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|school_tradition = [[Transcendentalism]]<ref name=":6"/>
|school_tradition = [[Transcendentalism]]<ref name=":6"/>
|alma_mater = [[Harvard College]]
|alma_mater = [[Harvard College]]
|main_interests = {{hbiography, ''Thoreau the Poet-Naturalist'', in 1873.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Channing|first1=William Ellery|url=http://archive.org/details/poetnatthoreau00chanrich|title=Thoreau, the poet-naturalist, with Memorial verses|last2=Merrymount Press|last3=Sanborn|first3=F. B. (Franklin Benjamin)|last4=Updike|first4=Daniel Berkeley|date=1902|publisher=Boston, C. E. Goodspeed|others=University of California Libraries}}</ref> Channing and another friend, [[Harrison Blake]], edited some poems, essays, and journal entries for posthumous publication in the 1890s. Thoreau's journals, which he often mined for his published works but which remained largely unpublished at his death, were first published in 1906 and helped to build his modern reputation.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}} A new, expanded edition of the journals is under way, published by [[Princeton University Press]]. Today, Thoreau is regarded as one of the foremost American writers, both for the modern clarity of his prose style and the prescience of his views on nature and politics. His memory is honored by the international [[Thoreau Society]] and his legacy honored by the Thoreau Institute at Walden Woods, established in 1998 in Lincoln, Massachusetts.
|main_interests = {{hlist|[[Ethics]]|[[Poetry]]|[[Religion]]|[[Politics]]|[[Biology]]|[[Philosophy]]|[[History]]}}
|notable_ideas = {{hlist|[[Abolitionism in the United States|Abolitionism]]|[[tax resistance]]|[[development criticism]]|[[civil disobedience]]|[[conscientious objector|conscientious objection]]|[[direct action]]|[[environmentalism]]|[[anarchism]]|[[simple living]]}}
|influences = {{hlist|[[Indian philosophy]]|[[Aristotle]]|[[Homer]]|[[Aeschylus]]|[[Pindar]]|[[Cato the Elder]]|[[Ralph Waldo Emerson]]|[[Thomas Carlyle]]|[[Charles Darwin]]|[[Alexander von Humboldt]]<ref>{{cite journal|last=Seelinger|first=Robert A. |title=Stolen Fire: Aeschylean imagery and Thoreau's identification of the Graius homo of Lucretius with Prometheus |journal=Studia Humaniora Tartuensia |volume=14 |year=2013 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.12697/sht.2013.14.A.2 |doi-access=free }}</ref>}}
|influenced = {{hlist|[[Mahatma Gandhi]]|[[John F. Kennedy]]|[[Martin Luther King Jr.]]|[[Walt Whitman]]|[[Leo Tolstoy]]|[[Marcel Proust]]|[[W. B. Yeats]]|[[Sinclair Lewis]]|[[Ernest Hemingway]]|[[Upton Sinclair]]|[[Emma Goldman]]|[[E. B. White]]|[[E. O. Wilson]]|[[Christopher McCandless]]|[[B. F. Skinner]]|[[George Bernard Shaw]]|[[John Zerzan]]|[[John Muir]]|[[Glenn Gould]]}}}}
'''Henry David Thoreau''' (see [[Henry David Thoreau#Pronunciation of his name|name pronunciation]]; July 12, 1817&nbsp;– May 6, 1862) was an American [[essay]]ist, [[poet]], and [[philosopher]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Henry David Thoreau {{!}} Biography & Works |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-David-Thoreau |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}</ref> A leading [[Transcendentalism|transcendentalist]],<ref>Howe, Daniel Walker, ''What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848''. {{ISBN|978-0-19-507894-7}}, p. 623.</ref> he is best known for his book ''[[Walden]]'', a reflection upon [[simple living]] in natural surroundings, and his essay "[[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|Civil Disobedience]]" (originally published as "Resistance to Civil Government"), an argument for disobedience to an unjust state.

Thoreau's books, articles, essays, journals, and poetry amount to more than 20 volumes. Among his lasting contributions are his [[nature writing|writings on natural history]] and philosophy, in which he anticipated the methods and findings of [[ecology]] and [[environmental history]], two sources of modern-day [[environmentalism]]. His [[Literary language|literary]] style interweaves close observation of nature, personal experience, pointed rhetoric, [[symbol]]ic meanings, and historical lore, while displaying a poetic sensibility, philosophical [[Asceticism|austerity]], and attention to practical detail.<ref name="ReferenceA">Thoreau, Henry David. ''A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers''&nbsp;/ ''Walden''&nbsp;/ ''The Maine Woods''&nbsp;/ ''Cape Cod''. Library of America. {{ISBN|0-940450-27-5}}.</ref> He was also deeply interested in the idea of survival in the face of hostile elements, historical change, and natural decay; at the same time he advocated abandoning waste and [[illusion]] in order to discover life's true essential needs.<ref name="ReferenceA" />

He was a lifelong [[Abolitionism|abolitionist]], delivering lectures that attacked the [[fugitive slave laws|Fugitive Slave Law]] while praising the writings of [[Wendell Phillips]] and defending the abolitionist [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown]]. Thoreau's philosophy of [[civil disobedience]] later influenced the political thoughts and actions of such notable figures as [[Leo Tolstoy]], [[Mahatma Gandhi]], and [[Martin Luther King Jr.]]<ref name=":2" />

Thoreau is sometimes referred to as an [[anarchism|anarchist]].<ref>Seligman, Edwin Robert Anderson; Johnson, Alvin Saunders, eds. (1937). ''Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences'', p. 12.</ref><ref>Gross, David, ed. ''The Price of Freedom: Political Philosophy from Thoreau's Journals''. p. 8. {{ISBN|978-1-4348-0552-2}}. "The Thoreau of these journals distrusted doctrine, and, though it is accurate I think to call him an anarchist, he was by no means doctrinaire in this either."</ref> Though "Civil Disobedience" seems to call for improving rather than abolishing government—"I ask for, not at once no government, but ''at once'' a better government"<ref name="resistance">Thoreau, H. D. "[http://www.sniggle.net/Experiment/index.php?entry=rtcg#p03 Resistance to Civil Government]".</ref>—the direction of this improvement contrarily points toward anarchism: "'That government is best which governs not at all;' and when men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of government which they will have."<ref name="resistance" />

==Pronunciation of his name==
[[Amos Bronson Alcott]] and Thoreau's aunt each wrote that "Thoreau" is pronounced like the word ''thorough'' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|θ|ʌr|oʊ}} {{respell|THURR|oh}}—in [[General American]],<ref>[http://thoreau.eserver.org/pronounce THUR-oh or Thor-OH? And How Do We Know?] ''Thoreau Reader''.</ref><ref>''[https://www.npr.org/programs/morning/features/patc/walden/ Thoreau's Walden]'', under the sidebar "Pronouncing Thoreau".</ref> but more precisely {{IPAc-en|ˈ|θ|ɔːr|oʊ}} {{respell|THOR|oh}}—in 19th-century New England). [[Edward Waldo Emerson]] wrote that the name should be pronounced "Thó-row", with the ''h'' sounded and stress on the first syllable.<ref>See the note on pronouncing the name at [http://www.walden.org/Thoreau#Name the Thoreau Institute at Walden Woods].</ref> Among modern-day American English speakers, it is perhaps more commonly pronounced {{IPAc-en|θ|ə|ˈ|r|oʊ}} {{respell|thə|ROH}}—with stress on the second syllable.<ref>{{cite dictionary|title=Thoreau|dictionary=Dictionary.com|date=2013|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/thoreau}}</ref><ref>Wells, J. C. (1990) ''Pronunciation Dictionary'', s.v. "Thoreau". Essex, U.K.: Longman.</ref>

==Physical appearance==
Thoreau had a distinctive appearance, with a nose that he called his "most prominent feature".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Cape Cod|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|year=1865|chapter=Chapter 10-A. Provincetown|chapter-url=http://thoreau.eserver.org:80/capecd10.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822113030/http://thoreau.eserver.org/capecd10.html|archive-date=August 22, 2017|url-status=dead|access-date=February 13, 2007}}</ref> Of his appearance and disposition, [[Ellery Channing]] wrote:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thoreau.eserver.org/images.html|title=The Days of Henry Thoreau|author=Harding, Walter|work=thoreau.eserver.org}}</ref>
<blockquote>His face, once seen, could not be forgotten. The features were quite marked: the nose [[Aquiline nose|aquiline]] or very Roman, like one of the portraits of [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]] (more like a beak, as was said); large overhanging brows above the deepest set blue eyes that could be seen, in certain lights, and in others gray,—eyes expressive of all shades of feeling, but never weak or near-sighted; the forehead not unusually broad or high, full of concentrated energy and purpose; the mouth with prominent lips, pursed up with meaning and thought when silent, and giving out when open with the most varied and unusual instructive sayings.</blockquote>

==Life==
===Early life and education, 1817–1837===
[[File:Wheeler-Minot Farmhouse, Concord MA.jpg|thumb|Thoreau's birthplace, the [[Wheeler-Minot Farmhouse]] in [[Concord, Massachusetts]]]]

Henry David Thoreau was born David Henry Thoreau<ref>Nelson, Randy F. (1981). ''The Almanac of American Letters''. Los Altos, California: William Kaufmann. p. 51. {{ISBN|0-86576-008-X}}.</ref> in [[Concord, Massachusetts]], into the "modest [[New England]] family"<ref name=McElroy>[[Wendy McElroy|McElroy, Wendy]] (2005-07-30) [http://archive.lewrockwell.com/mcelroy/mcelroy86.html "Henry David Thoreau and 'Civil Disobedience'"]. [[LewRockwell.com]].</ref> of John Thoreau, a pencil maker, and Cynthia Dunbar. His paternal grandfather had been born on the UK [[crown dependency]] island of [[Jersey]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wc.rootsweb.ancestry.com/cgi-bin/igm.cgi?op=GET&db=maold&id=I18020|title=RootsWeb's WorldConnect Project: Ancestors of Mary Ann Gillam and Stephen Old|publisher=}}</ref> His maternal grandfather, Asa Dunbar, led [[Harvard University|Harvard's]] 1766 student "[[Butter rebellion|Butter Rebellion]]",<ref>[https://www.brown.edu/Students/Alpha_Delta_Phi/history/fraternities.php History of the Fraternity System] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090704122642/http://www.brown.edu/Students/Alpha_Delta_Phi/history/fraternities.php |date=July 4, 2009 }}.</ref> the first recorded student protest in the American colonies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trivialibrary.com/c/first-student-protest-in-the-united-states.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191215210840/http://www.trivialibrary.com/c/first-student-protest-in-the-united-states.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-12-15|title=First Student Protest in the United States|publisher=}}</ref> David Henry was named after his recently deceased paternal uncle, David Thoreau. He began to call himself Henry David after he finished college; he never petitioned to make a legal name change.<ref>[http://www.barnesandnoble.com/writers/writerdetails.asp?z=y&cid=1019508#bio Henry David Thoreau] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061031164847/http://www.barnesandnoble.com/writers/writerdetails.asp?z=y&cid=1019508 |date=October 31, 2006 }}, "Meet the Writers." Barnes & Noble.com</ref> He had two older siblings, Helen and John Jr., and a younger sister, [[Sophia Thoreau]].<ref>[http://www.americanpoems.com/poets/thoreau/ Biography of Henry David Thoreau]. americanpoems.com</ref> None of the children married. Helen (1812–1849) died at age 36 years, from tuberculosis. John Jr. (1815–1842) died at age 27, of [[tetanus]]. Henry David (1817–1862) died at age 44, of tuberculosis. Sophia (1819–1876) survived him by 14 years, dying at age 57 years, of tuberculosis.{{Citation needed|date=September 2019}}

[[Wheeler-Minot Farmhouse|Thoreau's birthplace]] still exists on Virginia Road in Concord. The house has been restored by the Thoreau Farm Trust,<ref>{{cite web|title=Thoreau Farm|work=thoreaufarm.org|url=http://thoreaufarm.org/}}</ref> a nonprofit organization, and is now open to the public. He studied at [[Harvard College]] between 1833 and 1837. He lived in [[Hollis Hall]] and took courses in [[rhetoric]], classics, philosophy, mathematics, and science.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}} He was a member of the Institute of 1770<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thoreausociety.org/_membership.htm |title=Organizations Thoreau Joined |publisher=Thoreau Society |accessdate=June 26, 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130503192646/http://www.thoreausociety.org/_membership.htm |archivedate=May 3, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> (now the [[Hasty Pudding Club]]). According to legend, Thoreau refused to pay the five-dollar fee (approximately {{inflation|US|5|1840|fmt=eq}}) for a Harvard diploma. In fact, the master's degree he declined to purchase had no academic merit: [[Harvard College]] offered it to graduates "who proved their physical worth by being alive three years after graduating, and their saving, earning, or inheriting quality or condition by having Five Dollars to give the college".<ref>"Thoreau's Diploma". ''American Literature''. Vol. 17, May 1945. pp. 174–75.</ref> He commented, "Let every sheep keep its own skin",<ref>{{cite web |author=Walter Harding |url=http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/about2/H/WalterHarding/LiveYourOwnLife.htm |title=Live Your Own Life |work=Geneseo Summer Compass |date=June 4, 1984 |accessdate=November 21, 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060129085602/http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/about2/H/WalterHarding/LiveYourOwnLife.htm |archivedate=2006-01-29|author-link=Walter Harding }}</ref> a reference to the tradition of using [[Sheepskin (material)|sheepskin]] [[vellum]] for diplomas.

===Return to Concord, 1837–1844===
The traditional professions open to college graduates—law, the church, business, medicine—did not interest Thoreau,<ref name="sattelmeyer">Sattelmeyer, Robert (1988). ''Thoreau's Reading: A Study in Intellectual History with Bibliographical Catalogue''. [http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/about2/S/Sattelmeyer_Robert/Reading2.pdf Chapter 2] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908031952/http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/about2/S/Sattelmeyer_Robert/Reading2.pdf |date=September 8, 2015 }}. Princeton: Princeton University Press.</ref>{{Rp|25}} so in 1835 he took a leave of absence from Harvard, during which he taught at a school in [[Canton, Massachusetts]]. After he graduated in 1837, he joined the faculty of the Concord public school, but he resigned after a few weeks rather than administer [[corporal punishment]].<ref name="sattelmeyer"/>{{Rp|25}} He and his brother John then opened the Concord Academy, a [[grammar school]] in Concord, in 1838.<!-- Concord Academy (1822–1863) is a different institution than Concord Academy (est. 1922). --><ref name="sattelmeyer" />{{Rp|25}} They introduced several progressive concepts, including nature walks and visits to local shops and businesses. The school closed when John became fatally ill from [[tetanus]] in 1842 after cutting himself while shaving.<ref>Dean, Bradley P. "[http://thoreau.eserver.org/wfchron.html A Thoreau Chronology]".</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|jstor=3817844 |title=Barzillai Frost's Funeral Sermon on the Death of John Thoreau Jr. |journal=Huntington Library Quarterly |volume=57 |issue=4 |pages=367–376 |date=1994 |author=Myerson, Joel|doi=10.2307/3817844 }}</ref> He died in Henry's arms.<ref>Woodlief, Ann. "[http://www.vcu.edu/engweb/transcendentalism/authors/thoreau/ Henry David Thoreau]".</ref>

Upon graduation Thoreau returned home to Concord, where he met [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] through a mutual friend.<ref name=McElroy/> Emerson, who was 14 years his senior, took a paternal and at times patron-like interest in Thoreau, advising the young man and introducing him to a circle of local writers and thinkers, including [[William Ellery Channing (poet)|Ellery Channing]], [[Margaret Fuller]], [[Amos Bronson Alcott|Bronson Alcott]], and [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]] and his son [[Julian Hawthorne]], who was a boy at the time.

Emerson urged Thoreau to contribute essays and poems to a quarterly periodical, ''[[The Dial]]'', and lobbied the editor, Margaret Fuller, to publish those writings. Thoreau's first essay published in ''The Dial'' was "Aulus Persius Flaccus",<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.walden.org/documents/file/Library/About%20Thoreau/D/Dial/AulusPersiusFlaccus.pdf|title=Aulus Persius Flaccus|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120925021512/http://www.walden.org/documents/file/Library/About%20Thoreau/D/Dial/AulusPersiusFlaccus.pdf|archive-date=September 25, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> an essay on the Roman playwright, in July 1840.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.walden.org/Library/About_Thoreau's_Life_and_Writings:_The_Research_Collections/The_Dial |title=''The Dial'' |publisher=Walden.org |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018151944/http://www.walden.org/Library/About_Thoreau%27s_Life_and_Writings%3A_The_Research_Collections/The_Dial |archivedate=October 18, 2015 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> It consisted of revised passages from his journal, which he had begun keeping at Emerson's suggestion. The first journal entry, on October 22, 1837, reads, "'What are you doing now?' he asked. 'Do you keep a journal?' So I make my first entry to-day."<ref>Thoreau, Henry David (2007). ''I to Myself: An Annotated Selection from the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau''. Jeffrey S. Cramer, ed. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 1.</ref>

Thoreau was a philosopher of nature and its relation to the human condition. In his early years he followed [[Transcendentalism]], a loose and eclectic [[Idealism|idealist]] philosophy advocated by Emerson, Fuller, and Alcott. They held that an ideal spiritual state transcends, or goes beyond, the physical and empirical, and that one achieves that insight via personal intuition rather than religious doctrine. In their view, Nature is the outward sign of inward spirit, expressing the "radical correspondence of visible things and human thoughts", as Emerson wrote in ''Nature'' (1836).

[[File:Thoreau1967stamp.jpg|thumb|right|1967 U.S. postage stamp honoring Thoreau, designed by [[Leonard Baskin]]]]

On April 18, 1841, Thoreau moved into the [[Ralph Waldo Emerson House|Emerson house]].<ref name="Cheever">Cheever, Susan (2006). ''American Bloomsbury: Louisa May Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Fuller, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry David Thoreau; Their Lives, Their Loves, Their Work''. Detroit: Thorndike Press. p. 90. {{ISBN|0-7862-9521-X}}.</ref> There, from 1841 to 1844, he served as the children's tutor; he was also an editorial assistant, repairman and gardener. For a few months in 1843, he moved to the home of William Emerson on [[Staten Island]],<ref>{{cite book |title=The Life of Henry David Thoreau |last=Salt |first=H. S. |date=1890 |publisher=Richard Bentley & Son |location=London |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_t_0RAAAAYAAJ |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_t_0RAAAAYAAJ/page/n83 69]}}</ref> and tutored the family's sons while seeking contacts among literary men and journalists in the city who might help publish his writings, including his future literary representative [[Horace Greeley]].<ref>Sanborn, F. B., ed. (1906). ''The Writings of Henry David Thoreau''. Vol. VI, ''Familiar Letters''. [http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/writings/Writings1906/06FamiliarLetters/Years%20of%20Discipline.pdf Chapter 1, "Years of Discipline"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907235501/http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/writings/Writings1906/06FamiliarLetters/Years%20of%20Discipline.pdf |date=September 7, 2015 }}. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>{{Rp|68}}

Thoreau returned to Concord and worked in his family's [[pencil]] factory, which he would continue to do alongside his writing and other work for most of his adult life. He rediscovered the process of making good pencils with inferior [[graphite]] by using clay as the binder.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/pencilhistoryofd00petr|url-access=registration|title=The Pencil: A History of Design and Circumstance|last=Petroski|first=Henry|publisher=Knopf|year=1992|isbn=9780679734154|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/pencilhistoryofd00petr/page/104 104]–125}}</ref> This invention allowed profitable use of a graphite source found in [[New Hampshire]] that had been purchased in 1821 by Thoreau's uncle, Charles Dunbar. The process of mixing graphite and clay, known as the Conté process, had been first patented by [[Nicolas-Jacques Conté]] in 1795. The company's other source of graphite had been [[Tantiusques]], a mine operated by Native Americans in [[Sturbridge, Massachusetts]]. Later, Thoreau converted the pencil factory to produce plumbago, a name for graphite at the time, which was used in the [[electrotyping]] process.<ref>Conrad, Randall. (Fall 2005). [http://thoreau.eserver.org/pencils.html "Machine in the Wetland: Re-imagining Thoreau's Plumbago-Grinder"]. ''[http://www.thoreausociety.org/_activities_tsb.htm Thoreau Society Bulletin] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071223191911/http://www.thoreausociety.org/_activities_tsb.htm |date=December 23, 2007 }}'' 253.</ref>

Once back in Concord, Thoreau went through a restless period. In April 1844 he and his friend Edward Hoar accidentally set a fire that consumed {{convert|300|acre|km2}} of Walden Woods.<ref>[http://www.calliope.org/thoreau/thorotime.html ''A Chronology of Thoreau's Life, with Events of the Times''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160213001457/http://www.calliope.org/thoreau/thorotime.html |date=February 13, 2016 }}. The Thoreau Project, Calliope Film Resources. Accessed June 11, 2007.</ref>

==="Civil Disobedience" and the Walden years, 1845–1850===
[[File:Thoreau sites in Walden Pond.svg|thumb|left|Thoreau sites at Walden Pond]]

{{quote|I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately, to front only the essential facts of life, and see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not, when I came to die, discover that I had not lived. I did not wish to live what was not life, living is so dear; nor did I wish to practise resignation, unless it was quite necessary. I wanted to live deep and suck out all the marrow of life, to live so sturdily and Spartan-like as to put to rout all that was not life, to cut a broad swath and shave close, to drive life into a corner, and reduce it to its lowest terms, and, if it proved to be mean, why then to get the whole and genuine meanness of it, and publish its meanness to the world; or if it were sublime, to know it by experience, and be able to give a true account of it in my next excursion.| Henry David Thoreau, "Where I Lived, and What I Lived For", in ''[[Walden]]''<ref>''Grammardog Guide to Walden''. Grammardog. p. 25. {{ISBN|1-60857-084-3}}.</ref>}}

Thoreau felt a need to concentrate and work more on his writing. In March 1845, Ellery Channing told Thoreau, "Go out upon that, build yourself a hut, & there begin the grand process of devouring yourself alive. I see no other alternative, no other hope for you."<ref>Packer, 1833.</ref> Two months later, Thoreau embarked on a two-year experiment in [[simple living]] on July 4, 1845, when he moved to a small house he had built on land owned by Emerson in a [[secondary forest|second-growth forest]] around the shores of [[Walden Pond]]. The house was in "a pretty pasture and woodlot" of {{convert|14|acre|m2}} that Emerson had bought,<ref>Richardson. ''Emerson: The Mind on Fire''. p. 399.</ref> {{convert|1.5|mi|km}} from his family home.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.google.com/maps/search/concord+mass/@42.449808,-71.342769,15z?dg=dbrw&newdg=1|title=Google Maps|publisher=}}</ref>
[[File:Walden Thoreau.jpg|thumb|Original title page of ''Walden'', with an illustration from a drawing by Thoreau's sister Sophia]]

On July 24 or July 25, 1846, Thoreau ran into the local [[tax collector]], Sam Staples, who asked him to pay six years of delinquent [[Poll tax (United States)|poll taxes]]. Thoreau refused because of his opposition to the [[Mexican–American War]] and [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]], and he spent a night in jail because of this refusal. The next day Thoreau was freed when someone, likely to have been his aunt, paid the tax, against his wishes.<ref name=":2">Rosenwald, Lawrence. "[http://thoreau.eserver.org/theory.html The Theory, Practice and Influence of Thoreau's Civil Disobedience]". William Cain, ed. (2006). ''A Historical Guide to Henry David Thoreau''. Cambridge: Oxford University Press. {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20131014012153/http://thoreau.eserver.org/theory.html|date=October 14, 2013|title=Archived}}</ref> The experience had a strong impact on Thoreau. In January and February 1848, he delivered lectures on "The Rights and Duties of the Individual in relation to Government",<ref>Thoreau, H. D., letter to Ralph Waldo Emerson, February 23, 1848.</ref> explaining his tax resistance at the [[Concord Lyceum]]. Bronson Alcott attended the lecture, writing in his journal on January 26:

{{quote|Heard Thoreau's lecture before the Lyceum on the relation of the individual to the State—an admirable statement of the rights of the individual to self-government, and an attentive audience. His allusions to the Mexican War, to Mr. [[Samuel Hoar|Hoar]]'s expulsion from Carolina, his own imprisonment in Concord Jail for refusal to pay his tax, Mr. Hoar's payment of mine when taken to prison for a similar refusal, were all pertinent, well considered, and reasoned. I took great pleasure in this deed of Thoreau's.|Bronson Alcott|''Journals''<ref>Alcott, Bronson (1938). ''Journals''. Boston: Little, Brown.</ref>}}

Thoreau revised the lecture into an essay titled "[[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|Resistance to Civil Government]]" (also known as "Civil Disobedience"). It was published by [[Elizabeth Peabody]] in the ''Aesthetic Papers'' in May 1849. Thoreau had taken up a version of [[Percy Shelley]]'s principle in the political poem "[[The Mask of Anarchy]]" (1819), which begins with the powerful images of the unjust forms of authority of his time and then imagines the stirrings of a radically new form of social action.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.morrissociety.org/JWMS/SP94.10.4.Nichols.pdf |title=Morrissociety.org |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110105232938/http://www.morrissociety.org/JWMS/SP94.10.4.Nichols.pdf |archivedate=January 5, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

At Walden Pond, Thoreau completed a first draft of ''[[A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers]]'', an [[elegy]] to his brother John, describing their trip to the [[White Mountains (New Hampshire)|White Mountains]] in 1839. Thoreau did not find a publisher for the book and instead printed 1,000 copies at his own expense; fewer than 300 were sold.<ref name="Cheever" />{{Rp|234}} He self-published the book on the advice of Emerson, using Emerson's publisher, Munroe, who did little to publicize the book.

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In August 1846, Thoreau briefly left Walden to make a trip to [[Mount Katahdin]] in [[Maine]], a journey later recorded in "Ktaadn", the first part of ''The Maine Woods''.

Thoreau left Walden Pond on September 6, 1847.<ref name="Cheever" />{{Rp|244}} At Emerson's request, he immediately moved back to the Emerson house to help Emerson's wife, Lidian, manage the household while her husband was on an extended trip to Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thoreausociety.org/_news_abouthdt.htm |title=Thoreausociety.org |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101129085846/http://thoreausociety.org/_news_abouthdt.htm |archivedate=November 29, 2010 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Over several years, as he worked to pay off his debts, he continuously revised the manuscript of what he eventually published as ''[[Walden|Walden, or Life in the Woods]]'' in 1854, recounting the two years, two months, and two days he had spent at Walden Pond. The book compresses that time into a single calendar year, using the passage of the four seasons to symbolize human development. Part [[memoir]] and part spiritual quest, ''Walden'' at first won few admirers, but later critics have regarded it as a classic American work that explores natural simplicity, harmony, and beauty as models for just social and cultural conditions.

The American poet [[Robert Frost]] wrote of Thoreau, "In one book ... he surpasses everything we have had in America."<ref>Frost, Robert (1968). Letter to Wade Van Dore, June 24, 1922, in ''Twentieth Century Interpretations of Walden''. Richard Ruland, ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. p. 8. {{LCCN|6814480}}.</ref>

The American author [[John Updike]] said of the book, "A century and a half after its publication, Walden has become such a totem of the back-to-nature, preservationist, anti-business, civil-disobedience mindset, and Thoreau so vivid a protester, so perfect a crank and hermit saint, that the book risks being as revered and unread as the Bible."<ref>Updike, John (2004). "A Sage for All Seasons". [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2004/jun/26/classics ''The Guardian''].</ref>

Thoreau moved out of Emerson's house in July 1848 and stayed at a house on nearby Belknap Street. In 1850, he moved into a house at [[Thoreau-Alcott House|255 Main Street]], where he lived until his death.<ref>Ehrlich, Eugene; Carruth, Gorton (1982). ''The Oxford Illustrated Literary Guide to the United States''. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 45. {{ISBN|0-19-503186-5}}.</ref>

In the summer of 1850, Thoreau and Channing journeyed from Boston to Montreal and Quebec City. These would be Thoreau's only travels outside the United States.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Weisman|first1=Adam Paul|title=Postcolonialism in North America: Imaginative Colonization in Henry David Thoreau's "A Yankee in Canada" and Jacques Poulin's "Volkswagen Blues"|journal=The Massachusetts Review|date=Autumn 1995|volume=36|issue=3|pages=478–479}}</ref> It is as a result of this trip that he developed lectures that eventually became ''A Yankee in Canada''. He jested that all he got from this adventure "was a cold".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Thoreau|first1=Henry David|title=A Yankee in Canada|url=https://archive.org/details/yankeeincanada0000thor|url-access=registration|date=1961|publisher=Harvest House|location=Montreal|page=[https://archive.org/details/yankeeincanada0000thor/page/13 13]}}</ref> In fact, this proved an opportunity to contrast American civic spirit and democratic values with a colony apparently ruled by illegitimate religious and military power. Whereas his own country had had its revolution, in Canada history had failed to turn.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal|last1=Lacroix|first1=Patrick|title=Finding Thoreau in French Canada: The Ideological Legacy of the American Revolution|journal=American Review of Canadian Studies|date=Fall 2017|volume=47|issue=3|pages=266–279|doi=10.1080/02722011.2017.1370719}}</ref>

===Later years, 1851–1862===
[[File:VII. Rowse.jpg|thumb|Thoreau in 1854]]
In 1851, Thoreau became increasingly fascinated with [[natural history]] and narratives of travel and expedition. He read avidly on [[botany]] and often wrote observations on this topic into his journal. He admired [[William Bartram]] and [[Charles Darwin]]'s ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle|Voyage of the Beagle]]''. He kept detailed observations on Concord's nature lore, recording everything from how the fruit ripened over time to the fluctuating depths of Walden Pond and the days certain birds migrated. The point of this task was to "anticipate" the seasons of nature, in his word.<ref>[http://www.walden.org/documents/file/Library/Thoreau/writings/correspondence/LettersBlake.pdf#page34 Letters to H.&nbsp;G.&nbsp;O. Blake] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617003953/http://www.walden.org/documents/file/Library/Thoreau/writings/correspondence/LettersBlake.pdf |date=June 17, 2011 }}. Walden.org</ref><ref>Thoreau, Henry David (1862). "Autumnal Tints". ''The Atlantic Monthly'', October. pp. 385–402. [http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/writings/essays/Thoreau_Autumnal%20Tints.pdf Reprint] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100307053611/http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/writings/essays/Thoreau_Autumnal%20Tints.pdf |date=March 7, 2010 }}. Retrieved November 21, 2009.</ref>

He became a [[Surveying|land surveyor]] and continued to write increasingly detailed observations on the natural history of the town, covering an area of {{convert|26|sqmi|km2}}, in his journal, a two-million-word document he kept for 24 years. He also kept a series of notebooks, and these observations became the source of his late writings on natural history, such as "Autumnal Tints", "The Succession of Trees", and "Wild Apples", an essay lamenting the destruction of indigenous wild apple species.

With the rise of [[environmental history]] and [[ecocriticism]] as academic disciplines, several new readings of Thoreau began to emerge, showing him to have been both a philosopher and an analyst of ecological patterns in fields and woodlots.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Thorson|first1=Robert M.|title=Walden's Shore: Henry David Thoreau and Nineteenth-Century Science|date=December 6, 2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=978-0674724785}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Primack|first1=Richard B.|title=Tracking Climate Change with the Help of Henry David Thoreau|url=http://www.elsevier.com/connect/tracking-climate-change-with-the-help-of-henry-david-thoreau|accessdate=23 September 2015|date=June 13, 2013}}</ref> For instance, "The Succession of Forest Trees", shows that he used experimentation and analysis to explain how forests regenerate after fire or human destruction, through the dispersal of seeds by winds or animals. In this lecture, first presented to a cattle show in Concord, and considered his greatest contribution to ecology, Thoreau explained why one species of tree can grow in a place where a different tree did previously. He observed that squirrels often carry nuts far from the tree from which they fell to create stashes. These seeds are likely to germinate and grow should the squirrel die or abandon the stash. He credited the squirrel for performing a "great service ... in the economy of the universe." <ref>{{cite book|last1=Worster|first1=Donald|title=Nature's Economy|date=1977|publisher=Cambridge University|location=New York, New York|isbn=0-521-45273-2|pages=69–71}}</ref>
[[File:Walden Pond, 2010.jpg|thumb|left|[[Walden Pond]]]]

He traveled to [[Canada East]] once, [[Cape Cod]] four times, and Maine three times; these landscapes inspired his "excursion" books, ''[[A Yankee in Canada]]'', ''Cape Cod'', and ''The Maine Woods'', in which travel itineraries frame his thoughts about geography, history and philosophy. Other travels took him southwest to [[Philadelphia]] and New York City in 1854 and west across the [[Great Lakes region (North America)|Great Lakes region]] in 1861, when he visited [[Niagara Falls]], Detroit, Chicago, [[Milwaukee]], [[St. Paul, Minnesota|St. Paul]] and [[Mackinac Island]].<ref>Thoreau, Henry David (1970). ''The Annotated Walden''. Philip Van Doren Stern, ed. pp. 96, 132.</ref> He was provincial in his own travels, but he read widely about travel in other lands. He devoured all the first-hand travel accounts available in his day, at a time when the last unmapped regions of the earth were being explored. He read [[Ferdinand Magellan|Magellan]] and [[James Cook]]; the [[arctic explorer]]s [[John Franklin]], [[Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)|Alexander Mackenzie]] and [[William Parry (explorer)|William Parry]]; [[David Livingstone]] and [[Richard Francis Burton]] on Africa; [[Lewis and Clark]]; and hundreds of lesser-known works by explorers and literate travelers.<ref>Christie, John Aldrich (1965). ''Thoreau as World Traveler''. New York: Columbia University Press.</ref> Astonishing amounts of reading fed his endless curiosity about the peoples, cultures, religions and natural history of the world and left its traces as commentaries in his voluminous journals. He processed everything he read, in the local laboratory of his Concord experience. Among his famous aphorisms is his advice to "live at home like a traveler".<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Correspondence Letters of H.&nbsp;G.&nbsp;O. Blake] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617003655/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Correspondence |date=June 17, 2011 }} in ''The Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection''.</ref>

After [[John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry]], many prominent voices in the abolitionist movement distanced themselves from Brown or [[Damn with faint praise|damned him with faint praise]]. Thoreau was disgusted by this, and he composed a key speech, ''[[A Plea for Captain John Brown]]'', which was uncompromising in its defense of Brown and his actions. Thoreau's speech proved persuasive: the abolitionist movement began to accept Brown as a martyr, and by the time of the [[American Civil War]] entire armies of the North were [[John Brown's Body|literally singing Brown's praises]]. As a biographer of Brown put it, "If, as Alfred Kazin suggests, without John Brown there would have been no Civil War, we would add that without the Concord Transcendentalists, John Brown would have had little cultural impact."<ref>Reynolds, David S. (2005). ''John Brown, Abolitionist''. Knopf. p. 4.</ref>
[[File:Henry David Thoreau - Dunshee ambrotpe 1861.jpg|thumb|left|Thoreau in his second and final photographic sitting, August 1861]]

===Death===
Thoreau contracted [[tuberculosis]] in 1835 and suffered from it sporadically afterwards. In 1860, following a late-night excursion to count the rings of tree stumps during a rainstorm, he became ill with [[bronchitis]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Richardson, Jr.|first=Robert D.|title=Faith in a Seed: The First Publication of Thoreau's Last Manuscript|publisher=Island Press|year=1993|isbn=|editor-last=Dean|editor-first=Bradley P.|location=Washington, D.C.|publication-place=|pages=17|chapter=Introduction}}</ref><ref>[https://www.walden.org/Library/About_Thoreau's_Life_and_Writings:_The_Research_Collections/Thoreau,_the_Man About Thoreau: Thoreau, the Man] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160620045648/http://www.walden.org/Library/About_Thoreau%27s_Life_and_Writings%3A_The_Research_Collections/Thoreau%2C_the_Man |date=June 20, 2016 }}.</ref><ref>[http://thoreau.eserver.org/wfchron.html Thoreau Chronology].</ref> His health declined, with brief periods of remission, and he eventually became bedridden. Recognizing the terminal nature of his disease, Thoreau spent his last years revising and editing his unpublished works, particularly ''The Maine Woods'' and [[Excursions (anthology)|''Excursions'']], and petitioning publishers to print revised editions of ''A Week'' and ''Walden''. He wrote letters and journal entries until he became too weak to continue. His friends were alarmed at his diminished appearance and were fascinated by his tranquil acceptance of death. When his aunt Louisa asked him in his last weeks if he had made his peace with God, Thoreau responded, "I did not know we had ever quarreled."<ref>{{cite book|first=Simon|last= Critchley|title=The Book of Dead Philosophers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ME-6IKs4a2sC&pg=PA181&lpg=PA181 |p= 181|location=New York|publisher= Random House |date=2009|isbn=9780307472632}}</ref>

[[File:Grave of Henry David Thoreau.jpeg|thumb|Grave of Thoreau at [[Sleepy Hollow Cemetery (Concord, Massachusetts)|Sleepy Hollow Cemetery]] in Concord]]
Aware he was dying, Thoreau's last words were "Now comes good sailing", followed by two lone words, "moose" and "Indian".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://writersalmanac.publicradio.org/programs/2008/05/05/|title=The Writer's Almanac|publisher=American Public Media|access-date=June 1, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170708225006/http://writersalmanac.publicradio.org/programs/2008/05/05/|archive-date=July 8, 2017|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref> He died on May 6, 1862, at age 44. [[Amos Bronson Alcott]] planned the service and read selections from Thoreau's works, and Channing presented a hymn.<ref>Packer, Barbara L. (2007). ''The Transcendentalists''. Athens: University of Georgia Press. p. 272. {{ISBN|978-0-8203-2958-1}}.</ref> Emerson wrote the eulogy spoken at the funeral.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NWACAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA239|last= Emerson|first= Ralph Waldo |title=Thoreau|work=The Atlantic|date= August 1862}}</ref> Thoreau was buried in the Dunbar family plot; his remains and those of members of his immediate family were eventually moved to [[Sleepy Hollow Cemetery (Concord, Massachusetts)|Sleepy Hollow Cemetery]] in Concord, Massachusetts.

Thoreau's friend [[William Ellery Channing (poet)|William Ellery Channing]] published his first biography, ''Thoreau the Poet-Naturalist'', in 1873.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Channing|first1=William Ellery|url=http://archive.org/details/poetnatthoreau00chanrich|title=Thoreau, the poet-naturalist, with Memorial verses|last2=Merrymount Press|last3=Sanborn|first3=F. B. (Franklin Benjamin)|last4=Updike|first4=Daniel Berkeley|date=1902|publisher=Boston, C. E. Goodspeed|others=University of California Libraries}}</ref> Channing and another friend, [[Harrison Blake]], edited some poems, essays, and journal entries for posthumous publication in the 1890s. Thoreau's journals, which he often mined for his published works but which remained largely unpublished at his death, were first published in 1906 and helped to build his modern reputation.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}} A new, expanded edition of the journals is under way, published by [[Princeton University Press]]. Today, Thoreau is regarded as one of the foremost American writers, both for the modern clarity of his prose style and the prescience of his views on nature and politics. His memory is honored by the international [[Thoreau Society]] and his legacy honored by the Thoreau Institute at Walden Woods, established in 1998 in Lincoln, Massachusetts.


===Nature and human existence===
===Nature and human existence===

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'{{Redirect|Thoreau}} {{pp-pc1|small=yes}} {{short description|American essayist, poet and philosopher}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2011}} {{Infobox philosopher |region = [[Western philosophy]] |era = [[19th century philosophy]] |image = File:Benjamin D. Maxham - Henry David Thoreau - Restored - greyscale - straightened.jpg |caption = Thoreau in 1856 |name = Henry David Thoreau |birth_name = David Henry Thoreau |birth_date = {{birth date|1817|07|12}} |birth_place = [[Concord, Massachusetts]], U.S. |death_date = {{death date and age|1862|05|06|1817|07|12}} |death_place = Concord, Massachusetts, U.S. |signature = Henry David Thoreau Signature SVG.svg |school_tradition = [[Transcendentalism]]<ref name=":6"/> |alma_mater = [[Harvard College]] |main_interests = {{hlist|[[Ethics]]|[[Poetry]]|[[Religion]]|[[Politics]]|[[Biology]]|[[Philosophy]]|[[History]]}} |notable_ideas = {{hlist|[[Abolitionism in the United States|Abolitionism]]|[[tax resistance]]|[[development criticism]]|[[civil disobedience]]|[[conscientious objector|conscientious objection]]|[[direct action]]|[[environmentalism]]|[[anarchism]]|[[simple living]]}} |influences = {{hlist|[[Indian philosophy]]|[[Aristotle]]|[[Homer]]|[[Aeschylus]]|[[Pindar]]|[[Cato the Elder]]|[[Ralph Waldo Emerson]]|[[Thomas Carlyle]]|[[Charles Darwin]]|[[Alexander von Humboldt]]<ref>{{cite journal|last=Seelinger|first=Robert A. |title=Stolen Fire: Aeschylean imagery and Thoreau's identification of the Graius homo of Lucretius with Prometheus |journal=Studia Humaniora Tartuensia |volume=14 |year=2013 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.12697/sht.2013.14.A.2 |doi-access=free }}</ref>}} |influenced = {{hlist|[[Mahatma Gandhi]]|[[John F. Kennedy]]|[[Martin Luther King Jr.]]|[[Walt Whitman]]|[[Leo Tolstoy]]|[[Marcel Proust]]|[[W. B. Yeats]]|[[Sinclair Lewis]]|[[Ernest Hemingway]]|[[Upton Sinclair]]|[[Emma Goldman]]|[[E. B. White]]|[[E. O. Wilson]]|[[Christopher McCandless]]|[[B. F. Skinner]]|[[George Bernard Shaw]]|[[John Zerzan]]|[[John Muir]]|[[Glenn Gould]]}}}} '''Henry David Thoreau''' (see [[Henry David Thoreau#Pronunciation of his name|name pronunciation]]; July 12, 1817&nbsp;– May 6, 1862) was an American [[essay]]ist, [[poet]], and [[philosopher]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Henry David Thoreau {{!}} Biography & Works |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-David-Thoreau |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}</ref> A leading [[Transcendentalism|transcendentalist]],<ref>Howe, Daniel Walker, ''What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848''. {{ISBN|978-0-19-507894-7}}, p. 623.</ref> he is best known for his book ''[[Walden]]'', a reflection upon [[simple living]] in natural surroundings, and his essay "[[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|Civil Disobedience]]" (originally published as "Resistance to Civil Government"), an argument for disobedience to an unjust state. Thoreau's books, articles, essays, journals, and poetry amount to more than 20 volumes. Among his lasting contributions are his [[nature writing|writings on natural history]] and philosophy, in which he anticipated the methods and findings of [[ecology]] and [[environmental history]], two sources of modern-day [[environmentalism]]. His [[Literary language|literary]] style interweaves close observation of nature, personal experience, pointed rhetoric, [[symbol]]ic meanings, and historical lore, while displaying a poetic sensibility, philosophical [[Asceticism|austerity]], and attention to practical detail.<ref name="ReferenceA">Thoreau, Henry David. ''A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers''&nbsp;/ ''Walden''&nbsp;/ ''The Maine Woods''&nbsp;/ ''Cape Cod''. Library of America. {{ISBN|0-940450-27-5}}.</ref> He was also deeply interested in the idea of survival in the face of hostile elements, historical change, and natural decay; at the same time he advocated abandoning waste and [[illusion]] in order to discover life's true essential needs.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> He was a lifelong [[Abolitionism|abolitionist]], delivering lectures that attacked the [[fugitive slave laws|Fugitive Slave Law]] while praising the writings of [[Wendell Phillips]] and defending the abolitionist [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown]]. Thoreau's philosophy of [[civil disobedience]] later influenced the political thoughts and actions of such notable figures as [[Leo Tolstoy]], [[Mahatma Gandhi]], and [[Martin Luther King Jr.]]<ref name=":2" /> Thoreau is sometimes referred to as an [[anarchism|anarchist]].<ref>Seligman, Edwin Robert Anderson; Johnson, Alvin Saunders, eds. (1937). ''Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences'', p. 12.</ref><ref>Gross, David, ed. ''The Price of Freedom: Political Philosophy from Thoreau's Journals''. p. 8. {{ISBN|978-1-4348-0552-2}}. "The Thoreau of these journals distrusted doctrine, and, though it is accurate I think to call him an anarchist, he was by no means doctrinaire in this either."</ref> Though "Civil Disobedience" seems to call for improving rather than abolishing government—"I ask for, not at once no government, but ''at once'' a better government"<ref name="resistance">Thoreau, H. D. "[http://www.sniggle.net/Experiment/index.php?entry=rtcg#p03 Resistance to Civil Government]".</ref>—the direction of this improvement contrarily points toward anarchism: "'That government is best which governs not at all;' and when men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of government which they will have."<ref name="resistance" /> ==Pronunciation of his name== [[Amos Bronson Alcott]] and Thoreau's aunt each wrote that "Thoreau" is pronounced like the word ''thorough'' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|θ|ʌr|oʊ}} {{respell|THURR|oh}}—in [[General American]],<ref>[http://thoreau.eserver.org/pronounce THUR-oh or Thor-OH? And How Do We Know?] ''Thoreau Reader''.</ref><ref>''[https://www.npr.org/programs/morning/features/patc/walden/ Thoreau's Walden]'', under the sidebar "Pronouncing Thoreau".</ref> but more precisely {{IPAc-en|ˈ|θ|ɔːr|oʊ}} {{respell|THOR|oh}}—in 19th-century New England). [[Edward Waldo Emerson]] wrote that the name should be pronounced "Thó-row", with the ''h'' sounded and stress on the first syllable.<ref>See the note on pronouncing the name at [http://www.walden.org/Thoreau#Name the Thoreau Institute at Walden Woods].</ref> Among modern-day American English speakers, it is perhaps more commonly pronounced {{IPAc-en|θ|ə|ˈ|r|oʊ}} {{respell|thə|ROH}}—with stress on the second syllable.<ref>{{cite dictionary|title=Thoreau|dictionary=Dictionary.com|date=2013|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/thoreau}}</ref><ref>Wells, J. C. (1990) ''Pronunciation Dictionary'', s.v. "Thoreau". Essex, U.K.: Longman.</ref> ==Physical appearance== Thoreau had a distinctive appearance, with a nose that he called his "most prominent feature".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Cape Cod|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|year=1865|chapter=Chapter 10-A. Provincetown|chapter-url=http://thoreau.eserver.org:80/capecd10.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822113030/http://thoreau.eserver.org/capecd10.html|archive-date=August 22, 2017|url-status=dead|access-date=February 13, 2007}}</ref> Of his appearance and disposition, [[Ellery Channing]] wrote:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thoreau.eserver.org/images.html|title=The Days of Henry Thoreau|author=Harding, Walter|work=thoreau.eserver.org}}</ref> <blockquote>His face, once seen, could not be forgotten. The features were quite marked: the nose [[Aquiline nose|aquiline]] or very Roman, like one of the portraits of [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]] (more like a beak, as was said); large overhanging brows above the deepest set blue eyes that could be seen, in certain lights, and in others gray,—eyes expressive of all shades of feeling, but never weak or near-sighted; the forehead not unusually broad or high, full of concentrated energy and purpose; the mouth with prominent lips, pursed up with meaning and thought when silent, and giving out when open with the most varied and unusual instructive sayings.</blockquote> ==Life== ===Early life and education, 1817–1837=== [[File:Wheeler-Minot Farmhouse, Concord MA.jpg|thumb|Thoreau's birthplace, the [[Wheeler-Minot Farmhouse]] in [[Concord, Massachusetts]]]] Henry David Thoreau was born David Henry Thoreau<ref>Nelson, Randy F. (1981). ''The Almanac of American Letters''. Los Altos, California: William Kaufmann. p. 51. {{ISBN|0-86576-008-X}}.</ref> in [[Concord, Massachusetts]], into the "modest [[New England]] family"<ref name=McElroy>[[Wendy McElroy|McElroy, Wendy]] (2005-07-30) [http://archive.lewrockwell.com/mcelroy/mcelroy86.html "Henry David Thoreau and 'Civil Disobedience'"]. [[LewRockwell.com]].</ref> of John Thoreau, a pencil maker, and Cynthia Dunbar. His paternal grandfather had been born on the UK [[crown dependency]] island of [[Jersey]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wc.rootsweb.ancestry.com/cgi-bin/igm.cgi?op=GET&db=maold&id=I18020|title=RootsWeb's WorldConnect Project: Ancestors of Mary Ann Gillam and Stephen Old|publisher=}}</ref> His maternal grandfather, Asa Dunbar, led [[Harvard University|Harvard's]] 1766 student "[[Butter rebellion|Butter Rebellion]]",<ref>[https://www.brown.edu/Students/Alpha_Delta_Phi/history/fraternities.php History of the Fraternity System] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090704122642/http://www.brown.edu/Students/Alpha_Delta_Phi/history/fraternities.php |date=July 4, 2009 }}.</ref> the first recorded student protest in the American colonies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trivialibrary.com/c/first-student-protest-in-the-united-states.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191215210840/http://www.trivialibrary.com/c/first-student-protest-in-the-united-states.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-12-15|title=First Student Protest in the United States|publisher=}}</ref> David Henry was named after his recently deceased paternal uncle, David Thoreau. He began to call himself Henry David after he finished college; he never petitioned to make a legal name change.<ref>[http://www.barnesandnoble.com/writers/writerdetails.asp?z=y&cid=1019508#bio Henry David Thoreau] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061031164847/http://www.barnesandnoble.com/writers/writerdetails.asp?z=y&cid=1019508 |date=October 31, 2006 }}, "Meet the Writers." Barnes & Noble.com</ref> He had two older siblings, Helen and John Jr., and a younger sister, [[Sophia Thoreau]].<ref>[http://www.americanpoems.com/poets/thoreau/ Biography of Henry David Thoreau]. americanpoems.com</ref> None of the children married. Helen (1812–1849) died at age 36 years, from tuberculosis. John Jr. (1815–1842) died at age 27, of [[tetanus]]. Henry David (1817–1862) died at age 44, of tuberculosis. Sophia (1819–1876) survived him by 14 years, dying at age 57 years, of tuberculosis.{{Citation needed|date=September 2019}} [[Wheeler-Minot Farmhouse|Thoreau's birthplace]] still exists on Virginia Road in Concord. The house has been restored by the Thoreau Farm Trust,<ref>{{cite web|title=Thoreau Farm|work=thoreaufarm.org|url=http://thoreaufarm.org/}}</ref> a nonprofit organization, and is now open to the public. He studied at [[Harvard College]] between 1833 and 1837. He lived in [[Hollis Hall]] and took courses in [[rhetoric]], classics, philosophy, mathematics, and science.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}} He was a member of the Institute of 1770<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thoreausociety.org/_membership.htm |title=Organizations Thoreau Joined |publisher=Thoreau Society |accessdate=June 26, 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130503192646/http://www.thoreausociety.org/_membership.htm |archivedate=May 3, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> (now the [[Hasty Pudding Club]]). According to legend, Thoreau refused to pay the five-dollar fee (approximately {{inflation|US|5|1840|fmt=eq}}) for a Harvard diploma. In fact, the master's degree he declined to purchase had no academic merit: [[Harvard College]] offered it to graduates "who proved their physical worth by being alive three years after graduating, and their saving, earning, or inheriting quality or condition by having Five Dollars to give the college".<ref>"Thoreau's Diploma". ''American Literature''. Vol. 17, May 1945. pp. 174–75.</ref> He commented, "Let every sheep keep its own skin",<ref>{{cite web |author=Walter Harding |url=http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/about2/H/WalterHarding/LiveYourOwnLife.htm |title=Live Your Own Life |work=Geneseo Summer Compass |date=June 4, 1984 |accessdate=November 21, 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060129085602/http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/about2/H/WalterHarding/LiveYourOwnLife.htm |archivedate=2006-01-29|author-link=Walter Harding }}</ref> a reference to the tradition of using [[Sheepskin (material)|sheepskin]] [[vellum]] for diplomas. ===Return to Concord, 1837–1844=== The traditional professions open to college graduates—law, the church, business, medicine—did not interest Thoreau,<ref name="sattelmeyer">Sattelmeyer, Robert (1988). ''Thoreau's Reading: A Study in Intellectual History with Bibliographical Catalogue''. [http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/about2/S/Sattelmeyer_Robert/Reading2.pdf Chapter 2] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908031952/http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/about2/S/Sattelmeyer_Robert/Reading2.pdf |date=September 8, 2015 }}. Princeton: Princeton University Press.</ref>{{Rp|25}} so in 1835 he took a leave of absence from Harvard, during which he taught at a school in [[Canton, Massachusetts]]. After he graduated in 1837, he joined the faculty of the Concord public school, but he resigned after a few weeks rather than administer [[corporal punishment]].<ref name="sattelmeyer"/>{{Rp|25}} He and his brother John then opened the Concord Academy, a [[grammar school]] in Concord, in 1838.<!-- Concord Academy (1822–1863) is a different institution than Concord Academy (est. 1922). --><ref name="sattelmeyer" />{{Rp|25}} They introduced several progressive concepts, including nature walks and visits to local shops and businesses. The school closed when John became fatally ill from [[tetanus]] in 1842 after cutting himself while shaving.<ref>Dean, Bradley P. "[http://thoreau.eserver.org/wfchron.html A Thoreau Chronology]".</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|jstor=3817844 |title=Barzillai Frost's Funeral Sermon on the Death of John Thoreau Jr. |journal=Huntington Library Quarterly |volume=57 |issue=4 |pages=367–376 |date=1994 |author=Myerson, Joel|doi=10.2307/3817844 }}</ref> He died in Henry's arms.<ref>Woodlief, Ann. "[http://www.vcu.edu/engweb/transcendentalism/authors/thoreau/ Henry David Thoreau]".</ref> Upon graduation Thoreau returned home to Concord, where he met [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] through a mutual friend.<ref name=McElroy/> Emerson, who was 14 years his senior, took a paternal and at times patron-like interest in Thoreau, advising the young man and introducing him to a circle of local writers and thinkers, including [[William Ellery Channing (poet)|Ellery Channing]], [[Margaret Fuller]], [[Amos Bronson Alcott|Bronson Alcott]], and [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]] and his son [[Julian Hawthorne]], who was a boy at the time. Emerson urged Thoreau to contribute essays and poems to a quarterly periodical, ''[[The Dial]]'', and lobbied the editor, Margaret Fuller, to publish those writings. Thoreau's first essay published in ''The Dial'' was "Aulus Persius Flaccus",<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.walden.org/documents/file/Library/About%20Thoreau/D/Dial/AulusPersiusFlaccus.pdf|title=Aulus Persius Flaccus|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120925021512/http://www.walden.org/documents/file/Library/About%20Thoreau/D/Dial/AulusPersiusFlaccus.pdf|archive-date=September 25, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> an essay on the Roman playwright, in July 1840.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.walden.org/Library/About_Thoreau's_Life_and_Writings:_The_Research_Collections/The_Dial |title=''The Dial'' |publisher=Walden.org |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018151944/http://www.walden.org/Library/About_Thoreau%27s_Life_and_Writings%3A_The_Research_Collections/The_Dial |archivedate=October 18, 2015 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> It consisted of revised passages from his journal, which he had begun keeping at Emerson's suggestion. The first journal entry, on October 22, 1837, reads, "'What are you doing now?' he asked. 'Do you keep a journal?' So I make my first entry to-day."<ref>Thoreau, Henry David (2007). ''I to Myself: An Annotated Selection from the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau''. Jeffrey S. Cramer, ed. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 1.</ref> Thoreau was a philosopher of nature and its relation to the human condition. In his early years he followed [[Transcendentalism]], a loose and eclectic [[Idealism|idealist]] philosophy advocated by Emerson, Fuller, and Alcott. They held that an ideal spiritual state transcends, or goes beyond, the physical and empirical, and that one achieves that insight via personal intuition rather than religious doctrine. In their view, Nature is the outward sign of inward spirit, expressing the "radical correspondence of visible things and human thoughts", as Emerson wrote in ''Nature'' (1836). [[File:Thoreau1967stamp.jpg|thumb|right|1967 U.S. postage stamp honoring Thoreau, designed by [[Leonard Baskin]]]] On April 18, 1841, Thoreau moved into the [[Ralph Waldo Emerson House|Emerson house]].<ref name="Cheever">Cheever, Susan (2006). ''American Bloomsbury: Louisa May Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Fuller, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry David Thoreau; Their Lives, Their Loves, Their Work''. Detroit: Thorndike Press. p. 90. {{ISBN|0-7862-9521-X}}.</ref> There, from 1841 to 1844, he served as the children's tutor; he was also an editorial assistant, repairman and gardener. For a few months in 1843, he moved to the home of William Emerson on [[Staten Island]],<ref>{{cite book |title=The Life of Henry David Thoreau |last=Salt |first=H. S. |date=1890 |publisher=Richard Bentley & Son |location=London |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_t_0RAAAAYAAJ |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_t_0RAAAAYAAJ/page/n83 69]}}</ref> and tutored the family's sons while seeking contacts among literary men and journalists in the city who might help publish his writings, including his future literary representative [[Horace Greeley]].<ref>Sanborn, F. B., ed. (1906). ''The Writings of Henry David Thoreau''. Vol. VI, ''Familiar Letters''. [http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/writings/Writings1906/06FamiliarLetters/Years%20of%20Discipline.pdf Chapter 1, "Years of Discipline"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907235501/http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/writings/Writings1906/06FamiliarLetters/Years%20of%20Discipline.pdf |date=September 7, 2015 }}. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>{{Rp|68}} Thoreau returned to Concord and worked in his family's [[pencil]] factory, which he would continue to do alongside his writing and other work for most of his adult life. He rediscovered the process of making good pencils with inferior [[graphite]] by using clay as the binder.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/pencilhistoryofd00petr|url-access=registration|title=The Pencil: A History of Design and Circumstance|last=Petroski|first=Henry|publisher=Knopf|year=1992|isbn=9780679734154|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/pencilhistoryofd00petr/page/104 104]–125}}</ref> This invention allowed profitable use of a graphite source found in [[New Hampshire]] that had been purchased in 1821 by Thoreau's uncle, Charles Dunbar. The process of mixing graphite and clay, known as the Conté process, had been first patented by [[Nicolas-Jacques Conté]] in 1795. The company's other source of graphite had been [[Tantiusques]], a mine operated by Native Americans in [[Sturbridge, Massachusetts]]. Later, Thoreau converted the pencil factory to produce plumbago, a name for graphite at the time, which was used in the [[electrotyping]] process.<ref>Conrad, Randall. (Fall 2005). [http://thoreau.eserver.org/pencils.html "Machine in the Wetland: Re-imagining Thoreau's Plumbago-Grinder"]. ''[http://www.thoreausociety.org/_activities_tsb.htm Thoreau Society Bulletin] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071223191911/http://www.thoreausociety.org/_activities_tsb.htm |date=December 23, 2007 }}'' 253.</ref> Once back in Concord, Thoreau went through a restless period. In April 1844 he and his friend Edward Hoar accidentally set a fire that consumed {{convert|300|acre|km2}} of Walden Woods.<ref>[http://www.calliope.org/thoreau/thorotime.html ''A Chronology of Thoreau's Life, with Events of the Times''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160213001457/http://www.calliope.org/thoreau/thorotime.html |date=February 13, 2016 }}. The Thoreau Project, Calliope Film Resources. Accessed June 11, 2007.</ref> ==="Civil Disobedience" and the Walden years, 1845–1850=== [[File:Thoreau sites in Walden Pond.svg|thumb|left|Thoreau sites at Walden Pond]] {{quote|I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately, to front only the essential facts of life, and see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not, when I came to die, discover that I had not lived. I did not wish to live what was not life, living is so dear; nor did I wish to practise resignation, unless it was quite necessary. I wanted to live deep and suck out all the marrow of life, to live so sturdily and Spartan-like as to put to rout all that was not life, to cut a broad swath and shave close, to drive life into a corner, and reduce it to its lowest terms, and, if it proved to be mean, why then to get the whole and genuine meanness of it, and publish its meanness to the world; or if it were sublime, to know it by experience, and be able to give a true account of it in my next excursion.| Henry David Thoreau, "Where I Lived, and What I Lived For", in ''[[Walden]]''<ref>''Grammardog Guide to Walden''. Grammardog. p. 25. {{ISBN|1-60857-084-3}}.</ref>}} Thoreau felt a need to concentrate and work more on his writing. In March 1845, Ellery Channing told Thoreau, "Go out upon that, build yourself a hut, & there begin the grand process of devouring yourself alive. I see no other alternative, no other hope for you."<ref>Packer, 1833.</ref> Two months later, Thoreau embarked on a two-year experiment in [[simple living]] on July 4, 1845, when he moved to a small house he had built on land owned by Emerson in a [[secondary forest|second-growth forest]] around the shores of [[Walden Pond]]. The house was in "a pretty pasture and woodlot" of {{convert|14|acre|m2}} that Emerson had bought,<ref>Richardson. ''Emerson: The Mind on Fire''. p. 399.</ref> {{convert|1.5|mi|km}} from his family home.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.google.com/maps/search/concord+mass/@42.449808,-71.342769,15z?dg=dbrw&newdg=1|title=Google Maps|publisher=}}</ref> [[File:Walden Thoreau.jpg|thumb|Original title page of ''Walden'', with an illustration from a drawing by Thoreau's sister Sophia]] On July 24 or July 25, 1846, Thoreau ran into the local [[tax collector]], Sam Staples, who asked him to pay six years of delinquent [[Poll tax (United States)|poll taxes]]. Thoreau refused because of his opposition to the [[Mexican–American War]] and [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]], and he spent a night in jail because of this refusal. The next day Thoreau was freed when someone, likely to have been his aunt, paid the tax, against his wishes.<ref name=":2">Rosenwald, Lawrence. "[http://thoreau.eserver.org/theory.html The Theory, Practice and Influence of Thoreau's Civil Disobedience]". William Cain, ed. (2006). ''A Historical Guide to Henry David Thoreau''. Cambridge: Oxford University Press. {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20131014012153/http://thoreau.eserver.org/theory.html|date=October 14, 2013|title=Archived}}</ref> The experience had a strong impact on Thoreau. In January and February 1848, he delivered lectures on "The Rights and Duties of the Individual in relation to Government",<ref>Thoreau, H. D., letter to Ralph Waldo Emerson, February 23, 1848.</ref> explaining his tax resistance at the [[Concord Lyceum]]. Bronson Alcott attended the lecture, writing in his journal on January 26: {{quote|Heard Thoreau's lecture before the Lyceum on the relation of the individual to the State—an admirable statement of the rights of the individual to self-government, and an attentive audience. His allusions to the Mexican War, to Mr. [[Samuel Hoar|Hoar]]'s expulsion from Carolina, his own imprisonment in Concord Jail for refusal to pay his tax, Mr. Hoar's payment of mine when taken to prison for a similar refusal, were all pertinent, well considered, and reasoned. I took great pleasure in this deed of Thoreau's.|Bronson Alcott|''Journals''<ref>Alcott, Bronson (1938). ''Journals''. Boston: Little, Brown.</ref>}} Thoreau revised the lecture into an essay titled "[[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|Resistance to Civil Government]]" (also known as "Civil Disobedience"). It was published by [[Elizabeth Peabody]] in the ''Aesthetic Papers'' in May 1849. Thoreau had taken up a version of [[Percy Shelley]]'s principle in the political poem "[[The Mask of Anarchy]]" (1819), which begins with the powerful images of the unjust forms of authority of his time and then imagines the stirrings of a radically new form of social action.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.morrissociety.org/JWMS/SP94.10.4.Nichols.pdf |title=Morrissociety.org |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110105232938/http://www.morrissociety.org/JWMS/SP94.10.4.Nichols.pdf |archivedate=January 5, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> At Walden Pond, Thoreau completed a first draft of ''[[A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers]]'', an [[elegy]] to his brother John, describing their trip to the [[White Mountains (New Hampshire)|White Mountains]] in 1839. Thoreau did not find a publisher for the book and instead printed 1,000 copies at his own expense; fewer than 300 were sold.<ref name="Cheever" />{{Rp|234}} He self-published the book on the advice of Emerson, using Emerson's publisher, Munroe, who did little to publicize the book. {{multiple image | align = left | direction = vertical | header_align = center | header = | image1 = Thoreau's cabin inside.jpg | width1 = 225 | alt1 = | caption1 = <center>Reconstruction of the interior of Thoreau's cabin</center> | image2 = Replica of Thoreau's cabin near Walden Pond and his statue.jpg | width2 = 225 | alt2 = | caption2 = <center>Replica of Thoreau's cabin and a statue of him near Walden Pond</center> }} In August 1846, Thoreau briefly left Walden to make a trip to [[Mount Katahdin]] in [[Maine]], a journey later recorded in "Ktaadn", the first part of ''The Maine Woods''. Thoreau left Walden Pond on September 6, 1847.<ref name="Cheever" />{{Rp|244}} At Emerson's request, he immediately moved back to the Emerson house to help Emerson's wife, Lidian, manage the household while her husband was on an extended trip to Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thoreausociety.org/_news_abouthdt.htm |title=Thoreausociety.org |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101129085846/http://thoreausociety.org/_news_abouthdt.htm |archivedate=November 29, 2010 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Over several years, as he worked to pay off his debts, he continuously revised the manuscript of what he eventually published as ''[[Walden|Walden, or Life in the Woods]]'' in 1854, recounting the two years, two months, and two days he had spent at Walden Pond. The book compresses that time into a single calendar year, using the passage of the four seasons to symbolize human development. Part [[memoir]] and part spiritual quest, ''Walden'' at first won few admirers, but later critics have regarded it as a classic American work that explores natural simplicity, harmony, and beauty as models for just social and cultural conditions. The American poet [[Robert Frost]] wrote of Thoreau, "In one book ... he surpasses everything we have had in America."<ref>Frost, Robert (1968). Letter to Wade Van Dore, June 24, 1922, in ''Twentieth Century Interpretations of Walden''. Richard Ruland, ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. p. 8. {{LCCN|6814480}}.</ref> The American author [[John Updike]] said of the book, "A century and a half after its publication, Walden has become such a totem of the back-to-nature, preservationist, anti-business, civil-disobedience mindset, and Thoreau so vivid a protester, so perfect a crank and hermit saint, that the book risks being as revered and unread as the Bible."<ref>Updike, John (2004). "A Sage for All Seasons". [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2004/jun/26/classics ''The Guardian''].</ref> Thoreau moved out of Emerson's house in July 1848 and stayed at a house on nearby Belknap Street. In 1850, he moved into a house at [[Thoreau-Alcott House|255 Main Street]], where he lived until his death.<ref>Ehrlich, Eugene; Carruth, Gorton (1982). ''The Oxford Illustrated Literary Guide to the United States''. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 45. {{ISBN|0-19-503186-5}}.</ref> In the summer of 1850, Thoreau and Channing journeyed from Boston to Montreal and Quebec City. These would be Thoreau's only travels outside the United States.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Weisman|first1=Adam Paul|title=Postcolonialism in North America: Imaginative Colonization in Henry David Thoreau's "A Yankee in Canada" and Jacques Poulin's "Volkswagen Blues"|journal=The Massachusetts Review|date=Autumn 1995|volume=36|issue=3|pages=478–479}}</ref> It is as a result of this trip that he developed lectures that eventually became ''A Yankee in Canada''. He jested that all he got from this adventure "was a cold".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Thoreau|first1=Henry David|title=A Yankee in Canada|url=https://archive.org/details/yankeeincanada0000thor|url-access=registration|date=1961|publisher=Harvest House|location=Montreal|page=[https://archive.org/details/yankeeincanada0000thor/page/13 13]}}</ref> In fact, this proved an opportunity to contrast American civic spirit and democratic values with a colony apparently ruled by illegitimate religious and military power. Whereas his own country had had its revolution, in Canada history had failed to turn.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal|last1=Lacroix|first1=Patrick|title=Finding Thoreau in French Canada: The Ideological Legacy of the American Revolution|journal=American Review of Canadian Studies|date=Fall 2017|volume=47|issue=3|pages=266–279|doi=10.1080/02722011.2017.1370719}}</ref> ===Later years, 1851–1862=== [[File:VII. Rowse.jpg|thumb|Thoreau in 1854]] In 1851, Thoreau became increasingly fascinated with [[natural history]] and narratives of travel and expedition. He read avidly on [[botany]] and often wrote observations on this topic into his journal. He admired [[William Bartram]] and [[Charles Darwin]]'s ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle|Voyage of the Beagle]]''. He kept detailed observations on Concord's nature lore, recording everything from how the fruit ripened over time to the fluctuating depths of Walden Pond and the days certain birds migrated. The point of this task was to "anticipate" the seasons of nature, in his word.<ref>[http://www.walden.org/documents/file/Library/Thoreau/writings/correspondence/LettersBlake.pdf#page34 Letters to H.&nbsp;G.&nbsp;O. Blake] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617003953/http://www.walden.org/documents/file/Library/Thoreau/writings/correspondence/LettersBlake.pdf |date=June 17, 2011 }}. Walden.org</ref><ref>Thoreau, Henry David (1862). "Autumnal Tints". ''The Atlantic Monthly'', October. pp. 385–402. [http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/writings/essays/Thoreau_Autumnal%20Tints.pdf Reprint] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100307053611/http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/writings/essays/Thoreau_Autumnal%20Tints.pdf |date=March 7, 2010 }}. Retrieved November 21, 2009.</ref> He became a [[Surveying|land surveyor]] and continued to write increasingly detailed observations on the natural history of the town, covering an area of {{convert|26|sqmi|km2}}, in his journal, a two-million-word document he kept for 24 years. He also kept a series of notebooks, and these observations became the source of his late writings on natural history, such as "Autumnal Tints", "The Succession of Trees", and "Wild Apples", an essay lamenting the destruction of indigenous wild apple species. With the rise of [[environmental history]] and [[ecocriticism]] as academic disciplines, several new readings of Thoreau began to emerge, showing him to have been both a philosopher and an analyst of ecological patterns in fields and woodlots.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Thorson|first1=Robert M.|title=Walden's Shore: Henry David Thoreau and Nineteenth-Century Science|date=December 6, 2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=978-0674724785}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Primack|first1=Richard B.|title=Tracking Climate Change with the Help of Henry David Thoreau|url=http://www.elsevier.com/connect/tracking-climate-change-with-the-help-of-henry-david-thoreau|accessdate=23 September 2015|date=June 13, 2013}}</ref> For instance, "The Succession of Forest Trees", shows that he used experimentation and analysis to explain how forests regenerate after fire or human destruction, through the dispersal of seeds by winds or animals. In this lecture, first presented to a cattle show in Concord, and considered his greatest contribution to ecology, Thoreau explained why one species of tree can grow in a place where a different tree did previously. He observed that squirrels often carry nuts far from the tree from which they fell to create stashes. These seeds are likely to germinate and grow should the squirrel die or abandon the stash. He credited the squirrel for performing a "great service ... in the economy of the universe." <ref>{{cite book|last1=Worster|first1=Donald|title=Nature's Economy|date=1977|publisher=Cambridge University|location=New York, New York|isbn=0-521-45273-2|pages=69–71}}</ref> [[File:Walden Pond, 2010.jpg|thumb|left|[[Walden Pond]]]] He traveled to [[Canada East]] once, [[Cape Cod]] four times, and Maine three times; these landscapes inspired his "excursion" books, ''[[A Yankee in Canada]]'', ''Cape Cod'', and ''The Maine Woods'', in which travel itineraries frame his thoughts about geography, history and philosophy. Other travels took him southwest to [[Philadelphia]] and New York City in 1854 and west across the [[Great Lakes region (North America)|Great Lakes region]] in 1861, when he visited [[Niagara Falls]], Detroit, Chicago, [[Milwaukee]], [[St. Paul, Minnesota|St. Paul]] and [[Mackinac Island]].<ref>Thoreau, Henry David (1970). ''The Annotated Walden''. Philip Van Doren Stern, ed. pp. 96, 132.</ref> He was provincial in his own travels, but he read widely about travel in other lands. He devoured all the first-hand travel accounts available in his day, at a time when the last unmapped regions of the earth were being explored. He read [[Ferdinand Magellan|Magellan]] and [[James Cook]]; the [[arctic explorer]]s [[John Franklin]], [[Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)|Alexander Mackenzie]] and [[William Parry (explorer)|William Parry]]; [[David Livingstone]] and [[Richard Francis Burton]] on Africa; [[Lewis and Clark]]; and hundreds of lesser-known works by explorers and literate travelers.<ref>Christie, John Aldrich (1965). ''Thoreau as World Traveler''. New York: Columbia University Press.</ref> Astonishing amounts of reading fed his endless curiosity about the peoples, cultures, religions and natural history of the world and left its traces as commentaries in his voluminous journals. He processed everything he read, in the local laboratory of his Concord experience. Among his famous aphorisms is his advice to "live at home like a traveler".<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Correspondence Letters of H.&nbsp;G.&nbsp;O. Blake] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617003655/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Correspondence |date=June 17, 2011 }} in ''The Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection''.</ref> After [[John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry]], many prominent voices in the abolitionist movement distanced themselves from Brown or [[Damn with faint praise|damned him with faint praise]]. Thoreau was disgusted by this, and he composed a key speech, ''[[A Plea for Captain John Brown]]'', which was uncompromising in its defense of Brown and his actions. Thoreau's speech proved persuasive: the abolitionist movement began to accept Brown as a martyr, and by the time of the [[American Civil War]] entire armies of the North were [[John Brown's Body|literally singing Brown's praises]]. As a biographer of Brown put it, "If, as Alfred Kazin suggests, without John Brown there would have been no Civil War, we would add that without the Concord Transcendentalists, John Brown would have had little cultural impact."<ref>Reynolds, David S. (2005). ''John Brown, Abolitionist''. Knopf. p. 4.</ref> [[File:Henry David Thoreau - Dunshee ambrotpe 1861.jpg|thumb|left|Thoreau in his second and final photographic sitting, August 1861]] ===Death=== Thoreau contracted [[tuberculosis]] in 1835 and suffered from it sporadically afterwards. In 1860, following a late-night excursion to count the rings of tree stumps during a rainstorm, he became ill with [[bronchitis]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Richardson, Jr.|first=Robert D.|title=Faith in a Seed: The First Publication of Thoreau's Last Manuscript|publisher=Island Press|year=1993|isbn=|editor-last=Dean|editor-first=Bradley P.|location=Washington, D.C.|publication-place=|pages=17|chapter=Introduction}}</ref><ref>[https://www.walden.org/Library/About_Thoreau's_Life_and_Writings:_The_Research_Collections/Thoreau,_the_Man About Thoreau: Thoreau, the Man] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160620045648/http://www.walden.org/Library/About_Thoreau%27s_Life_and_Writings%3A_The_Research_Collections/Thoreau%2C_the_Man |date=June 20, 2016 }}.</ref><ref>[http://thoreau.eserver.org/wfchron.html Thoreau Chronology].</ref> His health declined, with brief periods of remission, and he eventually became bedridden. Recognizing the terminal nature of his disease, Thoreau spent his last years revising and editing his unpublished works, particularly ''The Maine Woods'' and [[Excursions (anthology)|''Excursions'']], and petitioning publishers to print revised editions of ''A Week'' and ''Walden''. He wrote letters and journal entries until he became too weak to continue. His friends were alarmed at his diminished appearance and were fascinated by his tranquil acceptance of death. When his aunt Louisa asked him in his last weeks if he had made his peace with God, Thoreau responded, "I did not know we had ever quarreled."<ref>{{cite book|first=Simon|last= Critchley|title=The Book of Dead Philosophers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ME-6IKs4a2sC&pg=PA181&lpg=PA181 |p= 181|location=New York|publisher= Random House |date=2009|isbn=9780307472632}}</ref> [[File:Grave of Henry David Thoreau.jpeg|thumb|Grave of Thoreau at [[Sleepy Hollow Cemetery (Concord, Massachusetts)|Sleepy Hollow Cemetery]] in Concord]] Aware he was dying, Thoreau's last words were "Now comes good sailing", followed by two lone words, "moose" and "Indian".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://writersalmanac.publicradio.org/programs/2008/05/05/|title=The Writer's Almanac|publisher=American Public Media|access-date=June 1, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170708225006/http://writersalmanac.publicradio.org/programs/2008/05/05/|archive-date=July 8, 2017|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref> He died on May 6, 1862, at age 44. [[Amos Bronson Alcott]] planned the service and read selections from Thoreau's works, and Channing presented a hymn.<ref>Packer, Barbara L. (2007). ''The Transcendentalists''. Athens: University of Georgia Press. p. 272. {{ISBN|978-0-8203-2958-1}}.</ref> Emerson wrote the eulogy spoken at the funeral.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NWACAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA239|last= Emerson|first= Ralph Waldo |title=Thoreau|work=The Atlantic|date= August 1862}}</ref> Thoreau was buried in the Dunbar family plot; his remains and those of members of his immediate family were eventually moved to [[Sleepy Hollow Cemetery (Concord, Massachusetts)|Sleepy Hollow Cemetery]] in Concord, Massachusetts. Thoreau's friend [[William Ellery Channing (poet)|William Ellery Channing]] published his first biography, ''Thoreau the Poet-Naturalist'', in 1873.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Channing|first1=William Ellery|url=http://archive.org/details/poetnatthoreau00chanrich|title=Thoreau, the poet-naturalist, with Memorial verses|last2=Merrymount Press|last3=Sanborn|first3=F. B. (Franklin Benjamin)|last4=Updike|first4=Daniel Berkeley|date=1902|publisher=Boston, C. E. Goodspeed|others=University of California Libraries}}</ref> Channing and another friend, [[Harrison Blake]], edited some poems, essays, and journal entries for posthumous publication in the 1890s. Thoreau's journals, which he often mined for his published works but which remained largely unpublished at his death, were first published in 1906 and helped to build his modern reputation.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}} A new, expanded edition of the journals is under way, published by [[Princeton University Press]]. Today, Thoreau is regarded as one of the foremost American writers, both for the modern clarity of his prose style and the prescience of his views on nature and politics. His memory is honored by the international [[Thoreau Society]] and his legacy honored by the Thoreau Institute at Walden Woods, established in 1998 in Lincoln, Massachusetts. ===Nature and human existence=== {{quote|Most of the luxuries and many of the so-called comforts of life are not only not indispensable, but positive hindrances to the elevation of mankind.| Thoreau<ref>''Walden, or Life in the Woods'' (Chapter 1: "Economy")</ref>}} Thoreau was an early advocate of recreational hiking and [[canoeing]], of conserving natural resources on private land, and of preserving wilderness as public land. He was himself a highly skilled canoeist; [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], after a ride with him, noted that "Mr. Thoreau managed the boat so perfectly, either with two paddles or with one, that it seemed instinct with his own will, and to require no physical effort to guide it."<ref>Nathaniel Hawthorne, Passages From the American Note-Books, entry for September 2, 1842.</ref> He was not a strict vegetarian, though he said he preferred that diet<ref>Brooks, Van Wyck. ''The Flowering of New England''. New York: E. P. Dutton and Company, Inc., 1952. p. 310</ref> and advocated it as a means of self-improvement. He wrote in ''Walden'', "The practical objection to animal food in my case was its uncleanness; and besides, when I had caught and cleaned and cooked and eaten my fish, they seemed not to have fed me essentially. It was insignificant and unnecessary, and cost more than it came to. A little bread or a few potatoes would have done as well, with less trouble and filth."<ref name="Cheever241">Cheever, Susan (2006). ''American Bloomsbury: Louisa May Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Fuller, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry David Thoreau; Their Lives, Their Loves, Their Work''. Detroit: Thorndike Press. Large print edition. p. 241. {{ISBN|0-7862-9521-X}}.</ref> [[File:Thoreaus quote near his cabin site, Walden Pond.jpg|thumb|Thoreau's famous quotation, near his cabin site at Walden Pond]] Thoreau neither rejected civilization nor fully embraced wilderness. Instead he sought a middle ground, the [[pastoral]] realm that integrates nature and culture. His philosophy required that he be a didactic arbitrator between the wilderness he based so much on and the spreading mass of humanity in North America. He decried the latter endlessly but felt that a teacher needs to be close to those who needed to hear what he wanted to tell them. The wildness he enjoyed was the nearby swamp or forest, and he preferred "partially cultivated country". His idea of being "far in the recesses of the wilderness" of Maine was to "travel the logger's path and the Indian trail", but he also hiked on pristine land. In the essay "Henry David Thoreau, Philosopher" [[Roderick Nash]] wrote, "Thoreau left Concord in 1846 for the first of three trips to northern Maine. His expectations were high because he hoped to find genuine, primeval America. But contact with real wilderness in Maine affected him far differently than had the idea of wilderness in Concord. Instead of coming out of the woods with a deepened appreciation of the wilds, Thoreau felt a greater respect for civilization and realized the necessity of balance."<ref>Nash, Roderick. ''Wilderness and the American Mind: Henry David Thoreau: Philosopher''.</ref> Of alcohol, Thoreau wrote, "I would fain keep sober always. ... I believe that water is the only drink for a wise man; wine is not so noble a liquor. ... Of all ebriosity, who does not prefer to be intoxicated by the air he breathes?"<ref name="Cheever241" /> ===Sexuality=== Thoreau [[bachelor|never married]] and was childless. He strove to portray himself as an ascetic puritan. However, his sexuality has long been the subject of speculation, including by his contemporaries. Critics have called him heterosexual, [[Homosexuality|homosexual]], or [[Asexuality|asexual]].<ref name=harding/><ref>{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/details/millennialseduct00quin | url-access=registration | title=Millennial Seduction | publisher=Cornell University Press | author=Quinby, Lee | page=[https://archive.org/details/millennialseduct00quin/page/68 68]| isbn=978-0801486012 | year=1999 }}</ref> There is no evidence to suggest he had physical relations with anyone, man or woman. Some scholars have suggested that homoerotic sentiments run through his writings and concluded that he was homosexual.<ref name=harding>Harding, Walter (1991). "Thoreau's Sexuality". ''Journal of Homosexuality'' 21.3. pp. 23–45.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bronski |first=Michael |title=A Queer History of the United States |publisher=Beacon Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0807044650 |page=50|title-link=A Queer History of the United States }}</ref><ref>Michael, Warner (1991). "Walden's Erotic Economy" in ''Comparative American Identities: Race, Sex and Nationality in the Modern Text''. Hortense Spillers, ed. New York: Routledge. pp. 157–73.</ref> The elegy "Sympathy" was inspired by the eleven-year-old Edmund Sewell, with whom he hiked for five days in 1839.<ref>{{cite document|last=Robbins|first= Paula Ivaska|title=The Natural Thoreau|work= The Gay And Lesbian Review, September–October 2011|id= {{ProQuest|890209875}}}}</ref> One scholar has suggested that he wrote the poem to Edmund because he could not bring himself to write it to Edmund's sister,<ref>Richardson, Robert; Moser, Barry (1986). ''Henry Thoreau: A Life of the Mind''. University of California Press. pp. 58–63.</ref> and another that Thoreau's "emotional experiences with women are memorialized under a camouflage of masculine pronouns",<ref>Canby, Henry Seidel (1939). ''Thoreau''. Houghton Mifflin. p. 117.</ref> but other scholars dismiss this.<ref name=harding /><ref>Katz, Jonathan Ned (1992). ''Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the USA''. New York: Meridian. pp. 481–92.</ref> It has been argued that the long paean in ''Walden'' to the French-Canadian woodchopper Alek Therien, which includes allusions to [[Achilles and Patroclus]], is an expression of conflicted desire.<ref>López, Robert Oscar (2007). "Thoreau, Homer and Community", in ''Henry David Thoreau''. Harold Bloom, ed. New York: Infobase Publishing. pp. 153–74.</ref> In some of Thoreau's writing there is the sense of a secret self.<ref>Summers, Claude J ''The Gay and Lesbian Literary Heritage'', Routledge, New York, 2002, p. 202</ref> In 1840 he writes in his journal: "My friend is the apology for my life. In him are the spaces which my orbit traverses".<ref>Bergman, David, ed. (2009). ''Gay American Autobiography: Writings From Whitman to Sedaris''. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 10</ref> Thoreau was strongly influenced by the moral reformers of his time, and this may have instilled anxiety and guilt over sexual desire.<ref>Lebeaux, Richard (1984). ''Thoreau's Seasons''. University of Massachusetts Press. p. 386, n. 31.</ref> ===Politics=== {{Green anarchism |expanded=People}} [[File:John Brown - Treason broadside, 1859.png|thumb|left|John Brown "Treason" Broadside, 1859]] Thoreau was fervently against [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]] and actively supported the abolitionist movement.<ref name=":6"/> He participated as a conductor in the [[Underground Railroad]], delivered lectures that attacked the [[Fugitive Slave Law of 1850|Fugitive Slave Law]], and in opposition to the popular opinion of the time, supported radical abolitionist militia leader [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown]] and his party.<ref name=":6">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Furtak|first=Rick|title=Henry David Thoreau|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/thoreau/|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|accessdate=27 July 2013}}</ref> Two weeks after the ill-fated [[raid on Harpers Ferry]] and in the weeks leading up to Brown's execution, Thoreau delivered a speech to the citizens of Concord, Massachusetts, in which he compared the American government to [[Pontius Pilate]] and likened Brown's execution to the [[crucifixion of Jesus Christ]]: {{quote|Some eighteen hundred years ago Christ was crucified; this morning, perchance, Captain Brown was hung. These are the two ends of a chain which is not without its links. He is not Old Brown any longer; he is an angel of light.<ref name="ReferenceA" />}} In ''[[The Last Days of John Brown]]'', Thoreau described the words and deeds of John Brown as noble and an example of heroism.<ref name=":1">[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays The Last Days of John Brown] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays |date=December 22, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> In addition, he lamented the newspaper editors who dismissed Brown and his scheme as "crazy".<ref name=":1"/> Thoreau was a proponent of [[limited government]] and [[individualism]]. Although he was hopeful that mankind could potentially have, through self-betterment, the kind of government which "governs not at all", he distanced himself from contemporary "no-government men" ([[anarchists]]), writing: "I ask for, not at once no government, but at once a better government."<ref name="resistance" /> Thoreau deemed the evolution from [[absolute monarchy]] to [[limited monarchy]] to [[democracy]] as "a progress toward true respect for the individual" and theorized about further improvements "towards recognizing and organizing the rights of man".<ref name="resistance" /> Echoing this belief, he went on to write: "There will never be a really free and enlightened State until the State comes to recognize the individual as a higher and independent power, from which all its power and authority are derived, and treats him accordingly."<ref name="resistance" /> It is on this basis that Thoreau could so strongly inveigh against the British administration and Catholicism in ''A Yankee in Canada''. Despotic authority, Thoreau argued, had crushed the people's sense of ingenuity and enterprise; the Canadian ''habitants'' had been reduced, in his view, to a perpetual childlike state. Ignoring the recent rebellions, he argued that there would be no revolution in the St. Lawrence River valley.<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Thoreau|first1=Henry David|title=A Yankee in Canada|url=https://archive.org/details/yankeeincanada0000thor|url-access=registration|date=1961|publisher=Harvest House|location=Montreal|pages=[https://archive.org/details/yankeeincanada0000thor/page/105 105–107]}}</ref> Although Thoreau believed resistance to unjustly exercised authority could be both violent (exemplified in his support for John Brown) and nonviolent (his own example of [[tax resistance]] displayed in ''Resistance to Civil Government''), he regarded [[Pacifism|pacifist]] [[nonresistance]] as temptation to passivity,<ref name=":4">[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays The Service] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays |date=December 22, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> writing: "Let not our Peace be proclaimed by the rust on our swords, or our inability to draw them from their scabbards; but let her at least have so much work on her hands as to keep those swords bright and sharp."<ref name=":4"/> Furthermore, in a formal lyceum debate in 1841, he debated the subject "Is it ever proper to offer forcible resistance?", arguing the affirmative.<ref>[http://thoreau.eserver.org/mjf/MJF1.html Transcendental Ethos] from The Thoreau Reader</ref> Likewise, his condemnation of the [[Mexican–American War]] did not stem from pacifism, but rather because he considered Mexico "unjustly overrun and conquered by a foreign army" as a means to expand the slave territory.<ref name=":5" /> Thoreau was [[ambivalence|ambivalent]] towards [[industrialization]] and [[capitalism]]. On one hand he regarded commerce as "unexpectedly confident and serene, adventurous, and unwearied"<ref name="ReferenceA" /> and expressed admiration for its associated [[cosmopolitanism]], writing: {{quote|I am refreshed and expanded when the freight train rattles past me, and I smell the stores which go dispensing their odors all the way from Long Wharf to Lake Champlain, reminding me of foreign parts, of coral reefs, and Indian oceans, and tropical climes, and the extent of the globe. I feel more like a citizen of the world at the sight of the palm-leaf which will cover so many flaxen New England heads the next summer.<ref name="ReferenceA" />}} On the other hand, he wrote disparagingly of the factory system: {{quote|I cannot believe that our factory system is the best mode by which men may get clothing. The condition of the operatives is becoming every day more like that of the English; and it cannot be wondered at, since, as far as I have heard or observed, the principal object is, not that mankind may be well and honestly clad, but, unquestionably, that the corporations may be enriched.<ref name="ReferenceA" />}} Thoreau also favored [[bioregionalism]], the protection of animals and wild areas, [[free trade]], and taxation for schools and highways.<ref name=":6"/> He disapproved of the subjugation of Native Americans, slavery, [[technological utopianism]], [[consumerism]], [[philistinism]], mass entertainment, and frivolous applications of technology.<ref name=":6"/> ===Intellectual interests, influences, and affinities=== ====Indian sacred texts and philosophy==== Thoreau was influenced by [[Hindu texts|Indian spiritual thought]]. In ''Walden'', there are many overt references to the sacred texts of India. For example, in the first chapter ("Economy"), he writes: "How much more admirable the [[Bhagvat-geeta|Bhagvat-Geeta]] than all the ruins of the East!"<ref name="ReferenceA" /> ''American Philosophy: An Encyclopedia'' classes him as one of several figures who "took a more [[Pantheism|pantheist]] or [[Pandeism|pandeist]] approach by rejecting views of God as separate from the world",<ref>{{Cite book |title = American Philosophy: An Encyclopedia |author = [[John Lachs]] and [[Robert Talisse]] |date = 2007 |isbn = 978-0415939263 |page = 310 }}</ref> also a characteristic of Hinduism. Furthermore, in "The Pond in Winter", he equates Walden Pond with the sacred [[Ganges in Hinduism|Ganges river]], writing: [[File:Bhagavata Gita Bishnupur Arnab Dutta 2011.JPG|thumb|right|Krishna teaching Arjuna from ''[[Bhagavata Gita]], ''a text Thoreau read at Walden Pond ]] {{quote|In the morning I bathe my intellect in the stupendous and cosmogonal philosophy of the Bhagvat Geeta since whose composition years of the gods have elapsed, and in comparison with which our modern world and its literature seem puny and trivial; and I doubt if that philosophy is not to be referred to a previous state of existence, so remote is its sublimity from our conceptions. I lay down the book and go to my well for water, and lo! there I meet the servant of the Brahmin, priest of Brahma and Vishnu and Indra, who still sits in his temple on the Ganges reading the Vedas, or dwells at the root of a tree with his crust and water jug. I meet his servant come to draw water for his master, and our buckets as it were grate together in the same well. The pure Walden water is mingled with the sacred water of the Ganges.<ref name="ReferenceA" />}} Thoreau was aware his Ganges imagery could have been factual. He wrote about ice harvesting at Walden Pond. And he knew that New England's [[Ice trade|ice merchants]] were shipping ice to foreign ports, including [[Calcutta]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}} Additionally, Thoreau followed various [[Hinduism|Hindu]] customs, including a diet largely consisting of rice ("It was fit that I should live on rice, mainly, who loved so well the philosophy of India."<ref name="ReferenceA" />), [[flute playing]] (reminiscent of the favorite musical pastime of [[Krishna]]){{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}, and [[yoga]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}} In an 1849 letter to his friend H.G.O. Blake, he wrote about yoga and its meaning to him: {{quote|Free in this world as the birds in the air, disengaged from every kind of chains, those who practice yoga gather in Brahma the certain fruits of their works. Depend upon it that, rude and careless as I am, I would fain practice the yoga faithfully. The yogi, absorbed in contemplation, contributes in his degree to creation; he breathes a divine perfume, he hears wonderful things. Divine forms traverse him without tearing him, and united to the nature which is proper to him, he goes, he acts as animating original matter. To some extent, and at rare intervals, even I am a yogi.<ref>Miller, Barbara S. "Why Did Henry David Thoreau Take the Bhagavad-Gita to Walden Pond?" ''Parabola'' 12.1 (Spring 1986): 58–63.</ref>}} ====Biology==== [[File:Eggs BSNH 1930.png|thumb|right|Bird eggs found by Thoreau and given to the [[Boston Society of Natural History]]. Those in the nest are of [[yellow warbler]], the other two of [[red-tailed hawk]].]] Thoreau read contemporary works in the new science of biology, including the works of [[Alexander von Humboldt]], [[Charles Darwin]], and [[Asa Gray]] (Charles Darwin's staunchest American ally).<ref name=":0" /> Thoreau was deeply influenced by Humboldt, especially his work [[Kosmos (Humboldt)|Kosmos]].<ref>Wulf, Andrea. ''The Invention of Nature: Alexander Humboldt's New World''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf 2015, p. 250.</ref> In 1859, Thoreau purchased and read Darwin's ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''. Unlike many natural historians at the time, including [[Louis Agassiz]] who publicly opposed Darwinism in favor of a static view of nature, Thoreau was immediately enthusiastic about the theory of [[evolution by natural selection]] and endorsed it,<ref>Cain, William E. ''A Historical Guide to Henry David Thoreau''. {{ISBN|0195138635}}, p. 146.</ref> stating: {{quote|1=The development theory implies a greater vital force in Nature, because it is more flexible and accommodating, and equivalent to a sort of constant new creation. (A quote from ''On the Origin of Species'' follows this sentence.)<ref name=":0">Berger, Michael Benjamin. ''Thoreau's Late Career and The Dispersion of Seeds: The Saunterer's Synoptic Vision''. {{ISBN|157113168X}}, p. 52.</ref>}} ==Influence== [[File:ThoreauBust.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Bust (sculpture)|bust]] of Thoreau from the [[Hall of Fame for Great Americans]] at the [[Bronx Community College]]]] {{quote|text=Thoreau's careful observations and devastating conclusions have rippled into time, becoming stronger as the weaknesses Thoreau noted have become more pronounced ... Events that seem to be completely unrelated to his stay at Walden Pond have been influenced by it, including the national park system, the British labor movement, the creation of India, the civil rights movement, the hippie revolution, the environmental movement, and the wilderness movement. Today, Thoreau's words are quoted with feeling by liberals, socialists, anarchists, libertarians, and conservatives alike.|sign=Ken Kifer|source=''Analysis and Notes on Walden: Henry Thoreau's Text with Adjacent Thoreauvian Commentary''<ref>[http://www.kenkifer.com/Thoreau/ Analysis and Notes on Walden: Henry Thoreau's Text with Adjacent Thoreauvian Commentary] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060318110150/http://www.kenkifer.com/Thoreau/ |date=March 18, 2006 }} by Ken Kifer, 2002</ref>}} Thoreau's political writings had little impact during his lifetime, as "his contemporaries did not see him as a theorist or as a radical", viewing him instead as a naturalist. They either dismissed or ignored his political essays, including ''Civil Disobedience''. The only two complete books (as opposed to essays) published in his lifetime, ''Walden'' and ''A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers'' (1849), both dealt with nature, in which he "loved to wander".<ref name=McElroy/> His obituary was lumped in with others rather than as a separate article in an 1862 yearbook.<ref>{{cite book|title=Appletons' annual cyclopaedia and register of important events of the year: 1862|date=1863|publisher=D. Appleton & Company|location=New York|page=666|url=https://archive.org/stream/1862appletonsan02newyuoft#page/n673/mode/1up}}</ref> Nevertheless, Thoreau's writings went on to influence many public figures. Political leaders and reformers like [[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi|Mohandas Gandhi]], U.S. President [[John F. Kennedy]], American civil rights activist [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], U.S. Supreme Court Justice [[William O. Douglas]], and [[Russian (citizen)|Russian]] author [[Leo Tolstoy]] all spoke of being strongly affected by Thoreau's work, particularly ''Civil Disobedience'', as did "[[Right-wing politics|right-wing]] theorist [[Frank Chodorov]] [who] devoted an entire issue of his monthly, ''Analysis'', to an appreciation of Thoreau".<ref name=Rothbard>[[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard, Murray]]. [http://archive.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard77.html Confessions of a Right-Wing Liberal], ''[[Ramparts (magazine)|Ramparts]]'', VI, 4, June 15, 1968</ref> Thoreau also influenced many artists and authors including [[Edward Abbey]], [[Willa Cather]], [[Marcel Proust]], [[William Butler Yeats]], [[Sinclair Lewis]], [[Ernest Hemingway]], [[Upton Sinclair]],<ref>Maynard, W. Barksdale, ''Walden Pond: A History''. Oxford University Press, 2005. p. 265</ref> [[E. B. White]], [[Lewis Mumford]],<ref>Mumford, Lewis, ''The Golden Day: A Study in American Experience and Culture''. Boni and Liveright, 1926. pp. 56–59,</ref> [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], [[Alexander Posey]],<ref>Posey, Alexander. ''Lost Creeks: Collected Journals''. (Edited by Matthew Wynn Sivils) University of Nebraska Press, 2009. p. 38</ref> and [[Gustav Stickley]].<ref>Saunders, Barry. ''A Complex Fate: Gustav Stickley and the Craftsman Movement''. Preservation Press, 1996. p. 4</ref> Thoreau also influenced naturalists like [[John Burroughs]], [[John Muir]], [[E. O. Wilson]], [[Edwin Way Teale]], [[Joseph Wood Krutch]], [[B. F. Skinner]], [[David Brower]], and [[Loren Eiseley]], whom ''Publishers Weekly'' called "the modern Thoreau".<ref>Kifer, Ken ''[http://www.kenkifer.com/Thoreau/ Analysis and Notes on Walden: Henry Thoreau's Text with Adjacent Thoreauvian Commentary] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060318110150/http://www.kenkifer.com/Thoreau/ |date=March 18, 2006 }}''</ref> English writer [[Henry Stephens Salt]] wrote a biography of Thoreau in 1890, which popularized Thoreau's ideas in Britain: [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[Edward Carpenter]], and [[Robert Blatchford]] were among those who became Thoreau enthusiasts as a result of Salt's advocacy.<ref>Hendrick, George and Oehlschlaeger, Fritz (eds.) ''Toward the Making of Thoreau's Modern Reputation'', University of Illinois Press, 1979.</ref> Mohandas Gandhi first read ''Walden'' in 1906 while working as a civil rights activist in [[Johannesburg]], South Africa. He first read ''Civil Disobedience'' "while he sat in a South African prison for the crime of nonviolently protesting discrimination against the Indian population in the [[Transvaal Colony|Transvaal]]. The essay galvanized Gandhi, who wrote and published a synopsis of Thoreau's argument, calling its 'incisive logic ... unanswerable' and referring to Thoreau as 'one of the greatest and most moral men America has produced'."<ref>[[Wendy McElroy|McElroy, Wendy]] (2011-05-04) [https://mises.org/daily/5250/Here-the-State-Is-Nowhere-to-Be-Seen Here, the State Is Nowhere to Be Seen], [[Mises Institute]]</ref><ref>"Although he was practicing civil disobedience before he read Thoreau's essay, Gandhi was quick to point out the debt he owed to Thoreau and other thinkers like him".Shawn Chandler Bingham, ''Thoreau and the sociological imagination : the wilds of society''. Lanham, Md. : Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2008. {{ISBN|9780742560581}} p. 31.</ref> He told American reporter [[Webb Miller (journalist)|Webb Miller]], "[Thoreau's] ideas influenced me greatly. I adopted some of them and recommended the study of Thoreau to all of my friends who were helping me in the cause of Indian Independence. Why I actually took the name of my movement from Thoreau's essay 'On the Duty of Civil Disobedience', written about 80&nbsp;years ago."<ref>Miller, Webb. I Found No Peace. Garden City, 1938. 238–39</ref> [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] noted in his autobiography that his first encounter with the idea of nonviolent resistance was reading "On Civil Disobedience" in 1944 while attending [[Morehouse College]]. He wrote in his autobiography that it was, <blockquote>Here, in this courageous New Englander's refusal to pay his taxes and his choice of jail rather than support a war that would spread slavery's territory into Mexico, I made my first contact with the theory of nonviolent resistance. Fascinated by the idea of refusing to cooperate with an evil system, I was so deeply moved that I reread the work several times. I became convinced that noncooperation with evil is as much a moral obligation as is cooperation with good. No other person has been more eloquent and passionate in getting this idea across than Henry David Thoreau. As a result of his writings and personal witness, we are the heirs of a legacy of creative protest. The teachings of Thoreau came alive in our civil rights movement; indeed, they are more alive than ever before. Whether expressed in a sit-in at lunch counters, a freedom ride into Mississippi, a peaceful protest in Albany, Georgia, a bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama, these are outgrowths of Thoreau's insistence that evil must be resisted and that no moral man can patiently adjust to injustice.<ref>King, M.L. ''[http://www.stanford.edu/group/King//publications/autobiography/chp_2.htm Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070308023614/http://www.stanford.edu/group/King/publications/autobiography/chp_2.htm |date=March 8, 2007 }}'' chapter two</ref></blockquote> American psychologist B. F. Skinner wrote that he carried a copy of Thoreau's ''Walden'' with him in his youth.<ref>Skinner, B. F., ''A Matter of Consequences''</ref> In 1945 he wrote ''[[Walden Two]]'', a fictional utopia about 1,000 members of a community living together inspired by the life of Thoreau.<ref>Skinner, B. F., ''Walden Two'' (1948)</ref> Thoreau and his fellow [[Transcendentalists]] from [[Concord, Massachusetts|Concord]] were a major inspiration of the composer [[Charles Ives]]. The 4th movement of the [[Concord Sonata]] for piano (with a part for flute, Thoreau's instrument) is a character picture, and he also set Thoreau's words.<ref>Burkholder, James Peter. ''Charles Ives and His World.'' Princeton University Press, 1996 (pp. 50–51)</ref> Actor [[Ron Thompson (actor)|Ron Thompson]] did a dramatic portrayal of Henry David Thoreau on the 1976 [[NBC]] television series ''[[The Rebels (TV series)|The Rebels]]''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tele-Vues, Sunday, June 6, 1976|date=June 6, 1976|work=[[Independent Press-Telegram]]|location=[[Long Beach, California]]|page=170|url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/30664120/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=June 5, 1976|work=[[Redlands Daily Facts]]|title=TV Log|location=[[Redlands, California]]|page=10|url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/15447614/}}</ref><ref>{{cite video|work=[[NBC]]|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3FdGBFTxkHY|title=Actor Ron Thompson as Henry David Thoreau in The Rebels|date=June 6, 1976}}</ref> Thoreau's ideas have impacted and resonated with various strains in the [[Anarchism|anarchist]] movement, with [[Emma Goldman]] referring to him as "the greatest American anarchist".<ref>{{cite book|author=Goldman, Emma|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_U5ZYAAAAMAAJ|title=Anarchism and Other Essays|publisher=Mother Earth Publishing Association|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_U5ZYAAAAMAAJ/page/n67 62]|year=1917|author-link = Emma Goldman}}</ref> [[Green anarchism]] and [[anarcho-primitivism]] in particular have both derived inspiration and ecological points-of-view from the writings of Thoreau. [[John Zerzan]] included Thoreau's text "Excursions" (1863) in his edited compilation of works in the anarcho-primitivist tradition titled ''Against civilization: Readings and reflections''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.amazon.fr/dp/toc/0922915989|title=Against Civilization: Readings And Reflections|first=John|last=Zerzan|publisher=|via=Amazon}}</ref> Additionally, [[Murray Rothbard]], the founder of [[anarcho-capitalism]], has opined that Thoreau was one of the "great intellectual heroes" of his movement.<ref name="Rothbard" /> Thoreau was also an important influence on late-19th-century [[anarchist]] [[naturist|naturism]].<ref name="naturismolibertario">[http://www.soliobrera.org/pdefs/cuaderno4.pdf#search=%22Antonia%20Maym%C3%B3n%22 El naturismo libertario en la Península Ibérica (1890–1939) by Jose Maria Rosello] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102181805/http://www.soliobrera.org/pdefs/cuaderno4.pdf |date=January 2, 2016 }}</ref><ref name="ortega">{{cite web|url=https://www.naturismo.org/adn/ediciones/2003/invierno/7e.html|title=Anarchism, Nudism, Naturism|first=Carlos |last=Ortega|publisher=}}</ref> Globally, Thoreau's concepts also held importance within [[individualist anarchist]] circles<ref name="spanishind">[http://www.acracia.org/xdiez.html "La insumisión voluntaria. El anarquismo individualista Español durante la dictadura y la segunda República (1923–1938)" by Xavier Diez] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060526224800/http://www.acracia.org/xdiez.html |date=May 26, 2006 }}</ref><ref name="aujourdhui">"Les anarchistes individualistes du début du siècle l'avaient bien compris, et intégraient le naturisme dans leurs préoccupations. Il est vraiment dommage que ce discours se soit peu à peu effacé, d'antan plus que nous assistons, en ce moment, à un retour en force du puritanisme (conservateur par essence)."[http://ytak.club.fr/natytak.html "Anarchisme et naturisme, aujourd'hui." by Cathy Ytak] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225212442/http://ytak.club.fr/natytak.html |date=February 25, 2009 }}</ref> in Spain,<ref name="naturismolibertario" /><ref name="ortega" /><ref name="spanishind" /> France,<ref name="spanishind" /><ref name="france">[http://ytak.club.fr/natbiblioarmand.html Recension des articles de l'En-Dehors consacrés au naturisme et au nudisme] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014165702/http://ytak.club.fr/natbiblioarmand.html |date=October 14, 2008 }}</ref> and Portugal.<ref name="portugal">Freire, João. "Anarchisme et naturisme au Portugal, dans les années 1920" in ''Les anarchistes du Portugal''. [Bibliographic data necessary for this ref.]</ref> For the 200th anniversary of his birth, publishers released several new editions of his work: a recreation of ''Walden''{{'s}} 1902 edition with illustrations, a picture book with excerpts from ''Walden'', and an annotated collection of Thoreau's essays on slavery.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Williams |first1=John |title=Alcoholism in America |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=2017-07-07 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/07/books/review/alcoholism-in-america.html |issn=0362-4331 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> The United States Postal Service issued a commemorative stamp honoring Thoreau on May 23, 2017 in Concord, MA.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://stamps.org/US-New-Issues-2017|title=American Philatelic Society|website=stamps.org}}</ref> ===Adaptations=== In 2017, ''[[Walden, a Game]]'' was released on itch.io. Created by [[Tracy Fullerton]], it is an open world, first person videogame adaptation of Thoreau's ''[[Walden]]''. Players can build the protagonist's cabin, explore the environment, record flora and fauna, farm the land, visit Emerson's house and the town of Concord. At the end of each day players are invited to reflect on their journal which gradually fills up with reflections based on the player's journey and day-to-day experiences. The game also includes letters between Thoreau and his contemporaries, including Amos Bronson Alcott and Ralph Waldo Emerson. It also includes letters between his contemporaries to build a picture of Thoreau's reception as a writer and his connections in the literary and Transcendentalist scene in America at the time. The game was released for Playstation 4 in 2018. ==Criticism== Although his writings would receive widespread acclaim, Thoreau's ideas were not universally applauded. Scottish author [[Robert Louis Stevenson]] judged Thoreau's endorsement of living alone and apart from modern society in natural simplicity to be a mark of "unmanly" [[effeminacy]] and "womanish solitude", while deeming him a self-indulgent "skulker".<ref>Stevenson, Robert Louis. [http://thoreau.eserver.org/stevens1.html "Henry David Thoreau: His Character and Opinions"]. Cornhill Magazine. June 1880.</ref> [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]] had mixed feelings about Thoreau. He noted that "He is a keen and delicate observer of nature—a genuine observer—which, I suspect, is almost as rare a character as even an original poet; and Nature, in return for his love, seems to adopt him as her especial child, and shows him secrets which few others are allowed to witness."<ref>Nathaniel Hawthorne, ''Passages From the American Note-Books'', entry for September 2, 1842.</ref> On the other hand, he also wrote that Thoreau "repudiated all regular modes of getting a living, and seems inclined to lead a sort of Indian life among civilized men".<ref>Hawthorne, ''The Heart of Hawthorne's Journals'', p. 106.</ref><ref>Borst, Raymond R. ''The Thoreau Log: A Documentary Life of Henry David Thoreau, 1817–1862.'' New York: G.K. Hall, 1992.</ref> In a similar vein, poet [[John Greenleaf Whittier]] detested what he deemed to be the "wicked" and "heathenish" message of ''Walden'', claiming that Thoreau wanted man to "lower himself to the level of a [[woodchuck]] and walk on four legs".<ref>Wagenknecht, Edward. ''John Greenleaf Whittier: A Portrait in Paradox''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1967: 112.</ref> In response to such criticisms, English novelist [[George Eliot]], writing for the ''[[Westminster Review]]'', characterized such critics as uninspired and narrow-minded: {{quote|text=People—very wise in their own eyes—who would have every man's life ordered according to a particular pattern, and who are intolerant of every existence the utility of which is not palpable to them, may pooh-pooh Mr. Thoreau and this episode in his history, as unpractical and dreamy.<ref>''[[The New England Quarterly]]'', Vol. 6, No. 4 (Dec., 1933), pp. 733–46</ref>}} Thoreau himself also responded to the criticism in a paragraph of his work ''Walden'' by illustrating the irrelevance of their inquiries: {{quote|text=I should not obtrude my affairs so much on the notice of my readers if very particular inquiries had not been made by my townsmen concerning my mode of life, which some would call impertinent, though they do not appear to me at all impertinent, but, considering the circumstances, very natural and pertinent. Some have asked what I got to eat; if I did not feel lonesome; if I was not afraid; and the like. Others have been curious to learn what portion of my income I devoted to charitable purposes; and some, who have large families, how many poor children I maintained. ... Unfortunately, I am confined to this theme by the narrowness of my experience. Moreover, I, on my side, require of every writer, first or last, a simple and sincere account of his own life, and not merely what he has heard of other men's lives; ... I trust that none will stretch the seams in putting on the coat, for it may do good service to him whom it fits.<ref>Thoreau ''Walden'' (1854)</ref>}} Recent criticism has accused Thoreau of hypocrisy, misanthropy, and being sanctimonious, based on his writings in ''Walden'',<ref name=neworker1>{{cite web|url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/10/19/pond-scum |title=Henry David Thoreau, Hypocrite |last1=Schultz |first1=Kathryn |date=October 19, 2015 |work=The New Yorker |access-date=October 19, 2015 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151019170355/http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/10/19/pond-scum |archivedate=October 19, 2015 }}</ref> although this criticism has been perceived as highly selective.<ref name=medium1>{{cite web|url=https://medium.com/@TheNewThoreau/why-do-we-love-thoreau-because-he-was-right-175251814c |title=Why do we love Thoreau? Because he was right. |date=October 19, 2015 |publisher=Medium |access-date=October 19, 2015 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151019170355/https://medium.com/%40TheNewThoreau/why-do-we-love-thoreau-because-he-was-right-175251814c |archivedate=October 19, 2015 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref name=newrepublic>{{cite journal|url=https://newrepublic.com/article/123151/defense-thoreau |title=Henry David Thoreau's Radical Optimism |first1=Jonathan |last1=Malesic |date=October 19, 2015 |journal=New Republic |access-date=October 19, 2015 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151019204535/http://www.newrepublic.com/article/123151/defense-thoreau |archivedate=October 19, 2015 }}</ref><ref name=newrepublic2>{{cite journal|url=https://newrepublic.com/article/123162/everybody-hates-henry-david-thoreau |title=Everybody Hates Henry |first1=Donovan |last1=Hohn |date=October 21, 2015 |journal=New Republic |access-date=October 21, 2015 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151026134755/http://www.newrepublic.com/article/123162/everybody-hates-henry-david-thoreau |archivedate=October 26, 2015 }}</ref> ==Works== {{expand list|date=October 2014}} {{Thoreauviana}} * ''Aulus Persius Flaccus'' (1840)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays Aulus Persius Flaccus] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays |date=December 22, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''[[The Service]]'' (1840)<ref name=":4"/> * ''[[A Walk to Wachusett]]'' (1842)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays A Walk to Wachusett] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays |date=December 22, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''[[Paradise (to be) Regained]]'' (1843)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays Paradise (to be) Regained] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays |date=December 22, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''The Landlord'' (1843)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/pageviewer?frames=1&cite=http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=AGD1642-0013-6&coll=moa&root=/moa/usde/usde0013/&tif=00445.TIF&view=100|title=The United States Democratic Review Volume 0013 Issue 64 (Oct 1843)|publisher=}}</ref> * ''[[Sir Walter Raleigh (essay)|Sir Walter Raleigh]]'' (1844) * ''[[Herald of Freedom (essay)|Herald of Freedom]]'' (1844)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays Herald of Freedom] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays |date=December 22, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''[[Wendell Phillips Before the Concord Lyceum]]'' (1845)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays Wendell Phillips Before the Concord Lyceum] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays |date=December 22, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''[[Reform and the Reformers]]'' (1846–48) * ''[[Thomas Carlyle and His Works]]'' (1847)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays Thomas Carlyle and His Works] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays |date=December 22, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''[[A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers]]'' (1849)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?title=A+Week+on+the+Concord+and+Merrimack+Rivers&tmode=start&c=x|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers from Project Gutenberg|publisher=}}</ref> * ''[[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|Resistance to Civil Government]]'', or ''Civil Disobedience'', or ''On the Duty of Civil Disobedience'' (1849)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/aestheticpapers00peabrich|title=Aesthetic papers|first1=Elizabeth Palmer|last1=Peabody|first2=Ralph Waldo|last2=Emerson|first3=Nathaniel|last3=Hawthorne|first4=Henry David|last4=Thoreau|date=January 1, 1849|publisher=Boston, : The editor; New York, : G.P. Putnam|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> * ''An Excursion to Canada'' (1853)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/A_Yankee_in_Canada A Yankee in Canada] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617002714/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/A_Yankee_in_Canada |date=June 17, 2011 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''[[Slavery in Massachusetts]]'' (1854)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays Slavery in Massachusetts] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays |date=December 22, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''[[Walden]]'' (1854)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Walden Walden] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100926152652/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Walden |date=September 26, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''[[A Plea for Captain John Brown]]'' (1859)<ref name=":3">[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays A Plea for Captain John Brown] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays |date=December 22, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''[[Remarks After the Hanging of John Brown]]'' (1859)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays After the Death of John Brown] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays |date=December 22, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''[[The Last Days of John Brown]]'' (1860)<ref name=":1"/> * ''[[Walking (Thoreau)|Walking]]'' (1862)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?author=Thoreau&amode=words&title=Walking&tmode=start&c=x|title=Walking|publisher=}}</ref> * ''Autumnal Tints'' (1862)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays Autumnal Tints] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays |date=December 22, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''Wild Apples: The History of the Apple Tree'' (1862)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=4066|title=Wild Apples, from Project Gutenberg|publisher=}}</ref> * ''The Fall of the Leaf'' (1863)<ref name=":5">{{cite web|url=http://www.walden.org/Library/About_Thoreau%27s_Life_and_Writings:_The_Research_Collections/Civil_Disobedience |work=Walden.org |title=The Walden Woods Project |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160620124518/http://www.walden.org/Library/About_Thoreau%27s_Life_and_Writings%3A_The_Research_Collections/Civil_Disobedience |archivedate=June 20, 2016 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|date=1863|publisher=[[Riverside Publishing|The Riverside Press, Cambridge]]|pages=407–08|title=The Writings of Henry David Thoreau: Excursions, translations, and poems|author1=Henry David Thoreau|author2=Bradford Torrey|author3=Franklin Benjamin Sanborn|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wpA9AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA407}}</ref> * ''[[Excursions (anthology)|Excursions]]'' (1863)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/excursionhenry00thorrich|title=Excursions|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|last2=Houghton (H. O.) & Company. (1863) bkp CU-BANC|first3=Ralph Waldo|last3=Emerson|first4=Sophia E.|last4=Thoreau|date=January 1, 1863|publisher=Boston, Ticknor and Fields|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> * ''[[Life Without Principle]]'' (1863)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABK2934-0012-65|title=The Atlantic Monthly Volume 0012 Issue 71 (September 1863)|publisher=}}</ref> * ''Night and Moonlight'' (1863)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABK2934-0012-77|title=The Atlantic Monthly Volume 0012 Issue 72 (November 1863)|publisher=}}</ref> * ''The Highland Light'' (1864)<ref name="u of adelaide">{{cite web|title=Henry David Thoreau, 1817–1862|url=https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/t/thoreau/henry_david/|website=ebooks.adelaide.edu|publisher=The University of Adelaide|accessdate=1 January 2018|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824024207/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/t/thoreau/henry_david/|archivedate=August 24, 2017|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref> * ''The Maine Woods'' (1864)<ref>[http://thoreau.eserver.org/mewoods.html The Maine Woods] from The Thoreau Reader</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/mainewoods00thorrich|title=The Maine woods|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=Sophia E.|last2=Thoreau|first3=William Ellery|last3=Channing|date=January 1, 1864|publisher=Boston, Ticknor and Fields|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> Fully Annotated Edition. [[Jeffrey S. Cramer]], ed., Yale University Press, 2009 * ''Cape Cod'' (1865)<ref name=":9">{{cite web|url=http://thoreau.eserver.org/capecd00.html|title=Thoreau's Cape Cod - an annotated edition|first=Richard|last=Lenat|publisher=}}</ref> * ''Letters to Various Persons'' (1865)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/lettersvarpersons00thorrich|title=Letters to various persons|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=Henry David|last2=Thoreau|first3=Ralph Waldo|last3=Emerson|date=January 1, 1865|publisher=Boston : Ticknor and Fields|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> * ''[[A Yankee in Canada, with Anti-Slavery and Reform Papers]]'' (1866)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/yankeeincanada00thorrich|title=A Yankee in Canada, with Anti-slavery and reform papers|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=Henry David|last2=Thoreau|first3=William Ellery|last3=Channing|first4=Ralph Waldo|last4=Emerson|first5=Sophia E.|last5=Thoreau|date=January 1, 1866|publisher=Boston, Ticknor and Fields|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> * ''Early Spring in Massachusetts'' (1881) * ''Summer'' (1884)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/summerjournal00thorrich|title=Summer : from the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=H. G. O. (Harrison Gray Otis)|last2=Blake|date=January 1, 1884|publisher=London : T. Fisher Unwin|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> * ''Winter'' (1888)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/winterjournal00thorrich|title=Winter : from the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=H. G. O.|last2=Blake|date=January 1, 1888|publisher=Boston : Houghton, Mifflin|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> * ''Autumn'' (1892)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/autumnjournal00thorrich|title=Autumn. From the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=Harrison Gray Otis|last2=Blake|publisher=Boston, Houghton, Mifflin|via=Internet Archive|date=1892-12-03}}</ref> * ''Miscellanies'' (1894)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Cape_Cod_and_Miscellanies Miscellanies]{{dead link|date=March 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''Familiar Letters of Henry David Thoreau'' (1894)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/familiarletters00thorrich|title=Familiar letters of Henry David Thoreau|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=F. B. (Franklin Benjamin)|last2=Sanborn|date=January 1, 1894|publisher=Boston : Houghton, Mifflin|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> * ''Poems of Nature'' (1895)<ref name="u of adelaide"/> * ''Some Unpublished Letters of Henry D. and Sophia E. Thoreau'' (1898)<ref name="u of adelaide"/> * ''The First and Last Journeys of Thoreau'' (1905)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/firstlastjourneys01thorrich|title=The first and last journeys of Thoreau : lately discovered among his unpublished journals and manuscripts|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=Mass )|last2=Bibliophile Society (Boston|first3=Mass )|last3=Bibliophile Society (Boston|first4=F. B. (Franklin Benjamin)|last4=Sanborn|date=January 1, 1905|publisher=Boston : Printed exclusively for members of the Bibliophile Society|via=Internet Archive}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/firstlastjourneys02thorrich|title=The first and last journeys of Thoreau : lately discovered among his unpublished journals and manuscripts|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=Mass )|last2=Bibliophile Society (Boston|first3=Mass )|last3=Bibliophile Society (Boston|first4=F. B. (Franklin Benjamin)|last4=Sanborn|date=January 1, 1905|publisher=Boston : Printed exclusively for members of the Bibliophile Society|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> * ''Journal of Henry David Thoreau'' (1906)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Journal The Journal of Henry D. Thoreau] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100505210829/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Journal |date=May 5, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''The Correspondence of Henry David Thoreau'' edited by Walter Harding and Carl Bode (Washington Square: New York University Press, 1958)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Correspondence The Correspondence of Thoreau] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617003655/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Correspondence |date=June 17, 2011 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''Poets of the English Language'' (Viking Press, 1950){{citation needed|date=May 2017}} * ''I Was Made Erect and Lone''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.poetryfoundation.org/poem/184857|title=I Was Made Erect and Lone|publisher=|date=2018-12-03}}</ref> * ''The Bluebird Carries the Sky on His Back'' (Stanyan, 1970)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medium.com/@alpharust/the-bluebird-carries-the-sky-on-his-back-ac96daf58a4d|title=The bluebird carries the sky on his back|last=Rastogi|first=Gaurav|date=2015-05-11|website=Medium|language=en|access-date=2020-01-15}}</ref> * ''The Dispersion of Seeds'' published as ''Faith in a Seed'' (Island Press, 1993)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/faithinseeddispe00thor|title=Faith in a Seed: The Dispersion of Seeds and Other Late Natural History Writings|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|date=April 1996|website=Island Press|isbn=978-1559631822|access-date=January 29, 2018|url-access=registration}}</ref> * ''The Indian Notebooks'' (1847-1861) [https://www.walden.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/IndianNotebooks-1.pdf selections by Richard F. Fleck] ==See also== * [[American philosophy]] * [[List of American philosophers]] * [[List of peace activists]] * [[Walden Woods Project]] ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Further reading== {{Refbegin}} * Balthrop‐Lewis, Alda. "Exemplarist Environmental Ethics: Thoreau’s Political Ascetism against Solution Thinking." ''Journal of Religious Ethics'' 47.3 (2019): 525-550. * Bode, Carl. ''Best of Thoreau's Journals''. Southern Illinois University Press. 1967. * Botkin, Daniel. ''No Man's Garden'' * Buell, Lawrence. ''The Environmental Imagination: Thoreau, Nature Writing, and the Formation of American Culture'' (Harvard UP, 1995) * Cafaro, Philip. ''Thoreau’s Living Ethics: “Walden” and the Pursuit of Virtue'' (U of Georgia Press, 2004) * [[Frank Chodorov|Chodorov, Frank]]. [https://mises.org/daily/5033/The-Disarming-Honesty-of-Henry-David-Thoreau ''The Disarming Honesty of Henry David Thoreau''] * Conrad, Randall. [http://thoreau.eserver.org/whowhy.html ''Who He Was & Why He Matters''] * Cramer, Jeffrey S. ''Solid Seasons: The Friendship of Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson'' (Counterpoint Press, 2019). * Dean, Bradley P. ed., ''Letters to a Spiritual Seeker''. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2004. * Finley, James S., ed. ''Henry David Thoreau in Context'' (Cambridge UP, 2017). * Furtak, Rick, Ellsworth, Jonathan, and Reid, James D., eds. ''Thoreau's Importance for Philosophy''. New York: Fordham University Press, 2012. * Gionfriddo, Michael. "Thoreau, the Work of Breathing, and Building Castles in the Air: Reading Walden's 'Conclusion'." ''The Concord Saunterer'' 25 (2017): 49-90 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/44652797 online]. * Harding, Walter. ''The Days of Henry Thoreau''. Princeton University Press, 1982. * Hendrick, George. "The Influence of Thoreau's 'Civil Disobedience' on Gandhi's Satyagraha." ''The New England Quarterly'' 29, no. 4 (December 1956). 462–71. * Hess, Scott. "Walden Pond as Thoreau’s Landscape of Genius." ''Nineteenth-Century Literature'' 74.2 (2019): 224-250. [https://ncl.ucpress.edu/content/ucpncl/74/2/224.full.pdf online] * Howarth, William. ''The Book of Concord: Thoreau's Life as a Writer''. Viking Press, 1982 * McGregor, Robert Kuhn. ''A Wider View of the Universe: Henry Thoreau’s Study of Nature'' (U of Illinois Press, 1997). * [[Annie Russell Marble|Marble, Annie Russell]]. ''Thoreau: His Home, Friends and Books''. New York: AMS Press. 1969 [1902] * Myerson, Joel et al. ''The Cambridge Companion to Henry David Thoreau''. Cambridge University Press. 1995 * Nash, Roderick. ''Henry David Thoreau, Philosopher'' * Paolucci, Stefano. [https://www.academia.edu/16692328/The_Foundations_of_Thoreaus_Castles_in_the_Air_ "The Foundations of Thoreau's 'Castles in the Air'"], ''Thoreau Society Bulletin'', No. 290 (Summer 2015), 10. (See also the [https://www.academia.edu/25773131/Stefano_Paolucci_The_Foundations_of_Thoreaus_Castles_in_the_Air_Full_Uncensored_Version_ Full Unedited Version] of the same article.) * Parrington, Vernon. ''[http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/parrington/vol2/bk03_03_ch03.html Main Current in American Thought]''. V 2 online. 1927 * Parrington, Vernon L. [http://thoreau.eserver.org/currents.html ''Henry Thoreau: Transcendental Economist''] * Petroski, Henry. "H. D. Thoreau, Engineer." ''American Heritage of Invention and Technology'', Vol. 5, No. 2, pp.&nbsp;8–16 * Petrulionis, Sandra Harbert, ed., ''Thoreau in His Own Time: A Biographical Chronicle of His Life, Drawn From Recollections, Interviews, and Memoirs by Family, Friends, and Associates.'' Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2012. {{ISBN|1-60938-087-8}} * Richardson, Robert D. ''Henry Thoreau: A Life of the Mind''. University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles. 1986. {{ISBN|0-520-06346-5}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Riggenbach |first=Jeff |editor-first=Ronald |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC |date=2008 |publisher= [[SAGE Publications|SAGE]]; [[Cato Institute]] |location= [[Thousand Oaks, California]] |doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n309 |isbn= 978-1-4129-6580-4 |oclc=750831024| lccn = 2008009151 |pages=506–07 |quote= |ref= |chapter=Thoreau, Henry David (1817–1862) |title=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism }} * {{Cite journal|last=Riggenbach|first=Jeff|title=Henry David Thoreau: Founding Father of American Libertarian Thought |journal=Mises Daily |date=July 15, 2010|url=https://mises.org/daily/4562/Henry-David-Thoreau-Founding-Father-of-American-Libertarian-Thought}} * Ridl, Jack. "[http://magazine.scintillapress.com/moose-indian.html Moose. Indian.]" Scintilla (poem on Thoreau's last words) * Schneider, Richard ''Civilizing Thoreau: Human Ecology and the Emerging Social Sciences in the Major Works'' [[Rochester, New York]]. Camden House. 2016. {{ISBN|978-1-57113-960-3}} * Smith, David C. "The Transcendental Saunterer: Thoreau and the Search for Self." [[Savannah, Georgia]]: Frederic C. Beil, 1997. {{ISBN|0-913720-74-7}} * Sullivan, Mark W. "Henry David Thoreau in the American Art of the 1950s." ''The Concord Saunterer: A Journal of Thoreau Studies'', New Series, Vol. 18 (2010), pp.&nbsp;68–89. * Sullivan, Mark W. ''Picturing Thoreau: Henry David Thoreau in American Visual Culture.'' [[Lanham, Maryland]]: Lexington Books, 2015 * [[Alfred I. Tauber|Tauber, Alfred I]]. ''Henry David Thoreau and the Moral Agency of Knowing''. University of California, Berkeley. 2001. {{ISBN|0-520-23915-6}} * [http://www.iep.utm.edu/thoreau/ Henry David Thoreau]{{nbsp}}– ''[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'' * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/thoreau/ Henry David Thoreau]{{nbsp}}– ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'' * Thorson, Robert M. ''The Boatman: Henry David Thoreau's River Years'' (Harvard UP, 2017), on his scientific study of the Concord River in the late 1850s. * Thorson, Robert M. ''Walden’s Shore: Henry David Thoreau and Nineteenth-Century Science'' (2015). * Thorson, Robert M. ''The Guide to Walden Pond: An Exploration of the History, Nature, Landscape, and Literature of One of America's Most Iconic Places'' (2018). * {{cite journal|last1=Traub|first1=Courtney|title='First-Rate Fellows': Excavating Thoreau's Radical Egalitarian Reflections in a Late Draft of "Allegash"|journal=The Concord Saunterer: A Journal of Thoreau Studies|date=2015|volume=23|pages=74–96}} * [[Laura Walls|Walls, Laura Dassow]]. ''Seeing New Worlds: Henry David Thoreau and 19th Century Science''. University of Wisconsin. 1995. {{ISBN|0-299-14744-4}} * [[Laura Walls|Walls, Laura Dassow]]. ''Henry David Thoreau: A Life''. The University of Chicago Press. 2017. {{ISBN|978-0-226-34469-0}} {{Refend}} ==External links== {{wikisource author}} {{wikiquote}} {{commons}} {{Library resources box|onlinebooks=yes|by=yes}} * [http://www.thoreausociety.org/ The Thoreau Society] * [http://www.library.ucsb.edu/thoreau/ The Thoreau Edition] * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?164015-1/writings-emerson-thoreau "Writings of Emerson and Thoreau"] from [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Writers: A Journey Through History]]'' ;Texts * [http://thoreau.eserver.org/ The Thoreau Reader] by ''[[Thoreau Society|The Thoreau Society]]'' * [https://www.walden.org/thoreau/the-writings-of-henry-david-thoreau-the-digital-collection/ The Writings of Henry David Thoreau] at ''The Walden Woods Project'' * [http://www.concordlibrary.org/scollect/Thoreau_Surveys/Thoreau_Surveys.htm Scans of Thoreau's Land Surveys] at the Concord Free Public Library * [http://www.thoreau-online.org/ Henry David Thoreau Online]{{nbsp}}– The Works and Life of Henry D. Thoreau * {{Gutenberg author | id=54 | name=Henry David Thoreau}} * {{FadedPage|id=Thoreau, Henry D.|name=Henry D. Thoreau|author=yes}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Henry David Thoreau}} * {{Librivox author |id=371}} * [https://openlibrary.org/search?q=henry+david+thoreau&author_key=OL19690A Works by Thoreau] at Open Library * [https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poems/45769 Poems by Thoreau] at the Academy of American Poets {{Henry David Thoreau| state=expanded}} {{Social and political philosophy}} {{Simple living}} {{Anarchism}} {{Mohandas K. Gandhi}} {{Hall of Fame for Great Americans}} {{Authority control}} {{Portal bar|Biography|United States|Environment|Poetry|Politics}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Thoreau, Henry David}} [[Category:Henry David Thoreau| ]] [[Category:1817 births]] [[Category:1862 deaths]] [[Category:19th-century American philosophers]] [[Category:19th-century American poets]] [[Category:19th-century Unitarians]] [[Category:19th-century deaths from tuberculosis]] [[Category:American Unitarians]] [[Category:American abolitionists]] [[Category:American anarchists]] [[Category:American diarists]] [[Category:American environmentalists]] [[Category:American essayists]] [[Category:American libertarians]] [[Category:American male essayists]] [[Category:American male non-fiction writers]] [[Category:American male poets]] [[Category:American naturalists]] [[Category:American nature writers]] [[Category:American naturists]] [[Category:American nomads]] [[Category:American non-fiction environmental writers]] [[Category:American people of French descent]] [[Category:American political philosophers]] [[Category:American spiritual writers]] [[Category:American surveyors]] [[Category:American tax resisters]] [[Category:American travel writers]] [[Category:Anarchism]] [[Category:Anarchist writers]] [[Category:Anti-consumerists]] [[Category:Civil disobedience]] [[Category:Critics of work and the work ethic]] [[Category:American cultural critics]] [[Category:Ecological succession]] [[Category:Environmental writers]] [[Category:Green anarchists]] [[Category:Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees]] [[Category:Harvard College alumni]] [[Category:Hasty Pudding alumni]] [[Category:Hikers]] [[Category:Tuberculosis deaths in Massachusetts]] [[Category:Lecturers]] [[Category:Left-libertarians]] [[Category:Nature writers]] [[Category:Opinion journalists]] [[Category:People from Concord, Massachusetts]] [[Category:Philosophers from Massachusetts]] [[Category:Philosophers of culture]] [[Category:Philosophers of history]] [[Category:Philosophers of love]] [[Category:Philosophers of mind]] [[Category:Philosophers of science]] [[Category:Poets from Massachusetts]] [[Category:Self-published authors]] [[Category:Simple living advocates]] [[Category:American social commentators]] [[Category:Social critics]] [[Category:Social philosophers]] [[Category:Underground Railroad people]]'
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'{{Redirect|Thoreau}} {{pp-pc1|small=yes}} {{short description|American essayist, poet and philosopher}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2011}} {{Infobox philosopher |region = [[Western philosophy]] |era = [[19th century philosophy]] |image = File:Benjamin D. Maxham - Henry David Thoreau - Restored - greyscale - straightened.jpg |caption = Thoreau in 1856 |name = Henry David Thoreau |birth_name = David Henry Thoreau |birth_date = {{birth date|1817|07|12}} |birth_place = [[Concord, Massachusetts]], U.S. |death_date = {{death date and age|1862|05|06|1817|07|12}} |death_place = Concord, Massachusetts, U.S. |signature = Henry David Thoreau Signature SVG.svg |school_tradition = [[Transcendentalism]]<ref name=":6"/> |alma_mater = [[Harvard College]] |main_interests = {{hbiography, ''Thoreau the Poet-Naturalist'', in 1873.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Channing|first1=William Ellery|url=http://archive.org/details/poetnatthoreau00chanrich|title=Thoreau, the poet-naturalist, with Memorial verses|last2=Merrymount Press|last3=Sanborn|first3=F. B. (Franklin Benjamin)|last4=Updike|first4=Daniel Berkeley|date=1902|publisher=Boston, C. E. Goodspeed|others=University of California Libraries}}</ref> Channing and another friend, [[Harrison Blake]], edited some poems, essays, and journal entries for posthumous publication in the 1890s. Thoreau's journals, which he often mined for his published works but which remained largely unpublished at his death, were first published in 1906 and helped to build his modern reputation.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}} A new, expanded edition of the journals is under way, published by [[Princeton University Press]]. Today, Thoreau is regarded as one of the foremost American writers, both for the modern clarity of his prose style and the prescience of his views on nature and politics. His memory is honored by the international [[Thoreau Society]] and his legacy honored by the Thoreau Institute at Walden Woods, established in 1998 in Lincoln, Massachusetts. ===Nature and human existence=== {{quote|Most of the luxuries and many of the so-called comforts of life are not only not indispensable, but positive hindrances to the elevation of mankind.| Thoreau<ref>''Walden, or Life in the Woods'' (Chapter 1: "Economy")</ref>}} Thoreau was an early advocate of recreational hiking and [[canoeing]], of conserving natural resources on private land, and of preserving wilderness as public land. He was himself a highly skilled canoeist; [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], after a ride with him, noted that "Mr. Thoreau managed the boat so perfectly, either with two paddles or with one, that it seemed instinct with his own will, and to require no physical effort to guide it."<ref>Nathaniel Hawthorne, Passages From the American Note-Books, entry for September 2, 1842.</ref> He was not a strict vegetarian, though he said he preferred that diet<ref>Brooks, Van Wyck. ''The Flowering of New England''. New York: E. P. Dutton and Company, Inc., 1952. p. 310</ref> and advocated it as a means of self-improvement. He wrote in ''Walden'', "The practical objection to animal food in my case was its uncleanness; and besides, when I had caught and cleaned and cooked and eaten my fish, they seemed not to have fed me essentially. It was insignificant and unnecessary, and cost more than it came to. A little bread or a few potatoes would have done as well, with less trouble and filth."<ref name="Cheever241">Cheever, Susan (2006). ''American Bloomsbury: Louisa May Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Fuller, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry David Thoreau; Their Lives, Their Loves, Their Work''. Detroit: Thorndike Press. Large print edition. p. 241. {{ISBN|0-7862-9521-X}}.</ref> [[File:Thoreaus quote near his cabin site, Walden Pond.jpg|thumb|Thoreau's famous quotation, near his cabin site at Walden Pond]] Thoreau neither rejected civilization nor fully embraced wilderness. Instead he sought a middle ground, the [[pastoral]] realm that integrates nature and culture. His philosophy required that he be a didactic arbitrator between the wilderness he based so much on and the spreading mass of humanity in North America. He decried the latter endlessly but felt that a teacher needs to be close to those who needed to hear what he wanted to tell them. The wildness he enjoyed was the nearby swamp or forest, and he preferred "partially cultivated country". His idea of being "far in the recesses of the wilderness" of Maine was to "travel the logger's path and the Indian trail", but he also hiked on pristine land. In the essay "Henry David Thoreau, Philosopher" [[Roderick Nash]] wrote, "Thoreau left Concord in 1846 for the first of three trips to northern Maine. His expectations were high because he hoped to find genuine, primeval America. But contact with real wilderness in Maine affected him far differently than had the idea of wilderness in Concord. Instead of coming out of the woods with a deepened appreciation of the wilds, Thoreau felt a greater respect for civilization and realized the necessity of balance."<ref>Nash, Roderick. ''Wilderness and the American Mind: Henry David Thoreau: Philosopher''.</ref> Of alcohol, Thoreau wrote, "I would fain keep sober always. ... I believe that water is the only drink for a wise man; wine is not so noble a liquor. ... Of all ebriosity, who does not prefer to be intoxicated by the air he breathes?"<ref name="Cheever241" /> ===Sexuality=== Thoreau [[bachelor|never married]] and was childless. He strove to portray himself as an ascetic puritan. However, his sexuality has long been the subject of speculation, including by his contemporaries. Critics have called him heterosexual, [[Homosexuality|homosexual]], or [[Asexuality|asexual]].<ref name=harding/><ref>{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/details/millennialseduct00quin | url-access=registration | title=Millennial Seduction | publisher=Cornell University Press | author=Quinby, Lee | page=[https://archive.org/details/millennialseduct00quin/page/68 68]| isbn=978-0801486012 | year=1999 }}</ref> There is no evidence to suggest he had physical relations with anyone, man or woman. Some scholars have suggested that homoerotic sentiments run through his writings and concluded that he was homosexual.<ref name=harding>Harding, Walter (1991). "Thoreau's Sexuality". ''Journal of Homosexuality'' 21.3. pp. 23–45.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bronski |first=Michael |title=A Queer History of the United States |publisher=Beacon Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0807044650 |page=50|title-link=A Queer History of the United States }}</ref><ref>Michael, Warner (1991). "Walden's Erotic Economy" in ''Comparative American Identities: Race, Sex and Nationality in the Modern Text''. Hortense Spillers, ed. New York: Routledge. pp. 157–73.</ref> The elegy "Sympathy" was inspired by the eleven-year-old Edmund Sewell, with whom he hiked for five days in 1839.<ref>{{cite document|last=Robbins|first= Paula Ivaska|title=The Natural Thoreau|work= The Gay And Lesbian Review, September–October 2011|id= {{ProQuest|890209875}}}}</ref> One scholar has suggested that he wrote the poem to Edmund because he could not bring himself to write it to Edmund's sister,<ref>Richardson, Robert; Moser, Barry (1986). ''Henry Thoreau: A Life of the Mind''. University of California Press. pp. 58–63.</ref> and another that Thoreau's "emotional experiences with women are memorialized under a camouflage of masculine pronouns",<ref>Canby, Henry Seidel (1939). ''Thoreau''. Houghton Mifflin. p. 117.</ref> but other scholars dismiss this.<ref name=harding /><ref>Katz, Jonathan Ned (1992). ''Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the USA''. New York: Meridian. pp. 481–92.</ref> It has been argued that the long paean in ''Walden'' to the French-Canadian woodchopper Alek Therien, which includes allusions to [[Achilles and Patroclus]], is an expression of conflicted desire.<ref>López, Robert Oscar (2007). "Thoreau, Homer and Community", in ''Henry David Thoreau''. Harold Bloom, ed. New York: Infobase Publishing. pp. 153–74.</ref> In some of Thoreau's writing there is the sense of a secret self.<ref>Summers, Claude J ''The Gay and Lesbian Literary Heritage'', Routledge, New York, 2002, p. 202</ref> In 1840 he writes in his journal: "My friend is the apology for my life. In him are the spaces which my orbit traverses".<ref>Bergman, David, ed. (2009). ''Gay American Autobiography: Writings From Whitman to Sedaris''. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 10</ref> Thoreau was strongly influenced by the moral reformers of his time, and this may have instilled anxiety and guilt over sexual desire.<ref>Lebeaux, Richard (1984). ''Thoreau's Seasons''. University of Massachusetts Press. p. 386, n. 31.</ref> ===Politics=== {{Green anarchism |expanded=People}} [[File:John Brown - Treason broadside, 1859.png|thumb|left|John Brown "Treason" Broadside, 1859]] Thoreau was fervently against [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]] and actively supported the abolitionist movement.<ref name=":6"/> He participated as a conductor in the [[Underground Railroad]], delivered lectures that attacked the [[Fugitive Slave Law of 1850|Fugitive Slave Law]], and in opposition to the popular opinion of the time, supported radical abolitionist militia leader [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown]] and his party.<ref name=":6">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Furtak|first=Rick|title=Henry David Thoreau|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/thoreau/|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|accessdate=27 July 2013}}</ref> Two weeks after the ill-fated [[raid on Harpers Ferry]] and in the weeks leading up to Brown's execution, Thoreau delivered a speech to the citizens of Concord, Massachusetts, in which he compared the American government to [[Pontius Pilate]] and likened Brown's execution to the [[crucifixion of Jesus Christ]]: {{quote|Some eighteen hundred years ago Christ was crucified; this morning, perchance, Captain Brown was hung. These are the two ends of a chain which is not without its links. He is not Old Brown any longer; he is an angel of light.<ref name="ReferenceA" />}} In ''[[The Last Days of John Brown]]'', Thoreau described the words and deeds of John Brown as noble and an example of heroism.<ref name=":1">[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays The Last Days of John Brown] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays |date=December 22, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> In addition, he lamented the newspaper editors who dismissed Brown and his scheme as "crazy".<ref name=":1"/> Thoreau was a proponent of [[limited government]] and [[individualism]]. Although he was hopeful that mankind could potentially have, through self-betterment, the kind of government which "governs not at all", he distanced himself from contemporary "no-government men" ([[anarchists]]), writing: "I ask for, not at once no government, but at once a better government."<ref name="resistance" /> Thoreau deemed the evolution from [[absolute monarchy]] to [[limited monarchy]] to [[democracy]] as "a progress toward true respect for the individual" and theorized about further improvements "towards recognizing and organizing the rights of man".<ref name="resistance" /> Echoing this belief, he went on to write: "There will never be a really free and enlightened State until the State comes to recognize the individual as a higher and independent power, from which all its power and authority are derived, and treats him accordingly."<ref name="resistance" /> It is on this basis that Thoreau could so strongly inveigh against the British administration and Catholicism in ''A Yankee in Canada''. Despotic authority, Thoreau argued, had crushed the people's sense of ingenuity and enterprise; the Canadian ''habitants'' had been reduced, in his view, to a perpetual childlike state. Ignoring the recent rebellions, he argued that there would be no revolution in the St. Lawrence River valley.<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Thoreau|first1=Henry David|title=A Yankee in Canada|url=https://archive.org/details/yankeeincanada0000thor|url-access=registration|date=1961|publisher=Harvest House|location=Montreal|pages=[https://archive.org/details/yankeeincanada0000thor/page/105 105–107]}}</ref> Although Thoreau believed resistance to unjustly exercised authority could be both violent (exemplified in his support for John Brown) and nonviolent (his own example of [[tax resistance]] displayed in ''Resistance to Civil Government''), he regarded [[Pacifism|pacifist]] [[nonresistance]] as temptation to passivity,<ref name=":4">[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays The Service] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays |date=December 22, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> writing: "Let not our Peace be proclaimed by the rust on our swords, or our inability to draw them from their scabbards; but let her at least have so much work on her hands as to keep those swords bright and sharp."<ref name=":4"/> Furthermore, in a formal lyceum debate in 1841, he debated the subject "Is it ever proper to offer forcible resistance?", arguing the affirmative.<ref>[http://thoreau.eserver.org/mjf/MJF1.html Transcendental Ethos] from The Thoreau Reader</ref> Likewise, his condemnation of the [[Mexican–American War]] did not stem from pacifism, but rather because he considered Mexico "unjustly overrun and conquered by a foreign army" as a means to expand the slave territory.<ref name=":5" /> Thoreau was [[ambivalence|ambivalent]] towards [[industrialization]] and [[capitalism]]. On one hand he regarded commerce as "unexpectedly confident and serene, adventurous, and unwearied"<ref name="ReferenceA" /> and expressed admiration for its associated [[cosmopolitanism]], writing: {{quote|I am refreshed and expanded when the freight train rattles past me, and I smell the stores which go dispensing their odors all the way from Long Wharf to Lake Champlain, reminding me of foreign parts, of coral reefs, and Indian oceans, and tropical climes, and the extent of the globe. I feel more like a citizen of the world at the sight of the palm-leaf which will cover so many flaxen New England heads the next summer.<ref name="ReferenceA" />}} On the other hand, he wrote disparagingly of the factory system: {{quote|I cannot believe that our factory system is the best mode by which men may get clothing. The condition of the operatives is becoming every day more like that of the English; and it cannot be wondered at, since, as far as I have heard or observed, the principal object is, not that mankind may be well and honestly clad, but, unquestionably, that the corporations may be enriched.<ref name="ReferenceA" />}} Thoreau also favored [[bioregionalism]], the protection of animals and wild areas, [[free trade]], and taxation for schools and highways.<ref name=":6"/> He disapproved of the subjugation of Native Americans, slavery, [[technological utopianism]], [[consumerism]], [[philistinism]], mass entertainment, and frivolous applications of technology.<ref name=":6"/> ===Intellectual interests, influences, and affinities=== ====Indian sacred texts and philosophy==== Thoreau was influenced by [[Hindu texts|Indian spiritual thought]]. In ''Walden'', there are many overt references to the sacred texts of India. For example, in the first chapter ("Economy"), he writes: "How much more admirable the [[Bhagvat-geeta|Bhagvat-Geeta]] than all the ruins of the East!"<ref name="ReferenceA" /> ''American Philosophy: An Encyclopedia'' classes him as one of several figures who "took a more [[Pantheism|pantheist]] or [[Pandeism|pandeist]] approach by rejecting views of God as separate from the world",<ref>{{Cite book |title = American Philosophy: An Encyclopedia |author = [[John Lachs]] and [[Robert Talisse]] |date = 2007 |isbn = 978-0415939263 |page = 310 }}</ref> also a characteristic of Hinduism. Furthermore, in "The Pond in Winter", he equates Walden Pond with the sacred [[Ganges in Hinduism|Ganges river]], writing: [[File:Bhagavata Gita Bishnupur Arnab Dutta 2011.JPG|thumb|right|Krishna teaching Arjuna from ''[[Bhagavata Gita]], ''a text Thoreau read at Walden Pond ]] {{quote|In the morning I bathe my intellect in the stupendous and cosmogonal philosophy of the Bhagvat Geeta since whose composition years of the gods have elapsed, and in comparison with which our modern world and its literature seem puny and trivial; and I doubt if that philosophy is not to be referred to a previous state of existence, so remote is its sublimity from our conceptions. I lay down the book and go to my well for water, and lo! there I meet the servant of the Brahmin, priest of Brahma and Vishnu and Indra, who still sits in his temple on the Ganges reading the Vedas, or dwells at the root of a tree with his crust and water jug. I meet his servant come to draw water for his master, and our buckets as it were grate together in the same well. The pure Walden water is mingled with the sacred water of the Ganges.<ref name="ReferenceA" />}} Thoreau was aware his Ganges imagery could have been factual. He wrote about ice harvesting at Walden Pond. And he knew that New England's [[Ice trade|ice merchants]] were shipping ice to foreign ports, including [[Calcutta]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}} Additionally, Thoreau followed various [[Hinduism|Hindu]] customs, including a diet largely consisting of rice ("It was fit that I should live on rice, mainly, who loved so well the philosophy of India."<ref name="ReferenceA" />), [[flute playing]] (reminiscent of the favorite musical pastime of [[Krishna]]){{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}, and [[yoga]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}} In an 1849 letter to his friend H.G.O. Blake, he wrote about yoga and its meaning to him: {{quote|Free in this world as the birds in the air, disengaged from every kind of chains, those who practice yoga gather in Brahma the certain fruits of their works. Depend upon it that, rude and careless as I am, I would fain practice the yoga faithfully. The yogi, absorbed in contemplation, contributes in his degree to creation; he breathes a divine perfume, he hears wonderful things. Divine forms traverse him without tearing him, and united to the nature which is proper to him, he goes, he acts as animating original matter. To some extent, and at rare intervals, even I am a yogi.<ref>Miller, Barbara S. "Why Did Henry David Thoreau Take the Bhagavad-Gita to Walden Pond?" ''Parabola'' 12.1 (Spring 1986): 58–63.</ref>}} ====Biology==== [[File:Eggs BSNH 1930.png|thumb|right|Bird eggs found by Thoreau and given to the [[Boston Society of Natural History]]. Those in the nest are of [[yellow warbler]], the other two of [[red-tailed hawk]].]] Thoreau read contemporary works in the new science of biology, including the works of [[Alexander von Humboldt]], [[Charles Darwin]], and [[Asa Gray]] (Charles Darwin's staunchest American ally).<ref name=":0" /> Thoreau was deeply influenced by Humboldt, especially his work [[Kosmos (Humboldt)|Kosmos]].<ref>Wulf, Andrea. ''The Invention of Nature: Alexander Humboldt's New World''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf 2015, p. 250.</ref> In 1859, Thoreau purchased and read Darwin's ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''. Unlike many natural historians at the time, including [[Louis Agassiz]] who publicly opposed Darwinism in favor of a static view of nature, Thoreau was immediately enthusiastic about the theory of [[evolution by natural selection]] and endorsed it,<ref>Cain, William E. ''A Historical Guide to Henry David Thoreau''. {{ISBN|0195138635}}, p. 146.</ref> stating: {{quote|1=The development theory implies a greater vital force in Nature, because it is more flexible and accommodating, and equivalent to a sort of constant new creation. (A quote from ''On the Origin of Species'' follows this sentence.)<ref name=":0">Berger, Michael Benjamin. ''Thoreau's Late Career and The Dispersion of Seeds: The Saunterer's Synoptic Vision''. {{ISBN|157113168X}}, p. 52.</ref>}} ==Influence== [[File:ThoreauBust.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Bust (sculpture)|bust]] of Thoreau from the [[Hall of Fame for Great Americans]] at the [[Bronx Community College]]]] {{quote|text=Thoreau's careful observations and devastating conclusions have rippled into time, becoming stronger as the weaknesses Thoreau noted have become more pronounced ... Events that seem to be completely unrelated to his stay at Walden Pond have been influenced by it, including the national park system, the British labor movement, the creation of India, the civil rights movement, the hippie revolution, the environmental movement, and the wilderness movement. Today, Thoreau's words are quoted with feeling by liberals, socialists, anarchists, libertarians, and conservatives alike.|sign=Ken Kifer|source=''Analysis and Notes on Walden: Henry Thoreau's Text with Adjacent Thoreauvian Commentary''<ref>[http://www.kenkifer.com/Thoreau/ Analysis and Notes on Walden: Henry Thoreau's Text with Adjacent Thoreauvian Commentary] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060318110150/http://www.kenkifer.com/Thoreau/ |date=March 18, 2006 }} by Ken Kifer, 2002</ref>}} Thoreau's political writings had little impact during his lifetime, as "his contemporaries did not see him as a theorist or as a radical", viewing him instead as a naturalist. They either dismissed or ignored his political essays, including ''Civil Disobedience''. The only two complete books (as opposed to essays) published in his lifetime, ''Walden'' and ''A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers'' (1849), both dealt with nature, in which he "loved to wander".<ref name=McElroy/> His obituary was lumped in with others rather than as a separate article in an 1862 yearbook.<ref>{{cite book|title=Appletons' annual cyclopaedia and register of important events of the year: 1862|date=1863|publisher=D. Appleton & Company|location=New York|page=666|url=https://archive.org/stream/1862appletonsan02newyuoft#page/n673/mode/1up}}</ref> Nevertheless, Thoreau's writings went on to influence many public figures. Political leaders and reformers like [[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi|Mohandas Gandhi]], U.S. President [[John F. Kennedy]], American civil rights activist [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], U.S. Supreme Court Justice [[William O. Douglas]], and [[Russian (citizen)|Russian]] author [[Leo Tolstoy]] all spoke of being strongly affected by Thoreau's work, particularly ''Civil Disobedience'', as did "[[Right-wing politics|right-wing]] theorist [[Frank Chodorov]] [who] devoted an entire issue of his monthly, ''Analysis'', to an appreciation of Thoreau".<ref name=Rothbard>[[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard, Murray]]. [http://archive.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard77.html Confessions of a Right-Wing Liberal], ''[[Ramparts (magazine)|Ramparts]]'', VI, 4, June 15, 1968</ref> Thoreau also influenced many artists and authors including [[Edward Abbey]], [[Willa Cather]], [[Marcel Proust]], [[William Butler Yeats]], [[Sinclair Lewis]], [[Ernest Hemingway]], [[Upton Sinclair]],<ref>Maynard, W. Barksdale, ''Walden Pond: A History''. Oxford University Press, 2005. p. 265</ref> [[E. B. White]], [[Lewis Mumford]],<ref>Mumford, Lewis, ''The Golden Day: A Study in American Experience and Culture''. Boni and Liveright, 1926. pp. 56–59,</ref> [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], [[Alexander Posey]],<ref>Posey, Alexander. ''Lost Creeks: Collected Journals''. (Edited by Matthew Wynn Sivils) University of Nebraska Press, 2009. p. 38</ref> and [[Gustav Stickley]].<ref>Saunders, Barry. ''A Complex Fate: Gustav Stickley and the Craftsman Movement''. Preservation Press, 1996. p. 4</ref> Thoreau also influenced naturalists like [[John Burroughs]], [[John Muir]], [[E. O. Wilson]], [[Edwin Way Teale]], [[Joseph Wood Krutch]], [[B. F. Skinner]], [[David Brower]], and [[Loren Eiseley]], whom ''Publishers Weekly'' called "the modern Thoreau".<ref>Kifer, Ken ''[http://www.kenkifer.com/Thoreau/ Analysis and Notes on Walden: Henry Thoreau's Text with Adjacent Thoreauvian Commentary] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060318110150/http://www.kenkifer.com/Thoreau/ |date=March 18, 2006 }}''</ref> English writer [[Henry Stephens Salt]] wrote a biography of Thoreau in 1890, which popularized Thoreau's ideas in Britain: [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[Edward Carpenter]], and [[Robert Blatchford]] were among those who became Thoreau enthusiasts as a result of Salt's advocacy.<ref>Hendrick, George and Oehlschlaeger, Fritz (eds.) ''Toward the Making of Thoreau's Modern Reputation'', University of Illinois Press, 1979.</ref> Mohandas Gandhi first read ''Walden'' in 1906 while working as a civil rights activist in [[Johannesburg]], South Africa. He first read ''Civil Disobedience'' "while he sat in a South African prison for the crime of nonviolently protesting discrimination against the Indian population in the [[Transvaal Colony|Transvaal]]. The essay galvanized Gandhi, who wrote and published a synopsis of Thoreau's argument, calling its 'incisive logic ... unanswerable' and referring to Thoreau as 'one of the greatest and most moral men America has produced'."<ref>[[Wendy McElroy|McElroy, Wendy]] (2011-05-04) [https://mises.org/daily/5250/Here-the-State-Is-Nowhere-to-Be-Seen Here, the State Is Nowhere to Be Seen], [[Mises Institute]]</ref><ref>"Although he was practicing civil disobedience before he read Thoreau's essay, Gandhi was quick to point out the debt he owed to Thoreau and other thinkers like him".Shawn Chandler Bingham, ''Thoreau and the sociological imagination : the wilds of society''. Lanham, Md. : Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2008. {{ISBN|9780742560581}} p. 31.</ref> He told American reporter [[Webb Miller (journalist)|Webb Miller]], "[Thoreau's] ideas influenced me greatly. I adopted some of them and recommended the study of Thoreau to all of my friends who were helping me in the cause of Indian Independence. Why I actually took the name of my movement from Thoreau's essay 'On the Duty of Civil Disobedience', written about 80&nbsp;years ago."<ref>Miller, Webb. I Found No Peace. Garden City, 1938. 238–39</ref> [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] noted in his autobiography that his first encounter with the idea of nonviolent resistance was reading "On Civil Disobedience" in 1944 while attending [[Morehouse College]]. He wrote in his autobiography that it was, <blockquote>Here, in this courageous New Englander's refusal to pay his taxes and his choice of jail rather than support a war that would spread slavery's territory into Mexico, I made my first contact with the theory of nonviolent resistance. Fascinated by the idea of refusing to cooperate with an evil system, I was so deeply moved that I reread the work several times. I became convinced that noncooperation with evil is as much a moral obligation as is cooperation with good. No other person has been more eloquent and passionate in getting this idea across than Henry David Thoreau. As a result of his writings and personal witness, we are the heirs of a legacy of creative protest. The teachings of Thoreau came alive in our civil rights movement; indeed, they are more alive than ever before. Whether expressed in a sit-in at lunch counters, a freedom ride into Mississippi, a peaceful protest in Albany, Georgia, a bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama, these are outgrowths of Thoreau's insistence that evil must be resisted and that no moral man can patiently adjust to injustice.<ref>King, M.L. ''[http://www.stanford.edu/group/King//publications/autobiography/chp_2.htm Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070308023614/http://www.stanford.edu/group/King/publications/autobiography/chp_2.htm |date=March 8, 2007 }}'' chapter two</ref></blockquote> American psychologist B. F. Skinner wrote that he carried a copy of Thoreau's ''Walden'' with him in his youth.<ref>Skinner, B. F., ''A Matter of Consequences''</ref> In 1945 he wrote ''[[Walden Two]]'', a fictional utopia about 1,000 members of a community living together inspired by the life of Thoreau.<ref>Skinner, B. F., ''Walden Two'' (1948)</ref> Thoreau and his fellow [[Transcendentalists]] from [[Concord, Massachusetts|Concord]] were a major inspiration of the composer [[Charles Ives]]. The 4th movement of the [[Concord Sonata]] for piano (with a part for flute, Thoreau's instrument) is a character picture, and he also set Thoreau's words.<ref>Burkholder, James Peter. ''Charles Ives and His World.'' Princeton University Press, 1996 (pp. 50–51)</ref> Actor [[Ron Thompson (actor)|Ron Thompson]] did a dramatic portrayal of Henry David Thoreau on the 1976 [[NBC]] television series ''[[The Rebels (TV series)|The Rebels]]''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tele-Vues, Sunday, June 6, 1976|date=June 6, 1976|work=[[Independent Press-Telegram]]|location=[[Long Beach, California]]|page=170|url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/30664120/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=June 5, 1976|work=[[Redlands Daily Facts]]|title=TV Log|location=[[Redlands, California]]|page=10|url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/15447614/}}</ref><ref>{{cite video|work=[[NBC]]|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3FdGBFTxkHY|title=Actor Ron Thompson as Henry David Thoreau in The Rebels|date=June 6, 1976}}</ref> Thoreau's ideas have impacted and resonated with various strains in the [[Anarchism|anarchist]] movement, with [[Emma Goldman]] referring to him as "the greatest American anarchist".<ref>{{cite book|author=Goldman, Emma|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_U5ZYAAAAMAAJ|title=Anarchism and Other Essays|publisher=Mother Earth Publishing Association|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_U5ZYAAAAMAAJ/page/n67 62]|year=1917|author-link = Emma Goldman}}</ref> [[Green anarchism]] and [[anarcho-primitivism]] in particular have both derived inspiration and ecological points-of-view from the writings of Thoreau. [[John Zerzan]] included Thoreau's text "Excursions" (1863) in his edited compilation of works in the anarcho-primitivist tradition titled ''Against civilization: Readings and reflections''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.amazon.fr/dp/toc/0922915989|title=Against Civilization: Readings And Reflections|first=John|last=Zerzan|publisher=|via=Amazon}}</ref> Additionally, [[Murray Rothbard]], the founder of [[anarcho-capitalism]], has opined that Thoreau was one of the "great intellectual heroes" of his movement.<ref name="Rothbard" /> Thoreau was also an important influence on late-19th-century [[anarchist]] [[naturist|naturism]].<ref name="naturismolibertario">[http://www.soliobrera.org/pdefs/cuaderno4.pdf#search=%22Antonia%20Maym%C3%B3n%22 El naturismo libertario en la Península Ibérica (1890–1939) by Jose Maria Rosello] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102181805/http://www.soliobrera.org/pdefs/cuaderno4.pdf |date=January 2, 2016 }}</ref><ref name="ortega">{{cite web|url=https://www.naturismo.org/adn/ediciones/2003/invierno/7e.html|title=Anarchism, Nudism, Naturism|first=Carlos |last=Ortega|publisher=}}</ref> Globally, Thoreau's concepts also held importance within [[individualist anarchist]] circles<ref name="spanishind">[http://www.acracia.org/xdiez.html "La insumisión voluntaria. El anarquismo individualista Español durante la dictadura y la segunda República (1923–1938)" by Xavier Diez] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060526224800/http://www.acracia.org/xdiez.html |date=May 26, 2006 }}</ref><ref name="aujourdhui">"Les anarchistes individualistes du début du siècle l'avaient bien compris, et intégraient le naturisme dans leurs préoccupations. Il est vraiment dommage que ce discours se soit peu à peu effacé, d'antan plus que nous assistons, en ce moment, à un retour en force du puritanisme (conservateur par essence)."[http://ytak.club.fr/natytak.html "Anarchisme et naturisme, aujourd'hui." by Cathy Ytak] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225212442/http://ytak.club.fr/natytak.html |date=February 25, 2009 }}</ref> in Spain,<ref name="naturismolibertario" /><ref name="ortega" /><ref name="spanishind" /> France,<ref name="spanishind" /><ref name="france">[http://ytak.club.fr/natbiblioarmand.html Recension des articles de l'En-Dehors consacrés au naturisme et au nudisme] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014165702/http://ytak.club.fr/natbiblioarmand.html |date=October 14, 2008 }}</ref> and Portugal.<ref name="portugal">Freire, João. "Anarchisme et naturisme au Portugal, dans les années 1920" in ''Les anarchistes du Portugal''. [Bibliographic data necessary for this ref.]</ref> For the 200th anniversary of his birth, publishers released several new editions of his work: a recreation of ''Walden''{{'s}} 1902 edition with illustrations, a picture book with excerpts from ''Walden'', and an annotated collection of Thoreau's essays on slavery.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Williams |first1=John |title=Alcoholism in America |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=2017-07-07 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/07/books/review/alcoholism-in-america.html |issn=0362-4331 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> The United States Postal Service issued a commemorative stamp honoring Thoreau on May 23, 2017 in Concord, MA.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://stamps.org/US-New-Issues-2017|title=American Philatelic Society|website=stamps.org}}</ref> ===Adaptations=== In 2017, ''[[Walden, a Game]]'' was released on itch.io. Created by [[Tracy Fullerton]], it is an open world, first person videogame adaptation of Thoreau's ''[[Walden]]''. Players can build the protagonist's cabin, explore the environment, record flora and fauna, farm the land, visit Emerson's house and the town of Concord. At the end of each day players are invited to reflect on their journal which gradually fills up with reflections based on the player's journey and day-to-day experiences. The game also includes letters between Thoreau and his contemporaries, including Amos Bronson Alcott and Ralph Waldo Emerson. It also includes letters between his contemporaries to build a picture of Thoreau's reception as a writer and his connections in the literary and Transcendentalist scene in America at the time. The game was released for Playstation 4 in 2018. ==Criticism== Although his writings would receive widespread acclaim, Thoreau's ideas were not universally applauded. Scottish author [[Robert Louis Stevenson]] judged Thoreau's endorsement of living alone and apart from modern society in natural simplicity to be a mark of "unmanly" [[effeminacy]] and "womanish solitude", while deeming him a self-indulgent "skulker".<ref>Stevenson, Robert Louis. [http://thoreau.eserver.org/stevens1.html "Henry David Thoreau: His Character and Opinions"]. Cornhill Magazine. June 1880.</ref> [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]] had mixed feelings about Thoreau. He noted that "He is a keen and delicate observer of nature—a genuine observer—which, I suspect, is almost as rare a character as even an original poet; and Nature, in return for his love, seems to adopt him as her especial child, and shows him secrets which few others are allowed to witness."<ref>Nathaniel Hawthorne, ''Passages From the American Note-Books'', entry for September 2, 1842.</ref> On the other hand, he also wrote that Thoreau "repudiated all regular modes of getting a living, and seems inclined to lead a sort of Indian life among civilized men".<ref>Hawthorne, ''The Heart of Hawthorne's Journals'', p. 106.</ref><ref>Borst, Raymond R. ''The Thoreau Log: A Documentary Life of Henry David Thoreau, 1817–1862.'' New York: G.K. Hall, 1992.</ref> In a similar vein, poet [[John Greenleaf Whittier]] detested what he deemed to be the "wicked" and "heathenish" message of ''Walden'', claiming that Thoreau wanted man to "lower himself to the level of a [[woodchuck]] and walk on four legs".<ref>Wagenknecht, Edward. ''John Greenleaf Whittier: A Portrait in Paradox''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1967: 112.</ref> In response to such criticisms, English novelist [[George Eliot]], writing for the ''[[Westminster Review]]'', characterized such critics as uninspired and narrow-minded: {{quote|text=People—very wise in their own eyes—who would have every man's life ordered according to a particular pattern, and who are intolerant of every existence the utility of which is not palpable to them, may pooh-pooh Mr. Thoreau and this episode in his history, as unpractical and dreamy.<ref>''[[The New England Quarterly]]'', Vol. 6, No. 4 (Dec., 1933), pp. 733–46</ref>}} Thoreau himself also responded to the criticism in a paragraph of his work ''Walden'' by illustrating the irrelevance of their inquiries: {{quote|text=I should not obtrude my affairs so much on the notice of my readers if very particular inquiries had not been made by my townsmen concerning my mode of life, which some would call impertinent, though they do not appear to me at all impertinent, but, considering the circumstances, very natural and pertinent. Some have asked what I got to eat; if I did not feel lonesome; if I was not afraid; and the like. Others have been curious to learn what portion of my income I devoted to charitable purposes; and some, who have large families, how many poor children I maintained. ... Unfortunately, I am confined to this theme by the narrowness of my experience. Moreover, I, on my side, require of every writer, first or last, a simple and sincere account of his own life, and not merely what he has heard of other men's lives; ... I trust that none will stretch the seams in putting on the coat, for it may do good service to him whom it fits.<ref>Thoreau ''Walden'' (1854)</ref>}} Recent criticism has accused Thoreau of hypocrisy, misanthropy, and being sanctimonious, based on his writings in ''Walden'',<ref name=neworker1>{{cite web|url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/10/19/pond-scum |title=Henry David Thoreau, Hypocrite |last1=Schultz |first1=Kathryn |date=October 19, 2015 |work=The New Yorker |access-date=October 19, 2015 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151019170355/http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/10/19/pond-scum |archivedate=October 19, 2015 }}</ref> although this criticism has been perceived as highly selective.<ref name=medium1>{{cite web|url=https://medium.com/@TheNewThoreau/why-do-we-love-thoreau-because-he-was-right-175251814c |title=Why do we love Thoreau? Because he was right. |date=October 19, 2015 |publisher=Medium |access-date=October 19, 2015 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151019170355/https://medium.com/%40TheNewThoreau/why-do-we-love-thoreau-because-he-was-right-175251814c |archivedate=October 19, 2015 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref name=newrepublic>{{cite journal|url=https://newrepublic.com/article/123151/defense-thoreau |title=Henry David Thoreau's Radical Optimism |first1=Jonathan |last1=Malesic |date=October 19, 2015 |journal=New Republic |access-date=October 19, 2015 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151019204535/http://www.newrepublic.com/article/123151/defense-thoreau |archivedate=October 19, 2015 }}</ref><ref name=newrepublic2>{{cite journal|url=https://newrepublic.com/article/123162/everybody-hates-henry-david-thoreau |title=Everybody Hates Henry |first1=Donovan |last1=Hohn |date=October 21, 2015 |journal=New Republic |access-date=October 21, 2015 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151026134755/http://www.newrepublic.com/article/123162/everybody-hates-henry-david-thoreau |archivedate=October 26, 2015 }}</ref> ==Works== {{expand list|date=October 2014}} {{Thoreauviana}} * ''Aulus Persius Flaccus'' (1840)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays Aulus Persius Flaccus] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays |date=December 22, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''[[The Service]]'' (1840)<ref name=":4"/> * ''[[A Walk to Wachusett]]'' (1842)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays A Walk to Wachusett] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays |date=December 22, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''[[Paradise (to be) Regained]]'' (1843)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays Paradise (to be) Regained] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays |date=December 22, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''The Landlord'' (1843)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/pageviewer?frames=1&cite=http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=AGD1642-0013-6&coll=moa&root=/moa/usde/usde0013/&tif=00445.TIF&view=100|title=The United States Democratic Review Volume 0013 Issue 64 (Oct 1843)|publisher=}}</ref> * ''[[Sir Walter Raleigh (essay)|Sir Walter Raleigh]]'' (1844) * ''[[Herald of Freedom (essay)|Herald of Freedom]]'' (1844)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays Herald of Freedom] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays |date=December 22, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''[[Wendell Phillips Before the Concord Lyceum]]'' (1845)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays Wendell Phillips Before the Concord Lyceum] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays |date=December 22, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''[[Reform and the Reformers]]'' (1846–48) * ''[[Thomas Carlyle and His Works]]'' (1847)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays Thomas Carlyle and His Works] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays |date=December 22, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''[[A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers]]'' (1849)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?title=A+Week+on+the+Concord+and+Merrimack+Rivers&tmode=start&c=x|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers from Project Gutenberg|publisher=}}</ref> * ''[[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|Resistance to Civil Government]]'', or ''Civil Disobedience'', or ''On the Duty of Civil Disobedience'' (1849)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/aestheticpapers00peabrich|title=Aesthetic papers|first1=Elizabeth Palmer|last1=Peabody|first2=Ralph Waldo|last2=Emerson|first3=Nathaniel|last3=Hawthorne|first4=Henry David|last4=Thoreau|date=January 1, 1849|publisher=Boston, : The editor; New York, : G.P. Putnam|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> * ''An Excursion to Canada'' (1853)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/A_Yankee_in_Canada A Yankee in Canada] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617002714/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/A_Yankee_in_Canada |date=June 17, 2011 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''[[Slavery in Massachusetts]]'' (1854)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays Slavery in Massachusetts] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays |date=December 22, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''[[Walden]]'' (1854)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Walden Walden] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100926152652/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Walden |date=September 26, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''[[A Plea for Captain John Brown]]'' (1859)<ref name=":3">[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays A Plea for Captain John Brown] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays |date=December 22, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''[[Remarks After the Hanging of John Brown]]'' (1859)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays After the Death of John Brown] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays |date=December 22, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''[[The Last Days of John Brown]]'' (1860)<ref name=":1"/> * ''[[Walking (Thoreau)|Walking]]'' (1862)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?author=Thoreau&amode=words&title=Walking&tmode=start&c=x|title=Walking|publisher=}}</ref> * ''Autumnal Tints'' (1862)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays Autumnal Tints] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays |date=December 22, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''Wild Apples: The History of the Apple Tree'' (1862)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=4066|title=Wild Apples, from Project Gutenberg|publisher=}}</ref> * ''The Fall of the Leaf'' (1863)<ref name=":5">{{cite web|url=http://www.walden.org/Library/About_Thoreau%27s_Life_and_Writings:_The_Research_Collections/Civil_Disobedience |work=Walden.org |title=The Walden Woods Project |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160620124518/http://www.walden.org/Library/About_Thoreau%27s_Life_and_Writings%3A_The_Research_Collections/Civil_Disobedience |archivedate=June 20, 2016 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|date=1863|publisher=[[Riverside Publishing|The Riverside Press, Cambridge]]|pages=407–08|title=The Writings of Henry David Thoreau: Excursions, translations, and poems|author1=Henry David Thoreau|author2=Bradford Torrey|author3=Franklin Benjamin Sanborn|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wpA9AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA407}}</ref> * ''[[Excursions (anthology)|Excursions]]'' (1863)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/excursionhenry00thorrich|title=Excursions|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|last2=Houghton (H. O.) & Company. (1863) bkp CU-BANC|first3=Ralph Waldo|last3=Emerson|first4=Sophia E.|last4=Thoreau|date=January 1, 1863|publisher=Boston, Ticknor and Fields|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> * ''[[Life Without Principle]]'' (1863)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABK2934-0012-65|title=The Atlantic Monthly Volume 0012 Issue 71 (September 1863)|publisher=}}</ref> * ''Night and Moonlight'' (1863)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABK2934-0012-77|title=The Atlantic Monthly Volume 0012 Issue 72 (November 1863)|publisher=}}</ref> * ''The Highland Light'' (1864)<ref name="u of adelaide">{{cite web|title=Henry David Thoreau, 1817–1862|url=https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/t/thoreau/henry_david/|website=ebooks.adelaide.edu|publisher=The University of Adelaide|accessdate=1 January 2018|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824024207/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/t/thoreau/henry_david/|archivedate=August 24, 2017|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref> * ''The Maine Woods'' (1864)<ref>[http://thoreau.eserver.org/mewoods.html The Maine Woods] from The Thoreau Reader</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/mainewoods00thorrich|title=The Maine woods|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=Sophia E.|last2=Thoreau|first3=William Ellery|last3=Channing|date=January 1, 1864|publisher=Boston, Ticknor and Fields|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> Fully Annotated Edition. [[Jeffrey S. Cramer]], ed., Yale University Press, 2009 * ''Cape Cod'' (1865)<ref name=":9">{{cite web|url=http://thoreau.eserver.org/capecd00.html|title=Thoreau's Cape Cod - an annotated edition|first=Richard|last=Lenat|publisher=}}</ref> * ''Letters to Various Persons'' (1865)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/lettersvarpersons00thorrich|title=Letters to various persons|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=Henry David|last2=Thoreau|first3=Ralph Waldo|last3=Emerson|date=January 1, 1865|publisher=Boston : Ticknor and Fields|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> * ''[[A Yankee in Canada, with Anti-Slavery and Reform Papers]]'' (1866)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/yankeeincanada00thorrich|title=A Yankee in Canada, with Anti-slavery and reform papers|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=Henry David|last2=Thoreau|first3=William Ellery|last3=Channing|first4=Ralph Waldo|last4=Emerson|first5=Sophia E.|last5=Thoreau|date=January 1, 1866|publisher=Boston, Ticknor and Fields|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> * ''Early Spring in Massachusetts'' (1881) * ''Summer'' (1884)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/summerjournal00thorrich|title=Summer : from the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=H. G. O. (Harrison Gray Otis)|last2=Blake|date=January 1, 1884|publisher=London : T. Fisher Unwin|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> * ''Winter'' (1888)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/winterjournal00thorrich|title=Winter : from the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=H. G. O.|last2=Blake|date=January 1, 1888|publisher=Boston : Houghton, Mifflin|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> * ''Autumn'' (1892)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/autumnjournal00thorrich|title=Autumn. From the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=Harrison Gray Otis|last2=Blake|publisher=Boston, Houghton, Mifflin|via=Internet Archive|date=1892-12-03}}</ref> * ''Miscellanies'' (1894)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Cape_Cod_and_Miscellanies Miscellanies]{{dead link|date=March 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''Familiar Letters of Henry David Thoreau'' (1894)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/familiarletters00thorrich|title=Familiar letters of Henry David Thoreau|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=F. B. (Franklin Benjamin)|last2=Sanborn|date=January 1, 1894|publisher=Boston : Houghton, Mifflin|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> * ''Poems of Nature'' (1895)<ref name="u of adelaide"/> * ''Some Unpublished Letters of Henry D. and Sophia E. Thoreau'' (1898)<ref name="u of adelaide"/> * ''The First and Last Journeys of Thoreau'' (1905)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/firstlastjourneys01thorrich|title=The first and last journeys of Thoreau : lately discovered among his unpublished journals and manuscripts|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=Mass )|last2=Bibliophile Society (Boston|first3=Mass )|last3=Bibliophile Society (Boston|first4=F. B. (Franklin Benjamin)|last4=Sanborn|date=January 1, 1905|publisher=Boston : Printed exclusively for members of the Bibliophile Society|via=Internet Archive}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/firstlastjourneys02thorrich|title=The first and last journeys of Thoreau : lately discovered among his unpublished journals and manuscripts|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=Mass )|last2=Bibliophile Society (Boston|first3=Mass )|last3=Bibliophile Society (Boston|first4=F. B. (Franklin Benjamin)|last4=Sanborn|date=January 1, 1905|publisher=Boston : Printed exclusively for members of the Bibliophile Society|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> * ''Journal of Henry David Thoreau'' (1906)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Journal The Journal of Henry D. Thoreau] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100505210829/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Journal |date=May 5, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''The Correspondence of Henry David Thoreau'' edited by Walter Harding and Carl Bode (Washington Square: New York University Press, 1958)<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Correspondence The Correspondence of Thoreau] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617003655/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Correspondence |date=June 17, 2011 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> * ''Poets of the English Language'' (Viking Press, 1950){{citation needed|date=May 2017}} * ''I Was Made Erect and Lone''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.poetryfoundation.org/poem/184857|title=I Was Made Erect and Lone|publisher=|date=2018-12-03}}</ref> * ''The Bluebird Carries the Sky on His Back'' (Stanyan, 1970)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medium.com/@alpharust/the-bluebird-carries-the-sky-on-his-back-ac96daf58a4d|title=The bluebird carries the sky on his back|last=Rastogi|first=Gaurav|date=2015-05-11|website=Medium|language=en|access-date=2020-01-15}}</ref> * ''The Dispersion of Seeds'' published as ''Faith in a Seed'' (Island Press, 1993)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/faithinseeddispe00thor|title=Faith in a Seed: The Dispersion of Seeds and Other Late Natural History Writings|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|date=April 1996|website=Island Press|isbn=978-1559631822|access-date=January 29, 2018|url-access=registration}}</ref> * ''The Indian Notebooks'' (1847-1861) [https://www.walden.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/IndianNotebooks-1.pdf selections by Richard F. Fleck] ==See also== * [[American philosophy]] * [[List of American philosophers]] * [[List of peace activists]] * [[Walden Woods Project]] ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Further reading== {{Refbegin}} * Balthrop‐Lewis, Alda. "Exemplarist Environmental Ethics: Thoreau’s Political Ascetism against Solution Thinking." ''Journal of Religious Ethics'' 47.3 (2019): 525-550. * Bode, Carl. ''Best of Thoreau's Journals''. Southern Illinois University Press. 1967. * Botkin, Daniel. ''No Man's Garden'' * Buell, Lawrence. ''The Environmental Imagination: Thoreau, Nature Writing, and the Formation of American Culture'' (Harvard UP, 1995) * Cafaro, Philip. ''Thoreau’s Living Ethics: “Walden” and the Pursuit of Virtue'' (U of Georgia Press, 2004) * [[Frank Chodorov|Chodorov, Frank]]. [https://mises.org/daily/5033/The-Disarming-Honesty-of-Henry-David-Thoreau ''The Disarming Honesty of Henry David Thoreau''] * Conrad, Randall. [http://thoreau.eserver.org/whowhy.html ''Who He Was & Why He Matters''] * Cramer, Jeffrey S. ''Solid Seasons: The Friendship of Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson'' (Counterpoint Press, 2019). * Dean, Bradley P. ed., ''Letters to a Spiritual Seeker''. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2004. * Finley, James S., ed. ''Henry David Thoreau in Context'' (Cambridge UP, 2017). * Furtak, Rick, Ellsworth, Jonathan, and Reid, James D., eds. ''Thoreau's Importance for Philosophy''. New York: Fordham University Press, 2012. * Gionfriddo, Michael. "Thoreau, the Work of Breathing, and Building Castles in the Air: Reading Walden's 'Conclusion'." ''The Concord Saunterer'' 25 (2017): 49-90 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/44652797 online]. * Harding, Walter. ''The Days of Henry Thoreau''. Princeton University Press, 1982. * Hendrick, George. "The Influence of Thoreau's 'Civil Disobedience' on Gandhi's Satyagraha." ''The New England Quarterly'' 29, no. 4 (December 1956). 462–71. * Hess, Scott. "Walden Pond as Thoreau’s Landscape of Genius." ''Nineteenth-Century Literature'' 74.2 (2019): 224-250. [https://ncl.ucpress.edu/content/ucpncl/74/2/224.full.pdf online] * Howarth, William. ''The Book of Concord: Thoreau's Life as a Writer''. Viking Press, 1982 * McGregor, Robert Kuhn. ''A Wider View of the Universe: Henry Thoreau’s Study of Nature'' (U of Illinois Press, 1997). * [[Annie Russell Marble|Marble, Annie Russell]]. ''Thoreau: His Home, Friends and Books''. New York: AMS Press. 1969 [1902] * Myerson, Joel et al. ''The Cambridge Companion to Henry David Thoreau''. Cambridge University Press. 1995 * Nash, Roderick. ''Henry David Thoreau, Philosopher'' * Paolucci, Stefano. [https://www.academia.edu/16692328/The_Foundations_of_Thoreaus_Castles_in_the_Air_ "The Foundations of Thoreau's 'Castles in the Air'"], ''Thoreau Society Bulletin'', No. 290 (Summer 2015), 10. (See also the [https://www.academia.edu/25773131/Stefano_Paolucci_The_Foundations_of_Thoreaus_Castles_in_the_Air_Full_Uncensored_Version_ Full Unedited Version] of the same article.) * Parrington, Vernon. ''[http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/parrington/vol2/bk03_03_ch03.html Main Current in American Thought]''. V 2 online. 1927 * Parrington, Vernon L. [http://thoreau.eserver.org/currents.html ''Henry Thoreau: Transcendental Economist''] * Petroski, Henry. "H. D. Thoreau, Engineer." ''American Heritage of Invention and Technology'', Vol. 5, No. 2, pp.&nbsp;8–16 * Petrulionis, Sandra Harbert, ed., ''Thoreau in His Own Time: A Biographical Chronicle of His Life, Drawn From Recollections, Interviews, and Memoirs by Family, Friends, and Associates.'' Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2012. {{ISBN|1-60938-087-8}} * Richardson, Robert D. ''Henry Thoreau: A Life of the Mind''. University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles. 1986. {{ISBN|0-520-06346-5}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Riggenbach |first=Jeff |editor-first=Ronald |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC |date=2008 |publisher= [[SAGE Publications|SAGE]]; [[Cato Institute]] |location= [[Thousand Oaks, California]] |doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n309 |isbn= 978-1-4129-6580-4 |oclc=750831024| lccn = 2008009151 |pages=506–07 |quote= |ref= |chapter=Thoreau, Henry David (1817–1862) |title=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism }} * {{Cite journal|last=Riggenbach|first=Jeff|title=Henry David Thoreau: Founding Father of American Libertarian Thought |journal=Mises Daily |date=July 15, 2010|url=https://mises.org/daily/4562/Henry-David-Thoreau-Founding-Father-of-American-Libertarian-Thought}} * Ridl, Jack. "[http://magazine.scintillapress.com/moose-indian.html Moose. Indian.]" Scintilla (poem on Thoreau's last words) * Schneider, Richard ''Civilizing Thoreau: Human Ecology and the Emerging Social Sciences in the Major Works'' [[Rochester, New York]]. Camden House. 2016. {{ISBN|978-1-57113-960-3}} * Smith, David C. "The Transcendental Saunterer: Thoreau and the Search for Self." [[Savannah, Georgia]]: Frederic C. Beil, 1997. {{ISBN|0-913720-74-7}} * Sullivan, Mark W. "Henry David Thoreau in the American Art of the 1950s." ''The Concord Saunterer: A Journal of Thoreau Studies'', New Series, Vol. 18 (2010), pp.&nbsp;68–89. * Sullivan, Mark W. ''Picturing Thoreau: Henry David Thoreau in American Visual Culture.'' [[Lanham, Maryland]]: Lexington Books, 2015 * [[Alfred I. Tauber|Tauber, Alfred I]]. ''Henry David Thoreau and the Moral Agency of Knowing''. University of California, Berkeley. 2001. {{ISBN|0-520-23915-6}} * [http://www.iep.utm.edu/thoreau/ Henry David Thoreau]{{nbsp}}– ''[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'' * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/thoreau/ Henry David Thoreau]{{nbsp}}– ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'' * Thorson, Robert M. ''The Boatman: Henry David Thoreau's River Years'' (Harvard UP, 2017), on his scientific study of the Concord River in the late 1850s. * Thorson, Robert M. ''Walden’s Shore: Henry David Thoreau and Nineteenth-Century Science'' (2015). * Thorson, Robert M. ''The Guide to Walden Pond: An Exploration of the History, Nature, Landscape, and Literature of One of America's Most Iconic Places'' (2018). * {{cite journal|last1=Traub|first1=Courtney|title='First-Rate Fellows': Excavating Thoreau's Radical Egalitarian Reflections in a Late Draft of "Allegash"|journal=The Concord Saunterer: A Journal of Thoreau Studies|date=2015|volume=23|pages=74–96}} * [[Laura Walls|Walls, Laura Dassow]]. ''Seeing New Worlds: Henry David Thoreau and 19th Century Science''. University of Wisconsin. 1995. {{ISBN|0-299-14744-4}} * [[Laura Walls|Walls, Laura Dassow]]. ''Henry David Thoreau: A Life''. The University of Chicago Press. 2017. {{ISBN|978-0-226-34469-0}} {{Refend}} ==External links== {{wikisource author}} {{wikiquote}} {{commons}} {{Library resources box|onlinebooks=yes|by=yes}} * [http://www.thoreausociety.org/ The Thoreau Society] * [http://www.library.ucsb.edu/thoreau/ The Thoreau Edition] * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?164015-1/writings-emerson-thoreau "Writings of Emerson and Thoreau"] from [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Writers: A Journey Through History]]'' ;Texts * [http://thoreau.eserver.org/ The Thoreau Reader] by ''[[Thoreau Society|The Thoreau Society]]'' * [https://www.walden.org/thoreau/the-writings-of-henry-david-thoreau-the-digital-collection/ The Writings of Henry David Thoreau] at ''The Walden Woods Project'' * [http://www.concordlibrary.org/scollect/Thoreau_Surveys/Thoreau_Surveys.htm Scans of Thoreau's Land Surveys] at the Concord Free Public Library * [http://www.thoreau-online.org/ Henry David Thoreau Online]{{nbsp}}– The Works and Life of Henry D. Thoreau * {{Gutenberg author | id=54 | name=Henry David Thoreau}} * {{FadedPage|id=Thoreau, Henry D.|name=Henry D. Thoreau|author=yes}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Henry David Thoreau}} * {{Librivox author |id=371}} * [https://openlibrary.org/search?q=henry+david+thoreau&author_key=OL19690A Works by Thoreau] at Open Library * [https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poems/45769 Poems by Thoreau] at the Academy of American Poets {{Henry David Thoreau| state=expanded}} {{Social and political philosophy}} {{Simple living}} {{Anarchism}} {{Mohandas K. Gandhi}} {{Hall of Fame for Great Americans}} {{Authority control}} {{Portal bar|Biography|United States|Environment|Poetry|Politics}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Thoreau, Henry David}} [[Category:Henry David Thoreau| ]] [[Category:1817 births]] [[Category:1862 deaths]] [[Category:19th-century American philosophers]] [[Category:19th-century American poets]] [[Category:19th-century Unitarians]] [[Category:19th-century deaths from tuberculosis]] [[Category:American Unitarians]] [[Category:American abolitionists]] [[Category:American anarchists]] [[Category:American diarists]] [[Category:American environmentalists]] [[Category:American essayists]] [[Category:American libertarians]] [[Category:American male essayists]] [[Category:American male non-fiction writers]] [[Category:American male poets]] [[Category:American naturalists]] [[Category:American nature writers]] [[Category:American naturists]] [[Category:American nomads]] [[Category:American non-fiction environmental writers]] [[Category:American people of French descent]] [[Category:American political philosophers]] [[Category:American spiritual writers]] [[Category:American surveyors]] [[Category:American tax resisters]] [[Category:American travel writers]] [[Category:Anarchism]] [[Category:Anarchist writers]] [[Category:Anti-consumerists]] [[Category:Civil disobedience]] [[Category:Critics of work and the work ethic]] [[Category:American cultural critics]] [[Category:Ecological succession]] [[Category:Environmental writers]] [[Category:Green anarchists]] [[Category:Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees]] [[Category:Harvard College alumni]] [[Category:Hasty Pudding alumni]] [[Category:Hikers]] [[Category:Tuberculosis deaths in Massachusetts]] [[Category:Lecturers]] [[Category:Left-libertarians]] [[Category:Nature writers]] [[Category:Opinion journalists]] [[Category:People from Concord, Massachusetts]] [[Category:Philosophers from Massachusetts]] [[Category:Philosophers of culture]] [[Category:Philosophers of history]] [[Category:Philosophers of love]] [[Category:Philosophers of mind]] [[Category:Philosophers of science]] [[Category:Poets from Massachusetts]] [[Category:Self-published authors]] [[Category:Simple living advocates]] [[Category:American social commentators]] [[Category:Social critics]] [[Category:Social philosophers]] [[Category:Underground Railroad people]]'
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'@@ -17,112 +17,5 @@ |school_tradition = [[Transcendentalism]]<ref name=":6"/> |alma_mater = [[Harvard College]] -|main_interests = {{hlist|[[Ethics]]|[[Poetry]]|[[Religion]]|[[Politics]]|[[Biology]]|[[Philosophy]]|[[History]]}} -|notable_ideas = {{hlist|[[Abolitionism in the United States|Abolitionism]]|[[tax resistance]]|[[development criticism]]|[[civil disobedience]]|[[conscientious objector|conscientious objection]]|[[direct action]]|[[environmentalism]]|[[anarchism]]|[[simple living]]}} -|influences = {{hlist|[[Indian philosophy]]|[[Aristotle]]|[[Homer]]|[[Aeschylus]]|[[Pindar]]|[[Cato the Elder]]|[[Ralph Waldo Emerson]]|[[Thomas Carlyle]]|[[Charles Darwin]]|[[Alexander von Humboldt]]<ref>{{cite journal|last=Seelinger|first=Robert A. |title=Stolen Fire: Aeschylean imagery and Thoreau's identification of the Graius homo of Lucretius with Prometheus |journal=Studia Humaniora Tartuensia |volume=14 |year=2013 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.12697/sht.2013.14.A.2 |doi-access=free }}</ref>}} -|influenced = {{hlist|[[Mahatma Gandhi]]|[[John F. Kennedy]]|[[Martin Luther King Jr.]]|[[Walt Whitman]]|[[Leo Tolstoy]]|[[Marcel Proust]]|[[W. B. Yeats]]|[[Sinclair Lewis]]|[[Ernest Hemingway]]|[[Upton Sinclair]]|[[Emma Goldman]]|[[E. B. White]]|[[E. O. Wilson]]|[[Christopher McCandless]]|[[B. F. Skinner]]|[[George Bernard Shaw]]|[[John Zerzan]]|[[John Muir]]|[[Glenn Gould]]}}}} -'''Henry David Thoreau''' (see [[Henry David Thoreau#Pronunciation of his name|name pronunciation]]; July 12, 1817&nbsp;– May 6, 1862) was an American [[essay]]ist, [[poet]], and [[philosopher]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Henry David Thoreau {{!}} Biography & Works |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-David-Thoreau |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}</ref> A leading [[Transcendentalism|transcendentalist]],<ref>Howe, Daniel Walker, ''What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848''. {{ISBN|978-0-19-507894-7}}, p. 623.</ref> he is best known for his book ''[[Walden]]'', a reflection upon [[simple living]] in natural surroundings, and his essay "[[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|Civil Disobedience]]" (originally published as "Resistance to Civil Government"), an argument for disobedience to an unjust state. - -Thoreau's books, articles, essays, journals, and poetry amount to more than 20 volumes. Among his lasting contributions are his [[nature writing|writings on natural history]] and philosophy, in which he anticipated the methods and findings of [[ecology]] and [[environmental history]], two sources of modern-day [[environmentalism]]. His [[Literary language|literary]] style interweaves close observation of nature, personal experience, pointed rhetoric, [[symbol]]ic meanings, and historical lore, while displaying a poetic sensibility, philosophical [[Asceticism|austerity]], and attention to practical detail.<ref name="ReferenceA">Thoreau, Henry David. ''A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers''&nbsp;/ ''Walden''&nbsp;/ ''The Maine Woods''&nbsp;/ ''Cape Cod''. Library of America. {{ISBN|0-940450-27-5}}.</ref> He was also deeply interested in the idea of survival in the face of hostile elements, historical change, and natural decay; at the same time he advocated abandoning waste and [[illusion]] in order to discover life's true essential needs.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> - -He was a lifelong [[Abolitionism|abolitionist]], delivering lectures that attacked the [[fugitive slave laws|Fugitive Slave Law]] while praising the writings of [[Wendell Phillips]] and defending the abolitionist [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown]]. Thoreau's philosophy of [[civil disobedience]] later influenced the political thoughts and actions of such notable figures as [[Leo Tolstoy]], [[Mahatma Gandhi]], and [[Martin Luther King Jr.]]<ref name=":2" /> - -Thoreau is sometimes referred to as an [[anarchism|anarchist]].<ref>Seligman, Edwin Robert Anderson; Johnson, Alvin Saunders, eds. (1937). ''Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences'', p. 12.</ref><ref>Gross, David, ed. ''The Price of Freedom: Political Philosophy from Thoreau's Journals''. p. 8. {{ISBN|978-1-4348-0552-2}}. "The Thoreau of these journals distrusted doctrine, and, though it is accurate I think to call him an anarchist, he was by no means doctrinaire in this either."</ref> Though "Civil Disobedience" seems to call for improving rather than abolishing government—"I ask for, not at once no government, but ''at once'' a better government"<ref name="resistance">Thoreau, H. D. "[http://www.sniggle.net/Experiment/index.php?entry=rtcg#p03 Resistance to Civil Government]".</ref>—the direction of this improvement contrarily points toward anarchism: "'That government is best which governs not at all;' and when men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of government which they will have."<ref name="resistance" /> - -==Pronunciation of his name== -[[Amos Bronson Alcott]] and Thoreau's aunt each wrote that "Thoreau" is pronounced like the word ''thorough'' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|θ|ʌr|oʊ}} {{respell|THURR|oh}}—in [[General American]],<ref>[http://thoreau.eserver.org/pronounce THUR-oh or Thor-OH? And How Do We Know?] ''Thoreau Reader''.</ref><ref>''[https://www.npr.org/programs/morning/features/patc/walden/ Thoreau's Walden]'', under the sidebar "Pronouncing Thoreau".</ref> but more precisely {{IPAc-en|ˈ|θ|ɔːr|oʊ}} {{respell|THOR|oh}}—in 19th-century New England). [[Edward Waldo Emerson]] wrote that the name should be pronounced "Thó-row", with the ''h'' sounded and stress on the first syllable.<ref>See the note on pronouncing the name at [http://www.walden.org/Thoreau#Name the Thoreau Institute at Walden Woods].</ref> Among modern-day American English speakers, it is perhaps more commonly pronounced {{IPAc-en|θ|ə|ˈ|r|oʊ}} {{respell|thə|ROH}}—with stress on the second syllable.<ref>{{cite dictionary|title=Thoreau|dictionary=Dictionary.com|date=2013|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/thoreau}}</ref><ref>Wells, J. C. (1990) ''Pronunciation Dictionary'', s.v. "Thoreau". Essex, U.K.: Longman.</ref> - -==Physical appearance== -Thoreau had a distinctive appearance, with a nose that he called his "most prominent feature".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Cape Cod|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|year=1865|chapter=Chapter 10-A. Provincetown|chapter-url=http://thoreau.eserver.org:80/capecd10.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822113030/http://thoreau.eserver.org/capecd10.html|archive-date=August 22, 2017|url-status=dead|access-date=February 13, 2007}}</ref> Of his appearance and disposition, [[Ellery Channing]] wrote:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thoreau.eserver.org/images.html|title=The Days of Henry Thoreau|author=Harding, Walter|work=thoreau.eserver.org}}</ref> -<blockquote>His face, once seen, could not be forgotten. The features were quite marked: the nose [[Aquiline nose|aquiline]] or very Roman, like one of the portraits of [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]] (more like a beak, as was said); large overhanging brows above the deepest set blue eyes that could be seen, in certain lights, and in others gray,—eyes expressive of all shades of feeling, but never weak or near-sighted; the forehead not unusually broad or high, full of concentrated energy and purpose; the mouth with prominent lips, pursed up with meaning and thought when silent, and giving out when open with the most varied and unusual instructive sayings.</blockquote> - -==Life== -===Early life and education, 1817–1837=== -[[File:Wheeler-Minot Farmhouse, Concord MA.jpg|thumb|Thoreau's birthplace, the [[Wheeler-Minot Farmhouse]] in [[Concord, Massachusetts]]]] - -Henry David Thoreau was born David Henry Thoreau<ref>Nelson, Randy F. (1981). ''The Almanac of American Letters''. Los Altos, California: William Kaufmann. p. 51. {{ISBN|0-86576-008-X}}.</ref> in [[Concord, Massachusetts]], into the "modest [[New England]] family"<ref name=McElroy>[[Wendy McElroy|McElroy, Wendy]] (2005-07-30) [http://archive.lewrockwell.com/mcelroy/mcelroy86.html "Henry David Thoreau and 'Civil Disobedience'"]. [[LewRockwell.com]].</ref> of John Thoreau, a pencil maker, and Cynthia Dunbar. His paternal grandfather had been born on the UK [[crown dependency]] island of [[Jersey]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wc.rootsweb.ancestry.com/cgi-bin/igm.cgi?op=GET&db=maold&id=I18020|title=RootsWeb's WorldConnect Project: Ancestors of Mary Ann Gillam and Stephen Old|publisher=}}</ref> His maternal grandfather, Asa Dunbar, led [[Harvard University|Harvard's]] 1766 student "[[Butter rebellion|Butter Rebellion]]",<ref>[https://www.brown.edu/Students/Alpha_Delta_Phi/history/fraternities.php History of the Fraternity System] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090704122642/http://www.brown.edu/Students/Alpha_Delta_Phi/history/fraternities.php |date=July 4, 2009 }}.</ref> the first recorded student protest in the American colonies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trivialibrary.com/c/first-student-protest-in-the-united-states.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191215210840/http://www.trivialibrary.com/c/first-student-protest-in-the-united-states.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-12-15|title=First Student Protest in the United States|publisher=}}</ref> David Henry was named after his recently deceased paternal uncle, David Thoreau. He began to call himself Henry David after he finished college; he never petitioned to make a legal name change.<ref>[http://www.barnesandnoble.com/writers/writerdetails.asp?z=y&cid=1019508#bio Henry David Thoreau] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061031164847/http://www.barnesandnoble.com/writers/writerdetails.asp?z=y&cid=1019508 |date=October 31, 2006 }}, "Meet the Writers." Barnes & Noble.com</ref> He had two older siblings, Helen and John Jr., and a younger sister, [[Sophia Thoreau]].<ref>[http://www.americanpoems.com/poets/thoreau/ Biography of Henry David Thoreau]. americanpoems.com</ref> None of the children married. Helen (1812–1849) died at age 36 years, from tuberculosis. John Jr. (1815–1842) died at age 27, of [[tetanus]]. Henry David (1817–1862) died at age 44, of tuberculosis. Sophia (1819–1876) survived him by 14 years, dying at age 57 years, of tuberculosis.{{Citation needed|date=September 2019}} - -[[Wheeler-Minot Farmhouse|Thoreau's birthplace]] still exists on Virginia Road in Concord. The house has been restored by the Thoreau Farm Trust,<ref>{{cite web|title=Thoreau Farm|work=thoreaufarm.org|url=http://thoreaufarm.org/}}</ref> a nonprofit organization, and is now open to the public. He studied at [[Harvard College]] between 1833 and 1837. He lived in [[Hollis Hall]] and took courses in [[rhetoric]], classics, philosophy, mathematics, and science.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}} He was a member of the Institute of 1770<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thoreausociety.org/_membership.htm |title=Organizations Thoreau Joined |publisher=Thoreau Society |accessdate=June 26, 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130503192646/http://www.thoreausociety.org/_membership.htm |archivedate=May 3, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> (now the [[Hasty Pudding Club]]). According to legend, Thoreau refused to pay the five-dollar fee (approximately {{inflation|US|5|1840|fmt=eq}}) for a Harvard diploma. In fact, the master's degree he declined to purchase had no academic merit: [[Harvard College]] offered it to graduates "who proved their physical worth by being alive three years after graduating, and their saving, earning, or inheriting quality or condition by having Five Dollars to give the college".<ref>"Thoreau's Diploma". ''American Literature''. Vol. 17, May 1945. pp. 174–75.</ref> He commented, "Let every sheep keep its own skin",<ref>{{cite web |author=Walter Harding |url=http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/about2/H/WalterHarding/LiveYourOwnLife.htm |title=Live Your Own Life |work=Geneseo Summer Compass |date=June 4, 1984 |accessdate=November 21, 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060129085602/http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/about2/H/WalterHarding/LiveYourOwnLife.htm |archivedate=2006-01-29|author-link=Walter Harding }}</ref> a reference to the tradition of using [[Sheepskin (material)|sheepskin]] [[vellum]] for diplomas. - -===Return to Concord, 1837–1844=== -The traditional professions open to college graduates—law, the church, business, medicine—did not interest Thoreau,<ref name="sattelmeyer">Sattelmeyer, Robert (1988). ''Thoreau's Reading: A Study in Intellectual History with Bibliographical Catalogue''. [http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/about2/S/Sattelmeyer_Robert/Reading2.pdf Chapter 2] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908031952/http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/about2/S/Sattelmeyer_Robert/Reading2.pdf |date=September 8, 2015 }}. Princeton: Princeton University Press.</ref>{{Rp|25}} so in 1835 he took a leave of absence from Harvard, during which he taught at a school in [[Canton, Massachusetts]]. After he graduated in 1837, he joined the faculty of the Concord public school, but he resigned after a few weeks rather than administer [[corporal punishment]].<ref name="sattelmeyer"/>{{Rp|25}} He and his brother John then opened the Concord Academy, a [[grammar school]] in Concord, in 1838.<!-- Concord Academy (1822–1863) is a different institution than Concord Academy (est. 1922). --><ref name="sattelmeyer" />{{Rp|25}} They introduced several progressive concepts, including nature walks and visits to local shops and businesses. The school closed when John became fatally ill from [[tetanus]] in 1842 after cutting himself while shaving.<ref>Dean, Bradley P. "[http://thoreau.eserver.org/wfchron.html A Thoreau Chronology]".</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|jstor=3817844 |title=Barzillai Frost's Funeral Sermon on the Death of John Thoreau Jr. |journal=Huntington Library Quarterly |volume=57 |issue=4 |pages=367–376 |date=1994 |author=Myerson, Joel|doi=10.2307/3817844 }}</ref> He died in Henry's arms.<ref>Woodlief, Ann. "[http://www.vcu.edu/engweb/transcendentalism/authors/thoreau/ Henry David Thoreau]".</ref> - -Upon graduation Thoreau returned home to Concord, where he met [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] through a mutual friend.<ref name=McElroy/> Emerson, who was 14 years his senior, took a paternal and at times patron-like interest in Thoreau, advising the young man and introducing him to a circle of local writers and thinkers, including [[William Ellery Channing (poet)|Ellery Channing]], [[Margaret Fuller]], [[Amos Bronson Alcott|Bronson Alcott]], and [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]] and his son [[Julian Hawthorne]], who was a boy at the time. - -Emerson urged Thoreau to contribute essays and poems to a quarterly periodical, ''[[The Dial]]'', and lobbied the editor, Margaret Fuller, to publish those writings. Thoreau's first essay published in ''The Dial'' was "Aulus Persius Flaccus",<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.walden.org/documents/file/Library/About%20Thoreau/D/Dial/AulusPersiusFlaccus.pdf|title=Aulus Persius Flaccus|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120925021512/http://www.walden.org/documents/file/Library/About%20Thoreau/D/Dial/AulusPersiusFlaccus.pdf|archive-date=September 25, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> an essay on the Roman playwright, in July 1840.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.walden.org/Library/About_Thoreau's_Life_and_Writings:_The_Research_Collections/The_Dial |title=''The Dial'' |publisher=Walden.org |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018151944/http://www.walden.org/Library/About_Thoreau%27s_Life_and_Writings%3A_The_Research_Collections/The_Dial |archivedate=October 18, 2015 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> It consisted of revised passages from his journal, which he had begun keeping at Emerson's suggestion. The first journal entry, on October 22, 1837, reads, "'What are you doing now?' he asked. 'Do you keep a journal?' So I make my first entry to-day."<ref>Thoreau, Henry David (2007). ''I to Myself: An Annotated Selection from the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau''. Jeffrey S. Cramer, ed. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 1.</ref> - -Thoreau was a philosopher of nature and its relation to the human condition. In his early years he followed [[Transcendentalism]], a loose and eclectic [[Idealism|idealist]] philosophy advocated by Emerson, Fuller, and Alcott. They held that an ideal spiritual state transcends, or goes beyond, the physical and empirical, and that one achieves that insight via personal intuition rather than religious doctrine. In their view, Nature is the outward sign of inward spirit, expressing the "radical correspondence of visible things and human thoughts", as Emerson wrote in ''Nature'' (1836). - -[[File:Thoreau1967stamp.jpg|thumb|right|1967 U.S. postage stamp honoring Thoreau, designed by [[Leonard Baskin]]]] - -On April 18, 1841, Thoreau moved into the [[Ralph Waldo Emerson House|Emerson house]].<ref name="Cheever">Cheever, Susan (2006). ''American Bloomsbury: Louisa May Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Fuller, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry David Thoreau; Their Lives, Their Loves, Their Work''. Detroit: Thorndike Press. p. 90. {{ISBN|0-7862-9521-X}}.</ref> There, from 1841 to 1844, he served as the children's tutor; he was also an editorial assistant, repairman and gardener. For a few months in 1843, he moved to the home of William Emerson on [[Staten Island]],<ref>{{cite book |title=The Life of Henry David Thoreau |last=Salt |first=H. S. |date=1890 |publisher=Richard Bentley & Son |location=London |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_t_0RAAAAYAAJ |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_t_0RAAAAYAAJ/page/n83 69]}}</ref> and tutored the family's sons while seeking contacts among literary men and journalists in the city who might help publish his writings, including his future literary representative [[Horace Greeley]].<ref>Sanborn, F. B., ed. (1906). ''The Writings of Henry David Thoreau''. Vol. VI, ''Familiar Letters''. [http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/writings/Writings1906/06FamiliarLetters/Years%20of%20Discipline.pdf Chapter 1, "Years of Discipline"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907235501/http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/writings/Writings1906/06FamiliarLetters/Years%20of%20Discipline.pdf |date=September 7, 2015 }}. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>{{Rp|68}} - -Thoreau returned to Concord and worked in his family's [[pencil]] factory, which he would continue to do alongside his writing and other work for most of his adult life. He rediscovered the process of making good pencils with inferior [[graphite]] by using clay as the binder.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/pencilhistoryofd00petr|url-access=registration|title=The Pencil: A History of Design and Circumstance|last=Petroski|first=Henry|publisher=Knopf|year=1992|isbn=9780679734154|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/pencilhistoryofd00petr/page/104 104]–125}}</ref> This invention allowed profitable use of a graphite source found in [[New Hampshire]] that had been purchased in 1821 by Thoreau's uncle, Charles Dunbar. The process of mixing graphite and clay, known as the Conté process, had been first patented by [[Nicolas-Jacques Conté]] in 1795. The company's other source of graphite had been [[Tantiusques]], a mine operated by Native Americans in [[Sturbridge, Massachusetts]]. Later, Thoreau converted the pencil factory to produce plumbago, a name for graphite at the time, which was used in the [[electrotyping]] process.<ref>Conrad, Randall. (Fall 2005). [http://thoreau.eserver.org/pencils.html "Machine in the Wetland: Re-imagining Thoreau's Plumbago-Grinder"]. ''[http://www.thoreausociety.org/_activities_tsb.htm Thoreau Society Bulletin] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071223191911/http://www.thoreausociety.org/_activities_tsb.htm |date=December 23, 2007 }}'' 253.</ref> - -Once back in Concord, Thoreau went through a restless period. In April 1844 he and his friend Edward Hoar accidentally set a fire that consumed {{convert|300|acre|km2}} of Walden Woods.<ref>[http://www.calliope.org/thoreau/thorotime.html ''A Chronology of Thoreau's Life, with Events of the Times''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160213001457/http://www.calliope.org/thoreau/thorotime.html |date=February 13, 2016 }}. The Thoreau Project, Calliope Film Resources. Accessed June 11, 2007.</ref> - -==="Civil Disobedience" and the Walden years, 1845–1850=== -[[File:Thoreau sites in Walden Pond.svg|thumb|left|Thoreau sites at Walden Pond]] - -{{quote|I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately, to front only the essential facts of life, and see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not, when I came to die, discover that I had not lived. I did not wish to live what was not life, living is so dear; nor did I wish to practise resignation, unless it was quite necessary. I wanted to live deep and suck out all the marrow of life, to live so sturdily and Spartan-like as to put to rout all that was not life, to cut a broad swath and shave close, to drive life into a corner, and reduce it to its lowest terms, and, if it proved to be mean, why then to get the whole and genuine meanness of it, and publish its meanness to the world; or if it were sublime, to know it by experience, and be able to give a true account of it in my next excursion.| Henry David Thoreau, "Where I Lived, and What I Lived For", in ''[[Walden]]''<ref>''Grammardog Guide to Walden''. Grammardog. p. 25. {{ISBN|1-60857-084-3}}.</ref>}} - -Thoreau felt a need to concentrate and work more on his writing. In March 1845, Ellery Channing told Thoreau, "Go out upon that, build yourself a hut, & there begin the grand process of devouring yourself alive. I see no other alternative, no other hope for you."<ref>Packer, 1833.</ref> Two months later, Thoreau embarked on a two-year experiment in [[simple living]] on July 4, 1845, when he moved to a small house he had built on land owned by Emerson in a [[secondary forest|second-growth forest]] around the shores of [[Walden Pond]]. The house was in "a pretty pasture and woodlot" of {{convert|14|acre|m2}} that Emerson had bought,<ref>Richardson. ''Emerson: The Mind on Fire''. p. 399.</ref> {{convert|1.5|mi|km}} from his family home.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.google.com/maps/search/concord+mass/@42.449808,-71.342769,15z?dg=dbrw&newdg=1|title=Google Maps|publisher=}}</ref> -[[File:Walden Thoreau.jpg|thumb|Original title page of ''Walden'', with an illustration from a drawing by Thoreau's sister Sophia]] - -On July 24 or July 25, 1846, Thoreau ran into the local [[tax collector]], Sam Staples, who asked him to pay six years of delinquent [[Poll tax (United States)|poll taxes]]. Thoreau refused because of his opposition to the [[Mexican–American War]] and [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]], and he spent a night in jail because of this refusal. The next day Thoreau was freed when someone, likely to have been his aunt, paid the tax, against his wishes.<ref name=":2">Rosenwald, Lawrence. "[http://thoreau.eserver.org/theory.html The Theory, Practice and Influence of Thoreau's Civil Disobedience]". William Cain, ed. (2006). ''A Historical Guide to Henry David Thoreau''. Cambridge: Oxford University Press. {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20131014012153/http://thoreau.eserver.org/theory.html|date=October 14, 2013|title=Archived}}</ref> The experience had a strong impact on Thoreau. In January and February 1848, he delivered lectures on "The Rights and Duties of the Individual in relation to Government",<ref>Thoreau, H. D., letter to Ralph Waldo Emerson, February 23, 1848.</ref> explaining his tax resistance at the [[Concord Lyceum]]. Bronson Alcott attended the lecture, writing in his journal on January 26: - -{{quote|Heard Thoreau's lecture before the Lyceum on the relation of the individual to the State—an admirable statement of the rights of the individual to self-government, and an attentive audience. His allusions to the Mexican War, to Mr. [[Samuel Hoar|Hoar]]'s expulsion from Carolina, his own imprisonment in Concord Jail for refusal to pay his tax, Mr. Hoar's payment of mine when taken to prison for a similar refusal, were all pertinent, well considered, and reasoned. I took great pleasure in this deed of Thoreau's.|Bronson Alcott|''Journals''<ref>Alcott, Bronson (1938). ''Journals''. Boston: Little, Brown.</ref>}} - -Thoreau revised the lecture into an essay titled "[[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|Resistance to Civil Government]]" (also known as "Civil Disobedience"). It was published by [[Elizabeth Peabody]] in the ''Aesthetic Papers'' in May 1849. Thoreau had taken up a version of [[Percy Shelley]]'s principle in the political poem "[[The Mask of Anarchy]]" (1819), which begins with the powerful images of the unjust forms of authority of his time and then imagines the stirrings of a radically new form of social action.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.morrissociety.org/JWMS/SP94.10.4.Nichols.pdf |title=Morrissociety.org |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110105232938/http://www.morrissociety.org/JWMS/SP94.10.4.Nichols.pdf |archivedate=January 5, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> - -At Walden Pond, Thoreau completed a first draft of ''[[A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers]]'', an [[elegy]] to his brother John, describing their trip to the [[White Mountains (New Hampshire)|White Mountains]] in 1839. Thoreau did not find a publisher for the book and instead printed 1,000 copies at his own expense; fewer than 300 were sold.<ref name="Cheever" />{{Rp|234}} He self-published the book on the advice of Emerson, using Emerson's publisher, Munroe, who did little to publicize the book. - -{{multiple image - | align = left - | direction = vertical - | header_align = center - | header = - | image1 = Thoreau's cabin inside.jpg - | width1 = 225 - | alt1 = - | caption1 = <center>Reconstruction of the interior of Thoreau's cabin</center> - | image2 = Replica of Thoreau's cabin near Walden Pond and his statue.jpg - | width2 = 225 - | alt2 = - | caption2 = <center>Replica of Thoreau's cabin and a statue of him near Walden Pond</center> - }} - -In August 1846, Thoreau briefly left Walden to make a trip to [[Mount Katahdin]] in [[Maine]], a journey later recorded in "Ktaadn", the first part of ''The Maine Woods''. - -Thoreau left Walden Pond on September 6, 1847.<ref name="Cheever" />{{Rp|244}} At Emerson's request, he immediately moved back to the Emerson house to help Emerson's wife, Lidian, manage the household while her husband was on an extended trip to Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thoreausociety.org/_news_abouthdt.htm |title=Thoreausociety.org |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101129085846/http://thoreausociety.org/_news_abouthdt.htm |archivedate=November 29, 2010 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Over several years, as he worked to pay off his debts, he continuously revised the manuscript of what he eventually published as ''[[Walden|Walden, or Life in the Woods]]'' in 1854, recounting the two years, two months, and two days he had spent at Walden Pond. The book compresses that time into a single calendar year, using the passage of the four seasons to symbolize human development. Part [[memoir]] and part spiritual quest, ''Walden'' at first won few admirers, but later critics have regarded it as a classic American work that explores natural simplicity, harmony, and beauty as models for just social and cultural conditions. - -The American poet [[Robert Frost]] wrote of Thoreau, "In one book ... he surpasses everything we have had in America."<ref>Frost, Robert (1968). Letter to Wade Van Dore, June 24, 1922, in ''Twentieth Century Interpretations of Walden''. Richard Ruland, ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. p. 8. {{LCCN|6814480}}.</ref> - -The American author [[John Updike]] said of the book, "A century and a half after its publication, Walden has become such a totem of the back-to-nature, preservationist, anti-business, civil-disobedience mindset, and Thoreau so vivid a protester, so perfect a crank and hermit saint, that the book risks being as revered and unread as the Bible."<ref>Updike, John (2004). "A Sage for All Seasons". [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2004/jun/26/classics ''The Guardian''].</ref> - -Thoreau moved out of Emerson's house in July 1848 and stayed at a house on nearby Belknap Street. In 1850, he moved into a house at [[Thoreau-Alcott House|255 Main Street]], where he lived until his death.<ref>Ehrlich, Eugene; Carruth, Gorton (1982). ''The Oxford Illustrated Literary Guide to the United States''. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 45. {{ISBN|0-19-503186-5}}.</ref> - -In the summer of 1850, Thoreau and Channing journeyed from Boston to Montreal and Quebec City. These would be Thoreau's only travels outside the United States.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Weisman|first1=Adam Paul|title=Postcolonialism in North America: Imaginative Colonization in Henry David Thoreau's "A Yankee in Canada" and Jacques Poulin's "Volkswagen Blues"|journal=The Massachusetts Review|date=Autumn 1995|volume=36|issue=3|pages=478–479}}</ref> It is as a result of this trip that he developed lectures that eventually became ''A Yankee in Canada''. He jested that all he got from this adventure "was a cold".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Thoreau|first1=Henry David|title=A Yankee in Canada|url=https://archive.org/details/yankeeincanada0000thor|url-access=registration|date=1961|publisher=Harvest House|location=Montreal|page=[https://archive.org/details/yankeeincanada0000thor/page/13 13]}}</ref> In fact, this proved an opportunity to contrast American civic spirit and democratic values with a colony apparently ruled by illegitimate religious and military power. Whereas his own country had had its revolution, in Canada history had failed to turn.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal|last1=Lacroix|first1=Patrick|title=Finding Thoreau in French Canada: The Ideological Legacy of the American Revolution|journal=American Review of Canadian Studies|date=Fall 2017|volume=47|issue=3|pages=266–279|doi=10.1080/02722011.2017.1370719}}</ref> - -===Later years, 1851–1862=== -[[File:VII. Rowse.jpg|thumb|Thoreau in 1854]] -In 1851, Thoreau became increasingly fascinated with [[natural history]] and narratives of travel and expedition. He read avidly on [[botany]] and often wrote observations on this topic into his journal. He admired [[William Bartram]] and [[Charles Darwin]]'s ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle|Voyage of the Beagle]]''. He kept detailed observations on Concord's nature lore, recording everything from how the fruit ripened over time to the fluctuating depths of Walden Pond and the days certain birds migrated. The point of this task was to "anticipate" the seasons of nature, in his word.<ref>[http://www.walden.org/documents/file/Library/Thoreau/writings/correspondence/LettersBlake.pdf#page34 Letters to H.&nbsp;G.&nbsp;O. Blake] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617003953/http://www.walden.org/documents/file/Library/Thoreau/writings/correspondence/LettersBlake.pdf |date=June 17, 2011 }}. Walden.org</ref><ref>Thoreau, Henry David (1862). "Autumnal Tints". ''The Atlantic Monthly'', October. pp. 385–402. [http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/writings/essays/Thoreau_Autumnal%20Tints.pdf Reprint] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100307053611/http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/writings/essays/Thoreau_Autumnal%20Tints.pdf |date=March 7, 2010 }}. Retrieved November 21, 2009.</ref> - -He became a [[Surveying|land surveyor]] and continued to write increasingly detailed observations on the natural history of the town, covering an area of {{convert|26|sqmi|km2}}, in his journal, a two-million-word document he kept for 24 years. He also kept a series of notebooks, and these observations became the source of his late writings on natural history, such as "Autumnal Tints", "The Succession of Trees", and "Wild Apples", an essay lamenting the destruction of indigenous wild apple species. - -With the rise of [[environmental history]] and [[ecocriticism]] as academic disciplines, several new readings of Thoreau began to emerge, showing him to have been both a philosopher and an analyst of ecological patterns in fields and woodlots.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Thorson|first1=Robert M.|title=Walden's Shore: Henry David Thoreau and Nineteenth-Century Science|date=December 6, 2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=978-0674724785}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Primack|first1=Richard B.|title=Tracking Climate Change with the Help of Henry David Thoreau|url=http://www.elsevier.com/connect/tracking-climate-change-with-the-help-of-henry-david-thoreau|accessdate=23 September 2015|date=June 13, 2013}}</ref> For instance, "The Succession of Forest Trees", shows that he used experimentation and analysis to explain how forests regenerate after fire or human destruction, through the dispersal of seeds by winds or animals. In this lecture, first presented to a cattle show in Concord, and considered his greatest contribution to ecology, Thoreau explained why one species of tree can grow in a place where a different tree did previously. He observed that squirrels often carry nuts far from the tree from which they fell to create stashes. These seeds are likely to germinate and grow should the squirrel die or abandon the stash. He credited the squirrel for performing a "great service ... in the economy of the universe." <ref>{{cite book|last1=Worster|first1=Donald|title=Nature's Economy|date=1977|publisher=Cambridge University|location=New York, New York|isbn=0-521-45273-2|pages=69–71}}</ref> -[[File:Walden Pond, 2010.jpg|thumb|left|[[Walden Pond]]]] - -He traveled to [[Canada East]] once, [[Cape Cod]] four times, and Maine three times; these landscapes inspired his "excursion" books, ''[[A Yankee in Canada]]'', ''Cape Cod'', and ''The Maine Woods'', in which travel itineraries frame his thoughts about geography, history and philosophy. Other travels took him southwest to [[Philadelphia]] and New York City in 1854 and west across the [[Great Lakes region (North America)|Great Lakes region]] in 1861, when he visited [[Niagara Falls]], Detroit, Chicago, [[Milwaukee]], [[St. Paul, Minnesota|St. Paul]] and [[Mackinac Island]].<ref>Thoreau, Henry David (1970). ''The Annotated Walden''. Philip Van Doren Stern, ed. pp. 96, 132.</ref> He was provincial in his own travels, but he read widely about travel in other lands. He devoured all the first-hand travel accounts available in his day, at a time when the last unmapped regions of the earth were being explored. He read [[Ferdinand Magellan|Magellan]] and [[James Cook]]; the [[arctic explorer]]s [[John Franklin]], [[Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)|Alexander Mackenzie]] and [[William Parry (explorer)|William Parry]]; [[David Livingstone]] and [[Richard Francis Burton]] on Africa; [[Lewis and Clark]]; and hundreds of lesser-known works by explorers and literate travelers.<ref>Christie, John Aldrich (1965). ''Thoreau as World Traveler''. New York: Columbia University Press.</ref> Astonishing amounts of reading fed his endless curiosity about the peoples, cultures, religions and natural history of the world and left its traces as commentaries in his voluminous journals. He processed everything he read, in the local laboratory of his Concord experience. Among his famous aphorisms is his advice to "live at home like a traveler".<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Correspondence Letters of H.&nbsp;G.&nbsp;O. Blake] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617003655/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Correspondence |date=June 17, 2011 }} in ''The Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection''.</ref> - -After [[John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry]], many prominent voices in the abolitionist movement distanced themselves from Brown or [[Damn with faint praise|damned him with faint praise]]. Thoreau was disgusted by this, and he composed a key speech, ''[[A Plea for Captain John Brown]]'', which was uncompromising in its defense of Brown and his actions. Thoreau's speech proved persuasive: the abolitionist movement began to accept Brown as a martyr, and by the time of the [[American Civil War]] entire armies of the North were [[John Brown's Body|literally singing Brown's praises]]. As a biographer of Brown put it, "If, as Alfred Kazin suggests, without John Brown there would have been no Civil War, we would add that without the Concord Transcendentalists, John Brown would have had little cultural impact."<ref>Reynolds, David S. (2005). ''John Brown, Abolitionist''. Knopf. p. 4.</ref> -[[File:Henry David Thoreau - Dunshee ambrotpe 1861.jpg|thumb|left|Thoreau in his second and final photographic sitting, August 1861]] - -===Death=== -Thoreau contracted [[tuberculosis]] in 1835 and suffered from it sporadically afterwards. In 1860, following a late-night excursion to count the rings of tree stumps during a rainstorm, he became ill with [[bronchitis]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Richardson, Jr.|first=Robert D.|title=Faith in a Seed: The First Publication of Thoreau's Last Manuscript|publisher=Island Press|year=1993|isbn=|editor-last=Dean|editor-first=Bradley P.|location=Washington, D.C.|publication-place=|pages=17|chapter=Introduction}}</ref><ref>[https://www.walden.org/Library/About_Thoreau's_Life_and_Writings:_The_Research_Collections/Thoreau,_the_Man About Thoreau: Thoreau, the Man] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160620045648/http://www.walden.org/Library/About_Thoreau%27s_Life_and_Writings%3A_The_Research_Collections/Thoreau%2C_the_Man |date=June 20, 2016 }}.</ref><ref>[http://thoreau.eserver.org/wfchron.html Thoreau Chronology].</ref> His health declined, with brief periods of remission, and he eventually became bedridden. Recognizing the terminal nature of his disease, Thoreau spent his last years revising and editing his unpublished works, particularly ''The Maine Woods'' and [[Excursions (anthology)|''Excursions'']], and petitioning publishers to print revised editions of ''A Week'' and ''Walden''. He wrote letters and journal entries until he became too weak to continue. His friends were alarmed at his diminished appearance and were fascinated by his tranquil acceptance of death. When his aunt Louisa asked him in his last weeks if he had made his peace with God, Thoreau responded, "I did not know we had ever quarreled."<ref>{{cite book|first=Simon|last= Critchley|title=The Book of Dead Philosophers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ME-6IKs4a2sC&pg=PA181&lpg=PA181 |p= 181|location=New York|publisher= Random House |date=2009|isbn=9780307472632}}</ref> - -[[File:Grave of Henry David Thoreau.jpeg|thumb|Grave of Thoreau at [[Sleepy Hollow Cemetery (Concord, Massachusetts)|Sleepy Hollow Cemetery]] in Concord]] -Aware he was dying, Thoreau's last words were "Now comes good sailing", followed by two lone words, "moose" and "Indian".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://writersalmanac.publicradio.org/programs/2008/05/05/|title=The Writer's Almanac|publisher=American Public Media|access-date=June 1, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170708225006/http://writersalmanac.publicradio.org/programs/2008/05/05/|archive-date=July 8, 2017|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref> He died on May 6, 1862, at age 44. [[Amos Bronson Alcott]] planned the service and read selections from Thoreau's works, and Channing presented a hymn.<ref>Packer, Barbara L. (2007). ''The Transcendentalists''. Athens: University of Georgia Press. p. 272. {{ISBN|978-0-8203-2958-1}}.</ref> Emerson wrote the eulogy spoken at the funeral.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NWACAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA239|last= Emerson|first= Ralph Waldo |title=Thoreau|work=The Atlantic|date= August 1862}}</ref> Thoreau was buried in the Dunbar family plot; his remains and those of members of his immediate family were eventually moved to [[Sleepy Hollow Cemetery (Concord, Massachusetts)|Sleepy Hollow Cemetery]] in Concord, Massachusetts. - -Thoreau's friend [[William Ellery Channing (poet)|William Ellery Channing]] published his first biography, ''Thoreau the Poet-Naturalist'', in 1873.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Channing|first1=William Ellery|url=http://archive.org/details/poetnatthoreau00chanrich|title=Thoreau, the poet-naturalist, with Memorial verses|last2=Merrymount Press|last3=Sanborn|first3=F. B. (Franklin Benjamin)|last4=Updike|first4=Daniel Berkeley|date=1902|publisher=Boston, C. E. Goodspeed|others=University of California Libraries}}</ref> Channing and another friend, [[Harrison Blake]], edited some poems, essays, and journal entries for posthumous publication in the 1890s. Thoreau's journals, which he often mined for his published works but which remained largely unpublished at his death, were first published in 1906 and helped to build his modern reputation.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}} A new, expanded edition of the journals is under way, published by [[Princeton University Press]]. Today, Thoreau is regarded as one of the foremost American writers, both for the modern clarity of his prose style and the prescience of his views on nature and politics. His memory is honored by the international [[Thoreau Society]] and his legacy honored by the Thoreau Institute at Walden Woods, established in 1998 in Lincoln, Massachusetts. +|main_interests = {{hbiography, ''Thoreau the Poet-Naturalist'', in 1873.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Channing|first1=William Ellery|url=http://archive.org/details/poetnatthoreau00chanrich|title=Thoreau, the poet-naturalist, with Memorial verses|last2=Merrymount Press|last3=Sanborn|first3=F. B. (Franklin Benjamin)|last4=Updike|first4=Daniel Berkeley|date=1902|publisher=Boston, C. E. Goodspeed|others=University of California Libraries}}</ref> Channing and another friend, [[Harrison Blake]], edited some poems, essays, and journal entries for posthumous publication in the 1890s. Thoreau's journals, which he often mined for his published works but which remained largely unpublished at his death, were first published in 1906 and helped to build his modern reputation.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}} A new, expanded edition of the journals is under way, published by [[Princeton University Press]]. Today, Thoreau is regarded as one of the foremost American writers, both for the modern clarity of his prose style and the prescience of his views on nature and politics. His memory is honored by the international [[Thoreau Society]] and his legacy honored by the Thoreau Institute at Walden Woods, established in 1998 in Lincoln, Massachusetts. ===Nature and human existence=== '
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[ 0 => '|main_interests = {{hbiography, ''Thoreau the Poet-Naturalist'', in 1873.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Channing|first1=William Ellery|url=http://archive.org/details/poetnatthoreau00chanrich|title=Thoreau, the poet-naturalist, with Memorial verses|last2=Merrymount Press|last3=Sanborn|first3=F. B. (Franklin Benjamin)|last4=Updike|first4=Daniel Berkeley|date=1902|publisher=Boston, C. E. Goodspeed|others=University of California Libraries}}</ref> Channing and another friend, [[Harrison Blake]], edited some poems, essays, and journal entries for posthumous publication in the 1890s. Thoreau's journals, which he often mined for his published works but which remained largely unpublished at his death, were first published in 1906 and helped to build his modern reputation.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}} A new, expanded edition of the journals is under way, published by [[Princeton University Press]]. Today, Thoreau is regarded as one of the foremost American writers, both for the modern clarity of his prose style and the prescience of his views on nature and politics. His memory is honored by the international [[Thoreau Society]] and his legacy honored by the Thoreau Institute at Walden Woods, established in 1998 in Lincoln, Massachusetts.' ]
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[ 0 => '|main_interests = {{hlist|[[Ethics]]|[[Poetry]]|[[Religion]]|[[Politics]]|[[Biology]]|[[Philosophy]]|[[History]]}}', 1 => '|notable_ideas = {{hlist|[[Abolitionism in the United States|Abolitionism]]|[[tax resistance]]|[[development criticism]]|[[civil disobedience]]|[[conscientious objector|conscientious objection]]|[[direct action]]|[[environmentalism]]|[[anarchism]]|[[simple living]]}}', 2 => '|influences = {{hlist|[[Indian philosophy]]|[[Aristotle]]|[[Homer]]|[[Aeschylus]]|[[Pindar]]|[[Cato the Elder]]|[[Ralph Waldo Emerson]]|[[Thomas Carlyle]]|[[Charles Darwin]]|[[Alexander von Humboldt]]<ref>{{cite journal|last=Seelinger|first=Robert A. |title=Stolen Fire: Aeschylean imagery and Thoreau's identification of the Graius homo of Lucretius with Prometheus |journal=Studia Humaniora Tartuensia |volume=14 |year=2013 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.12697/sht.2013.14.A.2 |doi-access=free }}</ref>}}', 3 => '|influenced = {{hlist|[[Mahatma Gandhi]]|[[John F. Kennedy]]|[[Martin Luther King Jr.]]|[[Walt Whitman]]|[[Leo Tolstoy]]|[[Marcel Proust]]|[[W. B. Yeats]]|[[Sinclair Lewis]]|[[Ernest Hemingway]]|[[Upton Sinclair]]|[[Emma Goldman]]|[[E. B. White]]|[[E. O. Wilson]]|[[Christopher McCandless]]|[[B. F. Skinner]]|[[George Bernard Shaw]]|[[John Zerzan]]|[[John Muir]]|[[Glenn Gould]]}}}}', 4 => ''''Henry David Thoreau''' (see [[Henry David Thoreau#Pronunciation of his name|name pronunciation]]; July 12, 1817&nbsp;– May 6, 1862) was an American [[essay]]ist, [[poet]], and [[philosopher]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Henry David Thoreau {{!}} Biography & Works |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-David-Thoreau |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}</ref> A leading [[Transcendentalism|transcendentalist]],<ref>Howe, Daniel Walker, ''What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848''. {{ISBN|978-0-19-507894-7}}, p. 623.</ref> he is best known for his book ''[[Walden]]'', a reflection upon [[simple living]] in natural surroundings, and his essay "[[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|Civil Disobedience]]" (originally published as "Resistance to Civil Government"), an argument for disobedience to an unjust state.', 5 => '', 6 => 'Thoreau's books, articles, essays, journals, and poetry amount to more than 20 volumes. Among his lasting contributions are his [[nature writing|writings on natural history]] and philosophy, in which he anticipated the methods and findings of [[ecology]] and [[environmental history]], two sources of modern-day [[environmentalism]]. His [[Literary language|literary]] style interweaves close observation of nature, personal experience, pointed rhetoric, [[symbol]]ic meanings, and historical lore, while displaying a poetic sensibility, philosophical [[Asceticism|austerity]], and attention to practical detail.<ref name="ReferenceA">Thoreau, Henry David. ''A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers''&nbsp;/ ''Walden''&nbsp;/ ''The Maine Woods''&nbsp;/ ''Cape Cod''. Library of America. {{ISBN|0-940450-27-5}}.</ref> He was also deeply interested in the idea of survival in the face of hostile elements, historical change, and natural decay; at the same time he advocated abandoning waste and [[illusion]] in order to discover life's true essential needs.<ref name="ReferenceA" />', 7 => '', 8 => 'He was a lifelong [[Abolitionism|abolitionist]], delivering lectures that attacked the [[fugitive slave laws|Fugitive Slave Law]] while praising the writings of [[Wendell Phillips]] and defending the abolitionist [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown]]. Thoreau's philosophy of [[civil disobedience]] later influenced the political thoughts and actions of such notable figures as [[Leo Tolstoy]], [[Mahatma Gandhi]], and [[Martin Luther King Jr.]]<ref name=":2" />', 9 => '', 10 => 'Thoreau is sometimes referred to as an [[anarchism|anarchist]].<ref>Seligman, Edwin Robert Anderson; Johnson, Alvin Saunders, eds. (1937). ''Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences'', p. 12.</ref><ref>Gross, David, ed. ''The Price of Freedom: Political Philosophy from Thoreau's Journals''. p. 8. {{ISBN|978-1-4348-0552-2}}. "The Thoreau of these journals distrusted doctrine, and, though it is accurate I think to call him an anarchist, he was by no means doctrinaire in this either."</ref> Though "Civil Disobedience" seems to call for improving rather than abolishing government—"I ask for, not at once no government, but ''at once'' a better government"<ref name="resistance">Thoreau, H. D. "[http://www.sniggle.net/Experiment/index.php?entry=rtcg#p03 Resistance to Civil Government]".</ref>—the direction of this improvement contrarily points toward anarchism: "'That government is best which governs not at all;' and when men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of government which they will have."<ref name="resistance" />', 11 => '', 12 => '==Pronunciation of his name==', 13 => '[[Amos Bronson Alcott]] and Thoreau's aunt each wrote that "Thoreau" is pronounced like the word ''thorough'' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|θ|ʌr|oʊ}} {{respell|THURR|oh}}—in [[General American]],<ref>[http://thoreau.eserver.org/pronounce THUR-oh or Thor-OH? And How Do We Know?] ''Thoreau Reader''.</ref><ref>''[https://www.npr.org/programs/morning/features/patc/walden/ Thoreau's Walden]'', under the sidebar "Pronouncing Thoreau".</ref> but more precisely {{IPAc-en|ˈ|θ|ɔːr|oʊ}} {{respell|THOR|oh}}—in 19th-century New England). [[Edward Waldo Emerson]] wrote that the name should be pronounced "Thó-row", with the ''h'' sounded and stress on the first syllable.<ref>See the note on pronouncing the name at [http://www.walden.org/Thoreau#Name the Thoreau Institute at Walden Woods].</ref> Among modern-day American English speakers, it is perhaps more commonly pronounced {{IPAc-en|θ|ə|ˈ|r|oʊ}} {{respell|thə|ROH}}—with stress on the second syllable.<ref>{{cite dictionary|title=Thoreau|dictionary=Dictionary.com|date=2013|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/thoreau}}</ref><ref>Wells, J. C. (1990) ''Pronunciation Dictionary'', s.v. "Thoreau". Essex, U.K.: Longman.</ref>', 14 => '', 15 => '==Physical appearance==', 16 => 'Thoreau had a distinctive appearance, with a nose that he called his "most prominent feature".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Cape Cod|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|year=1865|chapter=Chapter 10-A. Provincetown|chapter-url=http://thoreau.eserver.org:80/capecd10.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822113030/http://thoreau.eserver.org/capecd10.html|archive-date=August 22, 2017|url-status=dead|access-date=February 13, 2007}}</ref> Of his appearance and disposition, [[Ellery Channing]] wrote:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thoreau.eserver.org/images.html|title=The Days of Henry Thoreau|author=Harding, Walter|work=thoreau.eserver.org}}</ref>', 17 => '<blockquote>His face, once seen, could not be forgotten. The features were quite marked: the nose [[Aquiline nose|aquiline]] or very Roman, like one of the portraits of [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]] (more like a beak, as was said); large overhanging brows above the deepest set blue eyes that could be seen, in certain lights, and in others gray,—eyes expressive of all shades of feeling, but never weak or near-sighted; the forehead not unusually broad or high, full of concentrated energy and purpose; the mouth with prominent lips, pursed up with meaning and thought when silent, and giving out when open with the most varied and unusual instructive sayings.</blockquote>', 18 => '', 19 => '==Life==', 20 => '===Early life and education, 1817–1837===', 21 => '[[File:Wheeler-Minot Farmhouse, Concord MA.jpg|thumb|Thoreau's birthplace, the [[Wheeler-Minot Farmhouse]] in [[Concord, Massachusetts]]]]', 22 => '', 23 => 'Henry David Thoreau was born David Henry Thoreau<ref>Nelson, Randy F. (1981). ''The Almanac of American Letters''. Los Altos, California: William Kaufmann. p. 51. {{ISBN|0-86576-008-X}}.</ref> in [[Concord, Massachusetts]], into the "modest [[New England]] family"<ref name=McElroy>[[Wendy McElroy|McElroy, Wendy]] (2005-07-30) [http://archive.lewrockwell.com/mcelroy/mcelroy86.html "Henry David Thoreau and 'Civil Disobedience'"]. [[LewRockwell.com]].</ref> of John Thoreau, a pencil maker, and Cynthia Dunbar. His paternal grandfather had been born on the UK [[crown dependency]] island of [[Jersey]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wc.rootsweb.ancestry.com/cgi-bin/igm.cgi?op=GET&db=maold&id=I18020|title=RootsWeb's WorldConnect Project: Ancestors of Mary Ann Gillam and Stephen Old|publisher=}}</ref> His maternal grandfather, Asa Dunbar, led [[Harvard University|Harvard's]] 1766 student "[[Butter rebellion|Butter Rebellion]]",<ref>[https://www.brown.edu/Students/Alpha_Delta_Phi/history/fraternities.php History of the Fraternity System] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090704122642/http://www.brown.edu/Students/Alpha_Delta_Phi/history/fraternities.php |date=July 4, 2009 }}.</ref> the first recorded student protest in the American colonies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trivialibrary.com/c/first-student-protest-in-the-united-states.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191215210840/http://www.trivialibrary.com/c/first-student-protest-in-the-united-states.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-12-15|title=First Student Protest in the United States|publisher=}}</ref> David Henry was named after his recently deceased paternal uncle, David Thoreau. He began to call himself Henry David after he finished college; he never petitioned to make a legal name change.<ref>[http://www.barnesandnoble.com/writers/writerdetails.asp?z=y&cid=1019508#bio Henry David Thoreau] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061031164847/http://www.barnesandnoble.com/writers/writerdetails.asp?z=y&cid=1019508 |date=October 31, 2006 }}, "Meet the Writers." Barnes & Noble.com</ref> He had two older siblings, Helen and John Jr., and a younger sister, [[Sophia Thoreau]].<ref>[http://www.americanpoems.com/poets/thoreau/ Biography of Henry David Thoreau]. americanpoems.com</ref> None of the children married. Helen (1812–1849) died at age 36 years, from tuberculosis. John Jr. (1815–1842) died at age 27, of [[tetanus]]. Henry David (1817–1862) died at age 44, of tuberculosis. Sophia (1819–1876) survived him by 14 years, dying at age 57 years, of tuberculosis.{{Citation needed|date=September 2019}}', 24 => '', 25 => '[[Wheeler-Minot Farmhouse|Thoreau's birthplace]] still exists on Virginia Road in Concord. The house has been restored by the Thoreau Farm Trust,<ref>{{cite web|title=Thoreau Farm|work=thoreaufarm.org|url=http://thoreaufarm.org/}}</ref> a nonprofit organization, and is now open to the public. He studied at [[Harvard College]] between 1833 and 1837. He lived in [[Hollis Hall]] and took courses in [[rhetoric]], classics, philosophy, mathematics, and science.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}} He was a member of the Institute of 1770<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thoreausociety.org/_membership.htm |title=Organizations Thoreau Joined |publisher=Thoreau Society |accessdate=June 26, 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130503192646/http://www.thoreausociety.org/_membership.htm |archivedate=May 3, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> (now the [[Hasty Pudding Club]]). According to legend, Thoreau refused to pay the five-dollar fee (approximately {{inflation|US|5|1840|fmt=eq}}) for a Harvard diploma. In fact, the master's degree he declined to purchase had no academic merit: [[Harvard College]] offered it to graduates "who proved their physical worth by being alive three years after graduating, and their saving, earning, or inheriting quality or condition by having Five Dollars to give the college".<ref>"Thoreau's Diploma". ''American Literature''. Vol. 17, May 1945. pp. 174–75.</ref> He commented, "Let every sheep keep its own skin",<ref>{{cite web |author=Walter Harding |url=http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/about2/H/WalterHarding/LiveYourOwnLife.htm |title=Live Your Own Life |work=Geneseo Summer Compass |date=June 4, 1984 |accessdate=November 21, 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060129085602/http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/about2/H/WalterHarding/LiveYourOwnLife.htm |archivedate=2006-01-29|author-link=Walter Harding }}</ref> a reference to the tradition of using [[Sheepskin (material)|sheepskin]] [[vellum]] for diplomas.', 26 => '', 27 => '===Return to Concord, 1837–1844===', 28 => 'The traditional professions open to college graduates—law, the church, business, medicine—did not interest Thoreau,<ref name="sattelmeyer">Sattelmeyer, Robert (1988). ''Thoreau's Reading: A Study in Intellectual History with Bibliographical Catalogue''. [http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/about2/S/Sattelmeyer_Robert/Reading2.pdf Chapter 2] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908031952/http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/about2/S/Sattelmeyer_Robert/Reading2.pdf |date=September 8, 2015 }}. Princeton: Princeton University Press.</ref>{{Rp|25}} so in 1835 he took a leave of absence from Harvard, during which he taught at a school in [[Canton, Massachusetts]]. After he graduated in 1837, he joined the faculty of the Concord public school, but he resigned after a few weeks rather than administer [[corporal punishment]].<ref name="sattelmeyer"/>{{Rp|25}} He and his brother John then opened the Concord Academy, a [[grammar school]] in Concord, in 1838.<!-- Concord Academy (1822–1863) is a different institution than Concord Academy (est. 1922). --><ref name="sattelmeyer" />{{Rp|25}} They introduced several progressive concepts, including nature walks and visits to local shops and businesses. The school closed when John became fatally ill from [[tetanus]] in 1842 after cutting himself while shaving.<ref>Dean, Bradley P. "[http://thoreau.eserver.org/wfchron.html A Thoreau Chronology]".</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|jstor=3817844 |title=Barzillai Frost's Funeral Sermon on the Death of John Thoreau Jr. |journal=Huntington Library Quarterly |volume=57 |issue=4 |pages=367–376 |date=1994 |author=Myerson, Joel|doi=10.2307/3817844 }}</ref> He died in Henry's arms.<ref>Woodlief, Ann. "[http://www.vcu.edu/engweb/transcendentalism/authors/thoreau/ Henry David Thoreau]".</ref>', 29 => '', 30 => 'Upon graduation Thoreau returned home to Concord, where he met [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] through a mutual friend.<ref name=McElroy/> Emerson, who was 14 years his senior, took a paternal and at times patron-like interest in Thoreau, advising the young man and introducing him to a circle of local writers and thinkers, including [[William Ellery Channing (poet)|Ellery Channing]], [[Margaret Fuller]], [[Amos Bronson Alcott|Bronson Alcott]], and [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]] and his son [[Julian Hawthorne]], who was a boy at the time.', 31 => '', 32 => 'Emerson urged Thoreau to contribute essays and poems to a quarterly periodical, ''[[The Dial]]'', and lobbied the editor, Margaret Fuller, to publish those writings. Thoreau's first essay published in ''The Dial'' was "Aulus Persius Flaccus",<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.walden.org/documents/file/Library/About%20Thoreau/D/Dial/AulusPersiusFlaccus.pdf|title=Aulus Persius Flaccus|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120925021512/http://www.walden.org/documents/file/Library/About%20Thoreau/D/Dial/AulusPersiusFlaccus.pdf|archive-date=September 25, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> an essay on the Roman playwright, in July 1840.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.walden.org/Library/About_Thoreau's_Life_and_Writings:_The_Research_Collections/The_Dial |title=''The Dial'' |publisher=Walden.org |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018151944/http://www.walden.org/Library/About_Thoreau%27s_Life_and_Writings%3A_The_Research_Collections/The_Dial |archivedate=October 18, 2015 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> It consisted of revised passages from his journal, which he had begun keeping at Emerson's suggestion. The first journal entry, on October 22, 1837, reads, "'What are you doing now?' he asked. 'Do you keep a journal?' So I make my first entry to-day."<ref>Thoreau, Henry David (2007). ''I to Myself: An Annotated Selection from the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau''. Jeffrey S. Cramer, ed. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 1.</ref>', 33 => '', 34 => 'Thoreau was a philosopher of nature and its relation to the human condition. In his early years he followed [[Transcendentalism]], a loose and eclectic [[Idealism|idealist]] philosophy advocated by Emerson, Fuller, and Alcott. They held that an ideal spiritual state transcends, or goes beyond, the physical and empirical, and that one achieves that insight via personal intuition rather than religious doctrine. In their view, Nature is the outward sign of inward spirit, expressing the "radical correspondence of visible things and human thoughts", as Emerson wrote in ''Nature'' (1836).', 35 => '', 36 => '[[File:Thoreau1967stamp.jpg|thumb|right|1967 U.S. postage stamp honoring Thoreau, designed by [[Leonard Baskin]]]]', 37 => '', 38 => 'On April 18, 1841, Thoreau moved into the [[Ralph Waldo Emerson House|Emerson house]].<ref name="Cheever">Cheever, Susan (2006). ''American Bloomsbury: Louisa May Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Fuller, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry David Thoreau; Their Lives, Their Loves, Their Work''. Detroit: Thorndike Press. p. 90. {{ISBN|0-7862-9521-X}}.</ref> There, from 1841 to 1844, he served as the children's tutor; he was also an editorial assistant, repairman and gardener. For a few months in 1843, he moved to the home of William Emerson on [[Staten Island]],<ref>{{cite book |title=The Life of Henry David Thoreau |last=Salt |first=H. S. |date=1890 |publisher=Richard Bentley & Son |location=London |isbn= |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_t_0RAAAAYAAJ |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_t_0RAAAAYAAJ/page/n83 69]}}</ref> and tutored the family's sons while seeking contacts among literary men and journalists in the city who might help publish his writings, including his future literary representative [[Horace Greeley]].<ref>Sanborn, F. B., ed. (1906). ''The Writings of Henry David Thoreau''. Vol. VI, ''Familiar Letters''. [http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/writings/Writings1906/06FamiliarLetters/Years%20of%20Discipline.pdf Chapter 1, "Years of Discipline"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907235501/http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/writings/Writings1906/06FamiliarLetters/Years%20of%20Discipline.pdf |date=September 7, 2015 }}. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>{{Rp|68}}', 39 => '', 40 => 'Thoreau returned to Concord and worked in his family's [[pencil]] factory, which he would continue to do alongside his writing and other work for most of his adult life. He rediscovered the process of making good pencils with inferior [[graphite]] by using clay as the binder.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/pencilhistoryofd00petr|url-access=registration|title=The Pencil: A History of Design and Circumstance|last=Petroski|first=Henry|publisher=Knopf|year=1992|isbn=9780679734154|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/pencilhistoryofd00petr/page/104 104]–125}}</ref> This invention allowed profitable use of a graphite source found in [[New Hampshire]] that had been purchased in 1821 by Thoreau's uncle, Charles Dunbar. The process of mixing graphite and clay, known as the Conté process, had been first patented by [[Nicolas-Jacques Conté]] in 1795. The company's other source of graphite had been [[Tantiusques]], a mine operated by Native Americans in [[Sturbridge, Massachusetts]]. Later, Thoreau converted the pencil factory to produce plumbago, a name for graphite at the time, which was used in the [[electrotyping]] process.<ref>Conrad, Randall. (Fall 2005). [http://thoreau.eserver.org/pencils.html "Machine in the Wetland: Re-imagining Thoreau's Plumbago-Grinder"]. ''[http://www.thoreausociety.org/_activities_tsb.htm Thoreau Society Bulletin] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071223191911/http://www.thoreausociety.org/_activities_tsb.htm |date=December 23, 2007 }}'' 253.</ref>', 41 => '', 42 => 'Once back in Concord, Thoreau went through a restless period. In April 1844 he and his friend Edward Hoar accidentally set a fire that consumed {{convert|300|acre|km2}} of Walden Woods.<ref>[http://www.calliope.org/thoreau/thorotime.html ''A Chronology of Thoreau's Life, with Events of the Times''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160213001457/http://www.calliope.org/thoreau/thorotime.html |date=February 13, 2016 }}. The Thoreau Project, Calliope Film Resources. Accessed June 11, 2007.</ref>', 43 => '', 44 => '==="Civil Disobedience" and the Walden years, 1845–1850===', 45 => '[[File:Thoreau sites in Walden Pond.svg|thumb|left|Thoreau sites at Walden Pond]]', 46 => '', 47 => '{{quote|I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately, to front only the essential facts of life, and see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not, when I came to die, discover that I had not lived. I did not wish to live what was not life, living is so dear; nor did I wish to practise resignation, unless it was quite necessary. I wanted to live deep and suck out all the marrow of life, to live so sturdily and Spartan-like as to put to rout all that was not life, to cut a broad swath and shave close, to drive life into a corner, and reduce it to its lowest terms, and, if it proved to be mean, why then to get the whole and genuine meanness of it, and publish its meanness to the world; or if it were sublime, to know it by experience, and be able to give a true account of it in my next excursion.| Henry David Thoreau, "Where I Lived, and What I Lived For", in ''[[Walden]]''<ref>''Grammardog Guide to Walden''. Grammardog. p. 25. {{ISBN|1-60857-084-3}}.</ref>}}', 48 => '', 49 => 'Thoreau felt a need to concentrate and work more on his writing. In March 1845, Ellery Channing told Thoreau, "Go out upon that, build yourself a hut, & there begin the grand process of devouring yourself alive. I see no other alternative, no other hope for you."<ref>Packer, 1833.</ref> Two months later, Thoreau embarked on a two-year experiment in [[simple living]] on July 4, 1845, when he moved to a small house he had built on land owned by Emerson in a [[secondary forest|second-growth forest]] around the shores of [[Walden Pond]]. The house was in "a pretty pasture and woodlot" of {{convert|14|acre|m2}} that Emerson had bought,<ref>Richardson. ''Emerson: The Mind on Fire''. p. 399.</ref> {{convert|1.5|mi|km}} from his family home.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.google.com/maps/search/concord+mass/@42.449808,-71.342769,15z?dg=dbrw&newdg=1|title=Google Maps|publisher=}}</ref>', 50 => '[[File:Walden Thoreau.jpg|thumb|Original title page of ''Walden'', with an illustration from a drawing by Thoreau's sister Sophia]]', 51 => '', 52 => 'On July 24 or July 25, 1846, Thoreau ran into the local [[tax collector]], Sam Staples, who asked him to pay six years of delinquent [[Poll tax (United States)|poll taxes]]. Thoreau refused because of his opposition to the [[Mexican–American War]] and [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]], and he spent a night in jail because of this refusal. The next day Thoreau was freed when someone, likely to have been his aunt, paid the tax, against his wishes.<ref name=":2">Rosenwald, Lawrence. "[http://thoreau.eserver.org/theory.html The Theory, Practice and Influence of Thoreau's Civil Disobedience]". William Cain, ed. (2006). ''A Historical Guide to Henry David Thoreau''. Cambridge: Oxford University Press. {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20131014012153/http://thoreau.eserver.org/theory.html|date=October 14, 2013|title=Archived}}</ref> The experience had a strong impact on Thoreau. In January and February 1848, he delivered lectures on "The Rights and Duties of the Individual in relation to Government",<ref>Thoreau, H. D., letter to Ralph Waldo Emerson, February 23, 1848.</ref> explaining his tax resistance at the [[Concord Lyceum]]. Bronson Alcott attended the lecture, writing in his journal on January 26:', 53 => '', 54 => '{{quote|Heard Thoreau's lecture before the Lyceum on the relation of the individual to the State—an admirable statement of the rights of the individual to self-government, and an attentive audience. His allusions to the Mexican War, to Mr. [[Samuel Hoar|Hoar]]'s expulsion from Carolina, his own imprisonment in Concord Jail for refusal to pay his tax, Mr. Hoar's payment of mine when taken to prison for a similar refusal, were all pertinent, well considered, and reasoned. I took great pleasure in this deed of Thoreau's.|Bronson Alcott|''Journals''<ref>Alcott, Bronson (1938). ''Journals''. Boston: Little, Brown.</ref>}}', 55 => '', 56 => 'Thoreau revised the lecture into an essay titled "[[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|Resistance to Civil Government]]" (also known as "Civil Disobedience"). It was published by [[Elizabeth Peabody]] in the ''Aesthetic Papers'' in May 1849. Thoreau had taken up a version of [[Percy Shelley]]'s principle in the political poem "[[The Mask of Anarchy]]" (1819), which begins with the powerful images of the unjust forms of authority of his time and then imagines the stirrings of a radically new form of social action.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.morrissociety.org/JWMS/SP94.10.4.Nichols.pdf |title=Morrissociety.org |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110105232938/http://www.morrissociety.org/JWMS/SP94.10.4.Nichols.pdf |archivedate=January 5, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>', 57 => '', 58 => 'At Walden Pond, Thoreau completed a first draft of ''[[A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers]]'', an [[elegy]] to his brother John, describing their trip to the [[White Mountains (New Hampshire)|White Mountains]] in 1839. Thoreau did not find a publisher for the book and instead printed 1,000 copies at his own expense; fewer than 300 were sold.<ref name="Cheever" />{{Rp|234}} He self-published the book on the advice of Emerson, using Emerson's publisher, Munroe, who did little to publicize the book.', 59 => '', 60 => '{{multiple image', 61 => ' | align = left', 62 => ' | direction = vertical', 63 => ' | header_align = center', 64 => ' | header =', 65 => ' | image1 = Thoreau's cabin inside.jpg', 66 => ' | width1 = 225', 67 => ' | alt1 =', 68 => ' | caption1 = <center>Reconstruction of the interior of Thoreau's cabin</center>', 69 => ' | image2 = Replica of Thoreau's cabin near Walden Pond and his statue.jpg', 70 => ' | width2 = 225', 71 => ' | alt2 =', 72 => ' | caption2 = <center>Replica of Thoreau's cabin and a statue of him near Walden Pond</center>', 73 => ' }}', 74 => '', 75 => 'In August 1846, Thoreau briefly left Walden to make a trip to [[Mount Katahdin]] in [[Maine]], a journey later recorded in "Ktaadn", the first part of ''The Maine Woods''.', 76 => '', 77 => 'Thoreau left Walden Pond on September 6, 1847.<ref name="Cheever" />{{Rp|244}} At Emerson's request, he immediately moved back to the Emerson house to help Emerson's wife, Lidian, manage the household while her husband was on an extended trip to Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thoreausociety.org/_news_abouthdt.htm |title=Thoreausociety.org |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101129085846/http://thoreausociety.org/_news_abouthdt.htm |archivedate=November 29, 2010 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Over several years, as he worked to pay off his debts, he continuously revised the manuscript of what he eventually published as ''[[Walden|Walden, or Life in the Woods]]'' in 1854, recounting the two years, two months, and two days he had spent at Walden Pond. The book compresses that time into a single calendar year, using the passage of the four seasons to symbolize human development. Part [[memoir]] and part spiritual quest, ''Walden'' at first won few admirers, but later critics have regarded it as a classic American work that explores natural simplicity, harmony, and beauty as models for just social and cultural conditions.', 78 => '', 79 => 'The American poet [[Robert Frost]] wrote of Thoreau, "In one book ... he surpasses everything we have had in America."<ref>Frost, Robert (1968). Letter to Wade Van Dore, June 24, 1922, in ''Twentieth Century Interpretations of Walden''. Richard Ruland, ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. p. 8. {{LCCN|6814480}}.</ref>', 80 => '', 81 => 'The American author [[John Updike]] said of the book, "A century and a half after its publication, Walden has become such a totem of the back-to-nature, preservationist, anti-business, civil-disobedience mindset, and Thoreau so vivid a protester, so perfect a crank and hermit saint, that the book risks being as revered and unread as the Bible."<ref>Updike, John (2004). "A Sage for All Seasons". [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2004/jun/26/classics ''The Guardian''].</ref>', 82 => '', 83 => 'Thoreau moved out of Emerson's house in July 1848 and stayed at a house on nearby Belknap Street. In 1850, he moved into a house at [[Thoreau-Alcott House|255 Main Street]], where he lived until his death.<ref>Ehrlich, Eugene; Carruth, Gorton (1982). ''The Oxford Illustrated Literary Guide to the United States''. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 45. {{ISBN|0-19-503186-5}}.</ref>', 84 => '', 85 => 'In the summer of 1850, Thoreau and Channing journeyed from Boston to Montreal and Quebec City. These would be Thoreau's only travels outside the United States.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Weisman|first1=Adam Paul|title=Postcolonialism in North America: Imaginative Colonization in Henry David Thoreau's "A Yankee in Canada" and Jacques Poulin's "Volkswagen Blues"|journal=The Massachusetts Review|date=Autumn 1995|volume=36|issue=3|pages=478–479}}</ref> It is as a result of this trip that he developed lectures that eventually became ''A Yankee in Canada''. He jested that all he got from this adventure "was a cold".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Thoreau|first1=Henry David|title=A Yankee in Canada|url=https://archive.org/details/yankeeincanada0000thor|url-access=registration|date=1961|publisher=Harvest House|location=Montreal|page=[https://archive.org/details/yankeeincanada0000thor/page/13 13]}}</ref> In fact, this proved an opportunity to contrast American civic spirit and democratic values with a colony apparently ruled by illegitimate religious and military power. Whereas his own country had had its revolution, in Canada history had failed to turn.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal|last1=Lacroix|first1=Patrick|title=Finding Thoreau in French Canada: The Ideological Legacy of the American Revolution|journal=American Review of Canadian Studies|date=Fall 2017|volume=47|issue=3|pages=266–279|doi=10.1080/02722011.2017.1370719}}</ref>', 86 => '', 87 => '===Later years, 1851–1862===', 88 => '[[File:VII. Rowse.jpg|thumb|Thoreau in 1854]]', 89 => 'In 1851, Thoreau became increasingly fascinated with [[natural history]] and narratives of travel and expedition. He read avidly on [[botany]] and often wrote observations on this topic into his journal. He admired [[William Bartram]] and [[Charles Darwin]]'s ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle|Voyage of the Beagle]]''. He kept detailed observations on Concord's nature lore, recording everything from how the fruit ripened over time to the fluctuating depths of Walden Pond and the days certain birds migrated. The point of this task was to "anticipate" the seasons of nature, in his word.<ref>[http://www.walden.org/documents/file/Library/Thoreau/writings/correspondence/LettersBlake.pdf#page34 Letters to H.&nbsp;G.&nbsp;O. Blake] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617003953/http://www.walden.org/documents/file/Library/Thoreau/writings/correspondence/LettersBlake.pdf |date=June 17, 2011 }}. Walden.org</ref><ref>Thoreau, Henry David (1862). "Autumnal Tints". ''The Atlantic Monthly'', October. pp. 385–402. [http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/writings/essays/Thoreau_Autumnal%20Tints.pdf Reprint] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100307053611/http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/writings/essays/Thoreau_Autumnal%20Tints.pdf |date=March 7, 2010 }}. Retrieved November 21, 2009.</ref>', 90 => '', 91 => 'He became a [[Surveying|land surveyor]] and continued to write increasingly detailed observations on the natural history of the town, covering an area of {{convert|26|sqmi|km2}}, in his journal, a two-million-word document he kept for 24 years. He also kept a series of notebooks, and these observations became the source of his late writings on natural history, such as "Autumnal Tints", "The Succession of Trees", and "Wild Apples", an essay lamenting the destruction of indigenous wild apple species.', 92 => '', 93 => 'With the rise of [[environmental history]] and [[ecocriticism]] as academic disciplines, several new readings of Thoreau began to emerge, showing him to have been both a philosopher and an analyst of ecological patterns in fields and woodlots.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Thorson|first1=Robert M.|title=Walden's Shore: Henry David Thoreau and Nineteenth-Century Science|date=December 6, 2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=978-0674724785}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Primack|first1=Richard B.|title=Tracking Climate Change with the Help of Henry David Thoreau|url=http://www.elsevier.com/connect/tracking-climate-change-with-the-help-of-henry-david-thoreau|accessdate=23 September 2015|date=June 13, 2013}}</ref> For instance, "The Succession of Forest Trees", shows that he used experimentation and analysis to explain how forests regenerate after fire or human destruction, through the dispersal of seeds by winds or animals. In this lecture, first presented to a cattle show in Concord, and considered his greatest contribution to ecology, Thoreau explained why one species of tree can grow in a place where a different tree did previously. He observed that squirrels often carry nuts far from the tree from which they fell to create stashes. These seeds are likely to germinate and grow should the squirrel die or abandon the stash. He credited the squirrel for performing a "great service ... in the economy of the universe." <ref>{{cite book|last1=Worster|first1=Donald|title=Nature's Economy|date=1977|publisher=Cambridge University|location=New York, New York|isbn=0-521-45273-2|pages=69–71}}</ref>', 94 => '[[File:Walden Pond, 2010.jpg|thumb|left|[[Walden Pond]]]]', 95 => '', 96 => 'He traveled to [[Canada East]] once, [[Cape Cod]] four times, and Maine three times; these landscapes inspired his "excursion" books, ''[[A Yankee in Canada]]'', ''Cape Cod'', and ''The Maine Woods'', in which travel itineraries frame his thoughts about geography, history and philosophy. Other travels took him southwest to [[Philadelphia]] and New York City in 1854 and west across the [[Great Lakes region (North America)|Great Lakes region]] in 1861, when he visited [[Niagara Falls]], Detroit, Chicago, [[Milwaukee]], [[St. Paul, Minnesota|St. Paul]] and [[Mackinac Island]].<ref>Thoreau, Henry David (1970). ''The Annotated Walden''. Philip Van Doren Stern, ed. pp. 96, 132.</ref> He was provincial in his own travels, but he read widely about travel in other lands. He devoured all the first-hand travel accounts available in his day, at a time when the last unmapped regions of the earth were being explored. He read [[Ferdinand Magellan|Magellan]] and [[James Cook]]; the [[arctic explorer]]s [[John Franklin]], [[Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)|Alexander Mackenzie]] and [[William Parry (explorer)|William Parry]]; [[David Livingstone]] and [[Richard Francis Burton]] on Africa; [[Lewis and Clark]]; and hundreds of lesser-known works by explorers and literate travelers.<ref>Christie, John Aldrich (1965). ''Thoreau as World Traveler''. New York: Columbia University Press.</ref> Astonishing amounts of reading fed his endless curiosity about the peoples, cultures, religions and natural history of the world and left its traces as commentaries in his voluminous journals. He processed everything he read, in the local laboratory of his Concord experience. Among his famous aphorisms is his advice to "live at home like a traveler".<ref>[http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Correspondence Letters of H.&nbsp;G.&nbsp;O. Blake] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617003655/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Correspondence |date=June 17, 2011 }} in ''The Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection''.</ref>', 97 => '', 98 => 'After [[John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry]], many prominent voices in the abolitionist movement distanced themselves from Brown or [[Damn with faint praise|damned him with faint praise]]. Thoreau was disgusted by this, and he composed a key speech, ''[[A Plea for Captain John Brown]]'', which was uncompromising in its defense of Brown and his actions. Thoreau's speech proved persuasive: the abolitionist movement began to accept Brown as a martyr, and by the time of the [[American Civil War]] entire armies of the North were [[John Brown's Body|literally singing Brown's praises]]. As a biographer of Brown put it, "If, as Alfred Kazin suggests, without John Brown there would have been no Civil War, we would add that without the Concord Transcendentalists, John Brown would have had little cultural impact."<ref>Reynolds, David S. (2005). ''John Brown, Abolitionist''. Knopf. p. 4.</ref>', 99 => '[[File:Henry David Thoreau - Dunshee ambrotpe 1861.jpg|thumb|left|Thoreau in his second and final photographic sitting, August 1861]]', 100 => '', 101 => '===Death===', 102 => 'Thoreau contracted [[tuberculosis]] in 1835 and suffered from it sporadically afterwards. In 1860, following a late-night excursion to count the rings of tree stumps during a rainstorm, he became ill with [[bronchitis]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Richardson, Jr.|first=Robert D.|title=Faith in a Seed: The First Publication of Thoreau's Last Manuscript|publisher=Island Press|year=1993|isbn=|editor-last=Dean|editor-first=Bradley P.|location=Washington, D.C.|publication-place=|pages=17|chapter=Introduction}}</ref><ref>[https://www.walden.org/Library/About_Thoreau's_Life_and_Writings:_The_Research_Collections/Thoreau,_the_Man About Thoreau: Thoreau, the Man] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160620045648/http://www.walden.org/Library/About_Thoreau%27s_Life_and_Writings%3A_The_Research_Collections/Thoreau%2C_the_Man |date=June 20, 2016 }}.</ref><ref>[http://thoreau.eserver.org/wfchron.html Thoreau Chronology].</ref> His health declined, with brief periods of remission, and he eventually became bedridden. Recognizing the terminal nature of his disease, Thoreau spent his last years revising and editing his unpublished works, particularly ''The Maine Woods'' and [[Excursions (anthology)|''Excursions'']], and petitioning publishers to print revised editions of ''A Week'' and ''Walden''. He wrote letters and journal entries until he became too weak to continue. His friends were alarmed at his diminished appearance and were fascinated by his tranquil acceptance of death. When his aunt Louisa asked him in his last weeks if he had made his peace with God, Thoreau responded, "I did not know we had ever quarreled."<ref>{{cite book|first=Simon|last= Critchley|title=The Book of Dead Philosophers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ME-6IKs4a2sC&pg=PA181&lpg=PA181 |p= 181|location=New York|publisher= Random House |date=2009|isbn=9780307472632}}</ref>', 103 => '', 104 => '[[File:Grave of Henry David Thoreau.jpeg|thumb|Grave of Thoreau at [[Sleepy Hollow Cemetery (Concord, Massachusetts)|Sleepy Hollow Cemetery]] in Concord]]', 105 => 'Aware he was dying, Thoreau's last words were "Now comes good sailing", followed by two lone words, "moose" and "Indian".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://writersalmanac.publicradio.org/programs/2008/05/05/|title=The Writer's Almanac|publisher=American Public Media|access-date=June 1, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170708225006/http://writersalmanac.publicradio.org/programs/2008/05/05/|archive-date=July 8, 2017|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref> He died on May 6, 1862, at age 44. [[Amos Bronson Alcott]] planned the service and read selections from Thoreau's works, and Channing presented a hymn.<ref>Packer, Barbara L. (2007). ''The Transcendentalists''. Athens: University of Georgia Press. p. 272. {{ISBN|978-0-8203-2958-1}}.</ref> Emerson wrote the eulogy spoken at the funeral.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NWACAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA239|last= Emerson|first= Ralph Waldo |title=Thoreau|work=The Atlantic|date= August 1862}}</ref> Thoreau was buried in the Dunbar family plot; his remains and those of members of his immediate family were eventually moved to [[Sleepy Hollow Cemetery (Concord, Massachusetts)|Sleepy Hollow Cemetery]] in Concord, Massachusetts.', 106 => '', 107 => 'Thoreau's friend [[William Ellery Channing (poet)|William Ellery Channing]] published his first biography, ''Thoreau the Poet-Naturalist'', in 1873.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Channing|first1=William Ellery|url=http://archive.org/details/poetnatthoreau00chanrich|title=Thoreau, the poet-naturalist, with Memorial verses|last2=Merrymount Press|last3=Sanborn|first3=F. B. (Franklin Benjamin)|last4=Updike|first4=Daniel Berkeley|date=1902|publisher=Boston, C. E. Goodspeed|others=University of California Libraries}}</ref> Channing and another friend, [[Harrison Blake]], edited some poems, essays, and journal entries for posthumous publication in the 1890s. Thoreau's journals, which he often mined for his published works but which remained largely unpublished at his death, were first published in 1906 and helped to build his modern reputation.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}} A new, expanded edition of the journals is under way, published by [[Princeton University Press]]. Today, Thoreau is regarded as one of the foremost American writers, both for the modern clarity of his prose style and the prescience of his views on nature and politics. His memory is honored by the international [[Thoreau Society]] and his legacy honored by the Thoreau Institute at Walden Woods, established in 1998 in Lincoln, Massachusetts.' ]
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'<div class="mw-parser-output"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Thoreau" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Thoreau_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Thoreau (disambiguation)">Thoreau (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">American essayist, poet and philosopher</div> <p> {{Infobox philosopher |region = <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a> |era = <a href="/wiki/19th_century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="19th century philosophy">19th century philosophy</a> |image = File:Benjamin D. Maxham - Henry David Thoreau - Restored - greyscale - straightened.jpg |caption = Thoreau in 1856 |name = Henry David Thoreau |birth_name = David Henry Thoreau |birth_date = <span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1817-07-12</span>)</span>July 12, 1817 |birth_place = <a href="/wiki/Concord,_Massachusetts" title="Concord, Massachusetts">Concord, Massachusetts</a>, U.S. |death_date = May 6, 1862<span style="display:none">(1862-05-06)</span> (aged&#160;44) |death_place = Concord, Massachusetts, U.S. |signature = Henry David Thoreau Signature SVG.svg |school_tradition = <a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a><sup id="cite_ref-:6_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-1">&#91;1&#93;</a></sup> |alma_mater = <a href="/wiki/Harvard_College" title="Harvard College">Harvard College</a> |main_interests = {{hbiography, <i>Thoreau the Poet-Naturalist</i>, in 1873.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">&#91;2&#93;</a></sup> Channing and another friend, <a href="/wiki/Harrison_Blake" class="mw-redirect" title="Harrison Blake">Harrison Blake</a>, edited some poems, essays, and journal entries for posthumous publication in the 1890s. Thoreau's journals, which he often mined for his published works but which remained largely unpublished at his death, were first published in 1906 and helped to build his modern reputation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> A new, expanded edition of the journals is under way, published by <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. Today, Thoreau is regarded as one of the foremost American writers, both for the modern clarity of his prose style and the prescience of his views on nature and politics. His memory is honored by the international <a href="/wiki/Thoreau_Society" title="Thoreau Society">Thoreau Society</a> and his legacy honored by the Thoreau Institute at Walden Woods, established in 1998 in Lincoln, Massachusetts. </p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Nature_and_human_existence"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Nature and human existence</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Sexuality"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Sexuality</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Politics"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Politics</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Intellectual_interests,_influences,_and_affinities"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Intellectual interests, influences, and affinities</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Indian_sacred_texts_and_philosophy"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Indian sacred texts and philosophy</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Biology"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Biology</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Influence"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Influence</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Adaptations"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Adaptations</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Criticism"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Criticism</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Works"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Works</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Nature_and_human_existence">Nature and human existence</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_David_Thoreau&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: Nature and human existence">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r960796168">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Most of the luxuries and many of the so-called comforts of life are not only not indispensable, but positive hindrances to the elevation of mankind.</p><div class="templatequotecite">—&#8201;<cite>Thoreau<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">&#91;3&#93;</a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Thoreau was an early advocate of recreational hiking and <a href="/wiki/Canoeing" title="Canoeing">canoeing</a>, of conserving natural resources on private land, and of preserving wilderness as public land. He was himself a highly skilled canoeist; <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Hawthorne" title="Nathaniel Hawthorne">Nathaniel Hawthorne</a>, after a ride with him, noted that "Mr. Thoreau managed the boat so perfectly, either with two paddles or with one, that it seemed instinct with his own will, and to require no physical effort to guide it."<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">&#91;4&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>He was not a strict vegetarian, though he said he preferred that diet<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">&#91;5&#93;</a></sup> and advocated it as a means of self-improvement. He wrote in <i>Walden</i>, "The practical objection to animal food in my case was its uncleanness; and besides, when I had caught and cleaned and cooked and eaten my fish, they seemed not to have fed me essentially. It was insignificant and unnecessary, and cost more than it came to. A little bread or a few potatoes would have done as well, with less trouble and filth."<sup id="cite_ref-Cheever241_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cheever241-6">&#91;6&#93;</a></sup> </p> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Thoreaus_quote_near_his_cabin_site,_Walden_Pond.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Thoreaus_quote_near_his_cabin_site%2C_Walden_Pond.jpg/220px-Thoreaus_quote_near_his_cabin_site%2C_Walden_Pond.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Thoreaus_quote_near_his_cabin_site%2C_Walden_Pond.jpg/330px-Thoreaus_quote_near_his_cabin_site%2C_Walden_Pond.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Thoreaus_quote_near_his_cabin_site%2C_Walden_Pond.jpg/440px-Thoreaus_quote_near_his_cabin_site%2C_Walden_Pond.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Thoreaus_quote_near_his_cabin_site,_Walden_Pond.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Thoreau's famous quotation, near his cabin site at Walden Pond</div></div></div> <p>Thoreau neither rejected civilization nor fully embraced wilderness. Instead he sought a middle ground, the <a href="/wiki/Pastoral" title="Pastoral">pastoral</a> realm that integrates nature and culture. His philosophy required that he be a didactic arbitrator between the wilderness he based so much on and the spreading mass of humanity in North America. He decried the latter endlessly but felt that a teacher needs to be close to those who needed to hear what he wanted to tell them. The wildness he enjoyed was the nearby swamp or forest, and he preferred "partially cultivated country". His idea of being "far in the recesses of the wilderness" of Maine was to "travel the logger's path and the Indian trail", but he also hiked on pristine land. In the essay "Henry David Thoreau, Philosopher" <a href="/wiki/Roderick_Nash" title="Roderick Nash">Roderick Nash</a> wrote, "Thoreau left Concord in 1846 for the first of three trips to northern Maine. His expectations were high because he hoped to find genuine, primeval America. But contact with real wilderness in Maine affected him far differently than had the idea of wilderness in Concord. Instead of coming out of the woods with a deepened appreciation of the wilds, Thoreau felt a greater respect for civilization and realized the necessity of balance."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">&#91;7&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Of alcohol, Thoreau wrote, "I would fain keep sober always. ... I believe that water is the only drink for a wise man; wine is not so noble a liquor. ... Of all ebriosity, who does not prefer to be intoxicated by the air he breathes?"<sup id="cite_ref-Cheever241_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cheever241-6">&#91;6&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Sexuality">Sexuality</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_David_Thoreau&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Sexuality">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Thoreau <a href="/wiki/Bachelor" title="Bachelor">never married</a> and was childless. He strove to portray himself as an ascetic puritan. However, his sexuality has long been the subject of speculation, including by his contemporaries. Critics have called him heterosexual, <a href="/wiki/Homosexuality" title="Homosexuality">homosexual</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Asexuality" title="Asexuality">asexual</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-harding_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harding-8">&#91;8&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">&#91;9&#93;</a></sup> There is no evidence to suggest he had physical relations with anyone, man or woman. Some scholars have suggested that homoerotic sentiments run through his writings and concluded that he was homosexual.<sup id="cite_ref-harding_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harding-8">&#91;8&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">&#91;10&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">&#91;11&#93;</a></sup> The elegy "Sympathy" was inspired by the eleven-year-old Edmund Sewell, with whom he hiked for five days in 1839.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">&#91;12&#93;</a></sup> One scholar has suggested that he wrote the poem to Edmund because he could not bring himself to write it to Edmund's sister,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">&#91;13&#93;</a></sup> and another that Thoreau's "emotional experiences with women are memorialized under a camouflage of masculine pronouns",<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">&#91;14&#93;</a></sup> but other scholars dismiss this.<sup id="cite_ref-harding_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harding-8">&#91;8&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">&#91;15&#93;</a></sup> It has been argued that the long paean in <i>Walden</i> to the French-Canadian woodchopper Alek Therien, which includes allusions to <a href="/wiki/Achilles_and_Patroclus" title="Achilles and Patroclus">Achilles and Patroclus</a>, is an expression of conflicted desire.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">&#91;16&#93;</a></sup> In some of Thoreau's writing there is the sense of a secret self.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">&#91;17&#93;</a></sup> In 1840 he writes in his journal: "My friend is the apology for my life. In him are the spaces which my orbit traverses".<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">&#91;18&#93;</a></sup> Thoreau was strongly influenced by the moral reformers of his time, and this may have instilled anxiety and guilt over sexual desire.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">&#91;19&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Politics">Politics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_David_Thoreau&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Politics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f8f9fa;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em">Part of a <a href="/wiki/Category:Green_anarchism" title="Category:Green anarchism">series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em;font-size:200%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Green_anarchism" title="Green anarchism">Green anarchism</a></th></tr><tr><td style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_colour#Green" title="Political colour#Green"><img alt="Green and Black flag.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Green_and_Black_flag.svg/100px-Green_and_Black_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="67" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Green_and_Black_flag.svg/150px-Green_and_Black_flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Green_and_Black_flag.svg/200px-Green_and_Black_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></td></tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_schools_of_thought" title="Anarchist schools of thought">Schools of thought</a></div><div class="NavContent hlist" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-naturism" title="Anarcho-naturism">Anarcho-naturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-primitivism" title="Anarcho-primitivism">Anarcho-primitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (theory)">Social ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veganarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Veganarchism">Veganarchism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;">Theory and practice</div><div class="NavContent hlist" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy" title="Anarchy">Anarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_animal_rights" title="Anarchism and animal rights">Animal rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-authoritarianism" title="Anti-authoritarianism">Anti-authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-consumerism" title="Anti-consumerism">Anti-consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioregionalism" title="Bioregionalism">Bioregionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communalism" title="Communalism">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_violence" title="Anarchism and violence">Debate on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ecology" title="Deep ecology">Deep ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degrowth" title="Degrowth">Degrowth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_action" title="Direct action">Direct action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Do_it_yourself" title="Do it yourself">Do it yourself</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecovillages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecovillages">Ecovillages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_secession" title="Economic secession">Economic secession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freeganism" title="Freeganism">Freeganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_municipalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Libertarian municipalism">Libertarian municipalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifestyle_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Lifestyle anarchism">Lifestyle anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Luddism" title="Neo-Luddism">Neo-Luddism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Malthusianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Malthusianism">Neo-Malthusianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_affluent_society" title="Original affluent society">Original affluent society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_communism" title="Primitive communism">Primitive communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_environmentalism" title="Radical environmentalism">Radical environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refusal_of_work" title="Refusal of work">Refusal of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rewilding_(anarchism)" title="Rewilding (anarchism)">Rewilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_living" title="Simple living">Simple living</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Green_anarchists" title="Category:Green anarchists">People</a></div><div class="NavContent hlist" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Janet_Biehl" title="Janet Biehl">Biehl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Bookchin" title="Murray Bookchin">Bookchin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ellul" title="Jacques Ellul">Ellul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Gravelle" title="Émile Gravelle">Gravelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Ilich" class="mw-redirect" title="Ivan Ilich">Ilich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leopold_Kohr" title="Leopold Kohr">Kohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethel_Mannin" title="Ethel Mannin">Mannin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fredy_Perlman" title="Fredy Perlman">Perlman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Puente" title="Isaac Puente">Puente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89lis%C3%A9e_Reclus" title="Élisée Reclus">Reclus</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Tolstoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Zerzan" title="John Zerzan">Zerzan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Zisly" title="Henri Zisly">Zisly</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;">Books and publications</div><div class="NavContent hlist" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Walden" title="Walden">Walden, or life in the woods</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Iniciales" title="Iniciales">Iniciales</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leopold_Kohr" title="Leopold Kohr">The Breakdown of Nations</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Our_Synthetic_Environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Our Synthetic Environment">Our Synthetic Environment</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Post-Scarcity_Anarchism" title="Post-Scarcity Anarchism">Post-Scarcity Anarchism</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Future_Primitive_and_Other_Essays" title="Future Primitive and Other Essays">Future Primitive and Other Essays</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Against_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Against Civilization">Against Civilization</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Against_His-Story,_Against_Leviathan" title="Against His-Story, Against Leviathan">Against His-Story, Against Leviathan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Green_Anarchy" title="Green Anarchy">Green Anarchy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Green_Anarchist" title="Green Anarchist">Green Anarchist</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Language_Older_Than_Words" title="A Language Older Than Words">A Language Older Than Words</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Species_Traitor" title="Species Traitor">Species Traitor</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Make_Believe" title="The Culture of Make Believe">The Culture of Make Believe</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Endgame_(Jensen_books)" title="Endgame (Jensen books)">Endgame</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td 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title="Naturism">Naturism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="plainlist" style="padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:BlackFlagSymbol.svg" class="image"><img alt="BlackFlagSymbol.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/BlackFlagSymbol.svg/16px-BlackFlagSymbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/BlackFlagSymbol.svg/24px-BlackFlagSymbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/BlackFlagSymbol.svg/32px-BlackFlagSymbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="456" data-file-height="456" /></a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Portal:Anarchism" title="Portal:Anarchism">Anarchism&#32;portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Aegopodium podagraria1 ies.jpg" 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style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Brown_-_Treason_broadside,_1859.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/John_Brown_-_Treason_broadside%2C_1859.png/220px-John_Brown_-_Treason_broadside%2C_1859.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/John_Brown_-_Treason_broadside%2C_1859.png/330px-John_Brown_-_Treason_broadside%2C_1859.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/John_Brown_-_Treason_broadside%2C_1859.png/440px-John_Brown_-_Treason_broadside%2C_1859.png 2x" data-file-width="678" data-file-height="492" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Brown_-_Treason_broadside,_1859.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>John Brown "Treason" Broadside, 1859</div></div></div> <p>Thoreau was fervently against <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slavery</a> and actively supported the abolitionist movement.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-1">&#91;1&#93;</a></sup> He participated as a conductor in the <a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a>, delivered lectures that attacked the <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Law_of_1850" class="mw-redirect" title="Fugitive Slave Law of 1850">Fugitive Slave Law</a>, and in opposition to the popular opinion of the time, supported radical abolitionist militia leader <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist)">John Brown</a> and his party.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-1">&#91;1&#93;</a></sup> Two weeks after the ill-fated <a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" class="mw-redirect" title="Raid on Harpers Ferry">raid on Harpers Ferry</a> and in the weeks leading up to Brown's execution, Thoreau delivered a speech to the citizens of Concord, Massachusetts, in which he compared the American government to <a href="/wiki/Pontius_Pilate" title="Pontius Pilate">Pontius Pilate</a> and likened Brown's execution to the <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Crucifixion of Jesus Christ">crucifixion of Jesus Christ</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r960796168"/><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Some eighteen hundred years ago Christ was crucified; this morning, perchance, Captain Brown was hung. These are the two ends of a chain which is not without its links. He is not Old Brown any longer; he is an angel of light.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-20">&#91;20&#93;</a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Days_of_John_Brown" title="The Last Days of John Brown">The Last Days of John Brown</a></i>, Thoreau described the words and deeds of John Brown as noble and an example of heroism.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-21">&#91;21&#93;</a></sup> In addition, he lamented the newspaper editors who dismissed Brown and his scheme as "crazy".<sup id="cite_ref-:1_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-21">&#91;21&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Thoreau was a proponent of <a href="/wiki/Limited_government" title="Limited government">limited government</a> and <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a>. Although he was hopeful that mankind could potentially have, through self-betterment, the kind of government which "governs not at all", he distanced himself from contemporary "no-government men" (<a href="/wiki/Anarchists" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchists">anarchists</a>), writing: "I ask for, not at once no government, but at once a better government."<sup id="cite_ref-resistance_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-resistance-22">&#91;22&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Thoreau deemed the evolution from <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchy</a> to <a href="/wiki/Limited_monarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Limited monarchy">limited monarchy</a> to <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a> as "a progress toward true respect for the individual" and theorized about further improvements "towards recognizing and organizing the rights of man".<sup id="cite_ref-resistance_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-resistance-22">&#91;22&#93;</a></sup> Echoing this belief, he went on to write: "There will never be a really free and enlightened State until the State comes to recognize the individual as a higher and independent power, from which all its power and authority are derived, and treats him accordingly."<sup id="cite_ref-resistance_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-resistance-22">&#91;22&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>It is on this basis that Thoreau could so strongly inveigh against the British administration and Catholicism in <i>A Yankee in Canada</i>. Despotic authority, Thoreau argued, had crushed the people's sense of ingenuity and enterprise; the Canadian <i>habitants</i> had been reduced, in his view, to a perpetual childlike state. Ignoring the recent rebellions, he argued that there would be no revolution in the St. Lawrence River valley.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-23">&#91;23&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">&#91;24&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Although Thoreau believed resistance to unjustly exercised authority could be both violent (exemplified in his support for John Brown) and nonviolent (his own example of <a href="/wiki/Tax_resistance" title="Tax resistance">tax resistance</a> displayed in <i>Resistance to Civil Government</i>), he regarded <a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">pacifist</a> <a href="/wiki/Nonresistance" title="Nonresistance">nonresistance</a> as temptation to passivity,<sup id="cite_ref-:4_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-25">&#91;25&#93;</a></sup> writing: "Let not our Peace be proclaimed by the rust on our swords, or our inability to draw them from their scabbards; but let her at least have so much work on her hands as to keep those swords bright and sharp."<sup id="cite_ref-:4_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-25">&#91;25&#93;</a></sup> Furthermore, in a formal lyceum debate in 1841, he debated the subject "Is it ever proper to offer forcible resistance?", arguing the affirmative.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">&#91;26&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Likewise, his condemnation of the <a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a> did not stem from pacifism, but rather because he considered Mexico "unjustly overrun and conquered by a foreign army" as a means to expand the slave territory.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-27">&#91;27&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Thoreau was <a href="/wiki/Ambivalence" title="Ambivalence">ambivalent</a> towards <a href="/wiki/Industrialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialization">industrialization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>. On one hand he regarded commerce as "unexpectedly confident and serene, adventurous, and unwearied"<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-20">&#91;20&#93;</a></sup> and expressed admiration for its associated <a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">cosmopolitanism</a>, writing: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r960796168"/><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I am refreshed and expanded when the freight train rattles past me, and I smell the stores which go dispensing their odors all the way from Long Wharf to Lake Champlain, reminding me of foreign parts, of coral reefs, and Indian oceans, and tropical climes, and the extent of the globe. I feel more like a citizen of the world at the sight of the palm-leaf which will cover so many flaxen New England heads the next summer.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-20">&#91;20&#93;</a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>On the other hand, he wrote disparagingly of the factory system: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r960796168"/><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I cannot believe that our factory system is the best mode by which men may get clothing. The condition of the operatives is becoming every day more like that of the English; and it cannot be wondered at, since, as far as I have heard or observed, the principal object is, not that mankind may be well and honestly clad, but, unquestionably, that the corporations may be enriched.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-20">&#91;20&#93;</a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Thoreau also favored <a href="/wiki/Bioregionalism" title="Bioregionalism">bioregionalism</a>, the protection of animals and wild areas, <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a>, and taxation for schools and highways.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-1">&#91;1&#93;</a></sup> He disapproved of the subjugation of Native Americans, slavery, <a href="/wiki/Technological_utopianism" title="Technological utopianism">technological utopianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">consumerism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philistinism" title="Philistinism">philistinism</a>, mass entertainment, and frivolous applications of technology.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-1">&#91;1&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span id="Intellectual_interests.2C_influences.2C_and_affinities"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Intellectual_interests,_influences,_and_affinities">Intellectual interests, influences, and affinities</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_David_Thoreau&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Intellectual interests, influences, and affinities">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Indian_sacred_texts_and_philosophy">Indian sacred texts and philosophy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_David_Thoreau&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Indian sacred texts and philosophy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>Thoreau was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Indian spiritual thought</a>. In <i>Walden</i>, there are many overt references to the sacred texts of India. For example, in the first chapter ("Economy"), he writes: "How much more admirable the <a href="/wiki/Bhagvat-geeta" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhagvat-geeta">Bhagvat-Geeta</a> than all the ruins of the East!"<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-20">&#91;20&#93;</a></sup> <i>American Philosophy: An Encyclopedia</i> classes him as one of several figures who "took a more <a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">pantheist</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">pandeist</a> approach by rejecting views of God as separate from the world",<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">&#91;28&#93;</a></sup> also a characteristic of Hinduism. </p><p>Furthermore, in "The Pond in Winter", he equates Walden Pond with the sacred <a href="/wiki/Ganges_in_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganges in Hinduism">Ganges river</a>, writing: </p> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Bhagavata_Gita_Bishnupur_Arnab_Dutta_2011.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Bhagavata_Gita_Bishnupur_Arnab_Dutta_2011.JPG/220px-Bhagavata_Gita_Bishnupur_Arnab_Dutta_2011.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Bhagavata_Gita_Bishnupur_Arnab_Dutta_2011.JPG/330px-Bhagavata_Gita_Bishnupur_Arnab_Dutta_2011.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Bhagavata_Gita_Bishnupur_Arnab_Dutta_2011.JPG/440px-Bhagavata_Gita_Bishnupur_Arnab_Dutta_2011.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Bhagavata_Gita_Bishnupur_Arnab_Dutta_2011.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Krishna teaching Arjuna from <i><a href="/wiki/Bhagavata_Gita" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhagavata Gita">Bhagavata Gita</a>, </i>a text Thoreau read at Walden Pond</div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r960796168"/><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In the morning I bathe my intellect in the stupendous and cosmogonal philosophy of the Bhagvat Geeta since whose composition years of the gods have elapsed, and in comparison with which our modern world and its literature seem puny and trivial; and I doubt if that philosophy is not to be referred to a previous state of existence, so remote is its sublimity from our conceptions. I lay down the book and go to my well for water, and lo! there I meet the servant of the Brahmin, priest of Brahma and Vishnu and Indra, who still sits in his temple on the Ganges reading the Vedas, or dwells at the root of a tree with his crust and water jug. I meet his servant come to draw water for his master, and our buckets as it were grate together in the same well. The pure Walden water is mingled with the sacred water of the Ganges.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_20-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-20">&#91;20&#93;</a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Thoreau was aware his Ganges imagery could have been factual. He wrote about ice harvesting at Walden Pond. And he knew that New England's <a href="/wiki/Ice_trade" title="Ice trade">ice merchants</a> were shipping ice to foreign ports, including <a href="/wiki/Calcutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcutta">Calcutta</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> </p><p>Additionally, Thoreau followed various <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hindu</a> customs, including a diet largely consisting of rice ("It was fit that I should live on rice, mainly, who loved so well the philosophy of India."<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_20-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-20">&#91;20&#93;</a></sup>), <a href="/wiki/Flute_playing" class="mw-redirect" title="Flute playing">flute playing</a> (reminiscent of the favorite musical pastime of <a href="/wiki/Krishna" title="Krishna">Krishna</a>)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup>, and <a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">yoga</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> </p><p>In an 1849 letter to his friend H.G.O. Blake, he wrote about yoga and its meaning to him: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r960796168"/><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Free in this world as the birds in the air, disengaged from every kind of chains, those who practice yoga gather in Brahma the certain fruits of their works. Depend upon it that, rude and careless as I am, I would fain practice the yoga faithfully. The yogi, absorbed in contemplation, contributes in his degree to creation; he breathes a divine perfume, he hears wonderful things. Divine forms traverse him without tearing him, and united to the nature which is proper to him, he goes, he acts as animating original matter. To some extent, and at rare intervals, even I am a yogi.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">&#91;29&#93;</a></sup></p></blockquote> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Biology">Biology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_David_Thoreau&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Biology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Eggs_BSNH_1930.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Eggs_BSNH_1930.png/220px-Eggs_BSNH_1930.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Eggs_BSNH_1930.png/330px-Eggs_BSNH_1930.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Eggs_BSNH_1930.png/440px-Eggs_BSNH_1930.png 2x" data-file-width="1352" data-file-height="720" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Eggs_BSNH_1930.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Bird eggs found by Thoreau and given to the <a href="/wiki/Boston_Society_of_Natural_History" title="Boston Society of Natural History">Boston Society of Natural History</a>. Those in the nest are of <a href="/wiki/Yellow_warbler" class="mw-redirect" title="Yellow warbler">yellow warbler</a>, the other two of <a href="/wiki/Red-tailed_hawk" title="Red-tailed hawk">red-tailed hawk</a>.</div></div></div> <p>Thoreau read contemporary works in the new science of biology, including the works of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Asa_Gray" title="Asa Gray">Asa Gray</a> (Charles Darwin's staunchest American ally).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30">&#91;30&#93;</a></sup> Thoreau was deeply influenced by Humboldt, especially his work <a href="/wiki/Kosmos_(Humboldt)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kosmos (Humboldt)">Kosmos</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">&#91;31&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>In 1859, Thoreau purchased and read Darwin's <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i>. Unlike many natural historians at the time, including <a href="/wiki/Louis_Agassiz" title="Louis Agassiz">Louis Agassiz</a> who publicly opposed Darwinism in favor of a static view of nature, Thoreau was immediately enthusiastic about the theory of <a href="/wiki/Evolution_by_natural_selection" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution by natural selection">evolution by natural selection</a> and endorsed it,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">&#91;32&#93;</a></sup> stating: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r960796168"/><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The development theory implies a greater vital force in Nature, because it is more flexible and accommodating, and equivalent to a sort of constant new creation. (A quote from <i>On the Origin of Species</i> follows this sentence.)<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30">&#91;30&#93;</a></sup></p></blockquote> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Influence">Influence</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_David_Thoreau&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Influence">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:ThoreauBust.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/ThoreauBust.jpg/220px-ThoreauBust.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/ThoreauBust.jpg/330px-ThoreauBust.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/ThoreauBust.jpg/440px-ThoreauBust.jpg 2x" data-file-width="669" data-file-height="822" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:ThoreauBust.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A <a href="/wiki/Bust_(sculpture)" title="Bust (sculpture)">bust</a> of Thoreau from the <a href="/wiki/Hall_of_Fame_for_Great_Americans" title="Hall of Fame for Great Americans">Hall of Fame for Great Americans</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Bronx_Community_College" title="Bronx Community College">Bronx Community College</a></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r960796168"/><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Thoreau's careful observations and devastating conclusions have rippled into time, becoming stronger as the weaknesses Thoreau noted have become more pronounced ... Events that seem to be completely unrelated to his stay at Walden Pond have been influenced by it, including the national park system, the British labor movement, the creation of India, the civil rights movement, the hippie revolution, the environmental movement, and the wilderness movement. Today, Thoreau's words are quoted with feeling by liberals, socialists, anarchists, libertarians, and conservatives alike.</p><div class="templatequotecite">—&#8201;<cite>Ken Kifer, <i>Analysis and Notes on Walden: Henry Thoreau's Text with Adjacent Thoreauvian Commentary</i><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">&#91;33&#93;</a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Thoreau's political writings had little impact during his lifetime, as "his contemporaries did not see him as a theorist or as a radical", viewing him instead as a naturalist. They either dismissed or ignored his political essays, including <i>Civil Disobedience</i>. The only two complete books (as opposed to essays) published in his lifetime, <i>Walden</i> and <i>A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers</i> (1849), both dealt with nature, in which he "loved to wander".<sup id="cite_ref-McElroy_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McElroy-34">&#91;34&#93;</a></sup> His obituary was lumped in with others rather than as a separate article in an 1862 yearbook.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">&#91;35&#93;</a></sup> Nevertheless, Thoreau's writings went on to influence many public figures. Political leaders and reformers like <a href="/wiki/Mohandas_Karamchand_Gandhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi">Mohandas Gandhi</a>, U.S. President <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>, American civil rights activist <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a>, U.S. Supreme Court Justice <a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">William O. Douglas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Russian_(citizen)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian (citizen)">Russian</a> author <a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a> all spoke of being strongly affected by Thoreau's work, particularly <i>Civil Disobedience</i>, as did "<a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">right-wing</a> theorist <a href="/wiki/Frank_Chodorov" title="Frank Chodorov">Frank Chodorov</a> [who] devoted an entire issue of his monthly, <i>Analysis</i>, to an appreciation of Thoreau".<sup id="cite_ref-Rothbard_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rothbard-36">&#91;36&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Thoreau also influenced many artists and authors including <a href="/wiki/Edward_Abbey" title="Edward Abbey">Edward Abbey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Willa_Cather" title="Willa Cather">Willa Cather</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Proust" title="Marcel Proust">Marcel Proust</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Butler_Yeats" class="mw-redirect" title="William Butler Yeats">William Butler Yeats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Lewis" title="Sinclair Lewis">Sinclair Lewis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Hemingway" title="Ernest Hemingway">Ernest Hemingway</a>, <a href="/wiki/Upton_Sinclair" title="Upton Sinclair">Upton Sinclair</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">&#91;37&#93;</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/E._B._White" title="E. B. White">E. B. White</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Mumford" title="Lewis Mumford">Lewis Mumford</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">&#91;38&#93;</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Frank_Lloyd_Wright" title="Frank Lloyd Wright">Frank Lloyd Wright</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Posey" title="Alexander Posey">Alexander Posey</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">&#91;39&#93;</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Stickley" title="Gustav Stickley">Gustav Stickley</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">&#91;40&#93;</a></sup> Thoreau also influenced naturalists like <a href="/wiki/John_Burroughs" title="John Burroughs">John Burroughs</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Muir" title="John Muir">John Muir</a>, <a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Way_Teale" title="Edwin Way Teale">Edwin Way Teale</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Wood_Krutch" title="Joseph Wood Krutch">Joseph Wood Krutch</a>, <a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">B. F. Skinner</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Brower" title="David Brower">David Brower</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Loren_Eiseley" title="Loren Eiseley">Loren Eiseley</a>, whom <i>Publishers Weekly</i> called "the modern Thoreau".<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">&#91;41&#93;</a></sup> English writer <a href="/wiki/Henry_Stephens_Salt" title="Henry Stephens Salt">Henry Stephens Salt</a> wrote a biography of Thoreau in 1890, which popularized Thoreau's ideas in Britain: <a href="/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw" title="George Bernard Shaw">George Bernard Shaw</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Carpenter" title="Edward Carpenter">Edward Carpenter</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Blatchford" title="Robert Blatchford">Robert Blatchford</a> were among those who became Thoreau enthusiasts as a result of Salt's advocacy.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">&#91;42&#93;</a></sup> Mohandas Gandhi first read <i>Walden</i> in 1906 while working as a civil rights activist in <a href="/wiki/Johannesburg" title="Johannesburg">Johannesburg</a>, South Africa. He first read <i>Civil Disobedience</i> "while he sat in a South African prison for the crime of nonviolently protesting discrimination against the Indian population in the <a href="/wiki/Transvaal_Colony" title="Transvaal Colony">Transvaal</a>. The essay galvanized Gandhi, who wrote and published a synopsis of Thoreau's argument, calling its 'incisive logic ... unanswerable' and referring to Thoreau as 'one of the greatest and most moral men America has produced'."<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">&#91;43&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">&#91;44&#93;</a></sup> He told American reporter <a href="/wiki/Webb_Miller_(journalist)" title="Webb Miller (journalist)">Webb Miller</a>, "[Thoreau's] ideas influenced me greatly. I adopted some of them and recommended the study of Thoreau to all of my friends who were helping me in the cause of Indian Independence. Why I actually took the name of my movement from Thoreau's essay 'On the Duty of Civil Disobedience', written about 80&#160;years ago."<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">&#91;45&#93;</a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> noted in his autobiography that his first encounter with the idea of nonviolent resistance was reading "On Civil Disobedience" in 1944 while attending <a href="/wiki/Morehouse_College" title="Morehouse College">Morehouse College</a>. He wrote in his autobiography that it was, </p> <blockquote><p>Here, in this courageous New Englander's refusal to pay his taxes and his choice of jail rather than support a war that would spread slavery's territory into Mexico, I made my first contact with the theory of nonviolent resistance. Fascinated by the idea of refusing to cooperate with an evil system, I was so deeply moved that I reread the work several times. I became convinced that noncooperation with evil is as much a moral obligation as is cooperation with good. No other person has been more eloquent and passionate in getting this idea across than Henry David Thoreau. As a result of his writings and personal witness, we are the heirs of a legacy of creative protest. The teachings of Thoreau came alive in our civil rights movement; indeed, they are more alive than ever before. Whether expressed in a sit-in at lunch counters, a freedom ride into Mississippi, a peaceful protest in Albany, Georgia, a bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama, these are outgrowths of Thoreau's insistence that evil must be resisted and that no moral man can patiently adjust to injustice.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">&#91;46&#93;</a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>American psychologist B. F. Skinner wrote that he carried a copy of Thoreau's <i>Walden</i> with him in his youth.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">&#91;47&#93;</a></sup> In 1945 he wrote <i><a href="/wiki/Walden_Two" title="Walden Two">Walden Two</a></i>, a fictional utopia about 1,000 members of a community living together inspired by the life of Thoreau.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">&#91;48&#93;</a></sup> Thoreau and his fellow <a href="/wiki/Transcendentalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcendentalists">Transcendentalists</a> from <a href="/wiki/Concord,_Massachusetts" title="Concord, Massachusetts">Concord</a> were a major inspiration of the composer <a href="/wiki/Charles_Ives" title="Charles Ives">Charles Ives</a>. The 4th movement of the <a href="/wiki/Concord_Sonata" class="mw-redirect" title="Concord Sonata">Concord Sonata</a> for piano (with a part for flute, Thoreau's instrument) is a character picture, and he also set Thoreau's words.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">&#91;49&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Actor <a href="/wiki/Ron_Thompson_(actor)" title="Ron Thompson (actor)">Ron Thompson</a> did a dramatic portrayal of Henry David Thoreau on the 1976 <a href="/wiki/NBC" title="NBC">NBC</a> television series <i><a href="/wiki/The_Rebels_(TV_series)" title="The Rebels (TV series)">The Rebels</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">&#91;50&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">&#91;51&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">&#91;52&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Thoreau's ideas have impacted and resonated with various strains in the <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchist</a> movement, with <a href="/wiki/Emma_Goldman" title="Emma Goldman">Emma Goldman</a> referring to him as "the greatest American anarchist".<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">&#91;53&#93;</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Green_anarchism" title="Green anarchism">Green anarchism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anarcho-primitivism" title="Anarcho-primitivism">anarcho-primitivism</a> in particular have both derived inspiration and ecological points-of-view from the writings of Thoreau. <a href="/wiki/John_Zerzan" title="John Zerzan">John Zerzan</a> included Thoreau's text "Excursions" (1863) in his edited compilation of works in the anarcho-primitivist tradition titled <i>Against civilization: Readings and reflections</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">&#91;54&#93;</a></sup> Additionally, <a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Murray Rothbard</a>, the founder of <a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism" title="Anarcho-capitalism">anarcho-capitalism</a>, has opined that Thoreau was one of the "great intellectual heroes" of his movement.<sup id="cite_ref-Rothbard_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rothbard-36">&#91;36&#93;</a></sup> Thoreau was also an important influence on late-19th-century <a href="/wiki/Anarchist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchist">anarchist</a> <a href="/wiki/Naturist" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturist">naturism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-naturismolibertario_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-naturismolibertario-55">&#91;55&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ortega_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ortega-56">&#91;56&#93;</a></sup> Globally, Thoreau's concepts also held importance within <a href="/wiki/Individualist_anarchist" class="mw-redirect" title="Individualist anarchist">individualist anarchist</a> circles<sup id="cite_ref-spanishind_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spanishind-57">&#91;57&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-aujourdhui_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aujourdhui-58">&#91;58&#93;</a></sup> in Spain,<sup id="cite_ref-naturismolibertario_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-naturismolibertario-55">&#91;55&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ortega_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ortega-56">&#91;56&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-spanishind_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spanishind-57">&#91;57&#93;</a></sup> France,<sup id="cite_ref-spanishind_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spanishind-57">&#91;57&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-france_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-france-59">&#91;59&#93;</a></sup> and Portugal.<sup id="cite_ref-portugal_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-portugal-60">&#91;60&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>For the 200th anniversary of his birth, publishers released several new editions of his work: a recreation of <i>Walden</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">&#39;s</span> 1902 edition with illustrations, a picture book with excerpts from <i>Walden</i>, and an annotated collection of Thoreau's essays on slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">&#91;61&#93;</a></sup> The United States Postal Service issued a commemorative stamp honoring Thoreau on May 23, 2017 in Concord, MA.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">&#91;62&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Adaptations">Adaptations</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_David_Thoreau&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Adaptations">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>In 2017, <i><a href="/wiki/Walden,_a_Game" class="mw-redirect" title="Walden, a Game">Walden, a Game</a></i> was released on itch.io. Created by <a href="/wiki/Tracy_Fullerton" title="Tracy Fullerton">Tracy Fullerton</a>, it is an open world, first person videogame adaptation of Thoreau's <i><a href="/wiki/Walden" title="Walden">Walden</a></i>. Players can build the protagonist's cabin, explore the environment, record flora and fauna, farm the land, visit Emerson's house and the town of Concord. At the end of each day players are invited to reflect on their journal which gradually fills up with reflections based on the player's journey and day-to-day experiences. The game also includes letters between Thoreau and his contemporaries, including Amos Bronson Alcott and Ralph Waldo Emerson. It also includes letters between his contemporaries to build a picture of Thoreau's reception as a writer and his connections in the literary and Transcendentalist scene in America at the time. The game was released for Playstation 4 in 2018. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Criticism">Criticism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_David_Thoreau&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Criticism">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <p>Although his writings would receive widespread acclaim, Thoreau's ideas were not universally applauded. Scottish author <a href="/wiki/Robert_Louis_Stevenson" title="Robert Louis Stevenson">Robert Louis Stevenson</a> judged Thoreau's endorsement of living alone and apart from modern society in natural simplicity to be a mark of "unmanly" <a href="/wiki/Effeminacy" title="Effeminacy">effeminacy</a> and "womanish solitude", while deeming him a self-indulgent "skulker".<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">&#91;63&#93;</a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Hawthorne" title="Nathaniel Hawthorne">Nathaniel Hawthorne</a> had mixed feelings about Thoreau. He noted that "He is a keen and delicate observer of nature—a genuine observer—which, I suspect, is almost as rare a character as even an original poet; and Nature, in return for his love, seems to adopt him as her especial child, and shows him secrets which few others are allowed to witness."<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">&#91;64&#93;</a></sup> On the other hand, he also wrote that Thoreau "repudiated all regular modes of getting a living, and seems inclined to lead a sort of Indian life among civilized men".<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">&#91;65&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">&#91;66&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>In a similar vein, poet <a href="/wiki/John_Greenleaf_Whittier" title="John Greenleaf Whittier">John Greenleaf Whittier</a> detested what he deemed to be the "wicked" and "heathenish" message of <i>Walden</i>, claiming that Thoreau wanted man to "lower himself to the level of a <a href="/wiki/Woodchuck" class="mw-redirect" title="Woodchuck">woodchuck</a> and walk on four legs".<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">&#91;67&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>In response to such criticisms, English novelist <a href="/wiki/George_Eliot" title="George Eliot">George Eliot</a>, writing for the <i><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="Westminster Review">Westminster Review</a></i>, characterized such critics as uninspired and narrow-minded: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r960796168"/><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>People—very wise in their own eyes—who would have every man's life ordered according to a particular pattern, and who are intolerant of every existence the utility of which is not palpable to them, may pooh-pooh Mr. Thoreau and this episode in his history, as unpractical and dreamy.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">&#91;68&#93;</a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Thoreau himself also responded to the criticism in a paragraph of his work <i>Walden</i> by illustrating the irrelevance of their inquiries: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r960796168"/><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I should not obtrude my affairs so much on the notice of my readers if very particular inquiries had not been made by my townsmen concerning my mode of life, which some would call impertinent, though they do not appear to me at all impertinent, but, considering the circumstances, very natural and pertinent. Some have asked what I got to eat; if I did not feel lonesome; if I was not afraid; and the like. Others have been curious to learn what portion of my income I devoted to charitable purposes; and some, who have large families, how many poor children I maintained. ... Unfortunately, I am confined to this theme by the narrowness of my experience. Moreover, I, on my side, require of every writer, first or last, a simple and sincere account of his own life, and not merely what he has heard of other men's lives; ... I trust that none will stretch the seams in putting on the coat, for it may do good service to him whom it fits.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">&#91;69&#93;</a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Recent criticism has accused Thoreau of hypocrisy, misanthropy, and being sanctimonious, based on his writings in <i>Walden</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-neworker1_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-neworker1-70">&#91;70&#93;</a></sup> although this criticism has been perceived as highly selective.<sup id="cite_ref-medium1_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-medium1-71">&#91;71&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-newrepublic_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newrepublic-72">&#91;72&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-newrepublic2_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newrepublic2-73">&#91;73&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Works">Works</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_David_Thoreau&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: Works">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable plainlinks">This list is <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Lists#Incomplete_lists" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Lists">incomplete</a>; you can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Henry_David_Thoreau&amp;action=edit">expanding it</a>.</div> <table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks plainlist" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f8f9fa;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;width:19.5em;"><tbody><tr><th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em;padding-top:0.4em;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Henry David Thoreau</a></th></tr><tr><td style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em"><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_D._Maxham_-_Henry_David_Thoreau_-_Restored_-_greyscale_-_straightened.jpg" class="image" title="Maxham daguerreotype of Henry David Thoreau, aged 39, made in 1856"><img alt="Maxham daguerreotype of Henry David Thoreau, aged 39, made in 1856" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Benjamin_D._Maxham_-_Henry_David_Thoreau_-_Restored_-_greyscale_-_straightened.jpg/150px-Benjamin_D._Maxham_-_Henry_David_Thoreau_-_Restored_-_greyscale_-_straightened.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="217" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Benjamin_D._Maxham_-_Henry_David_Thoreau_-_Restored_-_greyscale_-_straightened.jpg/225px-Benjamin_D._Maxham_-_Henry_David_Thoreau_-_Restored_-_greyscale_-_straightened.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Benjamin_D._Maxham_-_Henry_David_Thoreau_-_Restored_-_greyscale_-_straightened.jpg/300px-Benjamin_D._Maxham_-_Henry_David_Thoreau_-_Restored_-_greyscale_-_straightened.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2089" data-file-height="3027" /></a><br /><a href="/wiki/File:Appletons%27_Thoreau_Henry_David_signature.jpg" class="image" title="Thoreau&#39;s signature"><img alt="Thoreau&#39;s signature" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Appletons%27_Thoreau_Henry_David_signature.jpg/170px-Appletons%27_Thoreau_Henry_David_signature.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="41" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Appletons%27_Thoreau_Henry_David_signature.jpg/255px-Appletons%27_Thoreau_Henry_David_signature.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Appletons%27_Thoreau_Henry_David_signature.jpg/340px-Appletons%27_Thoreau_Henry_David_signature.jpg 2x" data-file-width="499" data-file-height="119" /></a></td></tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background:transparent;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;">Core works and topics</div><div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;padding-top:0.4em;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Civil_Disobedience_(Thoreau)" title="Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)">Civil Disobedience</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Herald_of_Freedom_(essay)" title="Herald of Freedom (essay)">Herald of Freedom</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Days_of_John_Brown" title="The Last Days of John Brown">The Last Days of John Brown</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Life_Without_Principle" title="Life Without Principle">Life Without Principle</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paradise_(to_be)_Regained" title="Paradise (to be) Regained">Paradise (to be) Regained</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Plea_for_Captain_John_Brown" title="A Plea for Captain John Brown">A Plea for Captain John Brown</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reform_and_the_Reformers" title="Reform and the Reformers">Reform and the Reformers</a></i></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Remarks_After_the_Hanging_of_John_Brown" title="Remarks After the Hanging of John Brown">Remarks After the<br />Hanging of John Brown</a></i></div></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Service" title="The Service">The Service</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sir_Walter_Raleigh_(essay)" title="Sir Walter Raleigh (essay)">Sir Walter Raleigh</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Massachusetts" title="Slavery in Massachusetts">Slavery in Massachusetts</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle_and_His_Works" title="Thomas Carlyle and His Works">Thomas Carlyle and His Works</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Walden" title="Walden">Walden</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Walk_to_Wachusett" title="A Walk to Wachusett">A Walk to Wachusett</a></i></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><i><a href="/wiki/A_Week_on_the_Concord_and_Merrimack_Rivers" title="A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers">A Week on the Concord and <br />Merrimack Rivers</a></i></div></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Wendell_Phillips_Before_the_Concord_Lyceum" title="Wendell Phillips Before the Concord Lyceum">Wendell Phillips Before the<br />Concord Lyceum</a></i></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Writings_of_Henry_D._Thoreau" title="The Writings of Henry D. Thoreau">The Writings of Henry D. Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoreau_Society" title="Thoreau Society">Thoreau Society</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background:transparent;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;">Related topics</div><div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;padding-top:0.4em;"> <ul><li><div class="hlist hlist-separated"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_the_United_States" title="Anarchism in the United States">Anarchism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">Civil disobedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concord,_Massachusetts" title="Concord, Massachusetts">Concord, Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector" title="Conscientious objector">Conscientious objection</a></li> <li><div class="hlist hlist-separated"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Direct_action" title="Direct action">Direct action</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_tax_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="History of tax resistance">History of tax resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_anarchism" title="Individualist anarchism">Individualist anarchism</a></li> <li><div class="hlist hlist-separated"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist)">John Brown</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Lyceum_movement" title="Lyceum movement">Lyceum movement</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_resistance" title="Nonviolent resistance">Nonviolent resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Ralph Waldo Emerson</a></li> <li><div class="hlist hlist-separated"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simple_living" title="Simple living">Simple living</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tax_resistance" title="Tax resistance">Tax resistance</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><div class="hlist hlist-separated"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Tax_resisters" title="Category:Tax resisters">Tax resisters</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Night_Thoreau_Spent_in_Jail" title="The Night Thoreau Spent in Jail">The Night Thoreau Spent in Jail</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walden_Pond" title="Walden Pond">Walden Pond</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td style="text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding-top: 0.6em;"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Thoreauviana" title="Template:Thoreauviana"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Thoreauviana" title="Template talk:Thoreauviana"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Thoreauviana&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><i>Aulus Persius Flaccus</i> (1840)<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">&#91;74&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Service" title="The Service">The Service</a></i> (1840)<sup id="cite_ref-:4_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-25">&#91;25&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Walk_to_Wachusett" title="A Walk to Wachusett">A Walk to Wachusett</a></i> (1842)<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">&#91;75&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paradise_(to_be)_Regained" title="Paradise (to be) Regained">Paradise (to be) Regained</a></i> (1843)<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">&#91;76&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i>The Landlord</i> (1843)<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">&#91;77&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sir_Walter_Raleigh_(essay)" title="Sir Walter Raleigh (essay)">Sir Walter Raleigh</a></i> (1844)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Herald_of_Freedom_(essay)" title="Herald of Freedom (essay)">Herald of Freedom</a></i> (1844)<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">&#91;78&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wendell_Phillips_Before_the_Concord_Lyceum" title="Wendell Phillips Before the Concord Lyceum">Wendell Phillips Before the Concord Lyceum</a></i> (1845)<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">&#91;79&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reform_and_the_Reformers" title="Reform and the Reformers">Reform and the Reformers</a></i> (1846–48)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle_and_His_Works" title="Thomas Carlyle and His Works">Thomas Carlyle and His Works</a></i> (1847)<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">&#91;80&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Week_on_the_Concord_and_Merrimack_Rivers" title="A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers">A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers</a></i> (1849)<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81">&#91;81&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Civil_Disobedience_(Thoreau)" title="Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)">Resistance to Civil Government</a></i>, or <i>Civil Disobedience</i>, or <i>On the Duty of Civil Disobedience</i> (1849)<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82">&#91;82&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i>An Excursion to Canada</i> (1853)<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">&#91;83&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Massachusetts" title="Slavery in Massachusetts">Slavery in Massachusetts</a></i> (1854)<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84">&#91;84&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Walden" title="Walden">Walden</a></i> (1854)<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">&#91;85&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Plea_for_Captain_John_Brown" title="A Plea for Captain John Brown">A Plea for Captain John Brown</a></i> (1859)<sup id="cite_ref-:3_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-86">&#91;86&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Remarks_After_the_Hanging_of_John_Brown" title="Remarks After the Hanging of John Brown">Remarks After the Hanging of John Brown</a></i> (1859)<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87">&#91;87&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Days_of_John_Brown" title="The Last Days of John Brown">The Last Days of John Brown</a></i> (1860)<sup id="cite_ref-:1_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-21">&#91;21&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Walking_(Thoreau)" title="Walking (Thoreau)">Walking</a></i> (1862)<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">&#91;88&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i>Autumnal Tints</i> (1862)<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89">&#91;89&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i>Wild Apples: The History of the Apple Tree</i> (1862)<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90">&#91;90&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i>The Fall of the Leaf</i> (1863)<sup id="cite_ref-:5_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-27">&#91;27&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91">&#91;91&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Excursions_(anthology)" title="Excursions (anthology)">Excursions</a></i> (1863)<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92">&#91;92&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Life_Without_Principle" title="Life Without Principle">Life Without Principle</a></i> (1863)<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93">&#91;93&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i>Night and Moonlight</i> (1863)<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94">&#91;94&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i>The Highland Light</i> (1864)<sup id="cite_ref-u_of_adelaide_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-u_of_adelaide-95">&#91;95&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i>The Maine Woods</i> (1864)<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96">&#91;96&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97">&#91;97&#93;</a></sup> Fully Annotated Edition. <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_S._Cramer" title="Jeffrey S. Cramer">Jeffrey S. Cramer</a>, ed., Yale University Press, 2009</li> <li><i>Cape Cod</i> (1865)<sup id="cite_ref-:9_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-98">&#91;98&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i>Letters to Various Persons</i> (1865)<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">&#91;99&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Yankee_in_Canada,_with_Anti-Slavery_and_Reform_Papers" title="A Yankee in Canada, with Anti-Slavery and Reform Papers">A Yankee in Canada, with Anti-Slavery and Reform Papers</a></i> (1866)<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100">&#91;100&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i>Early Spring in Massachusetts</i> (1881)</li> <li><i>Summer</i> (1884)<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101">&#91;101&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i>Winter</i> (1888)<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102">&#91;102&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i>Autumn</i> (1892)<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103">&#91;103&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i>Miscellanies</i> (1894)<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104">&#91;104&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i>Familiar Letters of Henry David Thoreau</i> (1894)<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105">&#91;105&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i>Poems of Nature</i> (1895)<sup id="cite_ref-u_of_adelaide_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-u_of_adelaide-95">&#91;95&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i>Some Unpublished Letters of Henry D. and Sophia E. Thoreau</i> (1898)<sup id="cite_ref-u_of_adelaide_95-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-u_of_adelaide-95">&#91;95&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i>The First and Last Journeys of Thoreau</i> (1905)<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106">&#91;106&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107">&#91;107&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i>Journal of Henry David Thoreau</i> (1906)<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108">&#91;108&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i>The Correspondence of Henry David Thoreau</i> edited by Walter Harding and Carl Bode (Washington Square: New York University Press, 1958)<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">&#91;109&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i>Poets of the English Language</i> (Viking Press, 1950)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup></li> <li><i>I Was Made Erect and Lone</i><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110">&#91;110&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i>The Bluebird Carries the Sky on His Back</i> (Stanyan, 1970)<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111">&#91;111&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i>The Dispersion of Seeds</i> published as <i>Faith in a Seed</i> (Island Press, 1993)<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">&#91;112&#93;</a></sup></li> <li><i>The Indian Notebooks</i> (1847-1861) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.walden.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/IndianNotebooks-1.pdf">selections by Richard F. Fleck</a></li></ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_David_Thoreau&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_philosophers" title="List of American philosophers">List of American philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_peace_activists" title="List of peace activists">List of peace activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walden_Woods_Project" title="Walden Woods Project">Walden Woods Project</a></li></ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_David_Thoreau&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:6-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFurtak" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Furtak, Rick. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/thoreau/">"Henry David Thoreau"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 27,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Henry+David+Thoreau&amp;rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.aulast=Furtak&amp;rft.aufirst=Rick&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fthoreau%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r951705291">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background-image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background-image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background-image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:12px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFChanningMerrymount_PressSanbornUpdike1902" class="citation book cs1">Channing, William Ellery; Merrymount Press; Sanborn, F. B. (Franklin Benjamin); Updike, Daniel Berkeley (1902). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/poetnatthoreau00chanrich"><i>Thoreau, the poet-naturalist, with Memorial verses</i></a>. University of California Libraries. Boston, C. E. Goodspeed.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Thoreau%2C+the+poet-naturalist%2C+with+Memorial+verses&amp;rft.pub=Boston%2C+C.+E.+Goodspeed&amp;rft.date=1902&amp;rft.aulast=Channing&amp;rft.aufirst=William+Ellery&amp;rft.au=Merrymount+Press&amp;rft.au=Sanborn%2C+F.+B.+%28Franklin+Benjamin%29&amp;rft.au=Updike%2C+Daniel+Berkeley&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpoetnatthoreau00chanrich&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Walden, or Life in the Woods</i> (Chapter 1: "Economy")</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nathaniel Hawthorne, Passages From the American Note-Books, entry for September 2, 1842.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brooks, Van Wyck. <i>The Flowering of New England</i>. New York: E. P. Dutton and Company, Inc., 1952. p. 310</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cheever241-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cheever241_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cheever241_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cheever, Susan (2006). <i>American Bloomsbury: Louisa May Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Fuller, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry David Thoreau; Their Lives, Their Loves, Their Work</i>. Detroit: Thorndike Press. Large print edition. p. 241. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7862-9521-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7862-9521-X">0-7862-9521-X</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nash, Roderick. <i>Wilderness and the American Mind: Henry David Thoreau: Philosopher</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-harding-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-harding_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-harding_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-harding_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Harding, Walter (1991). "Thoreau's Sexuality". <i>Journal of Homosexuality</i> 21.3. pp. 23–45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFQuinby,_Lee1999" class="citation book cs1">Quinby, Lee (1999). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/millennialseduct00quin"><i>Millennial Seduction</i></a></span>. Cornell University Press. p.&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/millennialseduct00quin/page/68">68</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801486012" title="Special:BookSources/978-0801486012"><bdi>978-0801486012</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Millennial+Seduction&amp;rft.pages=68&amp;rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.isbn=978-0801486012&amp;rft.au=Quinby%2C+Lee&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmillennialseduct00quin&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBronski2012" class="citation book cs1">Bronski, Michael (2012). <a href="/wiki/A_Queer_History_of_the_United_States" title="A Queer History of the United States"><i>A Queer History of the United States</i></a>. Beacon Press. p.&#160;50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0807044650" title="Special:BookSources/978-0807044650"><bdi>978-0807044650</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=A+Queer+History+of+the+United+States&amp;rft.pages=50&amp;rft.pub=Beacon+Press&amp;rft.date=2012&amp;rft.isbn=978-0807044650&amp;rft.aulast=Bronski&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael, Warner (1991). "Walden's Erotic Economy" in <i>Comparative American Identities: Race, Sex and Nationality in the Modern Text</i>. Hortense Spillers, ed. New York: Routledge. pp. 157–73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRobbins" class="citation journal cs1">Robbins, Paula Ivaska. "The Natural Thoreau". <i>The Gay And Lesbian Review, September–October 2011</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/wiki/ProQuest_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ProQuest (identifier)">ProQuest</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/890209875">890209875</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Gay+And+Lesbian+Review%2C+September%E2%80%93October+2011&amp;rft.atitle=The+Natural+Thoreau&amp;rft.aulast=Robbins&amp;rft.aufirst=Paula+Ivaska&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richardson, Robert; Moser, Barry (1986). <i>Henry Thoreau: A Life of the Mind</i>. University of California Press. pp. 58–63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Canby, Henry Seidel (1939). <i>Thoreau</i>. Houghton Mifflin. p. 117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Katz, Jonathan Ned (1992). <i>Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the USA</i>. New York: Meridian. pp. 481–92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">López, Robert Oscar (2007). "Thoreau, Homer and Community", in <i>Henry David Thoreau</i>. Harold Bloom, ed. New York: Infobase Publishing. pp. 153–74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Summers, Claude J <i>The Gay and Lesbian Literary Heritage</i>, Routledge, New York, 2002, p. 202</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bergman, David, ed. (2009). <i>Gay American Autobiography: Writings From Whitman to Sedaris</i>. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lebeaux, Richard (1984). <i>Thoreau's Seasons</i>. University of Massachusetts Press. p. 386, n. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_20-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_20-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_20-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_20-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference <code>ReferenceA</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>). </span></li> <li id="cite_note-:1-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays">The Last Days of John Brown</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays">Archived</a> December 22, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-resistance-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-resistance_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-resistance_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-resistance_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference <code>resistance</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>). </span></li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference <code>ReferenceB</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>). </span></li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFThoreau1961" class="citation book cs1">Thoreau, Henry David (1961). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/yankeeincanada0000thor"><i>A Yankee in Canada</i></a></span>. Montreal: Harvest House. pp.&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/yankeeincanada0000thor/page/105">105–107</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=A+Yankee+in+Canada&amp;rft.place=Montreal&amp;rft.pages=105-107&amp;rft.pub=Harvest+House&amp;rft.date=1961&amp;rft.aulast=Thoreau&amp;rft.aufirst=Henry+David&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fyankeeincanada0000thor&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays">The Service</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays">Archived</a> December 22, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thoreau.eserver.org/mjf/MJF1.html">Transcendental Ethos</a> from The Thoreau Reader</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160620124518/http://www.walden.org/Library/About_Thoreau%27s_Life_and_Writings%3A_The_Research_Collections/Civil_Disobedience">"The Walden Woods Project"</a>. <i>Walden.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.walden.org/Library/About_Thoreau%27s_Life_and_Writings:_The_Research_Collections/Civil_Disobedience">the original</a> on June 20, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Walden.org&amp;rft.atitle=The+Walden+Woods+Project&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.walden.org%2FLibrary%2FAbout_Thoreau%2527s_Life_and_Writings%3A_The_Research_Collections%2FCivil_Disobedience&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Lachs_and_Robert_Talisse2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Lachs" title="John Lachs">John Lachs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Talisse" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Talisse">Robert Talisse</a> (2007). <i>American Philosophy: An Encyclopedia</i>. p.&#160;310. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415939263" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415939263"><bdi>978-0415939263</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=American+Philosophy%3A+An+Encyclopedia&amp;rft.pages=310&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.isbn=978-0415939263&amp;rft.au=John+Lachs+and+Robert+Talisse&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miller, Barbara S. "Why Did Henry David Thoreau Take the Bhagavad-Gita to Walden Pond?" <i>Parabola</i> 12.1 (Spring 1986): 58–63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Berger, Michael Benjamin. <i>Thoreau's Late Career and The Dispersion of Seeds: The Saunterer's Synoptic Vision</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/157113168X" title="Special:BookSources/157113168X">157113168X</a>, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wulf, Andrea. <i>The Invention of Nature: Alexander Humboldt's New World</i>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf 2015, p. 250.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cain, William E. <i>A Historical Guide to Henry David Thoreau</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0195138635" title="Special:BookSources/0195138635">0195138635</a>, p. 146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kenkifer.com/Thoreau/">Analysis and Notes on Walden: Henry Thoreau's Text with Adjacent Thoreauvian Commentary</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060318110150/http://www.kenkifer.com/Thoreau/">Archived</a> March 18, 2006, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by Ken Kifer, 2002</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McElroy-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McElroy_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference <code>McElroy</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>). </span></li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/1862appletonsan02newyuoft#page/n673/mode/1up"><i>Appletons' annual cyclopaedia and register of important events of the year: 1862</i></a>. New York: D. Appleton &amp; Company. 1863. p.&#160;666.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Appletons%27+annual+cyclopaedia+and+register+of+important+events+of+the+year%3A+1862&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pages=666&amp;rft.pub=D.+Appleton+%26+Company&amp;rft.date=1863&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2F1862appletonsan02newyuoft%23page%2Fn673%2Fmode%2F1up&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rothbard-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rothbard_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rothbard_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard, Murray</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard77.html">Confessions of a Right-Wing Liberal</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ramparts_(magazine)" title="Ramparts (magazine)">Ramparts</a></i>, VI, 4, June 15, 1968</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maynard, W. Barksdale, <i>Walden Pond: A History</i>. Oxford University Press, 2005. p. 265</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mumford, Lewis, <i>The Golden Day: A Study in American Experience and Culture</i>. Boni and Liveright, 1926. pp. 56–59,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Posey, Alexander. <i>Lost Creeks: Collected Journals</i>. (Edited by Matthew Wynn Sivils) University of Nebraska Press, 2009. p. 38</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Saunders, Barry. <i>A Complex Fate: Gustav Stickley and the Craftsman Movement</i>. Preservation Press, 1996. p. 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kifer, Ken <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kenkifer.com/Thoreau/">Analysis and Notes on Walden: Henry Thoreau's Text with Adjacent Thoreauvian Commentary</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060318110150/http://www.kenkifer.com/Thoreau/">Archived</a> March 18, 2006, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hendrick, George and Oehlschlaeger, Fritz (eds.) <i>Toward the Making of Thoreau's Modern Reputation</i>, University of Illinois Press, 1979.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Wendy_McElroy" title="Wendy McElroy">McElroy, Wendy</a> (2011-05-04) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mises.org/daily/5250/Here-the-State-Is-Nowhere-to-Be-Seen">Here, the State Is Nowhere to Be Seen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mises_Institute" title="Mises Institute">Mises Institute</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Although he was practicing civil disobedience before he read Thoreau's essay, Gandhi was quick to point out the debt he owed to Thoreau and other thinkers like him".Shawn Chandler Bingham, <i>Thoreau and the sociological imagination&#160;: the wilds of society</i>. Lanham, Md.&#160;: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780742560581" title="Special:BookSources/9780742560581">9780742560581</a> p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miller, Webb. I Found No Peace. Garden City, 1938. 238–39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">King, M.L. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stanford.edu/group/King//publications/autobiography/chp_2.htm">Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070308023614/http://www.stanford.edu/group/King/publications/autobiography/chp_2.htm">Archived</a> March 8, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i> chapter two</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Skinner, B. F., <i>A Matter of Consequences</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Skinner, B. F., <i>Walden Two</i> (1948)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burkholder, James Peter. <i>Charles Ives and His World.</i> Princeton University Press, 1996 (pp. 50–51)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/30664120/">"Tele-Vues, Sunday, June 6, 1976"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Independent_Press-Telegram" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent Press-Telegram">Independent Press-Telegram</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Long_Beach,_California" title="Long Beach, California">Long Beach, California</a>. June 6, 1976. p.&#160;170.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Independent+Press-Telegram&amp;rft.atitle=Tele-Vues%2C+Sunday%2C+June+6%2C+1976&amp;rft.pages=170&amp;rft.date=1976-06-06&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fnewspage%2F30664120%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/15447614/">"TV Log"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Redlands_Daily_Facts" title="Redlands Daily Facts">Redlands Daily Facts</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Redlands,_California" title="Redlands, California">Redlands, California</a>. June 5, 1976. p.&#160;10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Redlands+Daily+Facts&amp;rft.atitle=TV+Log&amp;rft.pages=10&amp;rft.date=1976-06-05&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fnewspage%2F15447614%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3FdGBFTxkHY"><i>Actor Ron Thompson as Henry David Thoreau in The Rebels</i></a>. <i><a href="/wiki/NBC" title="NBC">NBC</a></i>. June 6, 1976.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Actor+Ron+Thompson+as+Henry+David+Thoreau+in+The+Rebels&amp;rft.date=1976-06-06&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D3FdGBFTxkHY&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGoldman,_Emma1917" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Emma_Goldman" title="Emma Goldman">Goldman, Emma</a> (1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_U5ZYAAAAMAAJ"><i>Anarchism and Other Essays</i></a>. Mother Earth Publishing Association. p.&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_U5ZYAAAAMAAJ/page/n67">62</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Anarchism+and+Other+Essays&amp;rft.pages=62&amp;rft.pub=Mother+Earth+Publishing+Association&amp;rft.date=1917&amp;rft.au=Goldman%2C+Emma&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_U5ZYAAAAMAAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFZerzan" class="citation book cs1">Zerzan, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.fr/dp/toc/0922915989"><i>Against Civilization: Readings And Reflections</i></a> &#8211; via Amazon.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Against+Civilization%3A+Readings+And+Reflections&amp;rft.aulast=Zerzan&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.fr%2Fdp%2Ftoc%2F0922915989&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-naturismolibertario-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-naturismolibertario_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-naturismolibertario_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.soliobrera.org/pdefs/cuaderno4.pdf#search=%22Antonia%20Maym%C3%B3n%22">El naturismo libertario en la Península Ibérica (1890–1939) by Jose Maria Rosello</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160102181805/http://www.soliobrera.org/pdefs/cuaderno4.pdf">Archived</a> January 2, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ortega-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ortega_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ortega_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFOrtega" class="citation web cs1">Ortega, Carlos. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.naturismo.org/adn/ediciones/2003/invierno/7e.html">"Anarchism, Nudism, Naturism"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Anarchism%2C+Nudism%2C+Naturism&amp;rft.aulast=Ortega&amp;rft.aufirst=Carlos&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.naturismo.org%2Fadn%2Fediciones%2F2003%2Finvierno%2F7e.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-spanishind-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-spanishind_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-spanishind_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-spanishind_57-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acracia.org/xdiez.html">"La insumisión voluntaria. El anarquismo individualista Español durante la dictadura y la segunda República (1923–1938)" by Xavier Diez</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060526224800/http://www.acracia.org/xdiez.html">Archived</a> May 26, 2006, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-aujourdhui-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aujourdhui_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Les anarchistes individualistes du début du siècle l'avaient bien compris, et intégraient le naturisme dans leurs préoccupations. Il est vraiment dommage que ce discours se soit peu à peu effacé, d'antan plus que nous assistons, en ce moment, à un retour en force du puritanisme (conservateur par essence)."<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ytak.club.fr/natytak.html">"Anarchisme et naturisme, aujourd'hui." by Cathy Ytak</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090225212442/http://ytak.club.fr/natytak.html">Archived</a> February 25, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-france-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-france_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ytak.club.fr/natbiblioarmand.html">Recension des articles de l'En-Dehors consacrés au naturisme et au nudisme</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081014165702/http://ytak.club.fr/natbiblioarmand.html">Archived</a> October 14, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-portugal-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-portugal_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Freire, João. "Anarchisme et naturisme au Portugal, dans les années 1920" in <i>Les anarchistes du Portugal</i>. [Bibliographic data necessary for this ref.]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2017" class="citation news cs1">Williams, John (July 7, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/07/books/review/alcoholism-in-america.html">"Alcoholism in America"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft.atitle=Alcoholism+in+America&amp;rft.date=2017-07-07&amp;rft.issn=0362-4331&amp;rft.aulast=Williams&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2017%2F07%2F07%2Fbooks%2Freview%2Falcoholism-in-america.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://stamps.org/US-New-Issues-2017">"American Philatelic Society"</a>. <i>stamps.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=stamps.org&amp;rft.atitle=American+Philatelic+Society&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstamps.org%2FUS-New-Issues-2017&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stevenson, Robert Louis. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thoreau.eserver.org/stevens1.html">"Henry David Thoreau: His Character and Opinions"</a>. Cornhill Magazine. June 1880.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nathaniel Hawthorne, <i>Passages From the American Note-Books</i>, entry for September 2, 1842.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hawthorne, <i>The Heart of Hawthorne's Journals</i>, p. 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Borst, Raymond R. <i>The Thoreau Log: A Documentary Life of Henry David Thoreau, 1817–1862.</i> New York: G.K. Hall, 1992.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wagenknecht, Edward. <i>John Greenleaf Whittier: A Portrait in Paradox</i>. New York: Oxford University Press, 1967: 112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/The_New_England_Quarterly" title="The New England Quarterly">The New England Quarterly</a></i>, Vol. 6, No. 4 (Dec., 1933), pp. 733–46</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thoreau <i>Walden</i> (1854)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-neworker1-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-neworker1_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSchultz2015" class="citation web cs1">Schultz, Kathryn (October 19, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151019170355/http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/10/19/pond-scum">"Henry David Thoreau, Hypocrite"</a>. <i>The New Yorker</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/10/19/pond-scum">the original</a> on October 19, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 19,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&amp;rft.atitle=Henry+David+Thoreau%2C+Hypocrite&amp;rft.date=2015-10-19&amp;rft.aulast=Schultz&amp;rft.aufirst=Kathryn&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Fmagazine%2F2015%2F10%2F19%2Fpond-scum&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-medium1-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-medium1_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151019170355/https://medium.com/%40TheNewThoreau/why-do-we-love-thoreau-because-he-was-right-175251814c">"Why do we love Thoreau? Because he was right"</a>. Medium. October 19, 2015. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://medium.com/@TheNewThoreau/why-do-we-love-thoreau-because-he-was-right-175251814c">the original</a> on October 19, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 19,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Why+do+we+love+Thoreau%3F+Because+he+was+right.&amp;rft.pub=Medium&amp;rft.date=2015-10-19&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmedium.com%2F%40TheNewThoreau%2Fwhy-do-we-love-thoreau-because-he-was-right-175251814c&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-newrepublic-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-newrepublic_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMalesic2015" class="citation journal cs1">Malesic, Jonathan (October 19, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151019204535/http://www.newrepublic.com/article/123151/defense-thoreau">"Henry David Thoreau's Radical Optimism"</a>. <i>New Republic</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newrepublic.com/article/123151/defense-thoreau">the original</a> on October 19, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 19,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=New+Republic&amp;rft.atitle=Henry+David+Thoreau%27s+Radical+Optimism&amp;rft.date=2015-10-19&amp;rft.aulast=Malesic&amp;rft.aufirst=Jonathan&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewrepublic.com%2Farticle%2F123151%2Fdefense-thoreau&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-newrepublic2-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-newrepublic2_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHohn2015" class="citation journal cs1">Hohn, Donovan (October 21, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151026134755/http://www.newrepublic.com/article/123162/everybody-hates-henry-david-thoreau">"Everybody Hates Henry"</a>. <i>New Republic</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newrepublic.com/article/123162/everybody-hates-henry-david-thoreau">the original</a> on October 26, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 21,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=New+Republic&amp;rft.atitle=Everybody+Hates+Henry&amp;rft.date=2015-10-21&amp;rft.aulast=Hohn&amp;rft.aufirst=Donovan&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewrepublic.com%2Farticle%2F123162%2Feverybody-hates-henry-david-thoreau&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays">Aulus Persius Flaccus</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays">Archived</a> December 22, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays">A Walk to Wachusett</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays">Archived</a> December 22, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays">Paradise (to be) Regained</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays">Archived</a> December 22, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/pageviewer?frames=1&amp;cite=http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=AGD1642-0013-6&amp;coll=moa&amp;root=/moa/usde/usde0013/&amp;tif=00445.TIF&amp;view=100">"The United States Democratic Review Volume 0013 Issue 64 (Oct 1843)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=The+United+States+Democratic+Review+Volume+0013+Issue+64+%28Oct+1843%29&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcdl.library.cornell.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fmoa%2Fpageviewer%3Fframes%3D1%26cite%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fcdl.library.cornell.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fmoa%2Fmoa-cgi%3Fnotisid%3DAGD1642-0013-6%26coll%3Dmoa%26root%3D%2Fmoa%2Fusde%2Fusde0013%2F%26tif%3D00445.TIF%26view%3D100&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays">Herald of Freedom</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays">Archived</a> December 22, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays">Wendell Phillips Before the Concord Lyceum</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays">Archived</a> December 22, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays">Thomas Carlyle and His Works</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays">Archived</a> December 22, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?title=A+Week+on+the+Concord+and+Merrimack+Rivers&amp;tmode=start&amp;c=x">"A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers from Project Gutenberg"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=A+Week+on+the+Concord+and+Merrimack+Rivers+from+Project+Gutenberg&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinebooks.library.upenn.edu%2Fwebbin%2Fbook%2Fsearch%3Ftitle%3DA%2BWeek%2Bon%2Bthe%2BConcord%2Band%2BMerrimack%2BRivers%26tmode%3Dstart%26c%3Dx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPeabodyEmersonHawthorneThoreau1849" class="citation book cs1">Peabody, Elizabeth Palmer; Emerson, Ralph Waldo; Hawthorne, Nathaniel; Thoreau, Henry David (January 1, 1849). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/aestheticpapers00peabrich"><i>Aesthetic papers</i></a>. Boston,&#160;: The editor; New York,&#160;: G.P. Putnam &#8211; via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Aesthetic+papers&amp;rft.pub=Boston%2C+%3A+The+editor%3B+New+York%2C+%3A+G.P.+Putnam&amp;rft.date=1849-01-01&amp;rft.aulast=Peabody&amp;rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+Palmer&amp;rft.au=Emerson%2C+Ralph+Waldo&amp;rft.au=Hawthorne%2C+Nathaniel&amp;rft.au=Thoreau%2C+Henry+David&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Faestheticpapers00peabrich&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/A_Yankee_in_Canada">A Yankee in Canada</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110617002714/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/A_Yankee_in_Canada">Archived</a> June 17, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays">Slavery in Massachusetts</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays">Archived</a> December 22, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Walden">Walden</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100926152652/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Walden">Archived</a> September 26, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:3_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays">A Plea for Captain John Brown</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays">Archived</a> December 22, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays">After the Death of John Brown</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays">Archived</a> December 22, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?author=Thoreau&amp;amode=words&amp;title=Walking&amp;tmode=start&amp;c=x">"Walking"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Walking&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinebooks.library.upenn.edu%2Fwebbin%2Fbook%2Fsearch%3Fauthor%3DThoreau%26amode%3Dwords%26title%3DWalking%26tmode%3Dstart%26c%3Dx&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Essays">Autumnal Tints</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101222023007/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Essays">Archived</a> December 22, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=4066">"Wild Apples, from Project Gutenberg"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Wild+Apples%2C+from+Project+Gutenberg&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fonlinebooks.library.upenn.edu%2Fwebbin%2Fgutbook%2Flookup%3Fnum%3D4066&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHenry_David_ThoreauBradford_TorreyFranklin_Benjamin_Sanborn1863" class="citation book cs1">Henry David Thoreau; Bradford Torrey; Franklin Benjamin Sanborn (1863). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wpA9AQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA407"><i>The Writings of Henry David Thoreau: Excursions, translations, and poems</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Riverside_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Riverside Publishing">The Riverside Press, Cambridge</a>. pp.&#160;407–08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Writings+of+Henry+David+Thoreau%3A+Excursions%2C+translations%2C+and+poems&amp;rft.pages=407-08&amp;rft.pub=The+Riverside+Press%2C+Cambridge&amp;rft.date=1863&amp;rft.au=Henry+David+Thoreau&amp;rft.au=Bradford+Torrey&amp;rft.au=Franklin+Benjamin+Sanborn&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwpA9AQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA407&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFThoreauHoughton_(H._O.)_&amp;_Company._(1863)_bkp_CU-BANCEmersonThoreau1863" class="citation book cs1">Thoreau, Henry David; Houghton (H. O.) &amp; Company. (1863) bkp CU-BANC; Emerson, Ralph Waldo; Thoreau, Sophia E. (January 1, 1863). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/excursionhenry00thorrich"><i>Excursions</i></a>. Boston, Ticknor and Fields &#8211; via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Excursions&amp;rft.pub=Boston%2C+Ticknor+and+Fields&amp;rft.date=1863-01-01&amp;rft.aulast=Thoreau&amp;rft.aufirst=Henry+David&amp;rft.au=Houghton+%28H.+O.%29+%26+Company.+%281863%29+bkp+CU-BANC&amp;rft.au=Emerson%2C+Ralph+Waldo&amp;rft.au=Thoreau%2C+Sophia+E.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fexcursionhenry00thorrich&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABK2934-0012-65">"The Atlantic Monthly Volume 0012 Issue 71 (September 1863)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=The+Atlantic+Monthly+Volume+0012+Issue+71+%28September+1863%29&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcdl.library.cornell.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fmoa%2Fmoa-cgi%3Fnotisid%3DABK2934-0012-65&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABK2934-0012-77">"The Atlantic Monthly Volume 0012 Issue 72 (November 1863)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=The+Atlantic+Monthly+Volume+0012+Issue+72+%28November+1863%29&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcdl.library.cornell.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fmoa%2Fmoa-cgi%3Fnotisid%3DABK2934-0012-77&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-u_of_adelaide-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-u_of_adelaide_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-u_of_adelaide_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-u_of_adelaide_95-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170824024207/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/t/thoreau/henry_david/">"Henry David Thoreau, 1817–1862"</a>. <i>ebooks.adelaide.edu</i>. The University of Adelaide. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/t/thoreau/henry_david/">the original</a> on August 24, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 1,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=ebooks.adelaide.edu&amp;rft.atitle=Henry+David+Thoreau%2C+1817%E2%80%931862&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Febooks.adelaide.edu.au%2Ft%2Fthoreau%2Fhenry_david%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thoreau.eserver.org/mewoods.html">The Maine Woods</a> from The Thoreau Reader</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFThoreauThoreauChanning1864" class="citation book cs1">Thoreau, Henry David; Thoreau, Sophia E.; Channing, William Ellery (January 1, 1864). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mainewoods00thorrich"><i>The Maine woods</i></a>. Boston, Ticknor and Fields &#8211; via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Maine+woods&amp;rft.pub=Boston%2C+Ticknor+and+Fields&amp;rft.date=1864-01-01&amp;rft.aulast=Thoreau&amp;rft.aufirst=Henry+David&amp;rft.au=Thoreau%2C+Sophia+E.&amp;rft.au=Channing%2C+William+Ellery&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmainewoods00thorrich&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:9_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLenat" class="citation web cs1">Lenat, Richard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thoreau.eserver.org/capecd00.html">"Thoreau's Cape Cod - an annotated edition"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Thoreau%27s+Cape+Cod+-+an+annotated+edition&amp;rft.aulast=Lenat&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthoreau.eserver.org%2Fcapecd00.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFThoreauThoreauEmerson1865" class="citation book cs1">Thoreau, Henry David; Thoreau, Henry David; Emerson, Ralph Waldo (January 1, 1865). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lettersvarpersons00thorrich"><i>Letters to various persons</i></a>. Boston&#160;: Ticknor and Fields &#8211; via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Letters+to+various+persons&amp;rft.pub=Boston+%3A+Ticknor+and+Fields&amp;rft.date=1865-01-01&amp;rft.aulast=Thoreau&amp;rft.aufirst=Henry+David&amp;rft.au=Thoreau%2C+Henry+David&amp;rft.au=Emerson%2C+Ralph+Waldo&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flettersvarpersons00thorrich&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFThoreauThoreauChanningEmerson1866" class="citation book cs1">Thoreau, Henry David; Thoreau, Henry David; Channing, William Ellery; Emerson, Ralph Waldo; Thoreau, Sophia E. (January 1, 1866). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/yankeeincanada00thorrich"><i>A Yankee in Canada, with Anti-slavery and reform papers</i></a>. Boston, Ticknor and Fields &#8211; via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=A+Yankee+in+Canada%2C+with+Anti-slavery+and+reform+papers&amp;rft.pub=Boston%2C+Ticknor+and+Fields&amp;rft.date=1866-01-01&amp;rft.aulast=Thoreau&amp;rft.aufirst=Henry+David&amp;rft.au=Thoreau%2C+Henry+David&amp;rft.au=Channing%2C+William+Ellery&amp;rft.au=Emerson%2C+Ralph+Waldo&amp;rft.au=Thoreau%2C+Sophia+E.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fyankeeincanada00thorrich&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFThoreauBlake1884" class="citation book cs1">Thoreau, Henry David; Blake, H. G. O. (Harrison Gray Otis) (January 1, 1884). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/summerjournal00thorrich"><i>Summer&#160;: from the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau</i></a>. London&#160;: T. Fisher Unwin &#8211; via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Summer+%3A+from+the+Journal+of+Henry+D.+Thoreau&amp;rft.pub=London+%3A+T.+Fisher+Unwin&amp;rft.date=1884-01-01&amp;rft.aulast=Thoreau&amp;rft.aufirst=Henry+David&amp;rft.au=Blake%2C+H.+G.+O.+%28Harrison+Gray+Otis%29&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsummerjournal00thorrich&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFThoreauBlake1888" class="citation book cs1">Thoreau, Henry David; Blake, H. G. O. (January 1, 1888). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/winterjournal00thorrich"><i>Winter&#160;: from the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau</i></a>. Boston&#160;: Houghton, Mifflin &#8211; via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Winter+%3A+from+the+Journal+of+Henry+D.+Thoreau&amp;rft.pub=Boston+%3A+Houghton%2C+Mifflin&amp;rft.date=1888-01-01&amp;rft.aulast=Thoreau&amp;rft.aufirst=Henry+David&amp;rft.au=Blake%2C+H.+G.+O.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwinterjournal00thorrich&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFThoreauBlake1892" class="citation book cs1">Thoreau, Henry David; Blake, Harrison Gray Otis (December 3, 1892). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/autumnjournal00thorrich"><i>Autumn. From the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau</i></a>. Boston, Houghton, Mifflin &#8211; via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Autumn.+From+the+Journal+of+Henry+D.+Thoreau&amp;rft.pub=Boston%2C+Houghton%2C+Mifflin&amp;rft.date=1892-12-03&amp;rft.aulast=Thoreau&amp;rft.aufirst=Henry+David&amp;rft.au=Blake%2C+Harrison+Gray+Otis&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fautumnjournal00thorrich&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Cape_Cod_and_Miscellanies">Miscellanies</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title="&#160;Dead link since March 2017">permanent dead link</span></a></i>&#93;</span></sup> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFThoreauSanborn1894" class="citation book cs1">Thoreau, Henry David; Sanborn, F. B. (Franklin Benjamin) (January 1, 1894). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/familiarletters00thorrich"><i>Familiar letters of Henry David Thoreau</i></a>. Boston&#160;: Houghton, Mifflin &#8211; via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Familiar+letters+of+Henry+David+Thoreau&amp;rft.pub=Boston+%3A+Houghton%2C+Mifflin&amp;rft.date=1894-01-01&amp;rft.aulast=Thoreau&amp;rft.aufirst=Henry+David&amp;rft.au=Sanborn%2C+F.+B.+%28Franklin+Benjamin%29&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffamiliarletters00thorrich&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFThoreauBibliophile_Society_(BostonBibliophile_Society_(BostonSanborn1905" class="citation book cs1">Thoreau, Henry David; Bibliophile Society (Boston, Mass ); Bibliophile Society (Boston, Mass ); Sanborn, F. B. (Franklin Benjamin) (January 1, 1905). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/firstlastjourneys01thorrich"><i>The first and last journeys of Thoreau&#160;: lately discovered among his unpublished journals and manuscripts</i></a>. Boston&#160;: Printed exclusively for members of the Bibliophile Society &#8211; via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+first+and+last+journeys+of+Thoreau+%3A+lately+discovered+among+his+unpublished+journals+and+manuscripts&amp;rft.pub=Boston+%3A+Printed+exclusively+for+members+of+the+Bibliophile+Society&amp;rft.date=1905-01-01&amp;rft.aulast=Thoreau&amp;rft.aufirst=Henry+David&amp;rft.au=Bibliophile+Society+%28Boston%2C+Mass+%29&amp;rft.au=Bibliophile+Society+%28Boston%2C+Mass+%29&amp;rft.au=Sanborn%2C+F.+B.+%28Franklin+Benjamin%29&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffirstlastjourneys01thorrich&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFThoreauBibliophile_Society_(BostonBibliophile_Society_(BostonSanborn1905" class="citation book cs1">Thoreau, Henry David; Bibliophile Society (Boston, Mass ); Bibliophile Society (Boston, Mass ); Sanborn, F. B. (Franklin Benjamin) (January 1, 1905). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/firstlastjourneys02thorrich"><i>The first and last journeys of Thoreau&#160;: lately discovered among his unpublished journals and manuscripts</i></a>. Boston&#160;: Printed exclusively for members of the Bibliophile Society &#8211; via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+first+and+last+journeys+of+Thoreau+%3A+lately+discovered+among+his+unpublished+journals+and+manuscripts&amp;rft.pub=Boston+%3A+Printed+exclusively+for+members+of+the+Bibliophile+Society&amp;rft.date=1905-01-01&amp;rft.aulast=Thoreau&amp;rft.aufirst=Henry+David&amp;rft.au=Bibliophile+Society+%28Boston%2C+Mass+%29&amp;rft.au=Bibliophile+Society+%28Boston%2C+Mass+%29&amp;rft.au=Sanborn%2C+F.+B.+%28Franklin+Benjamin%29&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffirstlastjourneys02thorrich&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Journal">The Journal of Henry D. Thoreau</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100505210829/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Journal">Archived</a> May 5, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau:_The_Digital_Collection/Correspondence">The Correspondence of Thoreau</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110617003655/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Correspondence">Archived</a> June 17, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.poetryfoundation.org/poem/184857">"I Was Made Erect and Lone"</a>. December 3, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=I+Was+Made+Erect+and+Lone&amp;rft.date=2018-12-03&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.poetryfoundation.org%2Fpoem%2F184857&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRastogi2015" class="citation web cs1">Rastogi, Gaurav (May 11, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://medium.com/@alpharust/the-bluebird-carries-the-sky-on-his-back-ac96daf58a4d">"The bluebird carries the sky on his back"</a>. <i>Medium</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 15,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Medium&amp;rft.atitle=The+bluebird+carries+the+sky+on+his+back&amp;rft.date=2015-05-11&amp;rft.aulast=Rastogi&amp;rft.aufirst=Gaurav&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmedium.com%2F%40alpharust%2Fthe-bluebird-carries-the-sky-on-his-back-ac96daf58a4d&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFThoreau1996" class="citation book cs1">Thoreau, Henry David (April 1996). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/faithinseeddispe00thor"><i>Faith in a Seed: The Dispersion of Seeds and Other Late Natural History Writings</i></a></span>. <i>Island Press</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1559631822" title="Special:BookSources/978-1559631822"><bdi>978-1559631822</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 29,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Faith+in+a+Seed%3A+The+Dispersion+of+Seeds+and+Other+Late+Natural+History+Writings&amp;rft.date=1996-04&amp;rft.isbn=978-1559631822&amp;rft.aulast=Thoreau&amp;rft.aufirst=Henry+David&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffaithinseeddispe00thor&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></span> </li> </ol></div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_David_Thoreau&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047268">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{list-style-type:none;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>dl>dd{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-100{font-size:100%}</style><div class="refbegin reflist" style=""> <ul><li>Balthrop‐Lewis, Alda. "Exemplarist Environmental Ethics: Thoreau’s Political Ascetism against Solution Thinking." <i>Journal of Religious Ethics</i> 47.3 (2019): 525-550.</li> <li>Bode, Carl. <i>Best of Thoreau's Journals</i>. Southern Illinois University Press. 1967.</li> <li>Botkin, Daniel. <i>No Man's Garden</i></li> <li>Buell, Lawrence. <i>The Environmental Imagination: Thoreau, Nature Writing, and the Formation of American Culture</i> (Harvard UP, 1995)</li> <li>Cafaro, Philip. <i>Thoreau’s Living Ethics: “Walden” and the Pursuit of Virtue</i> (U of Georgia Press, 2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Chodorov" title="Frank Chodorov">Chodorov, Frank</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mises.org/daily/5033/The-Disarming-Honesty-of-Henry-David-Thoreau"><i>The Disarming Honesty of Henry David Thoreau</i></a></li> <li>Conrad, Randall. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thoreau.eserver.org/whowhy.html"><i>Who He Was &amp; Why He Matters</i></a></li> <li>Cramer, Jeffrey S. <i>Solid Seasons: The Friendship of Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson</i> (Counterpoint Press, 2019).</li> <li>Dean, Bradley P. ed., <i>Letters to a Spiritual Seeker</i>. New York: W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 2004.</li> <li>Finley, James S., ed. <i>Henry David Thoreau in Context</i> (Cambridge UP, 2017).</li> <li>Furtak, Rick, Ellsworth, Jonathan, and Reid, James D., eds. <i>Thoreau's Importance for Philosophy</i>. New York: Fordham University Press, 2012.</li> <li>Gionfriddo, Michael. "Thoreau, the Work of Breathing, and Building Castles in the Air: Reading Walden's 'Conclusion'." <i>The Concord Saunterer</i> 25 (2017): 49-90 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44652797">online</a>.</li> <li>Harding, Walter. <i>The Days of Henry Thoreau</i>. Princeton University Press, 1982.</li> <li>Hendrick, George. "The Influence of Thoreau's 'Civil Disobedience' on Gandhi's Satyagraha." <i>The New England Quarterly</i> 29, no. 4 (December 1956). 462–71.</li> <li>Hess, Scott. "Walden Pond as Thoreau’s Landscape of Genius." <i>Nineteenth-Century Literature</i> 74.2 (2019): 224-250. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ncl.ucpress.edu/content/ucpncl/74/2/224.full.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Howarth, William. <i>The Book of Concord: Thoreau's Life as a Writer</i>. Viking Press, 1982</li> <li>McGregor, Robert Kuhn. <i>A Wider View of the Universe: Henry Thoreau’s Study of Nature</i> (U of Illinois Press, 1997).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Russell_Marble" title="Annie Russell Marble">Marble, Annie Russell</a>. <i>Thoreau: His Home, Friends and Books</i>. New York: AMS Press. 1969 [1902]</li> <li>Myerson, Joel et al. <i>The Cambridge Companion to Henry David Thoreau</i>. Cambridge University Press. 1995</li> <li>Nash, Roderick. <i>Henry David Thoreau, Philosopher</i></li> <li>Paolucci, Stefano. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/16692328/The_Foundations_of_Thoreaus_Castles_in_the_Air_">"The Foundations of Thoreau's 'Castles in the Air'"</a>, <i>Thoreau Society Bulletin</i>, No. 290 (Summer 2015), 10. (See also the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/25773131/Stefano_Paolucci_The_Foundations_of_Thoreaus_Castles_in_the_Air_Full_Uncensored_Version_">Full Unedited Version</a> of the same article.)</li> <li>Parrington, Vernon. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/parrington/vol2/bk03_03_ch03.html">Main Current in American Thought</a></i>. V 2 online. 1927</li> <li>Parrington, Vernon L. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thoreau.eserver.org/currents.html"><i>Henry Thoreau: Transcendental Economist</i></a></li> <li>Petroski, Henry. "H. D. Thoreau, Engineer." <i>American Heritage of Invention and Technology</i>, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp.&#160;8–16</li> <li>Petrulionis, Sandra Harbert, ed., <i>Thoreau in His Own Time: A Biographical Chronicle of His Life, Drawn From Recollections, Interviews, and Memoirs by Family, Friends, and Associates.</i> Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2012. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-60938-087-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-60938-087-8">1-60938-087-8</a></li> <li>Richardson, Robert D. <i>Henry Thoreau: A Life of the Mind</i>. University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles. 1986. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-06346-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-06346-5">0-520-06346-5</a></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFRiggenbach2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Riggenbach, Jeff (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC">"Thoreau, Henry David (1817–1862)"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Hamowy" title="Ronald Hamowy">Hamowy, Ronald</a> (ed.). <i>The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism</i>. <i>The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism</i>. <a href="/wiki/Thousand_Oaks,_California" title="Thousand Oaks, California">Thousand Oaks, California</a>: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publications">SAGE</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a>. pp.&#160;506–07. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412965811.n309">10.4135/9781412965811.n309</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6580-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6580-4"><bdi>978-1-4129-6580-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2008009151">2008009151</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024">750831024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Libertarianism&amp;rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Libertarianism&amp;rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+California&amp;rft.pages=506-07&amp;rft.pub=SAGE%3B+Cato+Institute&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F750831024&amp;rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008009151&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781412965811.n309&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4&amp;rft.aulast=Riggenbach&amp;rft.aufirst=Jeff&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyxNgXs3TkJYC&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFRiggenbach2010" class="citation journal cs1">Riggenbach, Jeff (July 15, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mises.org/daily/4562/Henry-David-Thoreau-Founding-Father-of-American-Libertarian-Thought">"Henry David Thoreau: Founding Father of American Libertarian Thought"</a>. <i>Mises Daily</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Mises+Daily&amp;rft.atitle=Henry+David+Thoreau%3A+Founding+Father+of+American+Libertarian+Thought&amp;rft.date=2010-07-15&amp;rft.aulast=Riggenbach&amp;rft.aufirst=Jeff&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmises.org%2Fdaily%2F4562%2FHenry-David-Thoreau-Founding-Father-of-American-Libertarian-Thought&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li> <li>Ridl, Jack. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://magazine.scintillapress.com/moose-indian.html">Moose. Indian.</a>" Scintilla (poem on Thoreau's last words)</li> <li>Schneider, Richard <i>Civilizing Thoreau: Human Ecology and the Emerging Social Sciences in the Major Works</i> <a href="/wiki/Rochester,_New_York" title="Rochester, New York">Rochester, New York</a>. Camden House. 2016. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57113-960-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57113-960-3">978-1-57113-960-3</a></li> <li>Smith, David C. "The Transcendental Saunterer: Thoreau and the Search for Self." <a href="/wiki/Savannah,_Georgia" title="Savannah, Georgia">Savannah, Georgia</a>: Frederic C. Beil, 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-913720-74-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-913720-74-7">0-913720-74-7</a></li> <li>Sullivan, Mark W. "Henry David Thoreau in the American Art of the 1950s." <i>The Concord Saunterer: A Journal of Thoreau Studies</i>, New Series, Vol. 18 (2010), pp.&#160;68–89.</li> <li>Sullivan, Mark W. <i>Picturing Thoreau: Henry David Thoreau in American Visual Culture.</i> <a href="/wiki/Lanham,_Maryland" title="Lanham, Maryland">Lanham, Maryland</a>: Lexington Books, 2015</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_I._Tauber" title="Alfred I. Tauber">Tauber, Alfred I</a>. <i>Henry David Thoreau and the Moral Agency of Knowing</i>. University of California, Berkeley. 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-23915-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-23915-6">0-520-23915-6</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/thoreau/">Henry David Thoreau</a><span class="nowrap">&#160;</span>– <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/thoreau/">Henry David Thoreau</a><span class="nowrap">&#160;</span>– <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i></li> <li>Thorson, Robert M. <i>The Boatman: Henry David Thoreau's River Years</i> (Harvard UP, 2017), on his scientific study of the Concord River in the late 1850s.</li> <li>Thorson, Robert M. <i>Walden’s Shore: Henry David Thoreau and Nineteenth-Century Science</i> (2015).</li> <li>Thorson, Robert M. <i>The Guide to Walden Pond: An Exploration of the History, Nature, Landscape, and Literature of One of America's Most Iconic Places</i> (2018).</li> <li><cite id="CITEREFTraub2015" class="citation journal cs1">Traub, Courtney (2015). "<span class="cs1-kern-left">'</span>First-Rate Fellows': Excavating Thoreau's Radical Egalitarian Reflections in a Late Draft of "Allegash<span class="cs1-kern-right">"</span>". <i>The Concord Saunterer: A Journal of Thoreau Studies</i>. <b>23</b>: 74–96.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Concord+Saunterer%3A+A+Journal+of+Thoreau+Studies&amp;rft.atitle=%27First-Rate+Fellows%27%3A+Excavating+Thoreau%27s+Radical+Egalitarian+Reflections+in+a+Late+Draft+of+%22Allegash%22&amp;rft.volume=23&amp;rft.pages=74-96&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.aulast=Traub&amp;rft.aufirst=Courtney&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHenry+David+Thoreau" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laura_Walls" title="Laura Walls">Walls, Laura Dassow</a>. <i>Seeing New Worlds: Henry David Thoreau and 19th Century Science</i>. University of Wisconsin. 1995. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-299-14744-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-299-14744-4">0-299-14744-4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laura_Walls" title="Laura Walls">Walls, Laura Dassow</a>. <i>Henry David Thoreau: A Life</i>. The University of Chicago Press. 2017. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r951705291"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-34469-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-34469-0">978-0-226-34469-0</a></li></ul> </div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_David_Thoreau&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000"> <tbody><tr> <td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" 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href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&amp;su=Henry+David+Thoreau&amp;library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&amp;su=Henry+David+Thoreau">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&amp;su=Henry+David+Thoreau&amp;library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th style="padding:0.1em"> By Henry David Thoreau</th></tr><tr><td class="plainlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&amp;au=Henry+David+Thoreau&amp;library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&amp;au=Henry+David+Thoreau">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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Society</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.walden.org/thoreau/the-writings-of-henry-david-thoreau-the-digital-collection/">The Writings of Henry David Thoreau</a> at <i>The Walden Woods Project</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.concordlibrary.org/scollect/Thoreau_Surveys/Thoreau_Surveys.htm">Scans of Thoreau's Land Surveys</a> at the Concord Free Public Library</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thoreau-online.org/">Henry David Thoreau Online</a><span class="nowrap">&#160;</span>– The Works and Life of Henry D. Thoreau</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/54">Works by Henry David Thoreau</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fadedpage.com/csearch.php?author=Thoreau%2C%20Henry%20D.">Works by Henry D. Thoreau</a> at <a href="/wiki/Distributed_Proofreaders_Canada" title="Distributed Proofreaders Canada">Faded Page</a> (Canada)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Thoreau%2C%20Henry%20David%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Thoreau%2C%20Henry%20D%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Thoreau%2C%20H%2E%20D%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Henry%20David%20Thoreau%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Henry%20D%2E%20Thoreau%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22H%2E%20D%2E%20Thoreau%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Thoreau%2C%20Henry%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Henry%20Thoreau%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Henry%20David%20Thoreau%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Henry%20D%2E%20Thoreau%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22H%2E%20D%2E%20Thoreau%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22H%2E%20David%20Thoreau%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Thoreau%2C%20Henry%20David%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Thoreau%2C%20Henry%20D%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Thoreau%2C%20H%2E%20D%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Thoreau%2C%20H%2E%20David%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Henry%20Thoreau%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Thoreau%2C%20Henry%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Henry%20David%20Thoreau%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Henry%20D%2E%20Thoreau%22%20OR%20title%3A%22H%2E%20D%2E%20Thoreau%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Henry%20Thoreau%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Henry%20David%20Thoreau%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Henry%20D%2E%20Thoreau%22%20OR%20description%3A%22H%2E%20D%2E%20Thoreau%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Thoreau%2C%20Henry%20David%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Thoreau%2C%20Henry%20D%2E%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Henry%20Thoreau%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Thoreau%2C%20Henry%22%29%20OR%20%28%221817-1862%22%20AND%20Thoreau%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Henry David Thoreau</a> at <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/371">Works by Henry David Thoreau</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/search?q=henry+david+thoreau&amp;author_key=OL19690A">Works by Thoreau</a> at Open Library</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poems/45769">Poems by Thoreau</a> at the Academy of American Poets</li></ul> <div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Henry_David_Thoreau" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Template:Henry David Thoreau"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Template talk:Henry David Thoreau"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Henry_David_Thoreau&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Henry_David_Thoreau" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Henry David Thoreau</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Books_by_Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Category:Books by Henry David Thoreau">Books</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Week_on_the_Concord_and_Merrimack_Rivers" title="A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers">A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers</a></i>&#160;<span style="font-size:90%;">(1849)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Walden" title="Walden">Walden</a></i>&#160;<span style="font-size:90%;">(1854)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Speeches</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Remarks_After_the_Hanging_of_John_Brown" title="Remarks After the Hanging of John Brown">Remarks After the Hanging of John Brown</a></i>&#160;<span style="font-size:90%;">(1859)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Essays_by_Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Category:Essays by Henry David Thoreau">Essays</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Service" title="The Service">The Service</a>"&#160;<span style="font-size:90%;">(1840)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/A_Walk_to_Wachusett" title="A Walk to Wachusett">A Walk to Wachusett</a>"&#160;<span style="font-size:90%;">(1842)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Paradise_(to_be)_Regained" title="Paradise (to be) Regained">Paradise (to be) Regained</a>"&#160;<span style="font-size:90%;">(1843)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Sir_Walter_Raleigh_(essay)" title="Sir Walter Raleigh (essay)">Sir Walter Raleigh</a>"&#160;<span style="font-size:90%;">(1844)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Herald_of_Freedom_(essay)" title="Herald of Freedom (essay)">Herald of Freedom</a>"&#160;<span style="font-size:90%;">(1844)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Wendell_Phillips_Before_the_Concord_Lyceum" title="Wendell Phillips Before the Concord Lyceum">Wendell Phillips Before the Concord Lyceum</a>"&#160;<span style="font-size:90%;">(1845)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Reform_and_the_Reformers" title="Reform and the Reformers">Reform and the Reformers</a>"&#160;<span style="font-size:90%;">(1846–48)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle_and_His_Works" title="Thomas Carlyle and His Works">Thomas Carlyle and His Works</a></i>&#160;<span style="font-size:90%;">(1847)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Disobedience_(Thoreau)" title="Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)"><i>Resistance to Civil Government</i> (<i>Civil Disobedience</i>)</a>&#160;<span style="font-size:90%;">(1849)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Massachusetts" title="Slavery in Massachusetts">Slavery in Massachusetts</a></i>&#160;<span style="font-size:90%;">(1854)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Plea_for_Captain_John_Brown" title="A Plea for Captain John Brown">A Plea for Captain John Brown</a></i>&#160;<span style="font-size:90%;">(1859)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Days_of_John_Brown" title="The Last Days of John Brown">The Last Days of John Brown</a></i>&#160;<span style="font-size:90%;">(1860)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Walking_(Thoreau)" title="Walking (Thoreau)">Walking</a>"&#160;<span style="font-size:90%;">(1861)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Life_Without_Principle" title="Life Without Principle">Life Without Principle</a>"&#160;<span style="font-size:90%;">(1863)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excursions_(anthology)" title="Excursions (anthology)"><i>Excursions</i> anthology</a>&#160;<span style="font-size:90%;">(1863)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thoreau_Society" title="Thoreau Society">Thoreau Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Writings_of_Henry_D._Thoreau" title="The Writings of Henry D. Thoreau">The Writings of Henry D. Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheeler-Minot_Farmhouse" title="Wheeler-Minot Farmhouse">Wheeler-Minot Farmhouse</a> (birthplace)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoreau%E2%80%93Alcott_House" title="Thoreau–Alcott House">Thoreau–Alcott House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concord_Museum" title="Concord Museum">Concord Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walden_Pond" title="Walden Pond">Walden Pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walden_Woods_Project" title="Walden Woods Project">Walden Woods Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Night_Thoreau_Spent_in_Jail" title="The Night Thoreau Spent in Jail"><i>The Night Thoreau Spent in Jail</i> <small>(1969 play)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_and_political_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_and_political_philosophy" title="Template:Social and political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_and_political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Social and political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Social_and_political_philosophy&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_and_political_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient<br />philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Valluvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xun_Kuang" title="Xun Kuang">Xunzi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval<br />philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpharabius" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpharabius">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldus_de_Ubaldis" title="Baldus de Ubaldis">Baldus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartolus_de_Saxoferrato" title="Bartolus de Saxoferrato">Bartolus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giles_of_Rome" title="Giles of Rome">Giles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_of_Segusio" title="Henry of Segusio">Hostiensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_Paris" title="John of Paris">John of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_Salisbury" title="John of Salisbury">John of Salisbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brunetto_Latini" title="Brunetto Latini">Latini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br />philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Beza" title="Theodore Beza">Beza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Botero" title="Giovanni Botero">Botero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Buchanan" title="George Buchanan">Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cumberland_(philosopher)" title="Richard Cumberland (philosopher)">Cumberland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_de_Mornay" title="Philippe de Mornay">Duplessis-Mornay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">Harrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayashi_Razan" title="Hayashi Razan">Hayashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Hotman" title="François Hotman">Hotman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huang_Zongxi" title="Huang Zongxi">Huang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Mariana" title="Juan de Mariana">Mariana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Naud%C3%A9" title="Gabriel Naudé">Naudé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri,_Duke_of_Rohan" title="Henri, Duke of Rohan">Rohan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Sansovino" title="Francesco Sansovino">Sansovino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Sidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th–19th-century<br />philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bosanquet_(philosopher)" title="Bernard Bosanquet (philosopher)">Bosanquet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Georg_Hamann" title="Johann Georg Hamann">Hamann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Gottlob_Justi" title="Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi">Justi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justus_M%C3%B6ser" title="Justus Möser">Möser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th–21st-century<br />philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo" title="Sri Aurobindo">Aurobindo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">De Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Gauthier" title="David Gauthier">Gauthier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mou_Zongsan" title="Mou Zongsan">Mou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Said_Nurs%C3%AE" title="Said Nursî">Nursî</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Pettit" title="Philip Pettit">Pettit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Plamenatz" title="John Plamenatz">Plamenatz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._M._Scanlon" title="T. M. Scanlon">Scanlon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ljubodrag_Simonovi%C4%87" title="Ljubodrag Simonović">Simonović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugo_Spirito" title="Ugo Spirito">Spirito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_theories" title="Category:Social theories">Social theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism" title="Collectivism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_theory" title="Consensus theory">Consensus theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminist political theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhism" title="Gandhism">Gandhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_liberalism" title="National liberalism">National liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">Social constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinism" title="Social determinism">Social determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">Civil disobedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_occupations" title="Four occupations">Four occupations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">more...</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics">Philosophy and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_love" title="Philosophy of love">Philosophy of love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sex" title="Philosophy of sex">Philosophy of sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy of social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Simple_living" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Simple_living" title="Template:Simple living"><abbr title="View this template" style="text-align:center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li 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style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barter" title="Barter">Barter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cord-cutting" title="Cord-cutting">Cord-cutting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DIY_ethic" title="DIY ethic">DIY ethic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downshifting_(lifestyle)" title="Downshifting (lifestyle)">Downshifting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_toilet" title="Dry toilet">Dry toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasting" title="Fasting">Fasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_gardening" title="Forest gardening">Forest gardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freeganism" title="Freeganism">Freeganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frugality" title="Frugality">Frugality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gift_economy" title="Gift economy">Gift economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentional_community" title="Intentional community">Intentional community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_currency" title="Local currency">Local currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-impact_development_(UK)" title="Low-impact development (UK)">Low-impact development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_frills" title="No frills">No frills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Off-the-grid" title="Off-the-grid">Off-the-grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permaculture" title="Permaculture">Permaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regift" title="Regift">Regift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-sufficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-sufficiency">Self-sufficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsistence_agriculture" title="Subsistence agriculture">Subsistence agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_living" title="Sustainable living">Sustainable living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_sanitation" title="Sustainable sanitation">Sustainable sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veganism" title="Veganism">Veganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism" title="Vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_childlessness" title="Voluntary childlessness">Voluntary childlessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_resistance" title="Tax resistance">War tax resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WWOOF" title="WWOOF">WWOOF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Religious and spiritual</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">Asceticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aparigraha" title="Aparigraha">Aparigraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detachment_(philosophy)" title="Detachment (philosophy)">Detachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_movement" title="Jesus movement">Jesus movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendicant" title="Mendicant">Mendicant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">Mindfulness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Monasticism" title="New Monasticism">New Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plain_dress" title="Plain dress">Plain dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plain_people" title="Plain people">Plain people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)" title="Temperance (virtue)">Temperance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testimony_of_Simplicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Testimony of Simplicity">Testimony of simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolstoyan_movement" title="Tolstoyan movement">Tolstoyan movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Secular movements</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-the-land_movement" title="Back-to-the-land movement">Back-to-the-land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Car-free_movement" title="Car-free movement">Car-free</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_for_Compassionate_Living" title="Movement for Compassionate Living">Compassionate living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement" title="Environmental movement">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippie" title="Hippie">Hippie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Source_Ecology" title="Open Source Ecology">Open Source Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_movement_(culture)" title="Slow movement (culture)">Slow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_house_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Small house movement">Small house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiny_house_movement" title="Tiny house movement">Tiny house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_town" title="Transition town">Transition town</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Notable writers</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wendell_Berry" title="Wendell Berry">Wendell Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Callenbach" title="Ernest Callenbach">Ernest Callenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._K._Chesterton" title="G. K. Chesterton">G. K. Chesterton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duane_Elgin" title="Duane Elgin">Duane Elgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Gregg_(social_philosopher)" title="Richard Gregg (social philosopher)">Richard Gregg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Hodgkinson" title="Tom Hodgkinson">Tom Hodgkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlan_Hubbard" title="Harlan Hubbard">Harlan Hubbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satish_Kumar" title="Satish Kumar">Satish Kumar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Nearing" title="Helen Nearing">Helen Nearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Nearing" title="Scott Nearing">Scott Nearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_Pilgrim" title="Peace Pilgrim">Peace Pilgrim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Rosen" title="Nick Rosen">Nick Rosen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugald_Semple" title="Dugald Semple">Dugald Semple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._F._Schumacher" title="E. F. Schumacher">E. F. Schumacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Skene_Keith_(physician)" title="George Skene Keith (physician)">George Skene Keith</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Henry David Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valluvar" class="mw-redirect" title="Valluvar">Valluvar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Modern-day adherents</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Boyle_(Moneyless_Man)" title="Mark Boyle (Moneyless Man)">Mark Boyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rob_Greenfield" title="Rob Greenfield">Rob Greenfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Merkel" title="Jim Merkel">Jim Merkel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_Pilgrim" title="Peace Pilgrim">Peace Pilgrim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suelo" title="Suelo">Suelo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_(activist)" title="Thomas (activist)">Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varg_Vikernes" title="Varg Vikernes">Varg Vikernes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Anekdote_zur_Senkung_der_Arbeitsmoral" title="Anekdote zur Senkung der Arbeitsmoral">Anekdote zur Senkung der Arbeitsmoral</a>"</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Escape_from_Affluenza" title="Escape from Affluenza">Escape from Affluenza</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Good_Life_(1975_TV_series)" title="The Good Life (1975 TV series)">The Good Life</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Moon_and_the_Sledgehammer" title="The Moon and the Sledgehammer">The Moon and the Sledgehammer</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mother_Earth_News" title="Mother Earth News">Mother Earth News</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Power_of_Half" title="The Power of Half">The Power of Half</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Small_Is_Beautiful" title="Small Is Beautiful">Small Is Beautiful</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Walden" title="Walden">Walden</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluenza" title="Affluenza">Affluenza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amateurism" class="mw-redirect" title="Amateurism">Amateurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-primitivism" title="Anarcho-primitivism">Anarcho-primitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-consumerism" title="Anti-consumerism">Anti-consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appropriate_technology" title="Appropriate technology">Appropriate technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemianism" title="Bohemianism">Bohemianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">Consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ecology" title="Deep ecology">Deep ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degrowth" title="Degrowth">Degrowth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_miles" title="Food miles">Food miles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Front_Porch_Republic" title="Front Porch Republic">Front Porch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_anarchism" title="Green anarchism">Green anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">The good life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">Global warming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedonophobia" title="Hedonophobia">Hedonophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentional_living" title="Intentional living">Intentional living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itinerant_groups_in_Europe" title="Itinerant groups in Europe">Itinerant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Low-technology">Low-technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_oil" title="Peak oil">Peak oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work%E2%80%93life_balance" title="Work–life balance">Work–life balance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anarchism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anarchism" title="Template:Anarchism"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anarchism" title="Template talk:Anarchism"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Anarchism&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anarchism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Anarchist_theory" title="Category:Anarchist theory">Concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy" title="Anarchy">Anarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_Black_Cross" title="Anarchist Black Cross">Anarchist Black Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anationalism" title="Anationalism">Anationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-authoritarianism" title="Anti-authoritarianism">Anti-authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-capitalism" title="Anti-capitalism">Anti-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimilitarism" title="Antimilitarism">Anti-militarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_social_center" title="Autonomous social center">Autonomous social center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zone_to_Defend" title="Zone to Defend">Autonomous zone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_autonomous_zone" title="Permanent autonomous zone">Permanent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_Autonomous_Zone" title="Temporary Autonomous Zone">Temporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autoreduction" title="Autoreduction">Autoreduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_bloc" title="Black bloc">Black bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classless_society" title="Classless society">Classless society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class conflict</a></li> <li>Commune <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commune" title="Commune">Human community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commune_(model_of_government)" title="Commune (model of government)">Model of government</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_unionism" title="Community unionism">Community unionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_democracy" title="Consensus democracy">Consensus democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector" title="Conscientious objector">Conscientious objector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decentralization" title="Decentralization">Decentralization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ecology" title="Deep ecology">Deep ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_action" title="Direct action">Direct action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Especifismo" title="Especifismo">Especifismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expropriative_anarchism" title="Expropriative anarchism">Expropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_association_(Marxism_and_anarchism)" title="Free association (Marxism and anarchism)">Free association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_love" title="Free love">Free love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_thought" title="Free thought">Free thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grassroots" title="Grassroots">Grassroots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizontalidad" title="Horizontalidad">Horizontalidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individual_reclamation" title="Individual reclamation">Individual reclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_unionism" title="Industrial unionism">Industrial unionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isocracy" title="Isocracy">Isocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_law" title="Anarchist law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participism" title="Participism">Participism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_economics" title="Participatory economics">Parecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_politics" title="Participatory politics">Parpolity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prefigurative_politics" title="Prefigurative politics">Prefigurative politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletarian_internationalism" title="Proletarian internationalism">Proletarian internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_of_the_deed" title="Propaganda of the deed">Propaganda of the deed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rewilding_(anarchism)" title="Rewilding (anarchism)">Rewilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_culture" title="Security culture">Security culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_revolution" title="Social revolution">Social revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Freire_(psychiatrist)#Somatherapy" title="Roberto Freire (psychiatrist)">Somatherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stateless_society" title="Stateless society">Stateless society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting" title="Squatting">Squatting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Issues_in_anarchism" title="Issues in anarchism">Issues</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_animal_rights" title="Anarchism and animal rights">Animal rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_capitalism" title="Anarchism and capitalism">Capitalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_anarcho-capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchism and anarcho-capitalism">Anarcho-capitalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Criticism of anarchism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crypto-anarchism" title="Crypto-anarchism">Cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Definition_of_anarchism_and_libertarianism" title="Definition of anarchism and libertarianism">Definition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_education" title="Anarchism and education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_issues_related_to_love_and_sex" title="Anarchism and issues related to love and sex">Love and sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_Marxism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchism and Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_nationalism" title="Anarchism and nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_religion" title="Anarchism and religion">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Anarchism and Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox Judaism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_violence" title="Anarchism and violence">Violence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_schools_of_thought" title="Anarchist schools of thought">Schools of thought</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_schools_of_thought#Classical_anarchism" title="Anarchist schools of thought">Classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_anarchism" title="Individualist anarchism">Individualist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egoist_anarchism" title="Egoist anarchism">Egoist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegalism" title="Illegalism">Illegalist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialist_anarchism" title="Existentialist anarchism">Existentialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_anarchism" title="Philosophical anarchism">Philosophical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(economic_theory)" title="Mutualism (economic theory)">Mutualist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anarchism" title="Social anarchism">Social</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collectivist_anarchism" title="Collectivist anarchism">Collectivist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-communism" title="Anarcho-communism">Communist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magonism" title="Magonism">Magonist</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_schools_of_thought#Post-classical_anarchism" title="Anarchist schools of thought">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarcha-feminism" title="Anarcha-feminism">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_anarchism" title="Green anarchism">Green</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-naturism" title="Anarcho-naturism">Naturist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-primitivism" title="Anarcho-primitivism">Primitivist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(Bookchin)" title="Social ecology (Bookchin)">Social ecology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_anarchism" title="Independence anarchism">Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurrectionary_anarchism" title="Insurrectionary anarchism">Insurrectionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-pacifism" title="Anarcho-pacifism">Pacifist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_religion#Religious_anarchism_and_anarchist_themes_in_religions" title="Anarchism and religion">Religious</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anarchism" title="Christian anarchism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_religion#Buddhism" title="Anarchism and religion">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_anarchism" title="Jewish anarchism">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_without_adjectives" title="Anarchism without adjectives">Without adjectives</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_anarchism" title="Contemporary anarchism">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-market_anarchism" title="Free-market anarchism">Free-market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_anarchism" title="Postcolonial anarchism">Postcolonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-anarchism" title="Post-anarchism">Post-anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-left_anarchy" title="Post-left anarchy">Post-left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer_anarchism" title="Queer anarchism">Queer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of federation</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affinity_group" title="Affinity group">Affinity group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-syndicalism" title="Anarcho-syndicalism">Anarcho-syndicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platformism" title="Platformism">Platformism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthesis_anarchism" title="Synthesis anarchism">Synthesis anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_egoists" title="Union of egoists">Union of egoists</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_economics" title="Anarchist economics">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communization" title="Communization">Communization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">Cooperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cost_the_limit_of_price" title="Cost the limit of price">Cost the limit of price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decentralized_planning_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Decentralized planning (economics)">Decentralized planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_democracy" title="Economic democracy">Economic democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_strike" title="General strike">General strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Give-away_shop" title="Give-away shop">Give-away shop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gift_economy" title="Gift economy">Gift economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_abolitionism" title="Market abolitionism">Market abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_aid_(organization_theory)" title="Mutual aid (organization theory)">Mutual aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_economics" title="Participatory economics">Participatory economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Really_Really_Free_Market" title="Really Really Free Market">Really Really Free Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refusal_of_work" title="Refusal of work">Refusal of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ownership" title="Social ownership">Social ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_self-management" title="Workers&#39; self-management">Workers' self-management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Anarchist_culture" title="Category:Anarchist culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><i lang="es" title="Spanish language text"><a href="/wiki/A_las_Barricadas" title="A las Barricadas">A las Barricadas</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_bookfair" title="Anarchist bookfair">Anarchist bookfair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-punk" title="Anarcho-punk">Anarcho-punk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_archives" title="Anarchist archives">Archives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_jamming" title="Culture jamming">Culture jamming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DIY_ethic" title="DIY ethic">DIY ethic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_dealing_with_anarchism" title="List of films dealing with anarchism">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freeganism" title="Freeganism">Freeganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_anarchism" title="Glossary of anarchism">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anarchism" title="History of anarchism">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Media_Center" title="Independent Media Center">Independent Media Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_social_center#Infoshops" title="Autonomous social center">Infoshop</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Internationale" title="The Internationale">The Internationale</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Land_and_liberty_(slogan)" title="Land and liberty (slogan)">Land and liberty</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/No_gods,_no_masters" title="No gods, no masters">No gods, no masters</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_education" title="Popular education">Popular education</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Property_is_theft!" title="Property is theft!">Property is theft!</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_cheerleading" title="Radical cheerleading">Radical cheerleading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_environmentalism" title="Radical environmentalism">Radical environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting" title="Squatting">Squatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_symbolism" title="Anarchist symbolism">Symbolism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_anarchist_movements_by_region" title="List of anarchist movements by region">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Africa" title="Anarchism in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Algeria" title="Anarchism in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Argentina" title="Anarchism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Australia" title="Anarchism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Azerbaijan" title="Anarchism in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Belarus" title="Anarchism in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Bolivia" title="Anarchism in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Brazil" title="Anarchism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Canada" title="Anarchism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Chile" title="Anarchism in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_China" title="Anarchism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Cuba" title="Anarchism in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Anarchism in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Ecuador" title="Anarchism in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Egypt" title="Anarchism in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_France" title="Anarchism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_French_Guiana" title="Anarchism in French Guiana">French Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Germany" title="Anarchism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Greece" title="Anarchism in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_India" title="Anarchism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Iceland" title="Anarchism in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Ireland" title="Anarchism in Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Israel" title="Anarchism in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Italy" title="Anarchism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Japan" title="Anarchism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Korea" title="Anarchism in Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Mexico" title="Anarchism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Monaco" title="Anarchism in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_New_Zealand" title="Anarchism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Poland" title="Anarchism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Anarchism in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Romania" title="Anarchism in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Russia" title="Anarchism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Serbia" title="Anarchism in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Singapore" title="Anarchism in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_South_Africa" title="Anarchism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Spain" title="Anarchism in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Sweden" title="Anarchism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Turkey" title="Anarchism in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Anarchism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_the_United_States" title="Anarchism in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Venezuela" title="Anarchism in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Vietnam" title="Anarchism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_anarchism" title="Outline of anarchism">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anarcho-punk_bands" title="List of anarcho-punk bands">Anarcho-punk bands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_books_about_anarchism" title="List of books about anarchism">Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anarchist_communities" title="List of anarchist communities">Communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_anarchists" title="List of fictional anarchists">Fictional characters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_dealing_with_anarchism" title="List of films dealing with anarchism">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_anarchists" title="List of Jewish anarchists">Jewish anarchists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_issues_related_to_love_and_sex" title="Anarchism and issues related to love and sex">Love and sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anarchist_musicians" title="List of anarchist musicians">Musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anarchist_periodicals" title="List of anarchist periodicals">Periodicals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_anarchism" title="Outline of anarchism">Related topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy_(international_relations)" title="Anarchy (international relations)">Anarchy (international relations)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-corporate_activism" title="Anti-corporate activism">Anti-corporate activism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-consumerism" title="Anti-consumerism">Anti-consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-fascism" title="Anti-fascism">Anti-fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-globalization_movement" title="Anti-globalization movement">Anti-globalization movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism#Arguments_against" title="Speciesism">Anti-speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-statism" title="Anti-statism">Anti-statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-war_movement" title="Anti-war movement">Anti-war movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autarchism" title="Autarchism">Autarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomism" title="Autonomism">Autonomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_communism" title="Council communism">Council</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-economics" title="Counter-economics">Counter-economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_movement" title="Labour movement">Labour movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communalism#Libertarian_municipalism" title="Communalism">Libertarian municipalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radical_feminism" title="Radical feminism">Radical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-libertarianism" title="Left-libertarianism">Left-</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agorism" title="Agorism">Agorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_market_anarchism" title="Left-wing market anarchism">Left-wing market</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_Marxism" title="Libertarian Marxism">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neozapatismo" title="Neozapatismo">Neozapatismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_revolution" title="Social revolution">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_socialism" title="Libertarian socialism">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_socialism" title="Revolutionary socialism">Revolutionary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndicalism" title="Syndicalism">Syndicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situationist_International" title="Situationist International">Situationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntaryism" title="Voluntaryism">Voluntaryism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anarchism" title="Category:Anarchism">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_anarchism" title="Outline of anarchism">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Anarchism" title="Portal:Anarchism">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mahatma_Gandhi" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Template:Mahatma Gandhi"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Template talk:Mahatma Gandhi"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Mahatma_Gandhi&amp;action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mahatma_Gandhi" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life events<br />and movements</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ambulance_Corps" title="Indian Ambulance Corps">Indian Ambulance Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolstoy_Farm" title="Tolstoy Farm">Tolstoy Farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bardoli_Satyagraha" title="Bardoli Satyagraha">Bardoli Satyagraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champaran_Satyagraha" title="Champaran Satyagraha">Champaran Satyagraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kheda_Satyagraha_of_1918" title="Kheda Satyagraha of 1918">Kheda Satyagraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_independence_movement#Gandhi_arrives_in_India" title="Indian independence movement">Indian independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cooperation_movement" title="Non-cooperation movement">Non-cooperation Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauri_Chaura_incident" title="Chauri Chaura incident">Chauri Chaura incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purna_Swaraj" title="Purna Swaraj">Purna Swaraj</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_India" title="Flag of India">flag</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_March" title="Salt March">Salt March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharasana_Satyagraha" title="Dharasana Satyagraha">Dharasana Satyagraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaikom_Satyagraha" title="Vaikom Satyagraha">Vaikom Satyagraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aundh_Experiment" title="Aundh Experiment">Aundh Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhi%E2%80%93Irwin_Pact" title="Gandhi–Irwin Pact">Gandhi–Irwin Pact</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Round_Table_Conferences_(India)#Second_Round_Table_Conference_(September_–_December_1931)" title="Round Table Conferences (India)">Second Round Table Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padayatra" title="Padayatra">Padayatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poona_Pact" title="Poona Pact">Poona Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natal_Indian_Congress" title="Natal Indian Congress">Natal Indian Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quit_India_Movement" title="Quit India Movement">Quit India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quit_India_speech" title="Quit India speech">speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarat_Vidyapith" title="Gujarat Vidyapith">Gujarat Vidyapith University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harijan_Sevak_Sangh" title="Harijan Sevak Sangh">Harijan Sevak Sangh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kochrab_Ashram" title="Kochrab Ashram">India ashrams (Kochrab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabarmati_Ashram" title="Sabarmati Ashram">Sabarmati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sevagram" title="Sevagram">Sevagram)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fasts_undertaken_by_Mahatma_Gandhi" title="List of fasts undertaken by Mahatma Gandhi">List of fasts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi">Assassination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Composite_nationalism" title="Composite nationalism">Composite nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhism" title="Gandhism">Gandhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhian_economics" title="Gandhian economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trusteeship_(Gandhism)" title="Trusteeship (Gandhism)">trusteeship</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nai_Talim" title="Nai Talim">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvodaya" title="Sarvodaya">Sarvodaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swadeshi_movement" title="Swadeshi movement">Swadeshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swaraj" title="Swaraj">Swaraj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhi_cap" title="Gandhi cap">Gandhi cap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gandhi_Heritage_Portal" title="Gandhi Heritage Portal">Publications</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harijan" class="mw-redirect" title="Harijan"><i>Harijan</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hind_Swaraj_or_Indian_Home_Rule" title="Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule"><i>Hind Swaraj (Indian Home Rule)</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Indian_Opinion" title="Indian Opinion">Indian Opinion</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Story_of_My_Experiments_with_Truth" title="The Story of My Experiments with Truth">The Story of My Experiments with Truth</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_India" title="Young India"><i>Young India</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Social_Sins" title="Seven Social Sins">Seven Social Sins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajivan_Trust" title="Navajivan Trust">Navajivan Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhi_Heritage_Portal" title="Gandhi Heritage Portal">Gandhi Heritage Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/A_Letter_to_a_Hindu" title="A Letter to a Hindu">A Letter to a Hindu</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">nonviolence</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a></i></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Henry David Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Disobedience_(Thoreau)" title="Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)"><i>Civil Disobedience</i> (essay)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">Civil disobedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasting" title="Fasting">Fasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harishchandra" title="Harishchandra">Harishchandra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khadi" title="Khadi">Khadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">John Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsee_Rustomjee" title="Parsee Rustomjee">Parsee Rustomjee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Kingdom_of_God_Is_Within_You" title="The Kingdom of God Is Within You">The Kingdom of God Is Within You</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Masque_of_Anarchy" title="The Masque of Anarchy">The Masque of Anarchy</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narmad" title="Narmad">Narmad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shravan" title="Shravan">Shravan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrimad_Rajchandra" title="Shrimad Rajchandra">Shrimad Rajchandra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Stephens_Salt" title="Henry Stephens Salt">Henry Stephens Salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirukku%E1%B9%9Ba%E1%B8%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirukkuṛaḷ">Tirukkuṛaḷ</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Unto_This_Last" title="Unto This Last">Unto This Last</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarvodaya" title="Sarvodaya">Gandhi's translation</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Raghupati_Raghava_Raja_Ram" title="Raghupati Raghava Raja Ram">Raghupati Raghava Raja Ram</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Ekla_Chalo_Re" title="Ekla Chalo Re">Ekla Chalo Re</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Hari_Tuma_Haro" title="Hari Tuma Haro">Hari Tuma Haro</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Vaishnava_Jana_To" title="Vaishnava Jana To">Vaishnava Jana To</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism" title="Vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Associates</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Anand" title="Swami Anand">Swami Anand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Freer_Andrews" title="Charles Freer Andrews">C. F. Andrews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamnalal_Bajaj" title="Jamnalal Bajaj">Jamnalal Bajaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shankarlal_Banker" title="Shankarlal Banker">Shankarlal Banker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarla_Behn" title="Sarla Behn">Sarla Behn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinoba_Bhave" title="Vinoba Bhave">Vinoba Bhave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brij_Krishna_Chandiwala" title="Brij Krishna Chandiwala">Brij Krishna Chandiwala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudhakar_Chaturvedi" title="Sudhakar Chaturvedi">Sudhakar Chaturvedi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jugatram_Dave" title="Jugatram Dave">Jugatram Dave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahadev_Desai" title="Mahadev Desai">Mahadev Desai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dada_Dharmadhikari" title="Dada Dharmadhikari">Dada Dharmadhikari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanu_Gandhi" title="Kanu Gandhi">Kanu Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiv_Prasad_Gupta" title="Shiv Prasad Gupta">Shiv Prasad Gupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umar_Hajee_Ahmed_Jhaveri" title="Umar Hajee Ahmed Jhaveri">Umar Hajee Ahmed Jhaveri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._C._Kumarappa" title="J. C. Kumarappa">J. C. Kumarappa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Kallenbach" title="Hermann Kallenbach">Hermann Kallenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacha_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacha Khan">Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._B._Kripalani" title="J. B. Kripalani">Acharya Kripalani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirabehn" title="Mirabehn">Mirabehn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohanlal_Pandya" title="Mohanlal Pandya">Mohanlal Pandya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vallabhbhai_Patel" title="Vallabhbhai Patel">Vallabhbhai Patel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narhari_Parikh" title="Narhari Parikh">Narhari Parikh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithuben_Petit" title="Mithuben Petit">Mithuben Petit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._Rajagopalachari" title="C. Rajagopalachari">Chakravarti Rajagopalachari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibi_Amtus_Salam" title="Bibi Amtus Salam">Bibi Amtus Salam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonja_Schlesin" title="Sonja Schlesin">Sonja Schlesin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anugrah_Narayan_Sinha" title="Anugrah Narayan Sinha">Anugrah Narayan Sinha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Krishna_Sinha" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Krishna Sinha">Sri Krishna Sinha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rettamalai_Srinivasan" title="Rettamalai Srinivasan">Rettamalai Srinivasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V._A._Sundaram" title="V. A. Sundaram">V. A. Sundaram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbas_Tyabji" title="Abbas Tyabji">Abbas Tyabji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravishankar_Vyas" title="Ravishankar Vyas">Ravishankar Vyas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kishorlal_Mashruwala" title="Kishorlal Mashruwala">Kishorlal Mashruwala</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_artistic_depictions_of_Mahatma_Gandhi" title="List of artistic depictions of Mahatma Gandhi">Artistic depictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhigiri" title="Gandhigiri">Gandhigiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhi_Peace_Award" title="Gandhi Peace Award">Gandhi Peace Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhi_Peace_Prize" title="Gandhi Peace Prize">Gandhi Peace Prize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi_Kashi_Vidyapith" title="Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapith">Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi_Series" title="Mahatma Gandhi Series">Indian currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Family_of_Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Family of Mahatma Gandhi">Family</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karamchand_Uttamchand_Gandhi" title="Karamchand Uttamchand Gandhi">Karamchand Gandhi (father)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasturba_Gandhi" title="Kasturba Gandhi">Kasturba (wife)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harilal_Gandhi" title="Harilal Gandhi">Harilal (son)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manilal_Gandhi" title="Manilal Gandhi">Manilal (son)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramdas_Gandhi" title="Ramdas Gandhi">Ramdas (son)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devdas_Gandhi" title="Devdas Gandhi">Devdas (son)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maganlal_Gandhi" title="Maganlal Gandhi">Maganlal (cousin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaldas_Gandhi" title="Samaldas Gandhi">Samaldas (nephew)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arun_Manilal_Gandhi" title="Arun Manilal Gandhi">Arun (grandson)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ela_Gandhi" title="Ela Gandhi">Ela (granddaughter)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajmohan_Gandhi" title="Rajmohan Gandhi">Rajmohan (grandson)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gopalkrishna_Gandhi" title="Gopalkrishna Gandhi">Gopalkrishna (grandson)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramchandra_Gandhi" title="Ramchandra Gandhi">Ramchandra (grandson)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanu_Gandhi_(scientist)" title="Kanu Gandhi (scientist)">Kanu (grandson)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanu_Gandhi" title="Kanu Gandhi">Kanu (grandnephew)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tushar_Gandhi" title="Tushar Gandhi">Tushar (great-grandson)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leela_Gandhi" title="Leela Gandhi">Leela (great-granddaughter)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influenced</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Biko" title="Steve Biko">Steve Biko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama" title="14th Dalai Lama">14th Dalai Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gopaldas_Ambaidas_Desai" title="Gopaldas Ambaidas Desai">Gopaldas Ambaidas Desai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morarji_Desai" title="Morarji Desai">Morarji Desai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eknath_Easwaran" title="Eknath Easwaran">Eknath Easwaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Lacerda_de_Moura" title="Maria Lacerda de Moura">Maria Lacerda de Moura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brajkishore_Prasad" title="Brajkishore Prasad">Brajkishore Prasad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajendra_Prasad" title="Rajendra Prasad">Rajendra Prasad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramjee_Singh" title="Ramjee Singh">Ramjee Singh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aung_San_Suu_Kyi" title="Aung San Suu Kyi">Aung San Suu Kyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lanza_del_Vasto" title="Lanza del Vasto">Lanza del Vasto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhay_and_Rani_Bang" title="Abhay and Rani Bang">Abhay Bang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandurang_Sadashiv_Sane" title="Pandurang Sadashiv Sane">Sane Guruji</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Memorials_to_Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Category:Memorials to Mahatma Gandhi">Memorials</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Statues</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li>India <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Mahatma_Gandhi,_Gandhi_Maidan" title="Statue of Mahatma Gandhi, Gandhi Maidan">Patna</a></li></ul></li> <li>South Africa <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Mahatma_Gandhi,_Johannesburg" title="Statue of Mahatma Gandhi, Johannesburg">Johannesburg</a></li></ul></li> <li>UK <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Mahatma_Gandhi,_Parliament_Square" title="Statue of Mahatma Gandhi, Parliament Square">Parliament Square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Mahatma_Gandhi,_Tavistock_Square" title="Statue of Mahatma Gandhi, Tavistock Square">Tavistock Square</a></li></ul></li> <li>US <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr._(Denver)" title="Statue of Martin Luther King Jr. (Denver)">Denver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Mahatma_Gandhi_(Houston)" title="Statue of Mahatma Gandhi (Houston)">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi_Memorial_(Milwaukee)" title="Mahatma Gandhi Memorial (Milwaukee)">Milwaukee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Mahatma_Gandhi_(New_York_City)" title="Statue of Mahatma Gandhi (New York City)">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Mahatma_Gandhi_(San_Francisco)" title="Statue of Mahatma Gandhi (San Francisco)">San Francisco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi_Memorial_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="Mahatma Gandhi Memorial (Washington, D.C.)">Washington, D.C.</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Observances</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gandhi_Jayanti" title="Gandhi Jayanti">Gandhi Jayanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_of_Non-Violence" title="International Day of Non-Violence">International Day of Non-Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs%27_Day_(India)" title="Martyrs&#39; Day (India)">Martyrs' Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Season_for_Nonviolence" title="Season for Nonviolence">Season for Nonviolence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aga_Khan_Palace" title="Aga Khan Palace">Aga Khan Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bust_of_Mahatma_Gandhi,_Shanghai" title="Bust of Mahatma Gandhi, Shanghai">Bust</a> (Shanghai)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhi_Bhawan,_Chandigarh" title="Gandhi Bhawan, Chandigarh">Gandhi Bhawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhi_Mandapam_(Chennai)" title="Gandhi Mandapam (Chennai)">Gandhi Mandapam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhi_Market" title="Gandhi Market">Gandhi Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhi_(bookstore)" title="Gandhi (bookstore)">Bookstores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhi_Promenade" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandhi Promenade">Gandhi Promenade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhi_Smriti" title="Gandhi Smriti">Gandhi Smriti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanyakumari#Tourist_sites" title="Kanyakumari">Gandhi Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhi_Memorial_Museum,_Madurai" title="Gandhi Memorial Museum, Madurai">Gandhi Memorial Museum, Madurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaba_Gandhi_No_Delo" title="Kaba Gandhi No Delo">Kaba Gandhi No Delo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirti_Mandir,_Porbandar" title="Kirti Mandir, Porbandar">Kirti Mandir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi_College" title="Mahatma Gandhi College">Mahatma Gandhi College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_High_School_(Rajkot)" title="Alfred High School (Rajkot)">Mohandas Gandhi High School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Gandhi_Museum" title="National Gandhi Museum">National Gandhi Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raj_Ghat_and_associated_memorials" title="Raj Ghat and associated memorials">Raj Ghat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabarmati_Ashram" title="Sabarmati Ashram">Sabarmati Ashram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyagraha_House" title="Satyagraha House">Satyagraha House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhi_Teerth" title="Gandhi Teerth">Gandhi Teerth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_roads_named_after_Mahatma_Gandhi" title="List of roads named after Mahatma Gandhi">Roads named after Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi_Memorial_Centre,_Matale" title="Mahatma Gandhi Memorial Centre, Matale">Mahatma Gandhi Memorial Centre, Matale</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Hall_of_Fame_for_Great_Americans" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hall_of_Fame_for_Great_Americans" title="Template:Hall of Fame for Great Americans"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hall_of_Fame_for_Great_Americans" title="Template talk:Hall of Fame for Great Americans"><abbr title="Discuss this template" 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href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Jane Addams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Agassiz" title="Louis Agassiz">Louis Agassiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_B._Anthony" title="Susan B. Anthony">Susan B. Anthony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_James_Audubon" title="John James Audubon">John James Audubon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Bancroft" title="George Bancroft">George Bancroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Barton" title="Clara Barton">Clara Barton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ward_Beecher" title="Henry Ward Beecher">Henry Ward Beecher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Boone" title="Daniel Boone">Daniel Boone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Booth" title="Edwin Booth">Edwin Booth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Louis Brandeis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phillips_Brooks" title="Phillips Brooks">Phillips Brooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cullen_Bryant" title="William Cullen Bryant">William Cullen Bryant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Burbank" title="Luther Burbank">Luther Burbank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Carnegie" title="Andrew Carnegie">Andrew Carnegie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ellery_Channing" title="William Ellery Channing">William Ellery Channing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_Choate" title="Rufus Choate">Rufus Choate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Henry Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Fenimore_Cooper" title="James Fenimore Cooper">James Fenimore Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Cooper" title="Peter Cooper">Peter Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Cushman" title="Charlotte Cushman">Charlotte Cushman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan_Eads" title="James Buchanan Eads">James Buchanan Eads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Alva Edison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Edwards_(theologian)" title="Jonathan Edwards (theologian)">Jonathan Edwards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Ralph Waldo Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Farragut" title="David Farragut">David Farragut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Foster" title="Stephen Foster">Stephen Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Fulton" title="Robert Fulton">Robert Fulton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs" title="Josiah Willard Gibbs">Josiah W. Gibbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_C._Gorgas" title="William C. Gorgas">William C. Gorgas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asa_Gray" title="Asa Gray">Asa Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Hawthorne" title="Nathaniel Hawthorne">Nathaniel Hawthorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Henry" title="Joseph Henry">Joseph Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Henry" title="Patrick Henry">Patrick Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Sr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.">Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.">Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Hopkins_(educator)" title="Mark Hopkins (educator)">Mark Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elias_Howe" title="Elias Howe">Elias Howe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Irving" title="Washington Irving">Washington Irving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_Jackson" title="Stonewall Jackson">Thomas J. Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Paul_Jones" title="John Paul Jones">John Paul Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Kent" title="James Kent">James Kent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Lanier" title="Sidney Lanier">Sidney Lanier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Robert E. Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Wadsworth_Longfellow" title="Henry Wadsworth Longfellow">Henry Wadsworth Longfellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Russell_Lowell" title="James Russell Lowell">James Russell Lowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Lyon" title="Mary Lyon">Mary Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_MacDowell" title="Edward MacDowell">Edward MacDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_Mann" title="Horace Mann">Horace Mann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Fontaine_Maury" title="Matthew Fontaine Maury">Matthew Fontaine Maury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_A._Michelson" title="Albert A. Michelson">Albert A. Michelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Mitchell" title="Maria Mitchell">Maria Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">James Monroe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel F. B. Morse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_T._G._Morton" title="William T. G. Morton">William T. G. Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lothrop_Motley" title="John Lothrop Motley">John Lothrop Motley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Newcomb" title="Simon Newcomb">Simon Newcomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Freeman_Palmer" title="Alice Freeman Palmer">Alice Freeman Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Parkman" title="Francis Parkman">Francis Parkman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Peabody" title="George Peabody">George Peabody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Penn" title="William Penn">William Penn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Edgar Allan Poe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reed" title="Walter Reed">Walter Reed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. 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Washington">Booker T. 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href="/wiki/Wright_brothers" title="Wright brothers">Orville Wright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wright_brothers" title="Wright brothers">Wilbur Wright</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_frameless_&amp;#124;text-top_&amp;#124;10px_&amp;#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata_&amp;#124;link=https&amp;#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131149#identifiers&amp;#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th id="Authority_control_frameless_&amp;#124;text-top_&amp;#124;10px_&amp;#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata_&amp;#124;link=https&amp;#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131149#identifiers&amp;#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131149#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" style="vertical-align: text-top" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bibsys" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibsys">BIBSYS</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&amp;role=&amp;nation=&amp;subjectid=500229765">500229765</a></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/VcBA_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="VcBA (identifier)">VcBA</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/495_263379">495/263379</a></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/VIAF_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="VIAF (identifier)">VIAF</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/68936476">68936476</a></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"> <a href="/wiki/WorldCat_Identities_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WorldCat Identities (identifier)">WorldCat Identities</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n78095600">lccn-n78095600</a></span></li></ul> 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Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node)
false
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp)
1600637346