Musallah'' complex in Herat, and the mosque of [[Goharshad|Gowhar Shād]] in [[Mashhad]]. Double [[dome]]s of various shapes abound, and the outsides are perfused with brilliant colors. Timur's dominance of the region strengthened the influence of his capital and Persian architecture upon India.<ref>Banister Fletcher, Dan Cruickshan, "Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture", Architectural Press, 1996. pg 606</ref> <center> <gallery> File:Akhangan.jpg|''"Akhangan" tomb'', where [[Goharshad|Gowharšād's]] sister Gowhartāj is buried. The architecture is a fine example of the Timurid era in Persia. <!-- Deleted image removed: File:Gure Amir.JPG|''[[Gur-e Amir|Gūr-e Amīr]] complex'' with its azure dome. --> File:SamarkandBibiKhanym.jpg|Façade [[Bibi Khanym Mosque]] </gallery> </center> ==Rulers== ===Emperors=== {{Main|Timurid dynasty}} * [[Timur]] * [[Pir Muhammad ibn Jahangir]] * [[Khalil Sultan]] * [[Shahrukh Mirza]] * [[Ulugh Beg]] * [[Abdal-Latif Mirza]] * [[Abdallah Mirza]] * [[Sultan Muhammad bin Baysonqor]] * [[Abul-Qasim Babur Mirza]] * [[Sultan Ahmed Mirza]] * [[Sultan Mahmud Mirza]] * [[Mirza Shah Mahmud]] * [[Ibrahim Mirza bin Ala-ud-Daulah]] * [[Abu Sa'id Mirza]] * [[Sultan Husayn Mirza Bayqara]] * [[Yadgar Muhammad Mirza]] * [[Badi' al-Zaman Mirza]] ===Governors of Iraq-e-Ajam/Iraq-e-Arab/Fars/Azerbaijan & other Persian Territories=== * Qaidu bin Pir Muhammad bin Jahāngīr 808–811 AH * Abu Bakr bin [[Miran Shah|Mīrān Shāh]] 1405–07 (807–09 AH) * Pir Muhammad bin Umar Shei<u>kh</u> 807–12 AH * Rustam 812–17 AH * Sikandar 812–17 AH * Alaudaullah 851 AH * Abu Bakr bin Muhammad 851 AH * Sultān Muhammad 850–55 AH * Muhammad bin Hussayn 903–06 AH * Abul A'la Fereydūn Hussayn 911–12 AH * Muhammad Mohsin <u>Kh</u>ān 911–12 AH * Muhammad Zamān <u>Kh</u>ān 920–23 AH * Shāhru<u>kh</u> II bin Abu Sa’id 896–97 AH * Ulu<u>gh</u> Beg Kābulī 873–907 AH * Sultān Uways 1508–22 (913–27 AH) ==See also== *[[Timurid dynasty]] *[[Turkic peoples]] *[[List of Turkic dynasties and countries]] *[[List of Mongol states]] *[[History of Iran]] *[[List of Sunni Muslim dynasties]] *[[Mughal Empire]] *[[Afghanistan]] ==References and notes== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Further reading== * [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/baysongori-sah-nama BĀYSONḠORĪ ŠĀH-NĀMA] in ''[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]'' * {{cite journal |last=Aka |first=Ismail |year=1996 |title=The Agricultural and Commercial Activities of the Timurids in the First Half of the 15th Century |journal=Oriente Moderno |volume=15 |issue=76/2 |publisher=Istituto per l'Oriente C. A. Nallino |pages=9–21 |jstor=25817400 }} * Elliot, Sir H. M.; edited by Dowson, John. ''[[The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period]]''; published by London Trubner Company 1867–77. (Online Copy: [http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp?serv=pf&file=80201010&ct=0 The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877] — This online copy has been posted by: [http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List]) * {{cite journal |last=Subtelny |first=Maria Eva |year=1988 |title=Centralizing Reform and Its Opponents in the Late Timurid Period |journal=Iranian Studies |volume=21 |issue=1/2 |publisher=International Society for Iranian Studies |pages=123–51 |jstor=4310597 }} ==External links== {{Commons category|Timurid dynasty}} * [http://empirehistory.weebly.com/timurid-empire.html Timurid Empire 1370–1506] * [http://www.art-arena.com/timurid.htm Timurid Art] {{Timurid Empire}} {{Empires}} {{Iran topics}} {{Inner Asia}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Timurid Empire}} [[Category:Timurid Empire| ]] [[Category:History of the Turkic peoples]] [[Category:Turkic states]] [[Category:Mongol states]] [[Category:History of the Caucasus]] [[Category:Medieval Armenia]] [[Category:Medieval Georgia (country)]] [[Category:Medieval Azerbaijan]] [[Category:Medieval Anatolia]] [[Category:History of Central Asia]] [[Category:Historical Turkic states]] [[Category:Former empires]] [[Category:Medieval Syria]] [[Category:Medieval Iraq]] [[Category:History of Uzbekistan]] [[Category:Nomads of the Eurasian steppe]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1370]] [[Category:1507 disestablishments]] [[Category:History of Herat]]'
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