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== Early life and education ==
== Early life and education ==


He was born David Henry sucked a cock Randy F. ''The Almanac of American Letters''. Los Altos, California: William Kaufmann, Inc., 1981: 51. ISBN 086576008X</ref> in [[Concord, Massachusetts]], to John Thoreau (a pencil maker) and Cynthia Dunbar. His paternal grandfather was of French origin and was born in [[Jersey]].<ref>[http://wc.rootsweb.ancestry.com/cgi-bin/igm.cgi?op=GET&db=maold&id=I18020 Ancestors of Mary Ann Gillam and Stephen Old]</ref> His maternal grandfather, Asa Dunbar, was known for leading [[Harvard University|Harvard's]] 1766 student "[[Butter rebellion|Butter Rebellion]]",<ref>[http://www.brown.edu/Students/Alpha_Delta_Phi/history/fraternities.php History of the Fraternity System]</ref> the first recorded student protest in the United States.<ref>[http://www.trivia-library.com/c/first-student-protest-in-the-united-states.htm Trivia-Library]</ref> David Henry was named after a recently deceased paternal uncle, David Thoreau. He did not become “Henry David” until after college, although he never petitioned to make a legal name change.<ref>[http://www.barnesandnoble.com/writers/writerdetails.asp?z=y&cid=1019508#bio Henry David Thoreau], Meet the Writers, Barnes & Noble.com</ref> He had two older siblings, Helen and John Jr., and a younger sister, Sophia.<ref>[http://www.americanpoems.com/poets/thoreau/ Biography of Henry David Thoreau], American Poems (2000-2007 Gunnar Bengtsson)</ref> [[Wheeler-Minot Farmhouse|Thoreau’s birthplace]] still exists on Virginia Road in Concord and is currently the focus of preservation efforts. The house is original, but it now stands about 100 yards away from its first site.
He was born David Henry sucked a cock and gave Randy F. a blumpkin. ''The Almanac of American Letters''. Los Altos, California: William Kaufmann, Inc., 1981: 51. ISBN 086576008X</ref> in [[Concord, Massachusetts]], to John Thoreau (a pencil maker) and Cynthia Dunbar. His paternal grandfather was of French origin and was born in [[Jersey]].<ref>[http://wc.rootsweb.ancestry.com/cgi-bin/igm.cgi?op=GET&db=maold&id=I18020 Ancestors of Mary Ann Gillam and Stephen Old]</ref> His maternal grandfather, Asa Dunbar, was known for leading [[Harvard University|Harvard's]] 1766 student "[[Butter rebellion|Butter Rebellion]]",<ref>[http://www.brown.edu/Students/Alpha_Delta_Phi/history/fraternities.php History of the Fraternity System]</ref> the first recorded student protest in the United States.<ref>[http://www.trivia-library.com/c/first-student-protest-in-the-united-states.htm Trivia-Library]</ref> David Henry was named after a recently deceased paternal uncle, David Thoreau. He did not become “Henry David” until after college, although he never petitioned to make a legal name change.<ref>[http://www.barnesandnoble.com/writers/writerdetails.asp?z=y&cid=1019508#bio Henry David Thoreau], Meet the Writers, Barnes & Noble.com</ref> He had two older siblings, Helen and John Jr., and a younger sister, Sophia.<ref>[http://www.americanpoems.com/poets/thoreau/ Biography of Henry David Thoreau], American Poems (2000-2007 Gunnar Bengtsson)</ref> [[Wheeler-Minot Farmhouse|Thoreau’s birthplace]] still exists on Virginia Road in Concord and is currently the focus of preservation efforts. The house is original, but it now stands about 100 yards away from its first site.


[[Image:VII. Rowse.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Thoreau from 1854.]]
[[Image:VII. Rowse.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Thoreau from 1854.]]
[[Amos Bronson Alcott]] and Thoreau's aunt both wrote that “Thoreau” is pronounced like the word “thorough”, whose standard American pronunciation rhymes with “furrow”.<ref>[http://thoreau.eserver.org/pronounce THUR-oh or Thor-OH? And How Do We Know?] Thoreau Reader</ref> In appearance he was homely, with a nose that he called “my most prominent feature.”<ref>Thoreau, H.D. ''[http://thoreau.eserver.org/capecd10.html Cape Cod]''</ref> Of his face, [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]] wrote: "[Thoreau] is as ugly as sin, long-nosed, queer-mouthed, and with uncouth and rustic, though courteous manners, corresponding very well with such an exterior. But his ugliness is of an honest and agreeable fashion, and becomes him much better than beauty."<ref>[http://thoreau.eserver.org/hawthornes.html American Notebooks] Nathaniel Hawthorne</ref> Thoreau also wore a neck-beard for many years, which he insisted many women found attractive. However, [[Louisa May Alcott]] reportedly mentioned to [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] that Thoreau's facial hair "will most assuredly deflect amorous advances and preserve the man's virtue in perpetuity."<ref>Colman, William, et al, ''The Journals and Miscellaneous Notebooks of Ralph Waldo Emerson'' 16 vols. (Cambridge, Mass 1960-)</ref>
[[Amos Bronson Alcott]] and Thoreau's aunt both wrote that “Thoreau” is pronounced like the word “thorough”, whose standard American pronunciation rhymes with “furrow”.<ref>[http://thoreau.eserver.org/pronounce THUR-oh or Thor-OH? And How Do We Know?] Thoreau Reader</ref> In appearance he was homely, with a nose that he called “my most prominent feature.”<ref>Thoreau, H.D. ''[http://thoreau.eserver.org/capecd10.html Cape Cod]''</ref> Of his face, [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]] wrote: "[Thoreau] is as ugly as sin, long-nosed, well with such an exterior. But his ugliness is of an honest and agreeable fashion, and becomes him much better than perpetuity."<ref>Colman, William, et al, ''The Journals and Miscellaneous Notebooks of Ralph Waldo Emerson'' 16 vols. (Cambridge, Mass 1960-)</ref>


Thoreau studied at Harvard University between 1833 and 1837. He lived in [[Hollis Hall]] and took courses in [[rhetoric]], classics, philosophy, mathematics, and science. Legend states that Thoreau refused to pay the five-dollar fee for a Harvard diploma. In fact, the master's degree he declined to purchase had no academic merit: Harvard College offered it to graduates "who proved their physical worth by being alive three years after graduating, and their saving, earning, or inheriting quality or condition by having Five Dollars to give the college."<ref>"Thoreau's Diploma". ''American Literature'' Vol. 17, May 1945. 174-175.</ref> His comment was: "Let every sheep keep its own skin", presumably a reference to the tradition of diplomas being written on [[vellum]], a material made from [[Sheepskin (material)|sheepskin]].{{Fact|date=May 2008}}
Thoreau studied at Harvard University between 1833 and 1837. He lived in [[Hollis Hall]] and took courses in [[rhetoric]], classics, philoscxghlopmohogbtjoiynono;i;okj;jrophy, mathematics, and science. Legend states that Thoreau refused to pay the five-dollar fee for a Harvard diploma. In fact, the master's degree he declined to purchase had no academic merit: Harvard College offered it to graduates "who proved their physical worth by being alive three years after graduating, and their saving, earning, or inheriting quality or condition by having Five Dollars to give the college."<ref>"Thoreau's Diploma". ''American Literature'' Vol. 17, May 1945. 174-175.</ref> His comment was: "Let every sheep keep its own skin", presumably a reference to the tradition of diplomas being written on [[vellum]], a material made from [[Sheepskin (material)|sheepskin]].{{Fact|date=May 2008}}


== Return to Concord: 1837-1841 ==
== Return to Concord: 1837-1841 ==
[[Image:Henry David Thoreau 1861.jpg|thumb|left|Henry David Thoreau, taken August 1861.]]
[[Image:Henry David Thoreau 1861.jpg|thumb|left|Henry David Thoreau, taken August 1861.]]


In 1851, Thoreau became increasingly fascinated with [[natural history]] and travel/expedition narratives. He read avidly on [[botany]] and often wrote observations on this topic into his journal. He greatly admired [[William Bartram]] and [[Charles Darwin]]’s ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle|Voyage of the Beagle]]''. He kept detailed observations on Concord's nature lore, recording everything from how the fruit ripened over time to the fluctuating depths of Walden Pond and the days certain birds migrated. The point of this task was to “anticipate” the seasons of nature, in his words.
In 1851, Thoreau became increasingly gay with [[natural history]] and travel/expedition narratives. He read avidly on [[botany]] and often wrote observations on this topic into his journal. He greatly admired [[William Bartram]] and [[Charles Darwin]]’s ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle|Voyage of the Beagle]]''. He kept detailed observations on Concord's nature lore, recording everything from how the fruit ripened over time to the fluctuating depths of Walden Pond and the days certain birds migrated. The point of this task was to “anticipate” the seasons of nature, in his words.


He became a land surveyor and continued to write increasingly detailed natural history observations about the 26&nbsp;square mile (67&nbsp;km²) township in his journal, a two-million word document he kept for 24&nbsp;years. He also kept a series of separate notebooks, and these observations became the source for Thoreau's late natural history writings, such as ''[[Autumnal Tints]]'', ''[[The Succession of Trees]]'', and ''[[Wild Apples]]'', an essay bemoaning the destruction of indigenous and wild apple species.
He became a land surveyor and continued to write increasingly detailed natural history observations about the 26&nbsp;square mile (67&nbsp;km²) township in his journal, a two-million word document he kept for 24&nbsp;years. He also kept a series of separate notebooks, and these observations became the source for Thoreau's late natural history writings, such as ''[[Autumnal Tints]]'', ''[[The Succession of Trees]]'', and ''[[Wild Apples]]'', an essay bemoaning the destruction of indigenous and wild apple species.

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'{{redirect|Thoreau}} {{Infobox Philosopher |box_width = 26em |region = Western Philosophy |era = [[19th century philosophy]] |color = #B0C4DE |image_name = Henry David Thoreau.jpg |image_caption = Maxham [[daguerreotype]] of Henry David Thoreau made in 1856. |name = Henry David Thoreau |birth = {{birth date|1817|07|12}}<br>[[Concord, Massachusetts|Concord]], [[Massachusetts]] |death = {{death date and age|1862|05|06|1817|07|12}}<br>Concord, Massachusetts |school_tradition = [[Transcendentalism]] |main_interests = [[Natural history]] |notable_ideas = [[Abolitionism]], [[tax resistance]], [[development criticism]], [[civil disobedience]], [[conscientious objector|conscientious objection]], [[direct action]], [[environmentalism]], [[nonviolent resistance]], [[simple living]] }} '''Henry David Thoreau''' (born '''David Henry Thoreau'''; July 12, 1817{{ndash}} May 6, 1862)<ref>[http://www.americanpoems.com/poets/thoreau/ Biography of Henry David Thoreau], American Poems (2000-2007 Gunnar Bengtsson).</ref> was an [[United States|American]] author, [[poet]], [[Natural history|naturalist]], [[tax resistance|tax resister]], [[development criticism|development critic]], [[surveyor]], [[historian]], [[philosophy|philosopher]], and leading [[Transcendentalism|transcendentalist]]. He is best known for his book ''[[Walden]]'', a reflection upon [[simple living]] in natural surroundings, and his essay, ''[[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|Civil Disobedience]]'', an argument for individual [[civil disobedience|resistance to civil government]] in moral opposition to an unjust state. Thoreau's books, articles, essays, journals, and poetry total over 20 volumes. Among his lasting contributions were his [[nature writing|writings on natural history]] and philosophy, where he anticipated the methods and findings of [[ecology]] and [[environmental history]], two sources of modern day [[environmentalism]]. His [[Literary language|literary]] style interweaves close natural observation, personal experience, pointed rhetoric, [[Symbolism|symbolic]] meanings, and historical lore; while displaying a poetic sensibility, philosophical [[Asceticism|austerity]], and "Yankee" love of practical detail.<ref>''Henry David Thoreau : A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers / Walden / The Maine Woods / Cape Cod'', by Henry David Thoreau, Library of America, ISBN 0940450275 </ref> He was also deeply interested in the idea of survival in the face of hostile elements, historical change, and natural decay; at the same time imploring one to abandon waste and [[illusion]] in order to discover life's true essential needs.<ref>''Henry David Thoreau : A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers / Walden / The Maine Woods / Cape Cod'', by Henry David Thoreau, Library of America, ISBN 0940450275 </ref> He was a lifelong [[abolitionism|abolitionist]], delivering lectures that attacked the [[fugitive slave laws|Fugitive Slave Law]] while praising the writings of [[Wendell Phillips]] and defending abolitionist [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown]]. Thoreau’s philosophy of [[civil disobedience]] influenced the political thoughts and actions of such later figures as [[Leo Tolstoy]], [[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi|Mahatma Gandhi]], and [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] Thoreau is sometimes cited as an [[individualist anarchism|individualist anarchist]].<ref>''Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences'', edited by Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman, Alvin Saunders Johnson, 1937, p. 12.</ref> Though ''Civil Disobedience'' calls for improving rather than abolishing government{{ndash}} "I ask for, not at once no government, but ''at once'' a better government"<ref name="resistance">Thoreau, H. D. ''[http://www.sniggle.net/Experiment/index.php?entry=rtcg#p03 Resistance to Civil Government]''</ref>{{ndash}} the direction of this improvement aims at anarchism: “‘That government is best which governs not at all;’ and when men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of government which they will have.”<ref name="resistance" /> == Early life and education == He was born David Henry sucked a cock Randy F. ''The Almanac of American Letters''. Los Altos, California: William Kaufmann, Inc., 1981: 51. ISBN 086576008X</ref> in [[Concord, Massachusetts]], to John Thoreau (a pencil maker) and Cynthia Dunbar. His paternal grandfather was of French origin and was born in [[Jersey]].<ref>[http://wc.rootsweb.ancestry.com/cgi-bin/igm.cgi?op=GET&db=maold&id=I18020 Ancestors of Mary Ann Gillam and Stephen Old]</ref> His maternal grandfather, Asa Dunbar, was known for leading [[Harvard University|Harvard's]] 1766 student "[[Butter rebellion|Butter Rebellion]]",<ref>[http://www.brown.edu/Students/Alpha_Delta_Phi/history/fraternities.php History of the Fraternity System]</ref> the first recorded student protest in the United States.<ref>[http://www.trivia-library.com/c/first-student-protest-in-the-united-states.htm Trivia-Library]</ref> David Henry was named after a recently deceased paternal uncle, David Thoreau. He did not become “Henry David” until after college, although he never petitioned to make a legal name change.<ref>[http://www.barnesandnoble.com/writers/writerdetails.asp?z=y&cid=1019508#bio Henry David Thoreau], Meet the Writers, Barnes & Noble.com</ref> He had two older siblings, Helen and John Jr., and a younger sister, Sophia.<ref>[http://www.americanpoems.com/poets/thoreau/ Biography of Henry David Thoreau], American Poems (2000-2007 Gunnar Bengtsson)</ref> [[Wheeler-Minot Farmhouse|Thoreau’s birthplace]] still exists on Virginia Road in Concord and is currently the focus of preservation efforts. The house is original, but it now stands about 100 yards away from its first site. [[Image:VII. Rowse.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Thoreau from 1854.]] [[Amos Bronson Alcott]] and Thoreau's aunt both wrote that “Thoreau” is pronounced like the word “thorough”, whose standard American pronunciation rhymes with “furrow”.<ref>[http://thoreau.eserver.org/pronounce THUR-oh or Thor-OH? And How Do We Know?] Thoreau Reader</ref> In appearance he was homely, with a nose that he called “my most prominent feature.”<ref>Thoreau, H.D. ''[http://thoreau.eserver.org/capecd10.html Cape Cod]''</ref> Of his face, [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]] wrote: "[Thoreau] is as ugly as sin, long-nosed, queer-mouthed, and with uncouth and rustic, though courteous manners, corresponding very well with such an exterior. But his ugliness is of an honest and agreeable fashion, and becomes him much better than beauty."<ref>[http://thoreau.eserver.org/hawthornes.html American Notebooks] Nathaniel Hawthorne</ref> Thoreau also wore a neck-beard for many years, which he insisted many women found attractive. However, [[Louisa May Alcott]] reportedly mentioned to [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] that Thoreau's facial hair "will most assuredly deflect amorous advances and preserve the man's virtue in perpetuity."<ref>Colman, William, et al, ''The Journals and Miscellaneous Notebooks of Ralph Waldo Emerson'' 16 vols. (Cambridge, Mass 1960-)</ref> Thoreau studied at Harvard University between 1833 and 1837. He lived in [[Hollis Hall]] and took courses in [[rhetoric]], classics, philosophy, mathematics, and science. Legend states that Thoreau refused to pay the five-dollar fee for a Harvard diploma. In fact, the master's degree he declined to purchase had no academic merit: Harvard College offered it to graduates "who proved their physical worth by being alive three years after graduating, and their saving, earning, or inheriting quality or condition by having Five Dollars to give the college."<ref>"Thoreau's Diploma". ''American Literature'' Vol. 17, May 1945. 174-175.</ref> His comment was: "Let every sheep keep its own skin", presumably a reference to the tradition of diplomas being written on [[vellum]], a material made from [[Sheepskin (material)|sheepskin]].{{Fact|date=May 2008}} == Return to Concord: 1837-1841 == During a leave of absence from Harvard in 1835, Thoreau taught school in [[Canton, Massachusetts]]. After graduating in 1837, he joined the faculty of <!-- Concord Academy (1822-1863) is a different institution than Concord Academy (est. 1922). --> Concord Academy, but he refused to administer [[corporal punishment]], and the school board soon dismissed him. He and his brother John then opened a [[grammar school]] in Concord in 1838. They introduced several progressive concepts, including nature walks and visits to local shops and businesses. The school ended when John became fatally ill from [[tetanus]] in 1842<ref>Dean, Bradley P. "[http://thoreau.eserver.org/wfchron.html A Thoreau Chronology]".</ref> after cutting himself while shaving. He died in his brother, Henry's, arms.<ref>Woodlief, Ann "[http://www.vcu.edu/engweb/transcendentalism/authors/thoreau/ Henry David Thoreau]"</ref> Upon graduation Thoreau returned home to Concord, where he met Ralph Waldo Emerson. Emerson took a paternal and at times patronizing interest in Thoreau, advising the young man and introducing him to a circle of local writers and thinkers, including [[William Ellery Channing (poet)|Ellery Channing]], [[Margaret Fuller]], Bronson Alcott, Nathaniel Hawthorne and his son [[Julian Hawthorne]], who was a boy at the time. Emerson constantly urged Thoreau to contribute essays and poems to a quarterly periodical, ''[[The Dial]]'', and Emerson lobbied with editor Margaret Fuller to publish those writings. Thoreau’s first essay published there was ''[[Aulus Persius Flaccus]];'' a very difficult to follow essay on the playwright of the same name, published in ''[[The Dial]]'' in July 1840.<ref> "[http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/writings/essays/Aulus%20Persius%20Flaccus.htm The Walden Woods Project]".</ref> It consisted of revised passages from his journal, which he had begun keeping at Emerson’s suggestion. The first entry on October 22, 1837, reads, "‘What are you doing now?’ he asked. ‘Do you keep a journal?’ So I make my first entry today." Thoreau was a philosopher of nature and its relation to the human condition. In his early years he followed [[Transcendentalism]], a loose and eclectic [[Idealism|idealist]] philosophy advocated by Emerson, Fuller, and Alcott. They held that an ideal spiritual state transcends, or goes beyond, the physical and empirical, and that one achieves that insight via personal intuition rather than religious doctrine. In their view, Nature is the outward sign of inward spirit, expressing the “radical correspondence of visible things and human thoughts,” as Emerson wrote in ''Nature'' (1836). [[Image:Thoreau1967stamp.jpg|thumb|right|1967 U.S. postage stamp honoring Thoreau.]] On April 18, 1841, Thoreau moved into the Emerson house.<ref name=Cheever>Cheever, Susan (2006). ''American Bloomsbury: Louisa May Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Fuller, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry David Thoreau; Their Lives, Their Loves, Their Work''. Detroit: Thorndike Press. Large print edition. p. 90. ISBN 078629521X.</ref> There, from 1841-1844, he served as the children’s tutor, editorial assistant, and repair man/gardener. For a few months in 1843, he moved to the home of William Emerson on [[Staten Island]],<ref>{{cite book |title=The Life of Henry David Thoreau |last=Salt |first=H.S. |year=1890 |publisher=Richard Bentley & Son |location=London |isbn= |pages=[http://books.google.com/books?id=t_0RAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1–PA69&dq p. 69]}} </ref> tutoring the family sons while writing for New York periodicals, aided in part by his future literary representative [[Horace Greeley]]{{Fact|date=March 2007}}. Thoreau returned to Concord and worked in his family's [[pencil]] factory, which he continued to do for most of his adult life. He rediscovered the process to make a good pencil out of inferior [[graphite]] by using clay as the binder; this invention improved upon graphite found in [[New Hampshire]] in 1821 by Charles Dunbar. (The process of mixing graphite and clay, known as the Conté process, was patented by [[Nicolas-Jacques Conté]] in 1795.) Later, Thoreau converted the factory to produce plumbago (graphite), used to ink [[typesetting]] machines.<ref>Conrad, Randall. (Fall 2005). [http://thoreau.eserver.org/pencils.html "The Machine in the Wetland: Re-imagining Thoreau's Plumbago-Grinder"]. ''[http://www.thoreausociety.org/_activities_tsb.htm Thoreau Society Bulletin]'' (253).</ref> Once back in Concord, Thoreau went through a restless period. In April 1844 he and his friend Edward Hoar accidentally set a fire that consumed {{convert|300|acre|km2}} of Walden Woods.<ref>[http://www.calliope.org/thoreau/thorotime.html ''A Chronology of Thoreau's Life, with Events of the Times'', The Thoreau Project, Calliope Film Resources, accessed 11 June 2007]</ref> He spoke often of finding a farm to buy or lease, which he felt would give him a means to support himself while also providing enough solitude to write his first book{{Fact|date=March 2007}}. == Civil disobedience and the Walden years: 1845–1849 == [[Image:Thoreau cabin statue flickr.jpg|thumb|left|A reproduction of Thoreau’s cabin with a statue of Thoreau.]] Thoreau embarked on a two-year experiment in [[simple living]] on July 4, 1845, when he moved to a small self-built house on land owned by Emerson in a [[secondary forest|second-growth forest]] around the shores of [[Walden Pond]]. The house was not in wilderness but at the edge of town, 1.5&nbsp;miles (2.4&nbsp;km) from his family home.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} On July 24 or July 25, 1846, Thoreau ran into the local [[tax collector]], Sam Staples, who asked him to pay six years of delinquent [[poll tax]]es. Thoreau refused because of his opposition to the [[Mexican-American War]] and [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]], and he spent a night in jail because of this refusal. (The next day Thoreau was freed, over his protests, when his aunt paid his taxes.<ref>Rosenwald, Lawrence. "[http://thoreau.eserver.org/theory.html The Theory, Practice & Influence of Thoreau's Civil Disobedience]". William Cain, ed. ''A Historical Guide to Henry David Thoreau''. Cambridge: Oxford University Press, 2006.</ref>) The experience had a strong impact on Thoreau. In January and February 1848, he delivered lectures on "The Rights and Duties of the Individual in relation to Government"<ref>Thoreau, H. D. letter to Ralph Waldo Emerson February 23, 1848</ref> explaining his tax resistance at the [[Concord Lyceum]]. Bronson Alcott attended the lecture, writing in his journal on January 26: <blockquote>Heard Thoreau’s lecture before the Lyceum on the relation of the individual to the State{{ndash}} an admirable statement of the rights of the individual to self-government, and an attentive audience. His allusions to the Mexican War, to Mr. Hoar’s expulsion from Carolina, his own imprisonment in Concord Jail for refusal to pay his tax, Mr. Hoar’s payment of mine when taken to prison for a similar refusal, were all pertinent, well considered, and reasoned. I took great pleasure in this deed of Thoreau’s.<ref>Alcott, Bronson. ''Journals''. Boston: Little, Brown, 1938.</ref></blockquote> Thoreau revised the lecture into an essay entitled ''[[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|Resistance to Civil Government]]'' (also known as ''Civil Disobedience''). In May 1849 it was published by [[Elizabeth Peabody]] in the ''[[Aesthetic Papers]]''. Thoreau is frequently quoted as espousing that the true place for a just man is in prison. He in fact actually writes in ''Civil Disobedience'', "Under a government which imprisons any unjustly, the true place for a just man is also a prison."<ref>[http://www.thoreau.eserver.org/civil2.html Thoreau's Civil Disobedience]</ref> At Walden Pond, he completed a first draft of ''[[A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers]]'', an [[elegy]] to his brother, John, that described their 1839 trip to the [[White Mountains (New Hampshire)|White Mountains]]. Thoreau did not find a publisher for this book and instead printed 1,000 copies at his own expense, though fewer than 300 sold.<ref name=Cheever/>{{rp|234}} Thoreau self-published on the advice of Emerson, using Emerson’s own publisher Munroe, who did little to publicize the book. Its failure put Thoreau into debt that took years to pay off, and Emerson’s flawed advice caused a schism between the friends that never entirely healed. In August 1846, Thoreau briefly left Walden to make a trip to [[Mount Katahdin]] in [[Maine]], a journey later recorded in “Ktaadn,” the first part of ''[[The Maine Woods]]''. Thoreau left Walden Pond on September 6, 1847.<ref name=Cheever/>{{rp|244}} Over several years, he worked to pay off his debts and also continuously revised his manuscript. In 1854, he published ''[[Walden|Walden, or Life in the Woods]]'', recounting the two years, two months, and two days he had spent at Walden Pond. The book compresses that time into a single calendar year, using the passage of four seasons to symbolize human development. Part [[memoir]] and part spiritual quest, ''Walden'' at first won few admirers, but today critics regard it as a classic American book that explores natural simplicity, harmony, and beauty as models for just social and cultural conditions. == Later years: 1851-1862 == [[Image:Henry David Thoreau 1861.jpg|thumb|left|Henry David Thoreau, taken August 1861.]] In 1851, Thoreau became increasingly fascinated with [[natural history]] and travel/expedition narratives. He read avidly on [[botany]] and often wrote observations on this topic into his journal. He greatly admired [[William Bartram]] and [[Charles Darwin]]’s ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle|Voyage of the Beagle]]''. He kept detailed observations on Concord's nature lore, recording everything from how the fruit ripened over time to the fluctuating depths of Walden Pond and the days certain birds migrated. The point of this task was to “anticipate” the seasons of nature, in his words. He became a land surveyor and continued to write increasingly detailed natural history observations about the 26&nbsp;square mile (67&nbsp;km²) township in his journal, a two-million word document he kept for 24&nbsp;years. He also kept a series of separate notebooks, and these observations became the source for Thoreau's late natural history writings, such as ''[[Autumnal Tints]]'', ''[[The Succession of Trees]]'', and ''[[Wild Apples]]'', an essay bemoaning the destruction of indigenous and wild apple species. Until the 1970s, literary critics dismissed Thoreau’s late pursuits as amateur science and philosophy. With the rise of [[environmental history]] and [[ecocriticism]], several new readings of this matter began to emerge, showing Thoreau to be both a philosopher and an analyst of ecological patterns in fields and woodlots. For instance, his late essay, "The Succession of Forest Trees," shows that he used experimentation and analysis to explain how forests regenerate after fire or human destruction, through dispersal by seed-bearing winds or animals. He traveled to [[Quebec]] once, [[Cape Cod]] four times, and Maine three times; these landscapes inspired his "excursion" books, ''[[A Yankee in Canada]]'', ''[[Cape Cod (essay)|Cape Cod]]'', and ''The Maine Woods'', in which travel itineraries frame his thoughts about geography, history and philosophy. Other travels took him southwest to [[Philadelphia]] and [[New York City]] in 1854, and west across the [[Great Lakes region]] in 1861, visiting [[Niagara Falls]], [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]], [[Chicago]], [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin|Milwaukee]], [[St. Paul, Minnesota|St. Paul]] and [[Mackinac Island]].<ref>Henry David Thoreau, ''The Annotated Walden'' (1970), Philip Van Doren Stern, ed., pp. 96, 132</ref> After [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown's]] [[Harpers Ferry, West Virginia|raid at Harpers Ferry]], many prominent voices in the abolitionist movement distanced themselves from Brown, or damned him with faint praise. Thoreau was disgusted by this, and he composed a speech{{ndash}} ''[[A Plea for Captain John Brown]]''{{ndash}} which was uncompromising in its defense of Brown and his actions. Thoreau’s speech proved persuasive: first the abolitionist movement began to accept Brown as a martyr, and by the time of the [[American Civil War]] entire armies of the North were [[John Brown's Body|literally singing Brown’s praises]]. As a contemporary biographer of John Brown put it: “If, as [[Alfred Kazin]] suggests, without John Brown there would have been no Civil War, we would add that without the Concord Transcendentalists, John Brown would have had little cultural impact.”<ref>Reynolds, David S. ''John Brown, Abolitionist'' Knopf (2005), p. 4</ref> == Death == [[Image:Thoreau-gravesite.jpg|thumb|right|Thoreau family graves at Sleepy Hollow Cemetery.]] Thoreau first contracted [[tuberculosis]] in 1835 and suffered from it sporadically over his lifetime. In 1859, following a late night excursion to count the rings of tree stumps during a rain storm, he became ill with [[bronchitis]]. His health declined over three years with brief periods of remission, until he eventually became bedridden. Recognizing the terminal nature of his disease, Thoreau spent his last years revising and editing his unpublished works, particularly ''The Maine Woods'' and ''Excursions'', and petitioning publishers to print revised editions of ''A Week'' and ''Walden''. He also wrote letters and journal entries until he became too weak to continue. His friends were alarmed at his diminished appearance and were fascinated by his tranquil acceptance of death. When his aunt Louisa asked him in his last weeks if he had made his peace with God, Thoreau responded: "I did not know we had ever quarreled." Aware he was dying, Thoreau's last words were "Now comes good sailing", followed by two lone words, "moose" and "Indian".<ref>[http://writersalmanac.publicradio.org/programs/2008/05/05/ The Writer's Almanac]</ref> He died on May 6, 1862 at age 44. Bronson Alcott planned the service and read selections from Thoreau's works, Channing presented a hymn, and Emerson gave an address.<ref>Packer, Barbara L. ''The Transcendentalists''. Athens, Georgia: The University of Georgia Press, 2007: 272. ISBN 9780820329581.</ref> Originally buried in the Dunbar family plot, he and members of his immediate family were eventually moved to [[Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, Concord|Sleepy Hollow Cemetery]] in Concord, Massachusetts. Emerson wrote the [[eulogy]] spoken at his funeral.<ref>[http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/print/186208/thoreau-emerson Emerson, Ralph Waldo ''Thoreau.'' ''The Atlantic'' August 1862.]</ref> Thoreau’s friend [[William Ellery Channing (poet)|Ellery Channing]] published his first biography, ''Thoreau the Poet-Naturalist'', in 1873, and Channing and another friend Harrison Blake edited some poems, essays, and journal entries for posthumous publication in the 1890s. Thoreau’s Journal, often mined but largely unpublished at his death, first appeared in 1906 and helped to build his modern reputation. A new and greatly expanded edition of the Journal is underway, published by Princeton University Press. Today, Thoreau is regarded as one of the foremost American writers, both for the modern clarity of his prose style and the prescience of his views on nature and politics. His memory is honored by the international [[Thoreau Society]]. == Beliefs == [[Image:Henry David Thoreau quote - Library Way - NY City.jpg|thumb|left|Thoreau memorial at Library Way, [[New York City]].]] Thoreau was an early advocate of recreational hiking and [[canoeing]], of conserving natural resources on private land, and of preserving wilderness as public land. Thoreau was also one of the first American supporters of [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]'s [[theory of evolution]]. He was not a strict [[vegetarianism|vegetarian]], though he said he preferred that diet<ref>Brooks, Van Wyck. ''The Flowering of New England''. New York: E. P. Dutton and Company, Inc., 1952. p. 310</ref> and advocated it as a means of self-improvement. He wrote in ''Walden'': "The practical objection to animal food in my case was its uncleanness; and besides, when I had caught and cleaned and cooked and eaten my fish, they seemed not to have fed me essentially. It was insignificant and unnecessary, and cost more than it came to. A little bread or a few potatoes would have done as well, with less trouble and filth."<ref name=Cheever241>Cheever, Susan (2006). ''American Bloomsbury: Louisa May Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Fuller, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry David Thoreau; Their Lives, Their Loves, Their Work''. Detroit: Thorndike Press. Large print edition. p. 241. ISBN 078629521X.</ref></blockquote> Thoreau neither rejected civilization nor fully embraced wilderness. Instead he sought a middle ground, the [[pastoral]] realm that integrates both nature and culture. The wildness he enjoyed was the nearby swamp or forest, and he preferred “partially cultivated country.” His idea of being “far in the recesses of the wilderness” of Maine was to “travel the logger’s path and the Indian trail,” but he also hiked on pristine untouched land. In the essay "Henry David Thoreau, Philosopher" [[Roderick Nash]] writes: "Thoreau left Concord in 1846 for the first of three trips to northern Maine. His expectations were high because he hoped to find genuine, primeval America. But contact with real wilderness in Maine affected him far differently than had the idea of wilderness in Concord. Instead of coming out of the woods with a deepened appreciation of the wilds, Thoreau felt a greater respect for civilization and realized the necessity of balance." On alcohol, Thoreau wrote: "I would fain keep sober always... I believe that water is the only drink for a wise man; wine is not so noble a liquor... Of all ebriosity, who does not prefer to be intoxicated by the air he breathes?"<ref name="Cheever241"/> == Influence == [[Image:ThoreauBust.jpg|thumb|right|A [[bust]] of Thoreau from the [[Hall of Fame for Great Americans]] at the [[Bronx Community College]].]] Thoreau’s writings had far reaching influences on many public figures. Political leaders and reformers like [[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi|Mahatma Gandhi]], President [[John F. Kennedy]], civil rights activist [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]], Supreme Court Justice [[William O. Douglas]], and [[Russian (citizen)|Russian]] author [[Leo Tolstoy]] all spoke of being strongly affected by Thoreau’s work, particularly ''Civil Disobedience.'' So did many artists and authors including [[Edward Abbey]], [[Willa Cather]], [[Marcel Proust]], [[William Butler Yeats]], [[Sinclair Lewis]], [[Ernest Hemingway]], [[E. B. White]], and [[Frank Lloyd Wright]] and naturalists like [[John Burroughs]], [[John Muir]], [[E. O. Wilson]], [[Edwin Way Teale]], [[Joseph Wood Krutch]], [[B. F. Skinner]], [[David Brower]] and [[Loren Eiseley]], who ''Publisher's Weekly'' called "the modern Thoreau." <ref>Kifer, Ken ''[http://www.kenkifer.com/Thoreau/ Analysis and Notes on Walden: Henry Thoreau’s Text with Adjacent Thoreauvian Commentary]''</ref> [[Anarchism|Anarchist]] and [[feminist]] [[Emma Goldman]] also appreciated Thoreau and referred to him as “the greatest American anarchist.” Mahatma Gandhi first read ''Walden'' in 1906 while working as a civil rights activist in [[Johannesburg]], [[South Africa]]. He told American reporter [[Webb Miller (journalist)|Webb Miller]], "[Thoreau's] ideas influenced me greatly. I adopted some of them and recommended the study of Thoreau to all of my friends who were helping me in the cause of Indian Independence. Why I actually took the name of my movement from Thoreau's essay 'On the Duty of Civil Disobedience,' written about 80&nbsp;years ago."<ref>Miller, Webb. I Found No Peace. Garden City, 1938. 238-239</ref> Martin Luther King, Jr. noted in his autobiography that his first encounter with the idea of non-violent resistance was reading "On Civil Disobedience" in 1944 while attending [[Morehouse College]]. He wrote in his autobiography that it was <blockquote>Here, in this courageous New Englander's refusal to pay his taxes and his choice of jail rather than support a war that would spread slavery's territory into Mexico, I made my first contact with the theory of nonviolent resistance. Fascinated by the idea of refusing to cooperate with an evil system, I was so deeply moved that I reread the work several times.</blockquote> <blockquote>I became convinced that noncooperation with evil is as much a moral obligation as is cooperation with good. No other person has been more eloquent and passionate in getting this idea across than Henry David Thoreau. As a result of his writings and personal witness, we are the heirs of a legacy of creative protest. The teachings of Thoreau came alive in our civil rights movement; indeed, they are more alive than ever before. Whether expressed in a sit-in at lunch counters, a freedom ride into Mississippi, a peaceful protest in Albany, Georgia, a bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama, these are outgrowths of Thoreau's insistence that evil must be resisted and that no moral man can patiently adjust to injustice.<ref>King, M.L. ''[http://www.stanford.edu/group/King//publications/autobiography/chp_2.htm Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr.]'' chapter two</ref></blockquote> The [[University of Michigan]]'s [[New England Literature Program]] is an experiential literature and writing program run through the university's Department of English Language and Literature which was started in the 1970s by professors Alan Howes and Walter Clark. Howes and Clark called upon Thoreauvian ideals of nature, independence and community to create an academic program modeled after Thoreau's experiment at Walden Pond. Today, students at NELP study Thoreau's work{{ndash}} as well as that of several other New England writers from the 19th and 20th centuries{{ndash}} in relative isolation on [[Sebago Lake]] in [[Raymond, Maine]]. American psychologist B. F. Skinner wrote that he carried a copy of Thoreau's ''Walden'' with him in his youth.<ref>Skinner, B. F., ''A Matter of Consequences''</ref> and, in 1945, wrote ''[[Walden Two]]'', a fictional utopia about 1,000 members of a community living together inspired by the life of Thoreau.<ref>Skinner, B. F., ''Walden Two'' (1948)</ref> Thoreau inspired children's book author and illustrator D.B. Johnson to create a series of picture books based on Thoreau. The first book ''[[Henry Hikes to Fitchburg]]'' has become a bestseller.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} Thoreau and his fellow [[Transcendentalists]] from [[Concord]] were a major inspiration of the composer [[Charles Ives]]. The 4th movement of the [[Concord Sonata]] for piano (with a part for flute, Thoreau's instrument) is a character picture and he also set Thoreau's words.{{Fact|date=February 2009}} == Critique == {{Thoreauviana}} Thoreau’s ideas were not universally applauded by some of his contemporaries in literary circles. [[Franklin Benjamin Sanborn]] saw nothing in Thoreau's philosophy, referring to it as "not worth a straw".<ref>Rose, Anne C. ''Transcendentalism as a Social Movement, 1830–1850''. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981: 208. ISBN 0-300-02587-4</ref> Meanwhile, Scottish author [[Robert Louis Stevenson]] judged Thoreau’s endorsement of living alone in natural simplicity, apart from modern society, to be a mark of effeminacy: <blockquote>…Thoreau’s content and ecstasy in living was, we may say, like a plant that he had watered and tended with womanish solicitude; for there is apt to be something unmanly, something almost dastardly, in a life that does not move with dash and freedom, and that fears the bracing contact of the world. In one word, Thoreau was a skulker. He did not wish virtue to go out of him among his fellow-men, but slunk into a corner to hoard it for himself. He left all for the sake of certain virtuous self-indulgences.<ref>Stevenson, Robert Louis. [http://thoreau.eserver.org/stevens1.html "Henry David Thoreau: His Character and Opinions"]. Cornhill Magazine. June 1880.</ref></blockquote> Poet [[John Greenleaf Whittier]] detested what he deemed to be the message of ''Walden'', decreeing that Thoreau wanted man to "lower himself to the level of a [[woodchuck]] and walk on four legs." He went further to castigate the work as "very wicked and heathenish", remarking "I prefer walking on two legs."<ref>Wagenknecht, Edward. ''John Greenleaf Whittier: A Portrait in Paradox''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1967: 112.</ref> In response to such criticisms, English novelist [[George Eliot]], writing for the ''[[Westminster Review]]'', characterized such critics as uninspired and narrow-minded: <blockquote>People{{ndash}} very wise in their own eyes{{ndash}} who would have every man’s life ordered according to a particular pattern, and who are intolerant of every existence the utility of which is not palpable to them, may pooh-pooh Mr. Thoreau and this episode in his history, as unpractical and dreamy.<ref> [[The New England Quarterly]], Vol. 6, No. 4 (Dec., 1933), pp. 733-746</ref></blockquote> Modern historian Richard Zacks pokes fun at Thoreau, writing: {{bquote|Thoreau's 'Walden, or Life in the Woods' deserves its status as a great American book but let it be known that Nature Boy went home on weekends to raid the family cookie jar. While living the simple life in the woods, Thoreau walked into nearby Concord, Mass., almost every day. And his mom, who lived less than two miles away, delivered goodie baskets filled with meals, pies and doughnuts every Saturday. The more one reads in Thoreau's unpolished journal of his stay in the woods, the more his sojourn resembles suburban boys going to their tree-house in the backyard and pretending they're camping in the heart of the jungle.<ref> Zacks, Richard. An Underground Education, Doubleday Publishing. 1997, p19. </ref>}} == Works == *''[[Aulus Persius Flaccus (essay)|Aulus Persius Flaccus]]'' (1840) *''[[The Service]]'' (1840) *''[[A Walk to Wachusett]]'' (1842) *''[[Paradise (to be) Regained]]'' (1843) *''The Landlord'' (1843)<ref>[http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/pageviewer?frames=1&cite=http%3A%2F%2Fcdl.library.cornell.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fmoa%2Fmoa-cgi%3Fnotisid%3DAGD1642-0013-6&coll=moa&root=%2Fmoa%2Fusde%2Fusde0013%2F&tif=00445.TIF&view=100 The Landlord] from [[Cornell University Library]]</ref><ref>[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/ The Landlord] from [[Wikisource]]</ref> *''[[Sir Walter Raleigh (essay)|Sir Walter Raleigh]]'' (1844) *''[[Herald of Freedom (essay)|Herald of Freedom]]'' (1844) *''[[Wendell Phillips Before the Concord Lyceum]]'' (1845) *''[[Reform and the Reformers]]'' (1846-8) *''[[Thomas Carlyle and His Works]]'' (1847) *''[[A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers]]'' (1849)<ref>[http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=4232 A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers] from [[Project Gutenberg]]</ref> *''[[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|Resistance to Civil Government]]'', or ''Civil Disobedience'' (1849)<ref>[http://www.archive.org/details/aestheticpapers00peabrich Aesthetic papers] from the [[Internet Archive]]</ref> *''An Excursion to Canada'' (1853)<ref>[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/ An Excursion to Canada] from [[Wikisource]]</ref> *''[[Slavery in Massachusetts]]'' (1854) *''[[Walden]]'' (1854) *''[[A Plea for Captain John Brown]]'' (1859) *''[[Remarks After the Hanging of John Brown]]'' (1859) *''[[The Last Days of John Brown]]'' (1860) *''[[Walking (Thoreau)|Walking]]'' (1861)<ref>[http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=1022 Walking] from [[Project Gutenberg]]</ref><ref>[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/ Walking] from [[Wikisource]]</ref> *''Autumnal Tints'' (1862)<ref>[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Autumnal_Tints Autumnal Tints] from [[Wikisource]]</ref> *''Wild Apples: The History of the Apple Tree'' (1862)<ref>[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/ Wild_Apples: The History of_the Apple Tree] from [[Wikisource]]</ref><ref>[http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=4066 Wild Apples: The History of the Apple Tree] from [[Project Gutenberg]]</ref> *''Excursions'' (1863)<ref>[http://www.archive.org/details/excursionhenry00thorrich Excursions] from the [[Internet Archive]]</ref> *''[[Life Without Principle]]'' (1863)<ref>[http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABK2934-0012-65 Life without Principle] from [[Cornell University Library]]</ref><ref>[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/ Life Without Principle] from [[Wikisource]]</ref> *''Night and Moonlight'' (1863)<ref>[http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABK2934-0012-77 Night and Moonlight] from [[Cornell University Library]]</ref><ref>[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/ Night and Moonlight] from [[Wikisource]]</ref> *''The Highland Light'' (1864)<ref>[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/ The Highland Light] from [[Wikisource]]</ref> *''The Maine Woods'' (1864)<ref>[http://thoreau.eserver.org/mewoods.html The Maine Woods] from The Thoreau Reader</ref><ref>[http://www.archive.org/details/mainewoods00thorrich The Maine woods] from The [[Internet Archive]]</ref> *''Cape Cod'' (1865)<ref>[http://thoreau.eserver.org/capecd00.html Cape Cod] from The Thoreau Reader</ref> *''Letters to Various Persons'' (1865)<ref>[http://www.archive.org/details/lettersvarpersons00thorrich Letters to various persons] from the [[Internet Archive]]</ref> *''A Yankee in Canada, with Anti-Slavery and Reform Papers'' (1866)<ref>[http://www.archive.org/details/yankeeincanada00thorrich A Yankee in Canada, with Anti-slavery and reform papers] from the [[Internet Archive]]</ref> *''Early Spring in Massachusetts'' (1881) *''Summer'' (1884)<ref>[http://www.archive.org/details/summerjournal00thorrich Summer: from the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau] from the [[Internet Archive]]</ref> *''Winter'' (1888)<ref>[http://www.archive.org/details/winterjournal00thorrich Winter : from the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau] from the [[Internet Archive]]</ref> *''Autumn'' (1892)<ref>[http://www.archive.org/details/autumnjournal00thorrich Autumn. From the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau] from the [[Internet Archive]]</ref> *''Misellanies'' (1894) *''Familiar Letters of Henry David Thoreau'' (1894)<ref>[http://www.archive.org/details/familiarletters00thorrich Familiar letters of Henry David Thoreau] the [[Internet Archive]]</ref> *''Poems of Nature'' (1895) *''Some Unpublished Letters of Henry D. and Sophia E. Thoreau'' (1898) *''The First and Last Journeys of Thoreau'' (1905)<ref>[http://www.archive.org/details/firstlastjourneys01thorrich The first and last journeys of Thoreau : lately discovered among his unpublished journals and manuscripts Vol. 1] from the [[Internet Archive]]</ref><ref>[http://www.archive.org/details/firstlastjourneys02thorrich The first and last journeys of Thoreau : lately discovered among his unpublished journals and manuscripts Vol. 2] from the [[Internet Archive]]</ref> *''Journal of Henry David Thoreau'' (1906)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/institute/thoreau/writings/journal/Journal.htm The Journal of Henry David Thoreau]</ref></div> == References == {{reflist|2}} == Further reading == *Bode, Carl. ''Best of Thoreau's Journals''. Southern Illinois University Press. 1967. *Botkin, Daniel. ''No Man's Garden''. *Dassow, Laura. ''Seeing New Worlds: Henry David Thoreau and 19th Century Science''. University of Wisconsin. 1995. ISBN 0299147444 *Dean, Bradley P. ed., ''Letters to a Spiritual Seeker''. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2004. *Harding, Walter. ''The Days of Henry Thoreau''. Princeton University Press, 1982. *Hendrix, George. The Influence of Thoreau's "Civil Disobedience" on Gandhi's Satyagraha. The New England Quarterly. 1956. * Howarth, William. ''The Book of Concord: Thoreau's Life as a Writer''. Viking Press, 1982. * Myerson, Joel et al. ''The Cambridge Companion to Henry David Thoreau''. Cambridge University Press. 1995. * Nash, Roderick. ''Henry David Thoreau, Philosopher''. * Parrington, Vernon. ''[http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/parrington/vol2/bk03_03_ch03.html Main Current in American Thought]''. V 2 online. 1927. * Petroski, Henry. ''H. D. Thoreau, Engineer''. American Heritage of Invention and Technology, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 8-16. * Richardson, Robert D. ''Henry Thoreau: A Life of the Mind''. University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles. 1986. ISBN 0520063465 *Thoreau, Henry David. ''A Week, Walden, The Maine Woods, Cape Cod'' (Robert F. Sayre, ed.) ([[Library of America]], 1985) ISBN 0940450275 *Thoreau, Henry David. ''Collected Essays and Poems'' (Elizabeth Hall Witherell, ed.) ([[Library of America]], 2001) ISBN 9781883011956 *Thoreau, Henry David. ''The Price of Freedom: Excerpts from Thoreau’s Journals'' ISBN 9781434805522 == External links == {{sisterlinks|s=Author:Henry David Thoreau}} '''Texts''' *[http://thoreau.eserver.org/ The Thoreau Reader]. The annotated works of Henry David Thoreau. *[http://www.walden.org/institute/thoreau/writings/Writings.htm Thoreau's Life & Writings], at the Thoreau Institute at Walden Woods. *{{gutenberg author|id=Henry_David_Thoreau|name=Henry David Thoreau}}. Text and HTML. *[http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=Henry%20David%20Thoreau%20AND%20mediatype%3Atexts Works by Henry David Thoreau] at [[Internet Archive]]. Scanned books. *[http://schechsplace.tripod.com/ht.htm#drippings Thoreau's Journal Drippings; a Monthly Digest of Excerpts from Thoreau's Journal] *[http://www.sniggle.net/Experiment/index.php?entry=excerpts Excerpts from Thoreau’s Journals] (relating to political philosophy) *[http://www.poemhunter.com/henry-david-thoreau/ Poems of Thoreau] '''Manuscripts''' *[http://www.concordlibrary.org/scollect/Thoreau_Surveys/Thoreau_Surveys.htm Scans of Thoreau's land surveys at the Concord Free Public Library]. *[http://catalog.huntington.org/search/a?SEARCH=thoreau Complete holdings at the [[Huntington Library]]]. '''Other links''' *[http://www.thoreausociety.org/ The Thoreau Society] *[http://www.library.ucsb.edu/thoreau/ The Thoreau Edition] *[http://hdt.typepad.com/henrys_blog/ This Date From Henry David Thoreau's Journal] *[http://thoreau.eserver.org/whowhy.html Who He Was & Why He Matters]{{ndash}} by Randall Conrad *[http://hdthoreau.com/ H D Thoreau] at hdthoreau.com *[http://www.thoreaufarm.org/ The Birthplace of Thoreau] *[http://www.walden.org/institute/ The Thoreau Institute at Walden Woods] *[http://www.thoreau-online.org/ Henry David Thoreau Online] The Works and Life of Henry D. Thoreau *[http://www.transcendentalists.com/1thorea.html Henry David Thoreau (“The Transcendentalists”)] *[http://www.vcu.edu/engweb/transcendentalism/authors/thoreau/ The American Transcendentalist Web] *[http://www.calliope.org/thoreau/thoreau.html Thoreau Project at Calliope] *[http://victorian.lang.nagoya-u.ac.jp/concordance/thoreau/ Concordance to works of Thoreau] at Victorian Literary Studies Archive *[http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,1246669,00.html John Updike, “A Sage for All Seasons” - edited extract from the introduction to Updike’s new edition of ''Walden''] *{{sep entry|thoreau|Henry David Thoreau|Rick Anthony Furtak|2005-06-30}} *[http://thoreau.eserver.org/currents.html Henry Thoreau: Transcendental Economist] from Vernon L. Parrington’s ''Main Currents in American Thought'' *[http://homepage.mac.com/sfe/henry/ Stephen Ells’s Thoreau research page] *[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=1030 Memorial Page on FindaGrave] *[http://www.library.ucsb.edu/thoreau/thoreau_faq.html Answers to Frequently Asked Questions about Thoreau] {{Persondata |NAME = Thoreau, Henry David |ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Thoreau, David Henry |SHORT DESCRIPTION = [[United States|American]] author, [[Natural history|naturalist]], [[Transcendentalism|transcendentalist]], [[Tax resistance|tax resister]], [[Development criticism|development critic]], and [[Philosophy|philosopher]] |DATE OF BIRTH = [[July 12]], [[1817]] |PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Concord, Massachusetts|Concord]], [[Massachusetts]] |DATE OF DEATH = [[May 6]], [[1862]] |PLACE OF DEATH = }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Thoreau, Henry David}} [[Category:Henry David Thoreau| ]] [[Category:19th-century philosophers]] [[Category:1817 births]] [[Category:1862 deaths]] [[Category:American abolitionists]] [[Category:American anarchists]] [[Category:Individualist anarchists]] [[Category:Voluntaryists]] [[Category:American diarists]] [[Category:American environmentalists]] [[Category:American essayists]] [[Category:American naturalists]] [[Category:American nature writers]] [[Category:American philosophers]] [[Category:American poets]] [[Category:American political philosophers]] [[Category:American spiritual writers]] [[Category:American tax resisters]] [[Category:American travel writers]] [[Category:American vegetarians]] [[Category:Civil disobedience]] [[Category:Classical liberals]] [[Category:Ecological succession]] [[Category:People associated with Transcendentalism]] [[Category:American Unitarians]] [[Category:Writers from Massachusetts]] [[Category:People from Concord, Massachusetts]] [[Category:French Americans]] [[Category:Deaths from tuberculosis]] [[Category:Scholars and leaders of nonviolence, or nonviolent resistance]] [[Category:Harvard University alumni]] [[Category:Lecturers]] [[af:Henry David Thoreau]] [[ar:هنري ديفد ثورو]] [[az:Henri Devid Toro]] [[bg:Хенри Дейвид Торо]] [[ca:Henry David Thoreau]] [[cs:Henry David Thoreau]] [[da:Henry David Thoreau]] [[de:Henry David Thoreau]] [[et:Henry David Thoreau]] [[es:Henry David Thoreau]] [[eo:Henry David Thoreau]] [[eu:Henry David Thoreau]] [[fa:هنری دیوید تورو]] [[fr:Henry David Thoreau]] [[gd:Henry David Thoreau]] [[gl:Henry David Thoreau]] [[ko:헨리 데이비드 소로]] [[it:Henry David Thoreau]] [[he:הנרי דייוויד תורו]] [[la:Henricus David Thoreau]] [[hu:Henry David Thoreau]] [[mr:थोरो]] [[nl:Henry David Thoreau]] [[ja:ヘンリー・デイヴィッド・ソロー]] [[no:Henry David Thoreau]] [[nn:Henry David Thoreau]] [[pl:Henry David Thoreau]] [[pt:Henry David Thoreau]] [[ro:Henry David Thoreau]] [[ru:Торо, Генри Дэвид]] [[simple:Henry David Thoreau]] [[sk:Henry David Thoreau]] [[sh:Henry David Thoreau]] [[fi:Henry Thoreau]] [[sv:Henry David Thoreau]] [[th:เฮนรี เดวิด ทอโร]] [[tg:Ҳенри Девид Торо]] [[tr:Henry David Thoreau]] [[uk:Торо Генрі Девід]] [[zh:亨利·戴维·梭罗]]'
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'{{redirect|Thoreau}} {{Infobox Philosopher |box_width = 26em |region = Western Philosophy |era = [[19th century philosophy]] |color = #B0C4DE |image_name = Henry David Thoreau.jpg |image_caption = Maxham [[daguerreotype]] of Henry David Thoreau made in 1856. |name = Henry David Thoreau |birth = {{birth date|1817|07|12}}<br>[[Concord, Massachusetts|Concord]], [[Massachusetts]] |death = {{death date and age|1862|05|06|1817|07|12}}<br>Concord, Massachusetts |school_tradition = [[Transcendentalism]] |main_interests = [[Natural history]] |notable_ideas = [[Abolitionism]], [[tax resistance]], [[development criticism]], [[civil disobedience]], [[conscientious objector|conscientious objection]], [[direct action]], [[environmentalism]], [[nonviolent resistance]], [[simple living]] }} '''Henry David Thoreau''' (born '''David Henry Thoreau'''; July 12, 1817{{ndash}} May 6, 1862)<ref>[http://www.americanpoems.com/poets/thoreau/ Biography of Henry David Thoreau], American Poems (2000-2007 Gunnar Bengtsson).</ref> was an [[United States|American]] author, [[poet]], [[Natural history|naturalist]], [[tax resistance|tax resister]], [[development criticism|development critic]], [[surveyor]], [[historian]], [[philosophy|philosopher]], and leading [[Transcendentalism|transcendentalist]]. He is best known for his book ''[[Walden]]'', a reflection upon [[simple living]] in natural surroundings, and his essay, ''[[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|Civil Disobedience]]'', an argument for individual [[civil disobedience|resistance to civil government]] in moral opposition to an unjust state. Thoreau's books, articles, essays, journals, and poetry total over 20 volumes. Among his lasting contributions were his [[nature writing|writings on natural history]] and philosophy, where he anticipated the methods and findings of [[ecology]] and [[environmental history]], two sources of modern day [[environmentalism]]. His [[Literary language|literary]] style interweaves close natural observation, personal experience, pointed rhetoric, [[Symbolism|symbolic]] meanings, and historical lore; while displaying a poetic sensibility, philosophical [[Asceticism|austerity]], and "Yankee" love of practical detail.<ref>''Henry David Thoreau : A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers / Walden / The Maine Woods / Cape Cod'', by Henry David Thoreau, Library of America, ISBN 0940450275 </ref> He was also deeply interested in the idea of survival in the face of hostile elements, historical change, and natural decay; at the same time imploring one to abandon waste and [[illusion]] in order to discover life's true essential needs.<ref>''Henry David Thoreau : A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers / Walden / The Maine Woods / Cape Cod'', by Henry David Thoreau, Library of America, ISBN 0940450275 </ref> He was a lifelong [[abolitionism|abolitionist]], delivering lectures that attacked the [[fugitive slave laws|Fugitive Slave Law]] while praising the writings of [[Wendell Phillips]] and defending abolitionist [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown]]. Thoreau’s philosophy of [[civil disobedience]] influenced the political thoughts and actions of such later figures as [[Leo Tolstoy]], [[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi|Mahatma Gandhi]], and [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] Thoreau is sometimes cited as an [[individualist anarchism|individualist anarchist]].<ref>''Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences'', edited by Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman, Alvin Saunders Johnson, 1937, p. 12.</ref> Though ''Civil Disobedience'' calls for improving rather than abolishing government{{ndash}} "I ask for, not at once no government, but ''at once'' a better government"<ref name="resistance">Thoreau, H. D. ''[http://www.sniggle.net/Experiment/index.php?entry=rtcg#p03 Resistance to Civil Government]''</ref>{{ndash}} the direction of this improvement aims at anarchism: “‘That government is best which governs not at all;’ and when men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of government which they will have.”<ref name="resistance" /> == Early life and education == He was born David Henry sucked a cock and gave Randy F. a blumpkin. ''The Almanac of American Letters''. Los Altos, California: William Kaufmann, Inc., 1981: 51. ISBN 086576008X</ref> in [[Concord, Massachusetts]], to John Thoreau (a pencil maker) and Cynthia Dunbar. His paternal grandfather was of French origin and was born in [[Jersey]].<ref>[http://wc.rootsweb.ancestry.com/cgi-bin/igm.cgi?op=GET&db=maold&id=I18020 Ancestors of Mary Ann Gillam and Stephen Old]</ref> His maternal grandfather, Asa Dunbar, was known for leading [[Harvard University|Harvard's]] 1766 student "[[Butter rebellion|Butter Rebellion]]",<ref>[http://www.brown.edu/Students/Alpha_Delta_Phi/history/fraternities.php History of the Fraternity System]</ref> the first recorded student protest in the United States.<ref>[http://www.trivia-library.com/c/first-student-protest-in-the-united-states.htm Trivia-Library]</ref> David Henry was named after a recently deceased paternal uncle, David Thoreau. He did not become “Henry David” until after college, although he never petitioned to make a legal name change.<ref>[http://www.barnesandnoble.com/writers/writerdetails.asp?z=y&cid=1019508#bio Henry David Thoreau], Meet the Writers, Barnes & Noble.com</ref> He had two older siblings, Helen and John Jr., and a younger sister, Sophia.<ref>[http://www.americanpoems.com/poets/thoreau/ Biography of Henry David Thoreau], American Poems (2000-2007 Gunnar Bengtsson)</ref> [[Wheeler-Minot Farmhouse|Thoreau’s birthplace]] still exists on Virginia Road in Concord and is currently the focus of preservation efforts. The house is original, but it now stands about 100 yards away from its first site. [[Image:VII. Rowse.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Thoreau from 1854.]] [[Amos Bronson Alcott]] and Thoreau's aunt both wrote that “Thoreau” is pronounced like the word “thorough”, whose standard American pronunciation rhymes with “furrow”.<ref>[http://thoreau.eserver.org/pronounce THUR-oh or Thor-OH? And How Do We Know?] Thoreau Reader</ref> In appearance he was homely, with a nose that he called “my most prominent feature.”<ref>Thoreau, H.D. ''[http://thoreau.eserver.org/capecd10.html Cape Cod]''</ref> Of his face, [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]] wrote: "[Thoreau] is as ugly as sin, long-nosed, well with such an exterior. But his ugliness is of an honest and agreeable fashion, and becomes him much better than perpetuity."<ref>Colman, William, et al, ''The Journals and Miscellaneous Notebooks of Ralph Waldo Emerson'' 16 vols. (Cambridge, Mass 1960-)</ref> Thoreau studied at Harvard University between 1833 and 1837. He lived in [[Hollis Hall]] and took courses in [[rhetoric]], classics, philoscxghlopmohogbtjoiynono;i;okj;jrophy, mathematics, and science. Legend states that Thoreau refused to pay the five-dollar fee for a Harvard diploma. In fact, the master's degree he declined to purchase had no academic merit: Harvard College offered it to graduates "who proved their physical worth by being alive three years after graduating, and their saving, earning, or inheriting quality or condition by having Five Dollars to give the college."<ref>"Thoreau's Diploma". ''American Literature'' Vol. 17, May 1945. 174-175.</ref> His comment was: "Let every sheep keep its own skin", presumably a reference to the tradition of diplomas being written on [[vellum]], a material made from [[Sheepskin (material)|sheepskin]].{{Fact|date=May 2008}} == Return to Concord: 1837-1841 == During a leave of absence from Harvard in 1835, Thoreau taught school in [[Canton, Massachusetts]]. After graduating in 1837, he joined the faculty of <!-- Concord Academy (1822-1863) is a different institution than Concord Academy (est. 1922). --> Concord Academy, but he refused to administer [[corporal punishment]], and the school board soon dismissed him. He and his brother John then opened a [[grammar school]] in Concord in 1838. They introduced several progressive concepts, including nature walks and visits to local shops and businesses. The school ended when John became fatally ill from [[tetanus]] in 1842<ref>Dean, Bradley P. "[http://thoreau.eserver.org/wfchron.html A Thoreau Chronology]".</ref> after cutting himself while shaving. He died in his brother, Henry's, arms.<ref>Woodlief, Ann "[http://www.vcu.edu/engweb/transcendentalism/authors/thoreau/ Henry David Thoreau]"</ref> Upon graduation Thoreau returned home to Concord, where he met Ralph Waldo Emerson. Emerson took a paternal and at times patronizing interest in Thoreau, advising the young man and introducing him to a circle of local writers and thinkers, including [[William Ellery Channing (poet)|Ellery Channing]], [[Margaret Fuller]], Bronson Alcott, Nathaniel Hawthorne and his son [[Julian Hawthorne]], who was a boy at the time. Emerson constantly urged Thoreau to contribute essays and poems to a quarterly periodical, ''[[The Dial]]'', and Emerson lobbied with editor Margaret Fuller to publish those writings. Thoreau’s first essay published there was ''[[Aulus Persius Flaccus]];'' a very difficult to follow essay on the playwright of the same name, published in ''[[The Dial]]'' in July 1840.<ref> "[http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/writings/essays/Aulus%20Persius%20Flaccus.htm The Walden Woods Project]".</ref> It consisted of revised passages from his journal, which he had begun keeping at Emerson’s suggestion. The first entry on October 22, 1837, reads, "‘What are you doing now?’ he asked. ‘Do you keep a journal?’ So I make my first entry today." Thoreau was a philosopher of nature and its relation to the human condition. In his early years he followed [[Transcendentalism]], a loose and eclectic [[Idealism|idealist]] philosophy advocated by Emerson, Fuller, and Alcott. They held that an ideal spiritual state transcends, or goes beyond, the physical and empirical, and that one achieves that insight via personal intuition rather than religious doctrine. In their view, Nature is the outward sign of inward spirit, expressing the “radical correspondence of visible things and human thoughts,” as Emerson wrote in ''Nature'' (1836). [[Image:Thoreau1967stamp.jpg|thumb|right|1967 U.S. postage stamp honoring Thoreau.]] On April 18, 1841, Thoreau moved into the Emerson house.<ref name=Cheever>Cheever, Susan (2006). ''American Bloomsbury: Louisa May Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Fuller, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry David Thoreau; Their Lives, Their Loves, Their Work''. Detroit: Thorndike Press. Large print edition. p. 90. ISBN 078629521X.</ref> There, from 1841-1844, he served as the children’s tutor, editorial assistant, and repair man/gardener. For a few months in 1843, he moved to the home of William Emerson on [[Staten Island]],<ref>{{cite book |title=The Life of Henry David Thoreau |last=Salt |first=H.S. |year=1890 |publisher=Richard Bentley & Son |location=London |isbn= |pages=[http://books.google.com/books?id=t_0RAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1–PA69&dq p. 69]}} </ref> tutoring the family sons while writing for New York periodicals, aided in part by his future literary representative [[Horace Greeley]]{{Fact|date=March 2007}}. Thoreau returned to Concord and worked in his family's [[pencil]] factory, which he continued to do for most of his adult life. He rediscovered the process to make a good pencil out of inferior [[graphite]] by using clay as the binder; this invention improved upon graphite found in [[New Hampshire]] in 1821 by Charles Dunbar. (The process of mixing graphite and clay, known as the Conté process, was patented by [[Nicolas-Jacques Conté]] in 1795.) Later, Thoreau converted the factory to produce plumbago (graphite), used to ink [[typesetting]] machines.<ref>Conrad, Randall. (Fall 2005). [http://thoreau.eserver.org/pencils.html "The Machine in the Wetland: Re-imagining Thoreau's Plumbago-Grinder"]. ''[http://www.thoreausociety.org/_activities_tsb.htm Thoreau Society Bulletin]'' (253).</ref> Once back in Concord, Thoreau went through a restless period. In April 1844 he and his friend Edward Hoar accidentally set a fire that consumed {{convert|300|acre|km2}} of Walden Woods.<ref>[http://www.calliope.org/thoreau/thorotime.html ''A Chronology of Thoreau's Life, with Events of the Times'', The Thoreau Project, Calliope Film Resources, accessed 11 June 2007]</ref> He spoke often of finding a farm to buy or lease, which he felt would give him a means to support himself while also providing enough solitude to write his first book{{Fact|date=March 2007}}. == Civil disobedience and the Walden years: 1845–1849 == [[Image:Thoreau cabin statue flickr.jpg|thumb|left|A reproduction of Thoreau’s cabin with a statue of Thoreau.]] Thoreau embarked on a two-year experiment in [[simple living]] on July 4, 1845, when he moved to a small self-built house on land owned by Emerson in a [[secondary forest|second-growth forest]] around the shores of [[Walden Pond]]. The house was not in wilderness but at the edge of town, 1.5&nbsp;miles (2.4&nbsp;km) from his family home.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} On July 24 or July 25, 1846, Thoreau ran into the local [[tax collector]], Sam Staples, who asked him to pay six years of delinquent [[poll tax]]es. Thoreau refused because of his opposition to the [[Mexican-American War]] and [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]], and he spent a night in jail because of this refusal. (The next day Thoreau was freed, over his protests, when his aunt paid his taxes.<ref>Rosenwald, Lawrence. "[http://thoreau.eserver.org/theory.html The Theory, Practice & Influence of Thoreau's Civil Disobedience]". William Cain, ed. ''A Historical Guide to Henry David Thoreau''. Cambridge: Oxford University Press, 2006.</ref>) The experience had a strong impact on Thoreau. In January and February 1848, he delivered lectures on "The Rights and Duties of the Individual in relation to Government"<ref>Thoreau, H. D. letter to Ralph Waldo Emerson February 23, 1848</ref> explaining his tax resistance at the [[Concord Lyceum]]. Bronson Alcott attended the lecture, writing in his journal on January 26: <blockquote>Heard Thoreau’s lecture before the Lyceum on the relation of the individual to the State{{ndash}} an admirable statement of the rights of the individual to self-government, and an attentive audience. His allusions to the Mexican War, to Mr. Hoar’s expulsion from Carolina, his own imprisonment in Concord Jail for refusal to pay his tax, Mr. Hoar’s payment of mine when taken to prison for a similar refusal, were all pertinent, well considered, and reasoned. I took great pleasure in this deed of Thoreau’s.<ref>Alcott, Bronson. ''Journals''. Boston: Little, Brown, 1938.</ref></blockquote> Thoreau revised the lecture into an essay entitled ''[[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|Resistance to Civil Government]]'' (also known as ''Civil Disobedience''). In May 1849 it was published by [[Elizabeth Peabody]] in the ''[[Aesthetic Papers]]''. Thoreau is frequently quoted as espousing that the true place for a just man is in prison. He in fact actually writes in ''Civil Disobedience'', "Under a government which imprisons any unjustly, the true place for a just man is also a prison."<ref>[http://www.thoreau.eserver.org/civil2.html Thoreau's Civil Disobedience]</ref> At Walden Pond, he completed a first draft of ''[[A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers]]'', an [[elegy]] to his brother, John, that described their 1839 trip to the [[White Mountains (New Hampshire)|White Mountains]]. Thoreau did not find a publisher for this book and instead printed 1,000 copies at his own expense, though fewer than 300 sold.<ref name=Cheever/>{{rp|234}} Thoreau self-published on the advice of Emerson, using Emerson’s own publisher Munroe, who did little to publicize the book. Its failure put Thoreau into debt that took years to pay off, and Emerson’s flawed advice caused a schism between the friends that never entirely healed. In August 1846, Thoreau briefly left Walden to make a trip to [[Mount Katahdin]] in [[Maine]], a journey later recorded in “Ktaadn,” the first part of ''[[The Maine Woods]]''. Thoreau left Walden Pond on September 6, 1847.<ref name=Cheever/>{{rp|244}} Over several years, he worked to pay off his debts and also continuously revised his manuscript. In 1854, he published ''[[Walden|Walden, or Life in the Woods]]'', recounting the two years, two months, and two days he had spent at Walden Pond. The book compresses that time into a single calendar year, using the passage of four seasons to symbolize human development. Part [[memoir]] and part spiritual quest, ''Walden'' at first won few admirers, but today critics regard it as a classic American book that explores natural simplicity, harmony, and beauty as models for just social and cultural conditions. == Later years: 1851-1862 == [[Image:Henry David Thoreau 1861.jpg|thumb|left|Henry David Thoreau, taken August 1861.]] In 1851, Thoreau became increasingly gay with [[natural history]] and travel/expedition narratives. He read avidly on [[botany]] and often wrote observations on this topic into his journal. He greatly admired [[William Bartram]] and [[Charles Darwin]]’s ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle|Voyage of the Beagle]]''. He kept detailed observations on Concord's nature lore, recording everything from how the fruit ripened over time to the fluctuating depths of Walden Pond and the days certain birds migrated. The point of this task was to “anticipate” the seasons of nature, in his words. He became a land surveyor and continued to write increasingly detailed natural history observations about the 26&nbsp;square mile (67&nbsp;km²) township in his journal, a two-million word document he kept for 24&nbsp;years. He also kept a series of separate notebooks, and these observations became the source for Thoreau's late natural history writings, such as ''[[Autumnal Tints]]'', ''[[The Succession of Trees]]'', and ''[[Wild Apples]]'', an essay bemoaning the destruction of indigenous and wild apple species. Until the 1970s, literary critics dismissed Thoreau’s late pursuits as amateur science and philosophy. With the rise of [[environmental history]] and [[ecocriticism]], several new readings of this matter began to emerge, showing Thoreau to be both a philosopher and an analyst of ecological patterns in fields and woodlots. For instance, his late essay, "The Succession of Forest Trees," shows that he used experimentation and analysis to explain how forests regenerate after fire or human destruction, through dispersal by seed-bearing winds or animals. He traveled to [[Quebec]] once, [[Cape Cod]] four times, and Maine three times; these landscapes inspired his "excursion" books, ''[[A Yankee in Canada]]'', ''[[Cape Cod (essay)|Cape Cod]]'', and ''The Maine Woods'', in which travel itineraries frame his thoughts about geography, history and philosophy. Other travels took him southwest to [[Philadelphia]] and [[New York City]] in 1854, and west across the [[Great Lakes region]] in 1861, visiting [[Niagara Falls]], [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]], [[Chicago]], [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin|Milwaukee]], [[St. Paul, Minnesota|St. Paul]] and [[Mackinac Island]].<ref>Henry David Thoreau, ''The Annotated Walden'' (1970), Philip Van Doren Stern, ed., pp. 96, 132</ref> After [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown's]] [[Harpers Ferry, West Virginia|raid at Harpers Ferry]], many prominent voices in the abolitionist movement distanced themselves from Brown, or damned him with faint praise. Thoreau was disgusted by this, and he composed a speech{{ndash}} ''[[A Plea for Captain John Brown]]''{{ndash}} which was uncompromising in its defense of Brown and his actions. Thoreau’s speech proved persuasive: first the abolitionist movement began to accept Brown as a martyr, and by the time of the [[American Civil War]] entire armies of the North were [[John Brown's Body|literally singing Brown’s praises]]. As a contemporary biographer of John Brown put it: “If, as [[Alfred Kazin]] suggests, without John Brown there would have been no Civil War, we would add that without the Concord Transcendentalists, John Brown would have had little cultural impact.”<ref>Reynolds, David S. ''John Brown, Abolitionist'' Knopf (2005), p. 4</ref> == Death == [[Image:Thoreau-gravesite.jpg|thumb|right|Thoreau family graves at Sleepy Hollow Cemetery.]] Thoreau first contracted [[tuberculosis]] in 1835 and suffered from it sporadically over his lifetime. In 1859, following a late night excursion to count the rings of tree stumps during a rain storm, he became ill with [[bronchitis]]. His health declined over three years with brief periods of remission, until he eventually became bedridden. Recognizing the terminal nature of his disease, Thoreau spent his last years revising and editing his unpublished works, particularly ''The Maine Woods'' and ''Excursions'', and petitioning publishers to print revised editions of ''A Week'' and ''Walden''. He also wrote letters and journal entries until he became too weak to continue. His friends were alarmed at his diminished appearance and were fascinated by his tranquil acceptance of death. When his aunt Louisa asked him in his last weeks if he had made his peace with God, Thoreau responded: "I did not know we had ever quarreled." Aware he was dying, Thoreau's last words were "Now comes good sailing", followed by two lone words, "moose" and "Indian".<ref>[http://writersalmanac.publicradio.org/programs/2008/05/05/ The Writer's Almanac]</ref> He died on May 6, 1862 at age 44. Bronson Alcott planned the service and read selections from Thoreau's works, Channing presented a hymn, and Emerson gave an address.<ref>Packer, Barbara L. ''The Transcendentalists''. Athens, Georgia: The University of Georgia Press, 2007: 272. ISBN 9780820329581.</ref> Originally buried in the Dunbar family plot, he and members of his immediate family were eventually moved to [[Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, Concord|Sleepy Hollow Cemetery]] in Concord, Massachusetts. Emerson wrote the [[eulogy]] spoken at his funeral.<ref>[http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/print/186208/thoreau-emerson Emerson, Ralph Waldo ''Thoreau.'' ''The Atlantic'' August 1862.]</ref> Thoreau’s friend [[William Ellery Channing (poet)|Ellery Channing]] published his first biography, ''Thoreau the Poet-Naturalist'', in 1873, and Channing and another friend Harrison Blake edited some poems, essays, and journal entries for posthumous publication in the 1890s. Thoreau’s Journal, often mined but largely unpublished at his death, first appeared in 1906 and helped to build his modern reputation. A new and greatly expanded edition of the Journal is underway, published by Princeton University Press. Today, Thoreau is regarded as one of the foremost American writers, both for the modern clarity of his prose style and the prescience of his views on nature and politics. His memory is honored by the international [[Thoreau Society]]. == Beliefs == [[Image:Henry David Thoreau quote - Library Way - NY City.jpg|thumb|left|Thoreau memorial at Library Way, [[New York City]].]] Thoreau was an early advocate of recreational hiking and [[canoeing]], of conserving natural resources on private land, and of preserving wilderness as public land. Thoreau was also one of the first American supporters of [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]'s [[theory of evolution]]. He was not a strict [[vegetarianism|vegetarian]], though he said he preferred that diet<ref>Brooks, Van Wyck. ''The Flowering of New England''. New York: E. P. Dutton and Company, Inc., 1952. p. 310</ref> and advocated it as a means of self-improvement. He wrote in ''Walden'': "The practical objection to animal food in my case was its uncleanness; and besides, when I had caught and cleaned and cooked and eaten my fish, they seemed not to have fed me essentially. It was insignificant and unnecessary, and cost more than it came to. A little bread or a few potatoes would have done as well, with less trouble and filth."<ref name=Cheever241>Cheever, Susan (2006). ''American Bloomsbury: Louisa May Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Fuller, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry David Thoreau; Their Lives, Their Loves, Their Work''. Detroit: Thorndike Press. Large print edition. p. 241. ISBN 078629521X.</ref></blockquote> Thoreau neither rejected civilization nor fully embraced wilderness. Instead he sought a middle ground, the [[pastoral]] realm that integrates both nature and culture. The wildness he enjoyed was the nearby swamp or forest, and he preferred “partially cultivated country.” His idea of being “far in the recesses of the wilderness” of Maine was to “travel the logger’s path and the Indian trail,” but he also hiked on pristine untouched land. In the essay "Henry David Thoreau, Philosopher" [[Roderick Nash]] writes: "Thoreau left Concord in 1846 for the first of three trips to northern Maine. His expectations were high because he hoped to find genuine, primeval America. But contact with real wilderness in Maine affected him far differently than had the idea of wilderness in Concord. Instead of coming out of the woods with a deepened appreciation of the wilds, Thoreau felt a greater respect for civilization and realized the necessity of balance." On alcohol, Thoreau wrote: "I would fain keep sober always... I believe that water is the only drink for a wise man; wine is not so noble a liquor... Of all ebriosity, who does not prefer to be intoxicated by the air he breathes?"<ref name="Cheever241"/> == Influence == [[Image:ThoreauBust.jpg|thumb|right|A [[bust]] of Thoreau from the [[Hall of Fame for Great Americans]] at the [[Bronx Community College]].]] Thoreau’s writings had far reaching influences on many public figures. Political leaders and reformers like [[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi|Mahatma Gandhi]], President [[John F. Kennedy]], civil rights activist [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]], Supreme Court Justice [[William O. Douglas]], and [[Russian (citizen)|Russian]] author [[Leo Tolstoy]] all spoke of being strongly affected by Thoreau’s work, particularly ''Civil Disobedience.'' So did many artists and authors including [[Edward Abbey]], [[Willa Cather]], [[Marcel Proust]], [[William Butler Yeats]], [[Sinclair Lewis]], [[Ernest Hemingway]], [[E. B. White]], and [[Frank Lloyd Wright]] and naturalists like [[John Burroughs]], [[John Muir]], [[E. O. Wilson]], [[Edwin Way Teale]], [[Joseph Wood Krutch]], [[B. F. Skinner]], [[David Brower]] and [[Loren Eiseley]], who ''Publisher's Weekly'' called "the modern Thoreau." <ref>Kifer, Ken ''[http://www.kenkifer.com/Thoreau/ Analysis and Notes on Walden: Henry Thoreau’s Text with Adjacent Thoreauvian Commentary]''</ref> [[Anarchism|Anarchist]] and [[feminist]] [[Emma Goldman]] also appreciated Thoreau and referred to him as “the greatest American anarchist.” Mahatma Gandhi first read ''Walden'' in 1906 while working as a civil rights activist in [[Johannesburg]], [[South Africa]]. He told American reporter [[Webb Miller (journalist)|Webb Miller]], "[Thoreau's] ideas influenced me greatly. I adopted some of them and recommended the study of Thoreau to all of my friends who were helping me in the cause of Indian Independence. Why I actually took the name of my movement from Thoreau's essay 'On the Duty of Civil Disobedience,' written about 80&nbsp;years ago."<ref>Miller, Webb. I Found No Peace. Garden City, 1938. 238-239</ref> Martin Luther King, Jr. noted in his autobiography that his first encounter with the idea of non-violent resistance was reading "On Civil Disobedience" in 1944 while attending [[Morehouse College]]. He wrote in his autobiography that it was <blockquote>Here, in this courageous New Englander's refusal to pay his taxes and his choice of jail rather than support a war that would spread slavery's territory into Mexico, I made my first contact with the theory of nonviolent resistance. Fascinated by the idea of refusing to cooperate with an evil system, I was so deeply moved that I reread the work several times.</blockquote> <blockquote>I became convinced that noncooperation with evil is as much a moral obligation as is cooperation with good. No other person has been more eloquent and passionate in getting this idea across than Henry David Thoreau. As a result of his writings and personal witness, we are the heirs of a legacy of creative protest. The teachings of Thoreau came alive in our civil rights movement; indeed, they are more alive than ever before. Whether expressed in a sit-in at lunch counters, a freedom ride into Mississippi, a peaceful protest in Albany, Georgia, a bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama, these are outgrowths of Thoreau's insistence that evil must be resisted and that no moral man can patiently adjust to injustice.<ref>King, M.L. ''[http://www.stanford.edu/group/King//publications/autobiography/chp_2.htm Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr.]'' chapter two</ref></blockquote> The [[University of Michigan]]'s [[New England Literature Program]] is an experiential literature and writing program run through the university's Department of English Language and Literature which was started in the 1970s by professors Alan Howes and Walter Clark. Howes and Clark called upon Thoreauvian ideals of nature, independence and community to create an academic program modeled after Thoreau's experiment at Walden Pond. Today, students at NELP study Thoreau's work{{ndash}} as well as that of several other New England writers from the 19th and 20th centuries{{ndash}} in relative isolation on [[Sebago Lake]] in [[Raymond, Maine]]. American psychologist B. F. Skinner wrote that he carried a copy of Thoreau's ''Walden'' with him in his youth.<ref>Skinner, B. F., ''A Matter of Consequences''</ref> and, in 1945, wrote ''[[Walden Two]]'', a fictional utopia about 1,000 members of a community living together inspired by the life of Thoreau.<ref>Skinner, B. F., ''Walden Two'' (1948)</ref> Thoreau inspired children's book author and illustrator D.B. Johnson to create a series of picture books based on Thoreau. The first book ''[[Henry Hikes to Fitchburg]]'' has become a bestseller.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} Thoreau and his fellow [[Transcendentalists]] from [[Concord]] were a major inspiration of the composer [[Charles Ives]]. The 4th movement of the [[Concord Sonata]] for piano (with a part for flute, Thoreau's instrument) is a character picture and he also set Thoreau's words.{{Fact|date=February 2009}} == Critique == {{Thoreauviana}} Thoreau’s ideas were not universally applauded by some of his contemporaries in literary circles. [[Franklin Benjamin Sanborn]] saw nothing in Thoreau's philosophy, referring to it as "not worth a straw".<ref>Rose, Anne C. ''Transcendentalism as a Social Movement, 1830–1850''. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981: 208. ISBN 0-300-02587-4</ref> Meanwhile, Scottish author [[Robert Louis Stevenson]] judged Thoreau’s endorsement of living alone in natural simplicity, apart from modern society, to be a mark of effeminacy: <blockquote>…Thoreau’s content and ecstasy in living was, we may say, like a plant that he had watered and tended with womanish solicitude; for there is apt to be something unmanly, something almost dastardly, in a life that does not move with dash and freedom, and that fears the bracing contact of the world. In one word, Thoreau was a skulker. He did not wish virtue to go out of him among his fellow-men, but slunk into a corner to hoard it for himself. He left all for the sake of certain virtuous self-indulgences.<ref>Stevenson, Robert Louis. [http://thoreau.eserver.org/stevens1.html "Henry David Thoreau: His Character and Opinions"]. Cornhill Magazine. June 1880.</ref></blockquote> Poet [[John Greenleaf Whittier]] detested what he deemed to be the message of ''Walden'', decreeing that Thoreau wanted man to "lower himself to the level of a [[woodchuck]] and walk on four legs." He went further to castigate the work as "very wicked and heathenish", remarking "I prefer walking on two legs."<ref>Wagenknecht, Edward. ''John Greenleaf Whittier: A Portrait in Paradox''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1967: 112.</ref> In response to such criticisms, English novelist [[George Eliot]], writing for the ''[[Westminster Review]]'', characterized such critics as uninspired and narrow-minded: <blockquote>People{{ndash}} very wise in their own eyes{{ndash}} who would have every man’s life ordered according to a particular pattern, and who are intolerant of every existence the utility of which is not palpable to them, may pooh-pooh Mr. Thoreau and this episode in his history, as unpractical and dreamy.<ref> [[The New England Quarterly]], Vol. 6, No. 4 (Dec., 1933), pp. 733-746</ref></blockquote> Modern historian Richard Zacks pokes fun at Thoreau, writing: {{bquote|Thoreau's 'Walden, or Life in the Woods' deserves its status as a great American book but let it be known that Nature Boy went home on weekends to raid the family cookie jar. While living the simple life in the woods, Thoreau walked into nearby Concord, Mass., almost every day. And his mom, who lived less than two miles away, delivered goodie baskets filled with meals, pies and doughnuts every Saturday. The more one reads in Thoreau's unpolished journal of his stay in the woods, the more his sojourn resembles suburban boys going to their tree-house in the backyard and pretending they're camping in the heart of the jungle.<ref> Zacks, Richard. An Underground Education, Doubleday Publishing. 1997, p19. </ref>}} == Works == *''[[Aulus Persius Flaccus (essay)|Aulus Persius Flaccus]]'' (1840) *''[[The Service]]'' (1840) *''[[A Walk to Wachusett]]'' (1842) *''[[Paradise (to be) Regained]]'' (1843) *''The Landlord'' (1843)<ref>[http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/pageviewer?frames=1&cite=http%3A%2F%2Fcdl.library.cornell.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fmoa%2Fmoa-cgi%3Fnotisid%3DAGD1642-0013-6&coll=moa&root=%2Fmoa%2Fusde%2Fusde0013%2F&tif=00445.TIF&view=100 The Landlord] from [[Cornell University Library]]</ref><ref>[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/ The Landlord] from [[Wikisource]]</ref> *''[[Sir Walter Raleigh (essay)|Sir Walter Raleigh]]'' (1844) *''[[Herald of Freedom (essay)|Herald of Freedom]]'' (1844) *''[[Wendell Phillips Before the Concord Lyceum]]'' (1845) *''[[Reform and the Reformers]]'' (1846-8) *''[[Thomas Carlyle and His Works]]'' (1847) *''[[A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers]]'' (1849)<ref>[http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=4232 A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers] from [[Project Gutenberg]]</ref> *''[[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|Resistance to Civil Government]]'', or ''Civil Disobedience'' (1849)<ref>[http://www.archive.org/details/aestheticpapers00peabrich Aesthetic papers] from the [[Internet Archive]]</ref> *''An Excursion to Canada'' (1853)<ref>[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/ An Excursion to Canada] from [[Wikisource]]</ref> *''[[Slavery in Massachusetts]]'' (1854) *''[[Walden]]'' (1854) *''[[A Plea for Captain John Brown]]'' (1859) *''[[Remarks After the Hanging of John Brown]]'' (1859) *''[[The Last Days of John Brown]]'' (1860) *''[[Walking (Thoreau)|Walking]]'' (1861)<ref>[http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=1022 Walking] from [[Project Gutenberg]]</ref><ref>[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/ Walking] from [[Wikisource]]</ref> *''Autumnal Tints'' (1862)<ref>[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Autumnal_Tints Autumnal Tints] from [[Wikisource]]</ref> *''Wild Apples: The History of the Apple Tree'' (1862)<ref>[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/ Wild_Apples: The History of_the Apple Tree] from [[Wikisource]]</ref><ref>[http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=4066 Wild Apples: The History of the Apple Tree] from [[Project Gutenberg]]</ref> *''Excursions'' (1863)<ref>[http://www.archive.org/details/excursionhenry00thorrich Excursions] from the [[Internet Archive]]</ref> *''[[Life Without Principle]]'' (1863)<ref>[http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABK2934-0012-65 Life without Principle] from [[Cornell University Library]]</ref><ref>[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/ Life Without Principle] from [[Wikisource]]</ref> *''Night and Moonlight'' (1863)<ref>[http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABK2934-0012-77 Night and Moonlight] from [[Cornell University Library]]</ref><ref>[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/ Night and Moonlight] from [[Wikisource]]</ref> *''The Highland Light'' (1864)<ref>[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/ The Highland Light] from [[Wikisource]]</ref> *''The Maine Woods'' (1864)<ref>[http://thoreau.eserver.org/mewoods.html The Maine Woods] from The Thoreau Reader</ref><ref>[http://www.archive.org/details/mainewoods00thorrich The Maine woods] from The [[Internet Archive]]</ref> *''Cape Cod'' (1865)<ref>[http://thoreau.eserver.org/capecd00.html Cape Cod] from The Thoreau Reader</ref> *''Letters to Various Persons'' (1865)<ref>[http://www.archive.org/details/lettersvarpersons00thorrich Letters to various persons] from the [[Internet Archive]]</ref> *''A Yankee in Canada, with Anti-Slavery and Reform Papers'' (1866)<ref>[http://www.archive.org/details/yankeeincanada00thorrich A Yankee in Canada, with Anti-slavery and reform papers] from the [[Internet Archive]]</ref> *''Early Spring in Massachusetts'' (1881) *''Summer'' (1884)<ref>[http://www.archive.org/details/summerjournal00thorrich Summer: from the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau] from the [[Internet Archive]]</ref> *''Winter'' (1888)<ref>[http://www.archive.org/details/winterjournal00thorrich Winter : from the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau] from the [[Internet Archive]]</ref> *''Autumn'' (1892)<ref>[http://www.archive.org/details/autumnjournal00thorrich Autumn. From the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau] from the [[Internet Archive]]</ref> *''Misellanies'' (1894) *''Familiar Letters of Henry David Thoreau'' (1894)<ref>[http://www.archive.org/details/familiarletters00thorrich Familiar letters of Henry David Thoreau] the [[Internet Archive]]</ref> *''Poems of Nature'' (1895) *''Some Unpublished Letters of Henry D. and Sophia E. Thoreau'' (1898) *''The First and Last Journeys of Thoreau'' (1905)<ref>[http://www.archive.org/details/firstlastjourneys01thorrich The first and last journeys of Thoreau : lately discovered among his unpublished journals and manuscripts Vol. 1] from the [[Internet Archive]]</ref><ref>[http://www.archive.org/details/firstlastjourneys02thorrich The first and last journeys of Thoreau : lately discovered among his unpublished journals and manuscripts Vol. 2] from the [[Internet Archive]]</ref> *''Journal of Henry David Thoreau'' (1906)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/institute/thoreau/writings/journal/Journal.htm The Journal of Henry David Thoreau]</ref></div> == References == {{reflist|2}} == Further reading == *Bode, Carl. ''Best of Thoreau's Journals''. Southern Illinois University Press. 1967. *Botkin, Daniel. ''No Man's Garden''. *Dassow, Laura. ''Seeing New Worlds: Henry David Thoreau and 19th Century Science''. University of Wisconsin. 1995. ISBN 0299147444 *Dean, Bradley P. ed., ''Letters to a Spiritual Seeker''. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2004. *Harding, Walter. ''The Days of Henry Thoreau''. Princeton University Press, 1982. *Hendrix, George. The Influence of Thoreau's "Civil Disobedience" on Gandhi's Satyagraha. The New England Quarterly. 1956. * Howarth, William. ''The Book of Concord: Thoreau's Life as a Writer''. Viking Press, 1982. * Myerson, Joel et al. ''The Cambridge Companion to Henry David Thoreau''. Cambridge University Press. 1995. * Nash, Roderick. ''Henry David Thoreau, Philosopher''. * Parrington, Vernon. ''[http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/parrington/vol2/bk03_03_ch03.html Main Current in American Thought]''. V 2 online. 1927. * Petroski, Henry. ''H. D. Thoreau, Engineer''. American Heritage of Invention and Technology, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 8-16. * Richardson, Robert D. ''Henry Thoreau: A Life of the Mind''. University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles. 1986. ISBN 0520063465 *Thoreau, Henry David. ''A Week, Walden, The Maine Woods, Cape Cod'' (Robert F. Sayre, ed.) ([[Library of America]], 1985) ISBN 0940450275 *Thoreau, Henry David. ''Collected Essays and Poems'' (Elizabeth Hall Witherell, ed.) ([[Library of America]], 2001) ISBN 9781883011956 *Thoreau, Henry David. ''The Price of Freedom: Excerpts from Thoreau’s Journals'' ISBN 9781434805522 == External links == {{sisterlinks|s=Author:Henry David Thoreau}} '''Texts''' *[http://thoreau.eserver.org/ The Thoreau Reader]. The annotated works of Henry David Thoreau. *[http://www.walden.org/institute/thoreau/writings/Writings.htm Thoreau's Life & Writings], at the Thoreau Institute at Walden Woods. *{{gutenberg author|id=Henry_David_Thoreau|name=Henry David Thoreau}}. Text and HTML. *[http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=Henry%20David%20Thoreau%20AND%20mediatype%3Atexts Works by Henry David Thoreau] at [[Internet Archive]]. Scanned books. *[http://schechsplace.tripod.com/ht.htm#drippings Thoreau's Journal Drippings; a Monthly Digest of Excerpts from Thoreau's Journal] *[http://www.sniggle.net/Experiment/index.php?entry=excerpts Excerpts from Thoreau’s Journals] (relating to political philosophy) *[http://www.poemhunter.com/henry-david-thoreau/ Poems of Thoreau] '''Manuscripts''' *[http://www.concordlibrary.org/scollect/Thoreau_Surveys/Thoreau_Surveys.htm Scans of Thoreau's land surveys at the Concord Free Public Library]. *[http://catalog.huntington.org/search/a?SEARCH=thoreau Complete holdings at the [[Huntington Library]]]. '''Other links''' *[http://www.thoreausociety.org/ The Thoreau Society] *[http://www.library.ucsb.edu/thoreau/ The Thoreau Edition] *[http://hdt.typepad.com/henrys_blog/ This Date From Henry David Thoreau's Journal] *[http://thoreau.eserver.org/whowhy.html Who He Was & Why He Matters]{{ndash}} by Randall Conrad *[http://hdthoreau.com/ H D Thoreau] at hdthoreau.com *[http://www.thoreaufarm.org/ The Birthplace of Thoreau] *[http://www.walden.org/institute/ The Thoreau Institute at Walden Woods] *[http://www.thoreau-online.org/ Henry David Thoreau Online] The Works and Life of Henry D. Thoreau *[http://www.transcendentalists.com/1thorea.html Henry David Thoreau (“The Transcendentalists”)] *[http://www.vcu.edu/engweb/transcendentalism/authors/thoreau/ The American Transcendentalist Web] *[http://www.calliope.org/thoreau/thoreau.html Thoreau Project at Calliope] *[http://victorian.lang.nagoya-u.ac.jp/concordance/thoreau/ Concordance to works of Thoreau] at Victorian Literary Studies Archive *[http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,1246669,00.html John Updike, “A Sage for All Seasons” - edited extract from the introduction to Updike’s new edition of ''Walden''] *{{sep entry|thoreau|Henry David Thoreau|Rick Anthony Furtak|2005-06-30}} *[http://thoreau.eserver.org/currents.html Henry Thoreau: Transcendental Economist] from Vernon L. Parrington’s ''Main Currents in American Thought'' *[http://homepage.mac.com/sfe/henry/ Stephen Ells’s Thoreau research page] *[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=1030 Memorial Page on FindaGrave] *[http://www.library.ucsb.edu/thoreau/thoreau_faq.html Answers to Frequently Asked Questions about Thoreau] {{Persondata |NAME = Thoreau, Henry David |ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Thoreau, David Henry |SHORT DESCRIPTION = [[United States|American]] author, [[Natural history|naturalist]], [[Transcendentalism|transcendentalist]], [[Tax resistance|tax resister]], [[Development criticism|development critic]], and [[Philosophy|philosopher]] |DATE OF BIRTH = [[July 12]], [[1817]] |PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Concord, Massachusetts|Concord]], [[Massachusetts]] |DATE OF DEATH = [[May 6]], [[1862]] |PLACE OF DEATH = }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Thoreau, Henry David}} [[Category:Henry David Thoreau| ]] [[Category:19th-century philosophers]] [[Category:1817 births]] [[Category:1862 deaths]] [[Category:American abolitionists]] [[Category:American anarchists]] [[Category:Individualist anarchists]] [[Category:Voluntaryists]] [[Category:American diarists]] [[Category:American environmentalists]] [[Category:American essayists]] [[Category:American naturalists]] [[Category:American nature writers]] [[Category:American philosophers]] [[Category:American poets]] [[Category:American political philosophers]] [[Category:American spiritual writers]] [[Category:American tax resisters]] [[Category:American travel writers]] [[Category:American vegetarians]] [[Category:Civil disobedience]] [[Category:Classical liberals]] [[Category:Ecological succession]] [[Category:People associated with Transcendentalism]] [[Category:American Unitarians]] [[Category:Writers from Massachusetts]] [[Category:People from Concord, Massachusetts]] [[Category:French Americans]] [[Category:Deaths from tuberculosis]] [[Category:Scholars and leaders of nonviolence, or nonviolent resistance]] [[Category:Harvard University alumni]] [[Category:Lecturers]] [[af:Henry David Thoreau]] [[ar:هنري ديفد ثورو]] [[az:Henri Devid Toro]] [[bg:Хенри Дейвид Торо]] [[ca:Henry David Thoreau]] [[cs:Henry David Thoreau]] [[da:Henry David Thoreau]] [[de:Henry David Thoreau]] [[et:Henry David Thoreau]] [[es:Henry David Thoreau]] [[eo:Henry David Thoreau]] [[eu:Henry David Thoreau]] [[fa:هنری دیوید تورو]] [[fr:Henry David Thoreau]] [[gd:Henry David Thoreau]] [[gl:Henry David Thoreau]] [[ko:헨리 데이비드 소로]] [[it:Henry David Thoreau]] [[he:הנרי דייוויד תורו]] [[la:Henricus David Thoreau]] [[hu:Henry David Thoreau]] [[mr:थोरो]] [[nl:Henry David Thoreau]] [[ja:ヘンリー・デイヴィッド・ソロー]] [[no:Henry David Thoreau]] [[nn:Henry David Thoreau]] [[pl:Henry David Thoreau]] [[pt:Henry David Thoreau]] [[ro:Henry David Thoreau]] [[ru:Торо, Генри Дэвид]] [[simple:Henry David Thoreau]] [[sk:Henry David Thoreau]] [[sh:Henry David Thoreau]] [[fi:Henry Thoreau]] [[sv:Henry David Thoreau]] [[th:เฮนรี เดวิด ทอโร]] [[tg:Ҳенри Девид Торо]] [[tr:Henry David Thoreau]] [[uk:Торо Генрі Девід]] [[zh:亨利·戴维·梭罗]]'
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node)
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