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{{Short description|Notion of ownership of ideas and processes}}
{{redirect|Intellectual Property|the film|Intellectual Property (film)}}
{{Intellectual property}}
[[File:Nike, McDonald’s copyright infringing sandals in China.jpg|thumb|right|230px|Intellectual property laws such as trademark laws forbid the sale of infringing goods like these "[[McDonald's|McDnoald's]]"{{sic}} and "[[Nike, Inc.|NKIE]]" [''sic''] sandals.]]
'''Intellectual property''' ('''IP''') is a category of [[property]] that includes intangible creations of the human intellect.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wipo.int/publications/en/details.jsp?id=4080|title=Understanding Industrial Property|publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/en/sheet/36/intellectual-industrial-and-commercial-property|title=Intellectual, industrial and commercial property {{!}} Fact Sheets on the European Union|publisher=European Parliament|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref> There are many types of intellectual property, and some countries recognize more than others.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/intel1_e.htm |title=What are intellectual property rights? |website=World Trade Organization |publisher=World Trade Organization |access-date=23 May 2016}}</ref><ref>"Intellectual property", ''[[Black's Law Dictionary]]'', 10th ed. (2014).</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_909_2016.pdf|title=Understanding Copyright and Related Rights|publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization|page=4|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wipo.int/publications/en/details.jsp?id=4528|title=What is Intellectual Property?|publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)|access-date=23 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_895_2016.pdf|title=Understanding Industrial Property|publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)|access-date=7 December 2018}}</ref> The most well-known types are [[copyright]]s, [[patent]]s, [[trademark]]s, and [[trade secret]]s. The modern concept of intellectual property developed in England in the 17th and 18th centuries. The term "intellectual property" began to be used in the 19th century, though it was not until the late 20th century that intellectual property became commonplace in the majority of the world's legal systems.<ref name="Lemley 2005">"property as a common descriptor of the field probably traces to the foundation of the [[World Intellectual Property Organization]] (WIPO) by the United Nations." in [[Mark A. Lemley]], [http://www.utexas.edu/law/journals/tlr/abstracts/83/83Lemley.pdf ''Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226035349/http://www.utexas.edu/law/journals/tlr/abstracts/83/83Lemley.pdf |date=26 February 2009 }}, Texas Law Review, 2005, Vol. 83:1031, page 1033, footnote 4.</ref>
The main purpose of intellectual property law is to encourage the creation of a wide variety of intellectual goods.{{sfnp|Goldstein|Reese|2008|p=17}} To achieve this, the law gives people and businesses property rights to the information and intellectual goods they create, usually for a limited period of time. This gives economic incentive for their creation, because it allows people to benefit from the information and intellectual goods they create, and allows them to protect their ideas and prevent copying.{{sfnp|Goldstein|Reese|2008|p=17}} These economic incentives are expected to stimulate [[innovation]] and contribute to the technological progress of countries, which depends on the extent of protection granted to innovators.<ref>Rod Falvey and Neil Foster (2006): “The Role of Intellectual Property Rights in Technology Transfer and Economic Growth”: Theory and Evidence, In cooperation with Olga Memedovic UNITED NATIONS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION (UNIDO), available: https://www.unido.org/sites/default/files/2009-04/Role_of_intellectual_property_rights_in_technology_transfer_and_economic_growth_0.pdf</ref>
The [[Intangible property|intangible]] nature of intellectual property presents difficulties when compared with traditional property like land or goods. Unlike traditional property, intellectual property is "indivisible", since an unlimited number of people can "consume" an intellectual good without it being depleted. Additionally, investments in intellectual goods suffer from problems of appropriation: a landowner can surround their land with a robust fence and hire armed guards to protect it, but a producer of information or literature can usually do very little to stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a lower price. Balancing rights so that they are strong enough to encourage the creation of intellectual goods but not so strong that they prevent the goods' wide use is the primary focus of modern intellectual property law.{{sfnp|Goldstein|Reese|2008|pp=18–19}}
==History==
{{Main|History of copyright law|History of patent law}}
[[File:Statute of anne.jpg|thumb|The [[Statute of Anne]] came into force in 1710]]
The [[Statute of Monopolies]] (1624) and the British [[Statute of Anne]] (1710) are seen as the origins of [[patent law]] and [[copyright]] respectively,<ref>{{cite book|last=Brad|first=Sherman|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=u2aMRA-eF1gC&dq=statute+of+anne+copyright&lr=&as_brr=3&source=gbs_navlinks_s|title=The making of modern intellectual property law: the British experience, 1760–1911|author2=Lionel Bently|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999|isbn=978-0-521-56363-5|page=207}}</ref> firmly establishing the concept of intellectual property.
"Literary property" was the term predominantly used in the British legal debates of the 1760s and 1770s over the extent to which authors and publishers of works also had rights deriving from the common law of property (''[[Millar v Taylor]]'' (1769), ''[[Hinton v Donaldson]]'' (1773), ''[[Donaldson v Becket]]'' (1774)). The first known use of the term ''intellectual property'' dates to this time, when a piece published in the ''[[Monthly Review (London)|Monthly Review]]'' in 1769 used the phrase.<ref>{{OED | intellectual property }} (Citing ''Monthly Review'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=cMsvAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA290#v=onepage&q&f=false vol. 41. p. 290] (1769): "What a niggard this Doctor is of his own, and how profuse he is of other people's intellectual property.")</ref> The first clear example of modern usage goes back as early as 1808, when it was used as a heading title in a collection of essays.<ref>{{OED | intellectual property }} (Citing ''Medical Repository Of Original Essays And Intelligence'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ij9JAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA303 vol. 11. p. 303] (1808): "New-England Association in favour of Inventors and Discoverers, and particularly for the Protection of intellectual Property.")</ref>
The German equivalent was used with the founding of the [[North German Confederation]] whose [[constitution]] granted legislative power over the protection of intellectual property (''Schutz des geistigen Eigentums'') to the confederation.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20040706175038/http://www.verfassungen.de/de/de67-18/verfassung67-i.htm 'Article 4 No. 6 of the Constitution of 1867 (German)'] Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 52, p. 1255, 2001</ref> When the administrative secretariats established by the [[Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property|Paris Convention]] (1883) and the [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]] (1886) merged in 1893, they located in Berne, and also adopted the term intellectual property in their new combined title, the [[United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property]].
The organization subsequently relocated to Geneva in 1960 and was succeeded in 1967 with the establishment of the [[World Intellectual Property Organization]] (WIPO) by [[Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization|treaty]] as an agency of the [[United Nations]]. According to legal scholar [[Mark Lemley]], it was only at this point that the term really began to be used in the United States (which had not been a party to the Berne Convention),<ref name="Lemley 2005" /> and it did not enter popular usage there until passage of the [[Bayh-Dole Act]] in 1980.<ref>Mark A. Lemley, [https://ssrn.com/abstract=582602 "Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding"] (Abstract); see Table 1: 4–5.</ref>
<blockquote>"The history of patents does not begin with inventions, but rather with royal grants by [[Queen Elizabeth I]] (1558–1603) for monopoly privileges. Approximately 200 years after the end of Elizabeth's reign, however, a patent represents a legal [[right]] obtained by an inventor providing for exclusive control over the production and sale of his mechanical or scientific invention. demonstrating the evolution of patents from royal prerogative to common-law doctrine."<ref>Mossoff, A. [https://ssrn.com/abstract=863925 'Rethinking the Development of Patents: An Intellectual History, 1550–1800,'] Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 52, p. 1255, 2001</ref></blockquote>
The term can be found used in an October 1845 [[Massachusetts Circuit Court]] ruling in the patent case ''Davoll et al. v. Brown.'', in which Justice Charles L. Woodbury wrote that "only in this way can we protect intellectual property, the labors of the mind, productions and interests are as much a man's own...as the wheat he cultivates, or the flocks he rears."<ref>''1 Woodb. & M. 53, 3 West.L.J. 151, 7 F.Cas. 197, No. 3662, 2 Robb.Pat.Cas. 303, Merw.Pat.Inv. 414''</ref> The statement that "discoveries are..property" goes back earlier. Section 1 of the [[French law of 1791]] stated, "All new discoveries are the property of the author; to assure the inventor the property and temporary enjoyment of his discovery, there shall be delivered to him a patent for five, ten or fifteen years."<ref>{{cite web|title=Patent Archives – Ladas & Parry LLP|url=http://www.ladas.com/Patents/USPatentHistory.html|website=Ladas & Parry|publisher=Ladas.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115040700/http://www.ladas.com/Patents/USPatentHistory.html|archive-date=15 January 2013|access-date=17 August 2015}}</ref> In Europe, [[France|French]] author A. Nion mentioned ''propriété intellectuelle'' in his ''Droits civils des auteurs, artistes et inventeurs'', published in 1846.
Until recently, the purpose of intellectual property law was to give as little protection as possible in order to encourage [[innovation]]. Historically, therefore, they were granted only when they were necessary to encourage invention, limited in time and scope.<ref name="Mark A. Lemley">{{cite web|title=Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding|url=http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/tlr83&div=30&g_sent=1&collection=journals|author=Mark A. Lemley|website=Heinonline|publisher=Heinonline.org|access-date=17 August 2015}}</ref> This is mainly as a result of knowledge being traditionally viewed as a public good, in order to allow its extensive dissemination and improvement thereof.<ref>The Economist; (20 October 2005): “The Liquidity of Innovation”; How the new market for intellectual property is changing the technology industry, available; https://www.economist.com/node/5015365</ref>
The concept's origin can potentially be traced back further. [[Jewish law]] includes several considerations whose effects are similar to those of modern intellectual property laws, though the notion of intellectual creations as property does not seem to exist – notably the principle of Hasagat Ge'vul (unfair encroachment) was used to justify limited-term publisher (but not author) copyright in the 16th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jlaw.com/Articles/copyright1.html |title=Jewish Law – Articles ("Jewish Law and Copyright") |publisher=Jlaw.com |access-date=17 August 2015}}</ref> In 500 BCE, the government of the Greek state of [[Sybaris]] offered one year's patent "to all who should discover any new refinement in luxury".<ref>Charles Anthon, A Classical Dictionary: Containing an Account of the Principal Proper Names Mentioned in Ancient Authors, and Intended to Elucidate All the Important Points Connected with the Geography, History, Biography, Mythology, and Fine Arts of the Greek and Romans. Together with an Account of Coins, Weights, and Measures, with Tabular Values of the Same 1273 (Harper & Brothers 1841). See also "The first patent law was enacted in Sybaris, a city in the South of Italy, before the Roman domination; The law was mentioned by Atheneus, an ancient writer..." in Takenaka, Toshiko (2013). Intellectual Property in Common Law and Civil Law. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 419. (chapter by Mario Franzosi).</ref>
According to Jean-Frédéric Morin, "the global intellectual property regime is currently in the midst of a paradigm shift".<ref>{{cite web|last=Morin|first= Jean-Frédéric|title= Paradigm shift in the global IP regime: The agency of academics, Review of International Political Economy, vol 21-2, 2014, p.275 |url=http://www.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/sites/chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/files/publications/morin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf}}</ref> Indeed, up until the early 2000s the global IP regime used to be dominated by high standards of protection characteristic of IP laws from Europe or the United States, with a vision that uniform application of these standards over every country and to several fields with little consideration over social, cultural or environmental values or of the national level of economic development. Morin argues that "the emerging discourse of the global IP regime advocates for greater policy flexibility and greater access to knowledge, especially for developing countries." Indeed, with the Development Agenda adopted by WIPO in 2007, a set of 45 recommendations to adjust WIPO's activities to the specific needs of developing countries and aim to reduce distortions especially on issues such as patients’ access to medicines, Internet users’ access to information, farmers’ access to seeds, programmers’ access to source codes or students’ access to scientific articles.<ref>{{cite web|last=Morin|first= Jean-Frédéric|title= Paradigm shift in the global IP regime: The agency of academics, Review of International Political Economy, vol 21-2, 2014, p.275 |url=http://www.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/sites/chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/files/publications/morin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf}}</ref> However, this paradigm shift has not yet manifested itself in concrete legal reforms at the international level.<ref>{{cite web|last=Morin|first= Jean-Frédéric|title= Paradigm shift in the global IP regime: The agency of academics, Review of International Political Economy, vol 21-2, 2014, p.275 |url=http://www.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/sites/chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/files/publications/morin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf}}</ref>
Similarly, it is based on these background that the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement requires members of the WTO to set minimum standards of legal protection, but its objective to have a “one-fits-all” protection law on Intellectual Property has been viewed with controversies regarding differences in the development level of countries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Roisah|first=Kholis|date=26 December 2017|title=Understanding Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Agreement: From Hard and Soft Law Perspective|journal=Hasanuddin Law Review|volume=3|issue=3|pages=277–289|doi=10.20956/halrev.v3i3.1153|issn=2442-9899|doi-access=free}}</ref> Despite the controversy, the agreement has extensively incorporated intellectual property rights into the global trading system for the first time in 1995, and has prevailed as the most comprehensive agreement reached by the world.<ref>WTO (2013): Intellectual Property; Responding to least developed countries’ special needs in intellectual property; https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/ldc_e.htm</ref>
==Rights==
Intellectual property rights include [[patent]]s, [[copyright]], [[industrial design right]]s, [[trademark]]s, [[plant variety rights]], [[trade dress]], [[geographical indications]],<ref>[http://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/treaties/text.jsp?file_id=288514 Article 1(2) of the Paris Convention]: "The protection of industrial property has as its object patents, utility models, industrial designs, trademarks, service marks, trade names, indications of source or appellations of origin, and the repression of unfair competition."</ref> and in some jurisdictions [[trade secret]]s. There are also more specialized or derived varieties of ''[[sui generis]]'' exclusive rights, such as circuit design rights (called [[mask work]] rights in the US), [[supplementary protection certificate]]s for pharmaceutical products (after expiry of a patent protecting them), and [[database rights]] (in [[EC law|European law]]). The term "industrial property" is sometimes used to refer to a large subset of intellectual property rights including patents, trademarks, industrial designs, utility models, service marks, trade names, and geographical indications.<ref>{{cite web|title=Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property|url=http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/paris/index.html|website=Wipo|publisher=WIPO|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140711050507/http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/paris/index.html|archive-date=11 July 2014|access-date=25 September 2018}}</ref>
===Patents===
{{Main|Patent}}
A [[patent]] is a form of right granted by the government to an inventor or their successor-in-title, giving the owner the right to exclude others from making, using, selling, offering to sell, and importing an [[invention]] for a limited period of time, in exchange for the public disclosure of the invention. An invention is a solution to a specific technological problem, which may be a product or a process and generally has to fulfill three main requirements: it has to be [[novelty (patent)|new]], [[inventive step and non-obviousness|not obvious]] and there needs to be an [[industrial applicability]].<ref name="WIPO Handbook Ch 2">[http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/about-ip/en/iprm/pdf/ch2.pdf WIPO Intellectual Property Handbook: Policy, Law and Use. Chapter 2: Fields of Intellectual Property Protection] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130520221306/http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/about-ip/en/iprm/pdf/ch2.pdf |date=20 May 2013 }} WIPO 2008</ref>{{rp|17}} To enrich the body of knowledge and stimulate innovation, it is an obligation for patent owners to disclose valuable information about their inventions to the public.<ref name="wipo.int">WIPO (2008); “What is Intellectual Property” Handbook: WIPO Publication No. 450(E) {{Listed Invalid ISBN|978-92-805-1555-0}}, available: http://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/intproperty/450/wipo_pub_450.pdf</ref>
===Copyright===
{{Main|Copyright}}
A [[copyright]] gives the creator of an original work [[exclusive right]]s to it, usually for a limited time. Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or "works".<ref name="Intellectual Property and Information Wealth: Copyright and related rights">{{cite book |url=https://www.google.com/books?id=tgK9BzcF5WgC&dq=statute+of+anne+copyright&lr=&as_brr=3&source=gbs_navlinks_s |title=Intellectual Property and Information Wealth: Copyright and related rights |page=346 |author=Peter K, Yu |isbn=978-0-275-98883-8 |year=2007 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wipo.int/freepublications/en/intproperty/909/wipo_pub_909.pdf|title=Understanding Copyright and Related Rights|author=World Intellectual Property Organisation|publisher=WIPO|page=8|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120606013942/http://www.wipo.int/freepublications/en/intproperty/909/wipo_pub_909.pdf|archive-date=6 June 2012|url-status=dead|access-date=1 August 2008}}</ref> Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.<ref name="Art and copyright">{{cite book |url=https://www.google.com/books?id=h-XBqKIryaQC&dq=idea-expression+dichotomy&lr=&as_brr=3&source=gbs_navlinks_s |title=Art and copyright |pages=48–49 |author=Simon, Stokes |isbn=978-1-84113-225-9 |year=2001 |publisher=Hart Publishing}}</ref>
===Industrial design rights===
{{Main|Industrial design right}}
An [[industrial design right]] (sometimes called "design right" or ''design patent'') protects the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian. An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or color, or combination of pattern and color in three-dimensional form containing aesthetic value. An industrial design can be a two- or three-dimensional pattern used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft. Generally speaking, it is what makes a product look appealing, and as such, it increases the commercial value of goods.<ref name="wipo.int"/>
===Plant varieties===
{{Main|Plant breeders' rights}}
[[Plant breeders' rights]] or plant variety rights are the rights to commercially use a new variety of a plant. The variety must amongst others be novel and distinct and for registration the evaluation of propagating material of the variety is considered.
===Trademarks===
{{Main|Trademark}}
A [[trademark]] is a recognizable [[sign (semiotics)|sign]], [[design]] or [[expression (language)|expression]] which distinguishes [[Good (economics)|products]] or [[Service (economics)|services]] of a particular trader from similar products or services of other traders.<ref>{{cite web|title=Trademark, Patent, or Copyright?|url=http://www.uspto.gov/trademarks/basics/definitions.jsp|date=13 December 2015|work=[[United States Patent and Trademark Office]]|publisher=[[Department of Commerce]]|url-status=dead|access-date=23 November 2015|archive-date=13 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121213072252/http://www.uspto.gov/trademarks/basics/definitions.jsp}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ipo.gov.uk/types/tm/t-about/t-whatis.htm |quote=A trade mark is a sign which can distinguish your goods and services from those of your competitors (you may refer to your trade mark as your "brand"). |access-date=22 December 2012 |title=What is a trade mark (or brand)? |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120703105213/http://www.ipo.gov.uk/types/tm/t-about/t-whatis.htm |archive-date=3 July 2012 |work=[[Intellectual Property Office (United Kingdom)|Intellectual Property Office]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.patentamt.de/english/trade_marks/index.html |quote=Trade marks identify the goods and services of particular traders |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129082624/http://www.patentamt.de/english/trade_marks/index.html |archive-date=29 November 2014 |date=28 November 2014 |access-date=28 March 2019 |work=[[Deutsches Patent- und Markenamt]] |title=Trade Marks}}</ref>
===Trade dress===
{{Main|Trade dress}}
[[Trade dress]] is a legal term of art that generally refers to characteristics of the visual and aesthetic appearance of a product or its packaging (or even the design of a building) that signify the source of the product to consumers.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Robert P. |last1=Merges |first2=Peter S. |last2=Menell |first3=Mark A. |last3=Lemley |title=Intellectual Property in the New Technological Age |edition=4th rev. |year=2007 |location=New York |publisher=Wolters Kluwer |isbn=978-0-7355-6989-8 |page=29}}</ref>
===Trade secrets===
{{Main|Trade secret}}
A [[trade secret]] is a [[formula]], practice, process, [[design]], instrument, [[pattern]], or compilation of [[information]] which is not generally known or reasonably ascertainable, by which a [[business]] can obtain an economic advantage over competitors and customers. There is no formal government protection granted; each business must take measures to guard its own trade secrets (e.g., Formula of its soft drinks is a trade secret for Coca-Cola.)
==Motivation and justification==
The main purpose of intellectual property law is to encourage the creation of a wide variety of intellectual goods for consumers.{{sfnp|Goldstein|Reese|2008|p=17}} To achieve this, the law gives people and businesses property rights to the information and intellectual goods they create, usually for a limited period of time. Because they can then profit from them, this gives economic incentive for their creation.{{sfnp|Goldstein|Reese|2008|p=17}} The intangible nature of intellectual property presents difficulties when compared with traditional property like land or goods. Unlike traditional property, intellectual property is indivisible – an unlimited number of people can "consume" an intellectual good without it being depleted. Additionally, investments in intellectual goods suffer from problems of appropriation – while a landowner can surround their land with a robust fence and hire armed guards to protect it, a producer of information or an intellectual good can usually do very little to stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a lower price. Balancing rights so that they are strong enough to encourage the creation of information and intellectual goods but not so strong that they prevent their wide use is the primary focus of modern intellectual property law.{{sfnp|Goldstein|Reese|2008|pp=18–19}}
By exchanging limited exclusive rights for disclosure of inventions and creative works, society and the patentee/copyright owner mutually benefit, and an incentive is created for inventors and authors to create and disclose their work. Some commentators have noted that the objective of intellectual property legislators and those who support its implementation appears to be "absolute protection". "If some intellectual property is desirable because it encourages innovation, they reason, more is better. The thinking is that creators will not have sufficient incentive to invent unless they are legally entitled to capture the full social value of their inventions".<ref name="Mark A. Lemley" /> This absolute protection or full value view treats intellectual property as another type of "real" property, typically adopting its law and rhetoric. Other recent developments in intellectual property law, such as the [[Leahy–Smith America Invents Act|America Invents Act]], stress international harmonization. Recently there has also been much debate over the desirability of using intellectual property rights to protect cultural heritage, including intangible ones, as well as over risks of [[commodification]] derived from this possibility.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Farah |first1=Paolo Davide |last2=Tremolada |first2=Riccardo |title=Desirability of Commodification of Intangible Cultural Heritage: The Unsatisfying Role of Intellectual Property Rights |journal=Transnational Dispute Management |date=15 March 2014 |volume=11 |issue=2 |ssrn=2472339 }}</ref> The issue still remains open in legal scholarship.
===Financial incentive===
These exclusive rights allow owners of intellectual property to benefit from the property they have created, providing a financial incentive for the creation of an investment in intellectual property, and, in case of patents, pay associated [[research and development]] costs.<ref name="MonoProf">{{cite web | url=http://www.uclan.ac.uk/schools/school_of_health/research_projects/files/health_innova_IPR_reform_report.pdf | title=Prudential Reasons for IPR Reform. A Report for Innova-P2 | publisher=[[Centre for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics|CAPPE]], [[University of Melbourne]] | date=May 2009 | access-date=17 July 2019 | author=Doris Schroeder and [[Peter Singer]] | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927130955/http://www.uclan.ac.uk/schools/school_of_health/research_projects/files/health_innova_IPR_reform_report.pdf | archive-date=27 September 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In the United States Article I Section 8 Clause 8 of the Constitution, commonly called the Patent and Copyright Clause, reads; "The Congress shall have power 'To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries.'"<ref>{{cite web|title=Copyright & Fair Use|url=http://fairuse.stanford.edu/law/us-constitution/|website=Stanford University Libraries|access-date=26 June 2017|date=9 April 2013}}</ref> ”Some commentators, such as [[David K. Levine|David Levine]] and [[Michele Boldrin]], dispute this justification.<ref name='R000000'>{{cite book |last=Levine |first=David |author-link=David K. Levine |author2=Michele Boldrin |author2-link=Michele Boldrin |title=Against intellectual monopoly |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=7 September 2008 |url=http://www.dklevine.com/papers/imbookfinalall.pdf |isbn=978-0-521-87928-6}}</ref>
In 2013 the [[United States Patent & Trademark Office]] approximated that the worth of intellectual property to the [[U.S. economy]] is more than US $5 trillion and creates employment for an estimated 18 million American people. The value of intellectual property is considered similarly high in other developed nations, such as those in the European Union.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Chemotherapy That Costs $70,000 in the U.S. Costs $2,500 in India |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2013/04/why-chemotherapy-that-costs-70-000-in-the-us-costs-2-500-in-india/274847/ |work=[[The Atlantic]] |publisher=The Atlantic Monthly Group |access-date=18 April 2013 |last=Bollyky |first=Thomas |date=10 April 2013}}</ref> In the UK, IP has become a recognised asset class for use in [[Pension led funding|pension-led funding]] and other types of business finance. However, in 2013, the [[UK Intellectual Property Office]] stated: "There are millions of intangible business assets whose value is either not being leveraged at all, or only being leveraged inadvertently".<ref>{{cite book|last=Brassell, King|first=Martin, Kelvin|url=http://www.ipo.gov.uk/ipresearch-bankingip.pdf|title=Banking on IP?|publisher=The Intellectual Property Office|year=2013|isbn=978-1-908908-86-5|location=Newport, Wales|page=15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131114113720/http://www.ipo.gov.uk/ipresearch-bankingip.pdf|archive-date=14 November 2013}}</ref>
===Economic growth===
The WIPO treaty and several related international agreements underline that the protection of intellectual property rights is essential to maintaining economic growth. The ''WIPO Intellectual Property Handbook'' gives two reasons for intellectual property laws:
<blockquote>One is to give statutory expression to the moral and economic rights of creators in their creations and the rights of the public in access to those creations. The second is to promote, as a deliberate act of Government policy, creativity and the dissemination and application of its results and to encourage fair trading which would contribute to economic and social development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/about-ip/en/iprm/pdf/ch1.pdf |page=3 |title=The Concept of Intellectual Property |access-date=28 March 2019 |work=[[WIPO]] |archive-date=15 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115120714/http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/about-ip/en/iprm/pdf/ch1.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref></blockquote>
The [[Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement]] (ACTA) states that "effective enforcement of intellectual property rights is critical to sustaining economic growth across all industries and globally".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.international.gc.ca/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/assets/pdfs/acta-crc_apr15-2011_eng.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120507132516/http://www.international.gc.ca/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/assets/pdfs/acta-crc_apr15-2011_eng.pdf |archive-date=7 May 2012 |access-date=28 March 2019 |title=Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement |pages=24 |work=[[Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada]]}}</ref>
Economists estimate that two-thirds of the value of large businesses in the United States can be traced to intangible assets.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sonecon.com/docs/studies/0807_thevalueofip.pdf |title=Economic Effects of Intellectual Property-Intensive Manufacturing in the United States |first1=Robert J. |last1=Shapiro |first2=Nam D. |last2=Pham |work=Sonecon.com |access-date=17 August 2015 |date=July 2007 |first3=Alan S. |last3=Blinder |pages=29 |publisher=[[World Growth]]}}</ref> "IP-intensive industries" are estimated to generate 72 percent more [[value added]] (price minus material cost) per employee than "non-IP-intensive industries".<ref name="Shapiro-Pham">{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216195041/http://www.the-value-of-ip.org/ |title=Economic Effects of Intellectual Property-Intensive Manufacturing in the United States |first1=Robert |last1=Shapiro |first2=Nam |last2=Pham |date=July 2007 |access-date=28 March 2019 |archive-date=16 February 2008 |url=http://www.the-value-of-ip.org/ |first3=Alan S. |last3=Blinder |work=the-value-of-ip.org}}</ref>{{Dubious|date=July 2009}}<!--does advertising count as "value"-->
A joint research project of the [[WIPO]] and the [[United Nations University]] measuring the impact of IP systems on six Asian countries found "a positive correlation between the strengthening of the IP system and subsequent economic growth."<ref name="WIPO: Economic Impact">{{cite web |url=http://www.wipo.int/portal/en/news/2007/article_0032.html |title=Measuring the Economic Impact of IP Systems |work=[[WIPO]] |date=19 September 2007 |access-date=28 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170521064049/http://www.wipo.int/portal/en/news/2007/article_0032.html |archive-date=21 May 2017}}</ref>
===Morality===
According to Article 27 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], "everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author".<ref>{{cite web |publisher=United Nations |title=The Universal Declaration of Human Rights |url=https://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml |access-date=25 October 2011}}</ref> Although the relationship between intellectual property and [[human rights]] is a complex one,<ref>{{cite web |author=WIPO – The World Intellectual Property Organization |title=Human Rights and Intellectual Property: An Overview |url=http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/hr/ |access-date=25 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111022125749/http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/hr/ |archive-date=22 October 2011 }}</ref> there are moral arguments for intellectual property.
The arguments that justify intellectual property fall into three major categories. Personality theorists believe intellectual property is an extension of an individual. Utilitarians believe that intellectual property stimulates social progress and pushes people to further innovation. Lockeans argue that intellectual property is justified based on deservedness and hard work.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/intellectual-property/|title=Intellectual Property|last=Moore|first=Adam|year=2014|website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University}}</ref>
Various moral justifications for private property can be used to argue in favor of the morality of intellectual property, such as:
# ''Natural Rights/Justice Argument'': this argument is based on Locke's idea that a person has a natural right over the labour and products which are produced by their body. Appropriating these products is viewed as unjust. Although Locke had never explicitly stated that natural right applied to products of the mind,<ref>Ronald V. Bettig. "Critical Perspectives on the History and Philosophy of Copyright" in Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property, by Ronald V. Bettig. (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996), 19–20</ref> it is possible to apply his argument to intellectual property rights, in which it would be unjust for people to misuse another's ideas.<ref>Richard T. De George, "14. Intellectual Property Rights," in The Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics, by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp, vol. 1, 1st ed. (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.), 415–416.</ref> Locke's argument for intellectual property is based upon the idea that laborers have the right to control that which they create. They argue that we own our bodies which are the laborers, this right of ownership extends to what we create. Thus, intellectual property ensures this right when it comes to production.
# ''Utilitarian-Pragmatic Argument'': according to this rationale, a society that protects private property is more effective and prosperous than societies that do not. Innovation and invention in 19th century America has been attributed to the development of the [[patent]] system.<ref>Richard T. De George, "14. Intellectual Property Rights," in The Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics, by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp, vol. 1, 1st ed. (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.), 416.</ref> By providing innovators with "durable and tangible return on their investment of time, labor, and other resources", intellectual property rights seek to maximize social utility.<ref name="Spinello 2007">{{cite journal |last=Spinello |first=Richard A. |title=Intellectual property rights |journal=Library Hi Tech |date=January 2007 |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=12–22 |doi=10.1108/07378830710735821}}<!--|access-date=November 3, 2011--></ref> The presumption is that they promote public welfare by encouraging the "creation, production, and distribution of intellectual works".<ref name="Spinello 2007" /> Utilitarians argue that without intellectual property there would be a lack of incentive to produce new ideas. Systems of protection such as Intellectual property optimize social utility.
# ''"Personality" Argument'': this argument is based on a quote from [[Hegel]]: "Every man has the right to turn his will upon a thing or make the thing an object of his will, that is to say, to set aside the mere thing and recreate it as his own".<ref>Richard T. De George, "14. Intellectual Property Rights," in The Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics, by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp, vol. 1, 1st ed. (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.), 417.</ref> European intellectual property law is shaped by this notion that ideas are an "extension of oneself and of one's personality".<ref>Richard T. De George, "14. Intellectual Property Rights," in The Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics, by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp, vol. 1, 1st ed. (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.), 418.</ref> Personality theorists argue that by being a creator of something one is inherently at risk and vulnerable for having their ideas and designs stolen and/or altered. Intellectual property protects these moral claims that have to do with personality.
[[Lysander Spooner]] (1855) argues "that a man has a natural and absolute right—and if a natural and absolute, then necessarily a perpetual, right—of property, in the ideas, of which he is the discoverer or creator; that his right of property, in ideas, is intrinsically the same as, and stands on identically the same grounds with, his right of property in material things; that no distinction, of principle, exists between the two cases".<ref>The Law of Intellectual Property, Part 1 Chapter 1 Section 9 – Lysander Spooner</ref>
Writer [[Ayn Rand]] argued in her book ''[[Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal]]'' that the protection of intellectual property is essentially a moral issue. The belief is that the human mind itself is the source of wealth and survival and that all property at its base is intellectual property. To violate intellectual property is therefore no different morally than violating other property rights which compromises the very processes of survival and therefore constitutes an immoral act.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rand |first=Ayn |author-link=Ayn Rand |title=Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal |url=https://archive.org/details/capitalismunknow00rand |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=Signet |year=1967 |orig-year=1966 |edition=paperback 2nd}}</ref>
==Infringement, misappropriation, and enforcement==
{{Main|Intellectual property infringement}}
Violation of intellectual property rights, called "infringement" with respect to patents, copyright, and trademarks, and "misappropriation" with respect to trade secrets, may be a breach of civil law or criminal law, depending on the type of intellectual property involved, jurisdiction, and the nature of the action.
As of 2011 trade in counterfeit copyrighted and trademarked works was a $600 billion industry worldwide and accounted for 5–7% of global trade.<ref name="Bitton">Miriam Bitton (2012) [https://web.archive.org/web/20121010073552/http://www.law.northwestern.edu/jclc/backissues/v102/n1/1021_67.Bitton.pdf Rethinking the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement's Criminal Copyright Enforcement Measures] The Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology 102(1):67–117</ref>
===Patent infringement===
{{Main|Patent infringement|}}
Patent infringement typically is caused by using or selling a patented invention without permission from the patent holder. The scope of the patented invention or the extent of protection<ref>{{EPC Article|69}}</ref> is defined in the [[claim (patent)|claims]] of the granted patent. There is [[safe harbor (law)|safe harbor]] in many jurisdictions to use a patented invention for research. This safe harbor does not exist in the US unless the research is done for purely philosophical purposes, or in order to gather data in order to prepare an application for regulatory approval of a drug.<ref>Pradip K. Sahu and Shannon Mrksich, Ph.D. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130207023621/http://www.brinkshofer.com/resource_center/85-the-hatch-waxman-act-research-exempt-from-patent-infringement The Hatch-Waxman Act: When Is Research Exempt from Patent Infringement?] ABA-IPL Newsletter 22(4) Summer 2004</ref> In general, patent infringement cases are handled under civil law (e.g., in the United States) but several jurisdictions incorporate infringement in criminal law also (for example, Argentina, China, France, Japan, Russia, South Korea).<ref>Matthew L. Cutler (2008) [http://blog.hdp.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/60549706_1.PDF International Patent Litigation Survey: A Survey of the Characteristics of Patent Litigation in 17 International Jurisdictions] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922062127/http://blog.hdp.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/60549706_1.PDF |date=22 September 2013 }}</ref>
===Copyright infringement===
{{Main|Copyright infringement}}
Copyright infringement is reproducing, distributing, displaying or performing a [[Copyright law#Scope|work]], or to make [[derivative work]]s, without permission from the copyright holder, which is typically a publisher or other business representing or assigned by the work's creator. It is often called "piracy".<ref name="Panethiere_p2">{{cite web|title=The Persistence of Piracy: The Consequences for Creativity, for Culture, and for Sustainable Development|url=http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/files/28696/11513329261panethiere_en.pdf/panethiere_en.pdf|last=Panethiere|first=Darrell|date=July–September 2005|website=portal.unesco|publisher=UNESCO e-Copyright Bulletin|page=2|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080816063513/http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/files/28696/11513329261panethiere_en.pdf/panethiere_en.pdf|archive-date=16 August 2008}}</ref> While copyright is created the instant a work is fixed, generally the copyright holder can only get money damages if the owner registers the copyright.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}} Enforcement of copyright is generally the responsibility of the copyright holder.<ref name=Xuan_p211>{{cite book |last=Correa |first=Carlos Maria |author2=Li, Xuan |title=Intellectual property enforcement: international perspectives |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |year=2009 |page=211 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bN3o1uwpKF4C&q=copyright+infringement+international+acta |isbn=978-1-84844-663-2}}</ref> The [[Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement|ACTA trade agreement]], signed in May 2011 by the United States, Japan, Switzerland, and the EU, and which has not entered into force, requires that its parties add criminal penalties, including incarceration and fines, for copyright and trademark infringement, and obligated the parties to actively police for infringement.<ref name=Bitton /><ref name=Musa>Irina D. Manta Spring 2011 [http://jolt.law.harvard.edu/articles/pdf/v24/24HarvJLTech469.pdf The Puzzle of Criminal Sanctions for Intellectual Property Infringement] Harvard Journal of Law & Technology 24(2):469–518</ref> There are [[limitations and exceptions to copyright]], allowing limited use of copyrighted works, which does not constitute infringement. Examples of such doctrines are the [[fair use]] and [[fair dealing]] doctrine.
===Trademark infringement===
{{Main|Trademark infringement}}
Trademark infringement occurs when one party uses a trademark that is identical or [[confusing similarity|confusingly similar]] to a trademark owned by another party, in relation to products or services which are identical or similar to the products or services of the other party. In many countries, a trademark receives protection without registration, but registering a trademark provides legal advantages for enforcement. Infringement can be addressed by civil litigation and, in several jurisdictions, under criminal law.<ref name=Bitton /><ref name=Musa />
===Trade secret misappropriation===
{{Main|Trade secret#Misappropriation}}
Trade secret misappropriation is different from violations of other intellectual property laws, since by definition trade secrets are secret, while patents and registered copyrights and trademarks are publicly available. In the United States, trade secrets are protected under state law, and states have nearly universally adopted the [[Uniform Trade Secrets Act]]. The United States also has federal law in the form of the [[Economic Espionage Act of 1996]] ({{usc|18|1831|1839}}), which makes the theft or misappropriation of a trade secret a federal crime. This law contains two provisions criminalizing two sorts of activity. The first, {{uscsub|18|1831|a}}, criminalizes the theft of trade secrets to benefit foreign powers. The second, {{usc|18|1832}}, criminalizes their theft for commercial or economic purposes. (The statutory penalties are different for the two offenses.) In [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] [[common law]] jurisdictions, confidentiality and trade secrets are regarded as an [[Equity (law)|equitable]] right rather than a [[property]] right but penalties for theft are roughly the same as in the United States.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}
==Criticisms==
{{Further|Criticism of patents|Opposition to copyright}}
{{split|Criticism of intellectual property|date=June 2021|discuss=Talk:Intellectual property#Split proposal}}
[[File:Pro piracy demonstration.jpg|thumb|Demonstration in [[Sweden]] in support of [[file sharing]], 2006.]]
[[File:GlamCamp NY Kippelboy nina Paley (2).JPG|thumb|"Copying is not theft!" badge with a character resembling [[Mickey Mouse]] in reference to the "in popular culture" rationale behind the [[Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]] of 1998]]
===The term "intellectual property"===
Criticism of the term ''intellectual property'' ranges from discussing its vagueness and abstract overreach to direct contention to the semantic validity of using words like ''property'' and ''rights'' in fashions that contradict practice and law. Many detractors think this term specially serves the doctrinal agenda of parties opposing reform in the public interest or otherwise abusing related legislations, and that it disallows intelligent discussion about specific and often unrelated aspects of copyright, patents, trademarks, etc.<ref>{{cite web|title=If Intellectual Property Is Neither Intellectual, Nor Property, What Is It?|url=https://www.techdirt.com/articles/20080306/003240458/if-intellectual-property-is-neither-intellectual-property-what-is-it.shtml|author1=Mike Masnick|author-link1=Mike Masnick|date=6 March 2008|website=techdirt.com|publisher=[[Techdirt]]|access-date=17 August 2014}}</ref>
[[Free Software Foundation]] founder [[Richard Stallman]] argues that, although the term ''intellectual property'' is in wide use, it should be rejected altogether, because it "systematically distorts and confuses these issues, and its use was and is promoted by those who gain from this confusion". He claims that the term "operates as a catch-all to lump together disparate laws [which] originated separately, evolved differently, cover different activities, have different rules, and raise different public policy issues" and that it creates a "bias" by confusing these monopolies with ownership of limited physical things, likening them to "property rights".<ref name="mirage">{{cite web|title=Did You Say 'Intellectual Property'? It's a Seductive Mirage|url=https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/not-ipr.xhtml|author=Richard M. Stallman|website=gnu|publisher=Free Software Foundation, Inc.|access-date=28 March 2008}}</ref> Stallman advocates referring to copyrights, patents and trademarks in the singular and warns against abstracting disparate laws into a collective term. He argues that "to avoid spreading unnecessary bias and confusion, it is best to adopt a firm policy not to speak or even think in terms of 'intellectual property'."<ref name="words-to-avoid">{{cite web|title=Words to Avoid (or Use with Care) Because They Are Loaded or Confusing|url=https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/words-to-avoid.en.html#IntellectualProperty|author=Richard M. Stallman|website=gnu|publisher=The GNU Project|access-date=1 December 2016}}</ref>
Similarly, economists [[Michele Boldrin|Boldrin]] and [[David K. Levine|Levine]] prefer to use the term "intellectual monopoly" as a more appropriate and clear definition of the concept, which, they argue, is very dissimilar from property rights.<ref>Boldrin, Michele, and David K. Levine. [http://levine.sscnet.ucla.edu/general/intellectual/against.htm Against intellectual monopoly] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206094352/http://levine.sscnet.ucla.edu/general/intellectual/against.htm |date=6 December 2017 }}. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.</ref> They further argued that "stronger patents do little or nothing to encourage innovation", mainly explained by its tendency to create market monopolies, thereby restricting further innovations and technology transfer.<ref>Michele Boldrin and David K. Levine (2009): “Intellectual Property Rights and Economic Growth in the Long-Run”; A model Discovery, available; http://levine.sscnet.ucla.edu/papers/aea_pp09.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809070301/http://levine.sscnet.ucla.edu/papers/aea_pp09.pdf |date=9 August 2017 }}</ref>
On the assumption that intellectual property rights are actual rights, Stallman says that this claim does not live to the historical intentions behind these laws, which in the case of copyright served as a censorship system, and later on, a regulatory model for the printing press that may have benefited authors incidentally, but never interfered with the freedom of average readers.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://web.mit.edu/comm-forum/forums/copyright.html |title=copyright and globalization in the age of computer networks |date=19 April 2001 |access-date=21 October 2015 |website=mit.edu |last=Stallman |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Stallman |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150302072256/http://web.mit.edu/comm-forum/forums/copyright.html |archive-date=2 March 2015}}</ref> Still referring to copyright, he cites legal literature such as the United States Constitution and [[case law]] to demonstrate that the law is meant to be an optional and experimental bargain to temporarily trade property rights and free speech for public, not private, benefits in the form of increased artistic production and knowledge. He mentions that "if copyright were a natural right nothing could justify terminating this right after a certain period of time".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Misinterpreting Copyright|url=https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/misinterpreting-copyright.html|last=Stallman|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Stallman|website=gnu.org|access-date=21 October 2015}}</ref>
Law professor, writer and political activist [[Lawrence Lessig]], along with many other [[copyleft]] and free software activists, has criticized the implied analogy with physical property (like land or an automobile). They argue such an analogy fails because physical property is generally rivalrous while intellectual works are non-rivalrous (that is, if one makes a copy of a work, the enjoyment of the copy does not prevent enjoyment of the original).<ref name="lessigperpetual" /><ref>{{cite news |title="Intellectual property" is a silly euphemism |last=Doctorow |first=Cory |author-link=Cory Doctorow |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2008/feb/21/intellectual.property |date=21 February 2008 |access-date=23 February 2008}}</ref> Other arguments along these lines claim that unlike the situation with tangible property, there is [[artificial scarcity|no natural scarcity]] of a particular idea or information: once it exists at all, it can be re-used and duplicated indefinitely without such re-use diminishing the original. [[Stephan Kinsella]] has objected to ''intellectual property'' on the grounds that the word "property" implies scarcity, which may not be applicable to ideas.<ref>Stephan Kinsella (2001) [https://cdn.mises.org/15_2_1.pdf Against Intellectual Property] Journal of Libertarian Studies 15(2):1–53</ref>
Entrepreneur and politician [[Rickard Falkvinge]] and [[Hacker (programmer subculture)|hacker]] [[Alexandre Oliva]] have independently compared George Orwell's fictional dialect [[Newspeak]] to the terminology used by intellectual property supporters as a linguistic weapon to shape public opinion regarding copyright debate and [[Digital Rights Management|DRM]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Language Matters: Framing The Copyright Monopoly So We Can Keep Our Liberties|url=http://torrentfreak.com/language-matters-framing-the-copyright-monopoly-so-we-can-keep-our-liberties-130714/|author1=Rick Falkvinge|author-link1=Rick Falkvinge|date=14 July 2013|website=torrentfreak.com|url-status=dead|access-date=17 August 2014|archive-date=4 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140604193406/http://torrentfreak.com/language-matters-framing-the-copyright-monopoly-so-we-can-keep-our-liberties-130714/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=Alexandre Oliva |author-link1=Alexandre Oliva |title=1984+30: GNU speech to defeat e-newspeak |url=http://www.fsfla.org/~lxoliva/fsfla/1984+30.en.pdf |access-date=17 August 2014 }}</ref>
====Alternative terms====
In [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] jurisdictions, intellectual property has often been referred to as [[intellectual rights]], traditionally a somewhat broader concept that has included [[Moral rights (copyright law)|moral rights]] and other personal protections that cannot be bought or sold. Use of the term ''intellectual rights'' has declined since the early 1980s, as use of the term ''intellectual property'' has increased.
Alternative terms ''monopolies on information'' and ''intellectual monopoly'' have emerged among those who argue against the "property" or "intellect" or "rights" assumptions, notably [[Richard Stallman]]. The [[backronym]]s ''intellectual protectionism'' and ''intellectual poverty'',<ref>Stephan Kinsella for Ludwig von Mises Institute blog, 6 January 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120709151150/http://archive.mises.org/15240/intellectual-poverty/ Intellectual Poverty]</ref> whose initials are also ''IP'', have found supporters as well, especially among those who have used the backronym ''[[Opposition to digital rights management|digital restrictions management]]''.<ref>[http://drm.info/ Official drm.info site] run by the Free Software Foundation Europe (FSFE)</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=What is DRM?|url=http://www.defectivebydesign.org/what_is_drm_digital_restrictions_management|website=defectivebydesign|publisher=Defective by Design|access-date=17 August 2015}}</ref>
The argument that an intellectual property right should (in the interests of better balancing of relevant private and public interests) be termed an ''intellectual monopoly privilege'' (IMP) has been advanced by several academics including Birgitte Andersen<ref>Birgitte Andersen. "'Intellectual Property Right' Or 'Intellectual Monopoly Privilege: Which One Should Patent Analysts Focus On?" CONFERENCIA INTERNACIONAL SOBRE SISTEMAS DE INOVAÇÃO E ESTRATÉGIAS DE DESENVOLVIMENTO PARA O TERCEIRO MILÊNIO. Nov 2003</ref> and [[Thomas Alured Faunce]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=G |last2=Sorenson |first2=C |last3=Faunce |first3=TA |year=2007 |title=Balancing intellectual monopoly privileges and the need for essential medicines |journal=Globalization and Health |volume=3 |page=4 |doi=10.1186/1744-8603-3-4 |quote=Balancing the need to protect the intellectual property rights (IPRs) (which the third author considers are more accurately described as intellectual monopoly privileges (IMPs)) of pharmaceutical companies, with the need to ensure access to essential medicines in developing countries is one of the most pressing challenges facing international policy makers today. |pmid=17565684 |pmc=1904211}}</ref>
===Objections to overly broad intellectual property laws===
[[File:Definition of Free Cultural Works logo notext.svg|thumb|The [[free culture movement]] champions the production of [[Free content|content]] [[Information wants to be free|that bears little or no restrictions]].]]
Some critics of intellectual property, such as those in the [[free culture movement]], point at intellectual monopolies as harming health (in the case of [[pharmaceutical patent]]s), preventing progress, and benefiting concentrated interests to the detriment of the masses,<ref>Birgitte Andersen. [http://redesist.ie.ufrj.br/globelics/pdfs/GLOBELICS_0050_Andersen.pdf 'Intellectual Property Right' Or 'Intellectual Monopoly Privilege': Which One Should Patent Analysts Focus On?] Conferência Internacional Sobre Sistemas De Inovação E Estratégias De Desenvolvimento Para O Terceiro Milênio. Nov. 2003</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=G |last2=Sorenson |first2=C |last3=Faunce |first3=TA |year=2007 |title=Editorial: Balancing the need to protect the intellectual property rights (IPRs) |journal=Globalization and Health |volume=3 |page=4|doi=10.1186/1744-8603-3-4 |pmid=17565684 |pmc=1904211 }}</ref><ref>On patents – {{cite web|title=Protecting Freedom In The Patent System: The Public Patent Foundation's Mission and Activities|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d0chez_Jf5A|author=Daniel B. Ravicher|date=6 August 2008|website=YouTube}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Authors@Google: Joseph Stiglitz – Making Globalization Work.|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UzhD7KVs-R4#t=16m05s|last=Stiglitz|first=Joseph|author-link=Joseph Stiglitz|date=13 October 2006|website=YouTube}}</ref> and argue that the public interest is harmed by ever-expansive monopolies in the form of [[copyright extension]]s, [[software patents]], and [[business method patents]]. More recently scientists and engineers are expressing concern that [[patent thickets]] are undermining technological development even in high-tech fields like [[nanotechnology]].<ref>[https://arstechnica.com/science/2012/11/stallmans-got-company-researcher-wants-nanotech-patent-moratorium/ Stallman's got company: Researcher wants nanotech patent moratorium] – Ars Technica</ref><ref>[https://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2012-11/23/professor-seeks-nanotech-patent-moratorium Freeze on nanotechnology patents proposed to help grow the sector] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302113908/http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2012-11/23/professor-seeks-nanotech-patent-moratorium |date=2 March 2014 }}- Wired UK 23 Nov 2012</ref>
Petra Moser has asserted that historical analysis suggests that intellectual property laws may harm innovation:
<blockquote>Overall, the weight of the existing historical evidence suggests that patent policies, which grant strong intellectual property rights to early generations of inventors, may discourage innovation. On the contrary, policies that encourage the diffusion of ideas and modify patent laws to facilitate entry and encourage competition may be an effective mechanism to encourage innovation.<ref>Moser, Petra. 2013. "Patents and Innovation: Evidence from Economic History." Journal of Economic Perspectives, 27(1): 23–44.</ref></blockquote>
In support of that argument, [[Jörg Baten]], Nicola Bianchi and Petra Moser<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Baten|first1=Jörg|last2=Bianchi|first2=Nicola|last3=Moser|first3=Petra|title=Compulsory licensing and innovation–Historical evidence from German patents after WWI|journal=Journal of Development Economics|year=2017|volume=126|pages=231–242|doi=10.1016/j.jdeveco.2017.01.002|doi-access=free}}</ref> find historical evidence that especially compulsory licensing – which allows governments to license patents without the consent of patent-owners – encouraged invention in Germany in the early 20th century by increasing the threat of competition in fields with low pre-existing levels of competition.
[[Peter Drahos]] notes, "Property rights confer authority over resources. When authority is granted to the few over resources on which the many depend, the few gain power over the goals of the many. This has consequences for both political and economic freedom within a society."<ref>Peter Drahos and John Braithwaite. [http://www.anu.edu.au/fellows/pdrahos/books/Information%20Feudalism.pdf Information Feudalism: Who Owns the Knowledge Economy?], Earthscan 2002</ref>{{rp|13}}
The [[World Intellectual Property Organization]] (WIPO) recognizes that conflicts may exist between the respect for and implementation of current intellectual property systems and other human rights.<ref>{{cite web|title=Human Rights and Intellectual Property: An Overview|url=http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/hr/|author=WIPO – World Intellectual Property Organization|website=wipo|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111022125749/http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/hr/|archive-date=22 October 2011|access-date=25 October 2011}}</ref> In 2001 the UN [[Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights]] issued a document called "Human rights and intellectual property" that argued that intellectual property tends to be governed by economic goals when it should be viewed primarily as a social product; in order to serve human well-being, intellectual property systems must respect and conform to human rights laws. According to the Committee, when systems fail to do so, they risk infringing upon the human right to food and health, and to cultural participation and scientific benefits.<ref>Staff, UN Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights. Geneva, 12–30 November 2001. [http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cescr/docs/statements/E.C.12.2001.15HRIntel-property.pdf Human rights and intellectual property]</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Chapman |first=Audrey R. |title=The Human Rights Implications of Intellectual Property Protection |journal=Journal of International Economic Law |date=December 2002 |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=861–882 |doi=10.1093/jiel/5.4.861 }}</ref> In 2004 the General Assembly of WIPO adopted ''The Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization'' which argues that WIPO should "focus more on the needs of developing countries, and to view IP as one of many tools for development—not as an end in itself".<ref>[http://www.cptech.org/ip/wipo/genevadeclaration.html ''The Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization'']</ref>
Ethical problems are most pertinent when socially valuable goods like life-saving medicines are given IP protection. While the application of IP rights can allow companies to charge higher than the marginal cost of production in order to recoup the costs of research and development, the price may exclude from the market anyone who cannot afford the cost of the product, in this case a life-saving drug.<ref name=Sonderholm>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1111/j.1747-9991.2010.00358.x|title = Ethical Issues Surrounding Intellectual Property Rights| journal=Philosophy Compass| volume=5| issue=12| pages=1107–1115|year = 2010|last1 = Sonderholm|first1 = Jorn}}</ref> "An IPR driven regime is therefore not a regime that is conductive to the investment of R&D of products that are socially valuable to predominately poor populations".<ref name=Sonderholm />{{rp|1108–9}}
[[Libertarian]]s have [[Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property|differing views on intellectual property]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}} [[Stephan Kinsella]], an [[anarcho-capitalist]] on the [[right-libertarian|right-wing of libertarianism]],<ref>Stephan Kinsella, [https://web.archive.org/web/20180415041048/https://www.lewrockwell.com/2004/01/stephan-kinsella/what-it-means-to-be-an-anarcho-capitalist/ "What It Means To Be an Anarcho-Capitalist"], "LewRockwell.com", published 2004-01-20, archived 15 April 2018. Retrieved 4 August 2018</ref> argues against intellectual property because allowing property rights in ideas and information creates [[artificial scarcity]] and infringes on the right to own tangible property. Kinsella uses the following scenario to argue this point:
<blockquote>[I]magine the time when men lived in caves. One bright guy—let's call him Galt-Magnon—decides to build a log cabin on an open field, near his crops. To be sure, this is a good idea, and others notice it. They naturally imitate Galt-Magnon, and they start building their own cabins. But the first man to invent a house, according to IP advocates, would have a right to prevent others from building houses on their own land, with their own logs, or to charge them a fee if they do build houses. It is plain that the innovator in these examples becomes a partial owner of the tangible property (e.g., land and logs) of others, due not to first occupation and use of that property (for it is already owned), but due to his coming up with an idea. Clearly, this rule flies in the face of the first-user homesteading rule, arbitrarily and groundlessly overriding the very homesteading rule that is at the foundation of all property rights.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080730030236/https://mises.org/books/against.pdf N. Stephan Kinsella, ''Against Intellectual property''] (2008), p. 44.</ref></blockquote>
[[Thomas Jefferson]] once said in a letter to Isaac McPherson on 13 August 1813:
<blockquote>"If nature has made any one thing less susceptible than all others of exclusive property, it is the action of the thinking power called an idea, which an individual may exclusively possess as long as he keeps it to himself; but the moment it is divulged, it forces itself into the possession of every one, and the receiver cannot dispossess himself of it. Its peculiar character, too, is that no one possesses the less, because every other possesses the whole of it. He who receives an idea from me, receives instruction himself without lessening mine; as he who lights his [[candle|taper]] at mine, receives light without darkening me."<ref>[http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/a1_8_8s12.html Thomas Jefferson, ''Letter to Isaac McPherson''] (August 13, 1813)</ref></blockquote>
In 2005 the [[Royal Society of Arts]] launched the [[Adelphi Charter]], aimed at creating an international policy statement to frame how governments should make balanced intellectual property law.<ref>Boyle, James (14 October 2005). [http://education.guardian.co.uk/higher/comment/story/0,,1591467,00.html Protecting the public domain]. ''The Guardian''.</ref>
Another aspect of current U.S. Intellectual Property legislation is its focus on individual and joint works; thus, copyright protection can only be obtained in 'original' works of authorship. Critics like Philip Bennet argue that this does not provide adequate protection against [[cultural appropriation]] of indigenous knowledge, for which a [[indigenous intellectual property|collective IP regime]] is needed.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Philip |last=Bennet|title=Native Americans and Intellectual Property: the Necessity of Implementing Collective Ideals into Current United States Intellectual Property Laws|year= 2009 |ssrn=1498783}}</ref>
Intellectual property law has been criticized as not recognizing new forms of art such as the [[remix culture]], whose participants often commit what technically constitutes violations of such laws, creation works such as [[anime music video]]s and others, or are otherwise subject to unnecessary burdens and limitations which prevent them from fully expressing themselves.<ref name="JemielniakPrzegalinska20202">{{cite book|author1=Dariusz Jemielniak|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yLDMDwAAQBAJ|title=Collaborative Society|author2=Aleksandra Przegalinska|date=18 February 2020|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-35645-9}}</ref>{{Rp|70}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fiesler|first1=Casey|last2=Feuston|first2=Jessica L.|last3=Bruckman|first3=Amy S.|date=28 February 2015|title=Understanding Copyright Law in Online Creative Communities|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/2675133.2675234|journal=Proceedings of the 18th ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work & Social Computing|series=CSCW '15|location=Vancouver, BC, Canada|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=116–129|doi=10.1145/2675133.2675234|isbn=978-1-4503-2922-4|s2cid=28669082}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Freund|first=Katharina|date=1 August 2016|title="Fair use is legal use": Copyright negotiations and strategies in the fan-vidding community|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444814555952|journal=New Media & Society|language=en|volume=18|issue=7|pages=1347–1363|doi=10.1177/1461444814555952|s2cid=11258627|issn=1461-4448}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Allen|first=Peter James|date=24 August 2008|title=Rip, mix, burn … sue … ad infinitum: The effects of deterrence vs voluntary cooperation on non-commercial online copyright infringing behaviour|url=https://journals.uic.edu/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/2073|journal=First Monday|language=en|doi=10.5210/fm.v13i9.2073|issn=1396-0466}}</ref>
===Objections to the expansion in nature and scope of intellectual property laws===
[[File:Tom Bell's graph showing extension of U.S. copyright term over time.svg|thumb|Expansion of U.S. copyright law (Assuming authors create their works by age 35 and live for seventy years)]]
Other criticism of intellectual property law concerns the expansion of intellectual property, both in duration and in scope.
As scientific knowledge has expanded and allowed new industries to arise in fields such as biotechnology and nanotechnology, originators of technology have sought IP protection for the new technologies. Patents have been granted for living organisms,<ref>Council for Responsible Genetics, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20111002092235/http://www.actionbioscience.org/genomics/crg.html DNA Patents Create Monopolies on Living Organisms]". Retrieved 2008.12.18.</ref> and in the United States, [[Plant breeders' rights|certain living organisms]] have been patentable for over a century.<ref>Plant Patents [https://web.archive.org/web/19990220172601/http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/plant/ USPTO.gov]</ref>
The increase in terms of protection is particularly seen in relation to copyright, which has recently been the subject of serial extensions [[Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act|in the United States]] and [[Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection|in Europe]].<ref name="lessigperpetual">{{cite web|title=Against perpetual copyright|url=http://wiki.lessig.org/index.php/Against_perpetual_copyright|website=wiki.lessig.org|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091103224919/http://wiki.lessig.org/index.php/Against_perpetual_copyright|archive-date=3 November 2009}}</ref><ref>''E.g.'', the U.S. [[Copyright Term Extension Act]], Pub.L. 105–298.</ref><ref>Mark Helprin, Op-ed: [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/20/opinion/20helprin.html A Great Idea Lives Forever. Shouldn't Its Copyright?] ''The New York Times'', 20 May 2007.</ref><ref>''[[Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' [https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/01-618.ZS.html Eldred v. Ashcroft, 537 U. S. 186 (2003)]</ref><ref name="td_confused">{{cite web|title=Arguing For Infinite Copyright... Using Copied Ideas And A Near Total Misunderstanding Of Property|url=http://www.techdirt.com/articles/20070521/015928.shtml|last=Masnick|first=Mike|date=21 May 2007|website=techdirt|publisher=[[techdirt]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090907142130/http://www.techdirt.com/articles/20070521/015928.shtml|archive-date=7 September 2009}}</ref> With no need for registration or copyright notices, this is thought to have led to an increase in [[orphan works]] (copyrighted works for which the copyright owner cannot be contacted), a problem that has been noticed and addressed by governmental bodies around the world.<ref>Library of Congress Copyright Office [http://www.copyright.gov/fedreg/2012/77fr64555.pdf Docket No. 2012–12 Orphan Works and Mass Digitization] Federal Register, Vol. 77, No. 204. Monday, 22 October 2012. Notices. PP 64555–64561; see p 64555 first column for international efforts and 3rd column for description of the problem.</ref>
Also with respect to copyright, the American film industry helped to change the social construct of intellectual property via its trade organization, the [[Motion Picture Association of America]]. In amicus briefs in important cases, in lobbying before Congress, and in its statements to the public, the MPAA has advocated strong protection of intellectual property rights. In framing its presentations, the association has claimed that people are entitled to the property that is produced by their labor. Additionally Congress's awareness of the position of the United States as the world's largest producer of films has made it convenient to expand the conception of intellectual property.<ref>Dennis Wharton, "MPAA's Rebel With Cause Fights for Copyright Coin," Variety (3 August 1992), Vol. 348, No. 2, p. 18.</ref> These doctrinal reforms have further strengthened the industry, lending the MPAA even more power and authority.<ref>William W. Fisher III, [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/property99/history.html The Growth of Intellectual Property:A History of the Ownership of Ideas in the United States] Eigentumskulturen im Vergleich (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1999)</ref>
The growth of the [[Internet]], and particularly distributed search engines like [[Kazaa]] and [[Gnutella]], have represented a challenge for copyright policy. The [[Recording Industry Association of America]], in particular, has been on the front lines of the fight against [[copyright infringement]], which the industry calls "piracy". The industry has had victories against some services, including a highly publicized case against the file-sharing company [[Napster]], and some people have been prosecuted for sharing files in violation of copyright. The electronic age has seen an increase in the attempt to use software-based [[digital rights management]] tools to restrict the copying and use of digitally based works. Laws such as the [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] have been enacted that use criminal law to prevent any circumvention of software used to enforce digital rights management systems. Equivalent provisions, to prevent circumvention of copyright protection have existed in EU for some time, and are being expanded in, for example, Article 6 and 7 the [[Information Society Directive|Copyright Directive]]. Other examples are Article 7 of the Software Directive of 1991 (91/250/EEC), and the [[Conditional Access Directive]] of 1998 (98/84/EEC). This can hinder legal uses, affecting [[public domain]] works, [[limitations and exceptions to copyright]], or uses allowed by the copyright holder. Some [[copyleft]] licenses, like the [[GNU GPL 3]], are designed to counter this.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Quick Guide to GPLv3|url=https://www.gnu.org/licenses/quick-guide-gplv3.en.html|last=Smith|first=Brett|date=2007–2010|website=gnu|publisher=[[Free Software Foundation]]|access-date=15 February 2013}}</ref> Laws may permit circumvention under specific conditions, such as when it is necessary to achieve interoperability with the circumventor's program, or for [[accessibility]] reasons; however, distribution of circumvention tools or instructions may be illegal.
In the context of trademarks, this expansion has been driven by international efforts to harmonise the definition of "trademark", as exemplified by the [[TRIPS Agreement|Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights]] ratified in 1994, which formalized regulations for IP rights that had been handled by common law, or not at all, in member states. Pursuant to TRIPs, any [[sign (semiotics)|sign]] which is "capable of distinguishing" the products or services of one business from the products or services of another business is capable of constituting a trademark.<ref>Katherine Beckman and Christa Pletcher (2009) [http://ipjournal.law.wfu.edu/files/2010/10/article.10.215.pdf Expanding Global Trademark Regulation] Wake Forest Intellectual Property Law Journal 10(2): 215–239</ref>
===Use in corporate tax avoidance===
{{quote box
|width=23em|border=1px|align=right|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|qalign=left
|quote = Make no mistake: the headline [tax] rate is not what triggers tax evasion and aggressive tax planning. That comes from schemes that facilitate profit shifting.
|salign=left
|source=[[Pierre Moscovici]]<br>European Commissioner for Tax<br>''Financial Times'', 11 March 2018<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ft.com/content/2b356956-17fc-11e8-9376-4a6390addb44|title=Multinationals pay lower taxes than a decade ago|work=Financial Times|date=11 March 2018}}</ref>
}}
Intellectual property has become a core tool in corporate tax planning and [[tax avoidance]].<ref name="fordam">{{cite web|title=Intellectual Property and Tax Avoidance in Ireland|url=http://www.fordhamiplj.org/2016/08/30/ip-tax-avoidance-ireland/|date=30 August 2016|website=fordhamiplj|publisher=Fordham Intellectual Property, Media & Entertainment Law Journal|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502112434/http://www.fordhamiplj.org/2016/08/30/ip-tax-avoidance-ireland/|archive-date=2 May 2019}}</ref><ref name="ucla">Intellectual property (IP) has become the leading tax-avoidance vehicle.{{cite web|title=Intellectual Property Law Solutions to Tax Avoidance|url=https://www.uclalawreview.org/pdf/62-1-1.pdf|year=2015|website=uclalawreview|publisher=UCLA Law Review|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316232500/http://www.uclalawreview.org/pdf/62-1-1.pdf|archive-date=16 March 2015}}</ref><ref name="lux">{{cite journal|url=https://www.economist.com/business/2015/08/27/patently-problematic|title=Patently problematic|journal=The Economist|date=August 2015}}</ref> IP is a key component of the leading multinational tax avoidance [[base erosion and profit shifting]] (BEPS) tools,<ref name="tilburg">{{cite web | url=http://arno.uvt.nl/show.cgi?fid=143915| title=Intellectual Property Tax Planning in the light of Base Erosion and Profit Shifting | publisher=University of Tilburg | date=June 2017}}</ref><ref name="zew">{{cite web|url=http://ftp.zew.de/pub/zew-docs/dp/dp13078.pdf|title=Profit Shifting and "Aggressive" Tax Planning by Multinational Firms |publisher=Centre for European Economic Research (ZEW)|page=3|date=October 2013}}</ref> which the OECD estimates costs $100–240 billion in lost annual tax revenues.<ref name="BEPS Background"/>
In 2017–2018, both the U.S. and the EU Commission simultaneously decided to depart from the [[Base erosion and profit shifting (OECD project)|OECD BEPS Project]] timetable, which was set up in 2013 to combat IP BEPS tax tools like the above,<ref name="BEPS Background">{{cite web|title=BEPS Project Background Brief|url=http://www.oecd.org/tax/beps/background-brief-inclusive-framework-for-beps-implementation.pdf|publisher=OECD|date=January 2017}}</ref> and launch their own anti-IP BEPS tax regimes:
* U.S. [[Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017]], which has several anti-IP BEPS abuse tax regimes, including GILTI tax and the BEAT tax regimes.<ref>{{Cite web|title = A Hybrid Approach: The Treatment of Foreign Profits under the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act|url=https://taxfoundation.org/treatment-foreign-profits-tax-cuts-jobs-act/|publisher=Tax Foundation|date = 3 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/business/economy/trump-s-us-tax-reform-a-significant-challenge-for-ireland-1.3310866|title=Trump's US tax reform a significant challenge for Ireland|work=The Irish Times|date=30 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/business/donald-trump-singles-out-ireland-in-tax-speech-1.3310149?mode=sample&auth-failed=1&pw-origin=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishtimes.com%2Fbusiness%2Fdonald-trump-singles-out-ireland-in-tax-speech-1.3310149|title=Donald Trump singles out Ireland in tax speech|work=The Irish Times|date=29 November 2017}}</ref>
* EU Commission 2018 Digital Services Tax, which is less advanced than the U.S. TCJA, but does seek to override IP BEPS tools via a quasi-VAT.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/business/economy/why-ireland-faces-a-fight-on-the-corporate-tax-front-1.3426080|title=Why Ireland faces a fight on the corporate tax front|work=The Irish Times|date=14 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.ie/business/irish/eu-digital-levy-could-hit-tech-fdi-and-tax-revenue-here-36725944.html|title=EU digital levy could hit tech FDI and tax revenue here|work=Irish Independent|date=21 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thejournal.ie/eu-digital-tax-ireland-2-2-3918628-Mar2018/|title=What the EU's new taxes on the tech giants mean – and how they would hurt Ireland|publisher=thejournal.ie|date=24 March 2018}}</ref>
The departure of the U.S. and EU Commission from the OECD BEPS Project process, is attributed to frustrations with the rise in IP as a key BEPS tax tool, creating intangible assets, which are then turned into royalty payment BEPS schemes (double Irish), and/or [[capital allowance]] BEPS schemes (capital allowances for intangibles). In contrast, the OECD has spent years developing and advocating intellectual property as a legal and a GAAP accounting concept.<ref name="un1">{{cite web|url=https://www.taxjustice.net/2017/09/11/new-un-tax-handbook-sets-lower-income-countries-oecd-beps/|title=New UN tax handbook: Lower-income countries vs OECD BEPS failure|publisher=Tax Justice Network| date=11 September 2017}}</ref>
=== Gender gap in intellectual property ===
Women have historically been underrepresented in intellectual property rights. According to the World Intellectual Property Organization, women comprised only 16.5% of patent holders even as recently as 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|last=WIPO|first=World Intellectual Property Organization|date=8 March 2021|title=Gender Equality, Diversity and Intellectual Property|url=https://www.wipo.int/women-and-ip/en/|url-status=live|access-date=7 June 2021}}</ref> This disparity is the result of several factors including systemic bias, sexism and discrimination within the intellectual property space, underrepresentation within [[Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics|STEM]], and barriers to access of necessary finance and knowledge in order to obtain intellectual property rights, among other reasons.<ref>{{Cite web|last=WIPO|first=World Intellectual Property Organization|date=21 May 2021|title=Closing the Gender Gap in IP|url=https://www.wipo.int/women-and-ip/en/news/2021/news_0005.html|url-status=live|access-date=7 June 2021}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[Defensive publication]]
* [[Information policy]]
* [[Freedom of information]]
* [[Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property]]
* [[New product development]]
== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist |colwidth = 30em}}
=== Sources ===
{{refbegin |colwidth = 30em}}
* Arai, Hisamitsu. "Intellectual Property Policies for the Twenty-First Century: The Japanese Experience in Wealth Creation", WIPO Publication Number 834 (E). 2000. [https://archive.today/20121212232107/http://www.wipo.int/freepublications/en/intproperty/834/index.html wipo.int]
* Bettig, R. V. (1996). Critical Perspectives on the History and Philosophy of Copyright. In R. V. Bettig, Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property. (pp. 9–32). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
* Boldrin, Michele and David K. Levine. "Against Intellectual Monopoly", 2008. [http://www.dklevine.com/papers/imbookfinalall.pdf dkleving.com]
* Hahn, Robert W., ''Intellectual Property Rights in Frontier Industries: Software and Biotechnology'', AEI Press, March 2005.
* Branstetter, Lee, Raymond Fishman and C. Fritz Foley. "Do Stronger Intellectual Property Rights Increase International Technology Transfer? Empirical Evidence from US Firm-Level Data". NBER Working Paper 11516. July 2005. [https://web.archive.org/web/20081122150353/http://weblog.ipcentral.info/IPRs%20%26%20Tech%20Trans.pdf weblog.ipcentral.info]
* Connell, Shaun. "Intellectual Ownership". October 2007. [https://web.archive.org/web/20071221052053/http://rebirthoffreedom.org/freedom/property/intellectual-ownership/ rebithofffreedom.org]
* De George, Richard T. "14. Intellectual Property Rights." In ''The Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics'', by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp, 1:408–439. 1st ed. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.
* Farah, Paolo and Cima, Elena. "China's Participation in the World Trade Organization: Trade in Goods, Services, Intellectual Property Rights and Transparency Issues" in Aurelio Lopez-Tarruella Martinez (ed.), {{lang|es|El comercio con China. Oportunidades empresariales, incertidumbres jurídicas}}, Tirant lo Blanch, Valencia (Spain) 2010, pp. 85–121. {{ISBN|978-84-8456-981-7}}. Available at [https://ssrn.com/abstract=1527992 SSRN.com]
* Farah, Paolo Davide, Tremolada Riccardo, Desirability of Commodification of Intangible Cultural Heritage: The Unsatisfying Role of IPRs, in TRANSNATIONAL DISPUTE MANAGEMENT, Special Issues "The New Frontiers of Cultural Law: Intangible Heritage Disputes", Volume 11, Issue 2, March 2014, {{ISSN|1875-4120}} Available at [https://ssrn.com/abstract=2472339 SSRN.com]
* Farah, Paolo Davide, Tremolada Riccardo, Intellectual Property Rights, Human Rights and Intangible Cultural Heritage, Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Issue 2, Part I, June 2014, {{ISSN|0035-614X}}, Giuffre, pp. 21–47. Available at [https://ssrn.com/abstract=2472388 SSRN.com]
* {{cite book | first1 = Paul | last1 = Goldstein | first2 = R. Anthony | last2 = Reese | title = Copyright, Patent, Trademark and Related State Doctrines: Cases and Materials on the Law of Intellectual Property | year = 2008 | edition = 6th | location = New York | publisher = Foundation Press | isbn = 978-1-59941-139-2 }}
* [[Andrew Gowers|Gowers, Andrew]]. "Gowers Review of Intellectual Property". Her Majesty's Treasury, November 2006. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090407093401/http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/d/pbr06_gowers_report_755.pdf hm-treasury.gov.uk] {{ISBN|978-0-11-840483-9}}.
* Greenhalgh, C. & Rogers M., (2010). ''Innovation, Intellectual Property, and Economic Growth.'' New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
* [[Stephan Kinsella|Kinsella, Stephan]]. "Against Intellectual Property". ''Journal of Libertarian Studies'' 15.2 (Spring 2001): 1–53. [https://www.mises.org/journals/jls/15_2/15_2_1.pdf mises.org]
* Lai, Edwin. "The Economics of Intellectual Property Protection in the Global Economy". Princeton University. April 2001. [http://www.dklevine.com/archive/refs4122247000000000481.pdf dklevine.com]
* Lee, Richmond K. ''[http://www.philstar.com/business/320465/scope-and-interplay-ip-rights Scope and Interplay of IP Rights]'' Accralaw offices.
* [[Lawrence Lessig|Lessig, Lawrence]]. "Free Culture: How Big Media Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down Culture and Control Creativity". New York: Penguin Press, 2004. [http://www.free-culture.cc/freeculture.pdf free-culture.cc] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090916145748/http://www.free-culture.cc/freeculture.pdf |date=16 September 2009 }}.
* Lindberg, Van. ''Intellectual Property and Open Source: A Practical Guide to Protecting Code''. O'Reilly Books, 2008. {{ISBN|0-596-51796-3}} | {{ISBN|978-0-596-51796-0}}
* Maskus, Keith E. "Intellectual Property Rights and Economic Development". ''Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law'', Vol. 32, 471. [https://web.archive.org/web/20081223230716/http://www.law.case.edu/student_life/ journals/jil/32-3/maskusarticle.pdf law.case.edu]
* Mazzone, Jason. "[https://ssrn.com/abstract=787244 Copyfraud]". Brooklyn Law School, Legal Studies Paper No. 40. ''New York University Law Review'' 81 (2006): 1027. (Abstract.)
* Miller, Arthur Raphael, and Michael H. Davis. ''Intellectual Property: Patents, Trademarks, and Copyright''. 3rd ed. New York: West/Wadsworth, 2000. {{ISBN|0-314-23519-1}}.
* Moore, Adam, [http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2011/entries/intellectual-property "Intellectual Property"], The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
* [http://www.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/sites/chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/files/publications/morin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf Morin, Jean-Frédéric, Paradigm Shift in the Global IP Regime: The Agency of Academics, Review of International Political Economy, vol. 21(2), 2014, pp. 275–309.]
* Mossoff, A. [https://ssrn.com/abstract=787244 'Rethinking the Development of Patents: An Intellectual History, 1550–1800,'] Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 52, p. 1255, 2001
* Rozanski, Felix. "Developing Countries and Pharmaceutical Intellectual Property Rights: Myths and Reality" [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091009142207/http://www.stockholm-network.org/downloads/publications/Developing_Countries_and_Intellectual_Property_Rights_Myth_and_Reality_6.pdf stockholm-network.org]
* Perelman, Michael. ''Steal This Idea: Intellectual Property and The Corporate Confiscation of Creativity''. Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.
* Rand, Ayn. "Patents and Copyrights" in Ayn Rand, ed. 'Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal,' New York: New American Library, 1966, pp. 126–128
* Reisman, George. 'Capitalism: A Complete & Integrated Understanding of the Nature & Value of Human Economic Life,' Ottawa, Illinois: 1996, pp. 388–389
* Schechter, Roger E., and John R. Thomas. ''Intellectual Property: The Law of Copyrights, Patents and Trademarks''. New York: West/Wadsworth, 2003, {{ISBN|0-314-06599-7}}.
* Schneider, Patricia H. "International Trade, Economic Growth and Intellectual Property Rights: A Panel Data Study of Developed and Developing Countries". July 2004. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090226035349/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/~pschneid/images/Schneider_JDEJuly2004.pdf mtholyoke.edu]
* Shapiro, Robert and Nam Pham. "Economic Effects of Intellectual Property-Intensive Manufacturing in the United States". July 2007. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080216195041/http://www.the-value-of-ip.org/ the-value-of.ip.org]. Retrieved 2008-04-09.
* Spooner, Lysander. "The Law of Intellectual Property; or An Essay on the Right of Authors and Inventors to a Perpetual Property in their Ideas". Boston: Bela Marsh, 1855.
* [[Siva Vaidhyanathan|Vaidhyanathan, Siva]]. ''The Anarchist in the Library: How the Clash Between Freedom and Control Is Hacking the Real World and Crashing the System''. New York: Basic Books, 2004.
* {{cite book |author=Burk, Dan L. |author2=Mark A. Lemley |name-list-style=amp |title=The Patent Crisis and How the Courts Can Solve It |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-226-08061-1}}
{{refend}}
==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
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{{Library resources box}}
* The [[European Audiovisual Observatory]] hosts articles on [https://web.archive.org/web/20130729081345/http://www.obs.coe.int/en/legal/copyright/ copyright] legislature and covers media laws in their [http://merlin.obs.coe.int/newsletter.php/ newsletter]
* [https://www.statista.com/topics/3493/media-piracy/ Internet/Media Piracy: Statistics & Facts]—Statista
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[[Category:Intellectual property law]]
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[[Category:Intangible assets]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext ) | 'Fixed
==History==
{{Main|History of copyright law|History of patent law}}
[[File:Statute of anne.jpg|thumb|The [[Statute of Anne]] came into force in 1710]]
The [[Statute of Monopolies]] (1624) and the British [[Statute of Anne]] (1710) are seen as the origins of [[patent law]] and [[copyright]] respectively,<ref>{{cite book|last=Brad|first=Sherman|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=u2aMRA-eF1gC&dq=statute+of+anne+copyright&lr=&as_brr=3&source=gbs_navlinks_s|title=The making of modern intellectual property law: the British experience, 1760–1911|author2=Lionel Bently|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999|isbn=978-0-521-56363-5|page=207}}</ref> firmly establishing the concept of intellectual property.
"Literary property" was the term predominantly used in the British legal debates of the 1760s and 1770s over the extent to which authors and publishers of works also had rights deriving from the common law of property (''[[Millar v Taylor]]'' (1769), ''[[Hinton v Donaldson]]'' (1773), ''[[Donaldson v Becket]]'' (1774)). The first known use of the term ''intellectual property'' dates to this time, when a piece published in the ''[[Monthly Review (London)|Monthly Review]]'' in 1769 used the phrase.<ref>{{OED | intellectual property }} (Citing ''Monthly Review'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=cMsvAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA290#v=onepage&q&f=false vol. 41. p. 290] (1769): "What a niggard this Doctor is of his own, and how profuse he is of other people's intellectual property.")</ref> The first clear example of modern usage goes back as early as 1808, when it was used as a heading title in a collection of essays.<ref>{{OED | intellectual property }} (Citing ''Medical Repository Of Original Essays And Intelligence'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ij9JAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA303 vol. 11. p. 303] (1808): "New-England Association in favour of Inventors and Discoverers, and particularly for the Protection of intellectual Property.")</ref>
The German equivalent was used with the founding of the [[North German Confederation]] whose [[constitution]] granted legislative power over the protection of intellectual property (''Schutz des geistigen Eigentums'') to the confederation.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20040706175038/http://www.verfassungen.de/de/de67-18/verfassung67-i.htm 'Article 4 No. 6 of the Constitution of 1867 (German)'] Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 52, p. 1255, 2001</ref> When the administrative secretariats established by the [[Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property|Paris Convention]] (1883) and the [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]] (1886) merged in 1893, they located in Berne, and also adopted the term intellectual property in their new combined title, the [[United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property]].
The organization subsequently relocated to Geneva in 1960 and was succeeded in 1967 with the establishment of the [[World Intellectual Property Organization]] (WIPO) by [[Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization|treaty]] as an agency of the [[United Nations]]. According to legal scholar [[Mark Lemley]], it was only at this point that the term really began to be used in the United States (which had not been a party to the Berne Convention),<ref name="Lemley 2005" /> and it did not enter popular usage there until passage of the [[Bayh-Dole Act]] in 1980.<ref>Mark A. Lemley, [https://ssrn.com/abstract=582602 "Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding"] (Abstract); see Table 1: 4–5.</ref>
<blockquote>"The history of patents does not begin with inventions, but rather with royal grants by [[Queen Elizabeth I]] (1558–1603) for monopoly privileges. Approximately 200 years after the end of Elizabeth's reign, however, a patent represents a legal [[right]] obtained by an inventor providing for exclusive control over the production and sale of his mechanical or scientific invention. demonstrating the evolution of patents from royal prerogative to common-law doctrine."<ref>Mossoff, A. [https://ssrn.com/abstract=863925 'Rethinking the Development of Patents: An Intellectual History, 1550–1800,'] Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 52, p. 1255, 2001</ref></blockquote>
The term can be found used in an October 1845 [[Massachusetts Circuit Court]] ruling in the patent case ''Davoll et al. v. Brown.'', in which Justice Charles L. Woodbury wrote that "only in this way can we protect intellectual property, the labors of the mind, productions and interests are as much a man's own...as the wheat he cultivates, or the flocks he rears."<ref>''1 Woodb. & M. 53, 3 West.L.J. 151, 7 F.Cas. 197, No. 3662, 2 Robb.Pat.Cas. 303, Merw.Pat.Inv. 414''</ref> The statement that "discoveries are..property" goes back earlier. Section 1 of the [[French law of 1791]] stated, "All new discoveries are the property of the author; to assure the inventor the property and temporary enjoyment of his discovery, there shall be delivered to him a patent for five, ten or fifteen years."<ref>{{cite web|title=Patent Archives – Ladas & Parry LLP|url=http://www.ladas.com/Patents/USPatentHistory.html|website=Ladas & Parry|publisher=Ladas.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115040700/http://www.ladas.com/Patents/USPatentHistory.html|archive-date=15 January 2013|access-date=17 August 2015}}</ref> In Europe, [[France|French]] author A. Nion mentioned ''propriété intellectuelle'' in his ''Droits civils des auteurs, artistes et inventeurs'', published in 1846.
Until recently, the purpose of intellectual property law was to give as little protection as possible in order to encourage [[innovation]]. Historically, therefore, they were granted only when they were necessary to encourage invention, limited in time and scope.<ref name="Mark A. Lemley">{{cite web|title=Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding|url=http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/tlr83&div=30&g_sent=1&collection=journals|author=Mark A. Lemley|website=Heinonline|publisher=Heinonline.org|access-date=17 August 2015}}</ref> This is mainly as a result of knowledge being traditionally viewed as a public good, in order to allow its extensive dissemination and improvement thereof.<ref>The Economist; (20 October 2005): “The Liquidity of Innovation”; How the new market for intellectual property is changing the technology industry, available; https://www.economist.com/node/5015365</ref>
The concept's origin can potentially be traced back further. [[Jewish law]] includes several considerations whose effects are similar to those of modern intellectual property laws, though the notion of intellectual creations as property does not seem to exist – notably the principle of Hasagat Ge'vul (unfair encroachment) was used to justify limited-term publisher (but not author) copyright in the 16th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jlaw.com/Articles/copyright1.html |title=Jewish Law – Articles ("Jewish Law and Copyright") |publisher=Jlaw.com |access-date=17 August 2015}}</ref> In 500 BCE, the government of the Greek state of [[Sybaris]] offered one year's patent "to all who should discover any new refinement in luxury".<ref>Charles Anthon, A Classical Dictionary: Containing an Account of the Principal Proper Names Mentioned in Ancient Authors, and Intended to Elucidate All the Important Points Connected with the Geography, History, Biography, Mythology, and Fine Arts of the Greek and Romans. Together with an Account of Coins, Weights, and Measures, with Tabular Values of the Same 1273 (Harper & Brothers 1841). See also "The first patent law was enacted in Sybaris, a city in the South of Italy, before the Roman domination; The law was mentioned by Atheneus, an ancient writer..." in Takenaka, Toshiko (2013). Intellectual Property in Common Law and Civil Law. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 419. (chapter by Mario Franzosi).</ref>
According to Jean-Frédéric Morin, "the global intellectual property regime is currently in the midst of a paradigm shift".<ref>{{cite web|last=Morin|first= Jean-Frédéric|title= Paradigm shift in the global IP regime: The agency of academics, Review of International Political Economy, vol 21-2, 2014, p.275 |url=http://www.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/sites/chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/files/publications/morin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf}}</ref> Indeed, up until the early 2000s the global IP regime used to be dominated by high standards of protection characteristic of IP laws from Europe or the United States, with a vision that uniform application of these standards over every country and to several fields with little consideration over social, cultural or environmental values or of the national level of economic development. Morin argues that "the emerging discourse of the global IP regime advocates for greater policy flexibility and greater access to knowledge, especially for developing countries." Indeed, with the Development Agenda adopted by WIPO in 2007, a set of 45 recommendations to adjust WIPO's activities to the specific needs of developing countries and aim to reduce distortions especially on issues such as patients’ access to medicines, Internet users’ access to information, farmers’ access to seeds, programmers’ access to source codes or students’ access to scientific articles.<ref>{{cite web|last=Morin|first= Jean-Frédéric|title= Paradigm shift in the global IP regime: The agency of academics, Review of International Political Economy, vol 21-2, 2014, p.275 |url=http://www.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/sites/chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/files/publications/morin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf}}</ref> However, this paradigm shift has not yet manifested itself in concrete legal reforms at the international level.<ref>{{cite web|last=Morin|first= Jean-Frédéric|title= Paradigm shift in the global IP regime: The agency of academics, Review of International Political Economy, vol 21-2, 2014, p.275 |url=http://www.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/sites/chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/files/publications/morin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf}}</ref>
Similarly, it is based on these background that the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement requires members of the WTO to set minimum standards of legal protection, but its objective to have a “one-fits-all” protection law on Intellectual Property has been viewed with controversies regarding differences in the development level of countries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Roisah|first=Kholis|date=26 December 2017|title=Understanding Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Agreement: From Hard and Soft Law Perspective|journal=Hasanuddin Law Review|volume=3|issue=3|pages=277–289|doi=10.20956/halrev.v3i3.1153|issn=2442-9899|doi-access=free}}</ref> Despite the controversy, the agreement has extensively incorporated intellectual property rights into the global trading system for the first time in 1995, and has prevailed as the most comprehensive agreement reached by the world.<ref>WTO (2013): Intellectual Property; Responding to least developed countries’ special needs in intellectual property; https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/ldc_e.htm</ref>
==Rights==
Intellectual property rights include [[patent]]s, [[copyright]], [[industrial design right]]s, [[trademark]]s, [[plant variety rights]], [[trade dress]], [[geographical indications]],<ref>[http://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/treaties/text.jsp?file_id=288514 Article 1(2) of the Paris Convention]: "The protection of industrial property has as its object patents, utility models, industrial designs, trademarks, service marks, trade names, indications of source or appellations of origin, and the repression of unfair competition."</ref> and in some jurisdictions [[trade secret]]s. There are also more specialized or derived varieties of ''[[sui generis]]'' exclusive rights, such as circuit design rights (called [[mask work]] rights in the US), [[supplementary protection certificate]]s for pharmaceutical products (after expiry of a patent protecting them), and [[database rights]] (in [[EC law|European law]]). The term "industrial property" is sometimes used to refer to a large subset of intellectual property rights including patents, trademarks, industrial designs, utility models, service marks, trade names, and geographical indications.<ref>{{cite web|title=Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property|url=http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/paris/index.html|website=Wipo|publisher=WIPO|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140711050507/http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/paris/index.html|archive-date=11 July 2014|access-date=25 September 2018}}</ref>
===Patents===
{{Main|Patent}}
A [[patent]] is a form of right granted by the government to an inventor or their successor-in-title, giving the owner the right to exclude others from making, using, selling, offering to sell, and importing an [[invention]] for a limited period of time, in exchange for the public disclosure of the invention. An invention is a solution to a specific technological problem, which may be a product or a process and generally has to fulfill three main requirements: it has to be [[novelty (patent)|new]], [[inventive step and non-obviousness|not obvious]] and there needs to be an [[industrial applicability]].<ref name="WIPO Handbook Ch 2">[http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/about-ip/en/iprm/pdf/ch2.pdf WIPO Intellectual Property Handbook: Policy, Law and Use. Chapter 2: Fields of Intellectual Property Protection] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130520221306/http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/about-ip/en/iprm/pdf/ch2.pdf |date=20 May 2013 }} WIPO 2008</ref>{{rp|17}} To enrich the body of knowledge and stimulate innovation, it is an obligation for patent owners to disclose valuable information about their inventions to the public.<ref name="wipo.int">WIPO (2008); “What is Intellectual Property” Handbook: WIPO Publication No. 450(E) {{Listed Invalid ISBN|978-92-805-1555-0}}, available: http://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/intproperty/450/wipo_pub_450.pdf</ref>
===Copyright===
{{Main|Copyright}}
A [[copyright]] gives the creator of an original work [[exclusive right]]s to it, usually for a limited time. Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or "works".<ref name="Intellectual Property and Information Wealth: Copyright and related rights">{{cite book |url=https://www.google.com/books?id=tgK9BzcF5WgC&dq=statute+of+anne+copyright&lr=&as_brr=3&source=gbs_navlinks_s |title=Intellectual Property and Information Wealth: Copyright and related rights |page=346 |author=Peter K, Yu |isbn=978-0-275-98883-8 |year=2007 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wipo.int/freepublications/en/intproperty/909/wipo_pub_909.pdf|title=Understanding Copyright and Related Rights|author=World Intellectual Property Organisation|publisher=WIPO|page=8|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120606013942/http://www.wipo.int/freepublications/en/intproperty/909/wipo_pub_909.pdf|archive-date=6 June 2012|url-status=dead|access-date=1 August 2008}}</ref> Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.<ref name="Art and copyright">{{cite book |url=https://www.google.com/books?id=h-XBqKIryaQC&dq=idea-expression+dichotomy&lr=&as_brr=3&source=gbs_navlinks_s |title=Art and copyright |pages=48–49 |author=Simon, Stokes |isbn=978-1-84113-225-9 |year=2001 |publisher=Hart Publishing}}</ref>
===Industrial design rights===
{{Main|Industrial design right}}
An [[industrial design right]] (sometimes called "design right" or ''design patent'') protects the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian. An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or color, or combination of pattern and color in three-dimensional form containing aesthetic value. An industrial design can be a two- or three-dimensional pattern used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft. Generally speaking, it is what makes a product look appealing, and as such, it increases the commercial value of goods.<ref name="wipo.int"/>
===Plant varieties===
{{Main|Plant breeders' rights}}
[[Plant breeders' rights]] or plant variety rights are the rights to commercially use a new variety of a plant. The variety must amongst others be novel and distinct and for registration the evaluation of propagating material of the variety is considered.
===Trademarks===
{{Main|Trademark}}
A [[trademark]] is a recognizable [[sign (semiotics)|sign]], [[design]] or [[expression (language)|expression]] which distinguishes [[Good (economics)|products]] or [[Service (economics)|services]] of a particular trader from similar products or services of other traders.<ref>{{cite web|title=Trademark, Patent, or Copyright?|url=http://www.uspto.gov/trademarks/basics/definitions.jsp|date=13 December 2015|work=[[United States Patent and Trademark Office]]|publisher=[[Department of Commerce]]|url-status=dead|access-date=23 November 2015|archive-date=13 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121213072252/http://www.uspto.gov/trademarks/basics/definitions.jsp}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ipo.gov.uk/types/tm/t-about/t-whatis.htm |quote=A trade mark is a sign which can distinguish your goods and services from those of your competitors (you may refer to your trade mark as your "brand"). |access-date=22 December 2012 |title=What is a trade mark (or brand)? |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120703105213/http://www.ipo.gov.uk/types/tm/t-about/t-whatis.htm |archive-date=3 July 2012 |work=[[Intellectual Property Office (United Kingdom)|Intellectual Property Office]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.patentamt.de/english/trade_marks/index.html |quote=Trade marks identify the goods and services of particular traders |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129082624/http://www.patentamt.de/english/trade_marks/index.html |archive-date=29 November 2014 |date=28 November 2014 |access-date=28 March 2019 |work=[[Deutsches Patent- und Markenamt]] |title=Trade Marks}}</ref>
===Trade dress===
{{Main|Trade dress}}
[[Trade dress]] is a legal term of art that generally refers to characteristics of the visual and aesthetic appearance of a product or its packaging (or even the design of a building) that signify the source of the product to consumers.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Robert P. |last1=Merges |first2=Peter S. |last2=Menell |first3=Mark A. |last3=Lemley |title=Intellectual Property in the New Technological Age |edition=4th rev. |year=2007 |location=New York |publisher=Wolters Kluwer |isbn=978-0-7355-6989-8 |page=29}}</ref>
===Trade secrets===
{{Main|Trade secret}}
A [[trade secret]] is a [[formula]], practice, process, [[design]], instrument, [[pattern]], or compilation of [[information]] which is not generally known or reasonably ascertainable, by which a [[business]] can obtain an economic advantage over competitors and customers. There is no formal government protection granted; each business must take measures to guard its own trade secrets (e.g., Formula of its soft drinks is a trade secret for Coca-Cola.)
==Motivation and justification==
The main purpose of intellectual property law is to encourage the creation of a wide variety of intellectual goods for consumers.{{sfnp|Goldstein|Reese|2008|p=17}} To achieve this, the law gives people and businesses property rights to the information and intellectual goods they create, usually for a limited period of time. Because they can then profit from them, this gives economic incentive for their creation.{{sfnp|Goldstein|Reese|2008|p=17}} The intangible nature of intellectual property presents difficulties when compared with traditional property like land or goods. Unlike traditional property, intellectual property is indivisible – an unlimited number of people can "consume" an intellectual good without it being depleted. Additionally, investments in intellectual goods suffer from problems of appropriation – while a landowner can surround their land with a robust fence and hire armed guards to protect it, a producer of information or an intellectual good can usually do very little to stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a lower price. Balancing rights so that they are strong enough to encourage the creation of information and intellectual goods but not so strong that they prevent their wide use is the primary focus of modern intellectual property law.{{sfnp|Goldstein|Reese|2008|pp=18–19}}
By exchanging limited exclusive rights for disclosure of inventions and creative works, society and the patentee/copyright owner mutually benefit, and an incentive is created for inventors and authors to create and disclose their work. Some commentators have noted that the objective of intellectual property legislators and those who support its implementation appears to be "absolute protection". "If some intellectual property is desirable because it encourages innovation, they reason, more is better. The thinking is that creators will not have sufficient incentive to invent unless they are legally entitled to capture the full social value of their inventions".<ref name="Mark A. Lemley" /> This absolute protection or full value view treats intellectual property as another type of "real" property, typically adopting its law and rhetoric. Other recent developments in intellectual property law, such as the [[Leahy–Smith America Invents Act|America Invents Act]], stress international harmonization. Recently there has also been much debate over the desirability of using intellectual property rights to protect cultural heritage, including intangible ones, as well as over risks of [[commodification]] derived from this possibility.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Farah |first1=Paolo Davide |last2=Tremolada |first2=Riccardo |title=Desirability of Commodification of Intangible Cultural Heritage: The Unsatisfying Role of Intellectual Property Rights |journal=Transnational Dispute Management |date=15 March 2014 |volume=11 |issue=2 |ssrn=2472339 }}</ref> The issue still remains open in legal scholarship.
===Financial incentive===
These exclusive rights allow owners of intellectual property to benefit from the property they have created, providing a financial incentive for the creation of an investment in intellectual property, and, in case of patents, pay associated [[research and development]] costs.<ref name="MonoProf">{{cite web | url=http://www.uclan.ac.uk/schools/school_of_health/research_projects/files/health_innova_IPR_reform_report.pdf | title=Prudential Reasons for IPR Reform. A Report for Innova-P2 | publisher=[[Centre for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics|CAPPE]], [[University of Melbourne]] | date=May 2009 | access-date=17 July 2019 | author=Doris Schroeder and [[Peter Singer]] | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927130955/http://www.uclan.ac.uk/schools/school_of_health/research_projects/files/health_innova_IPR_reform_report.pdf | archive-date=27 September 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In the United States Article I Section 8 Clause 8 of the Constitution, commonly called the Patent and Copyright Clause, reads; "The Congress shall have power 'To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries.'"<ref>{{cite web|title=Copyright & Fair Use|url=http://fairuse.stanford.edu/law/us-constitution/|website=Stanford University Libraries|access-date=26 June 2017|date=9 April 2013}}</ref> ”Some commentators, such as [[David K. Levine|David Levine]] and [[Michele Boldrin]], dispute this justification.<ref name='R000000'>{{cite book |last=Levine |first=David |author-link=David K. Levine |author2=Michele Boldrin |author2-link=Michele Boldrin |title=Against intellectual monopoly |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=7 September 2008 |url=http://www.dklevine.com/papers/imbookfinalall.pdf |isbn=978-0-521-87928-6}}</ref>
In 2013 the [[United States Patent & Trademark Office]] approximated that the worth of intellectual property to the [[U.S. economy]] is more than US $5 trillion and creates employment for an estimated 18 million American people. The value of intellectual property is considered similarly high in other developed nations, such as those in the European Union.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Chemotherapy That Costs $70,000 in the U.S. Costs $2,500 in India |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2013/04/why-chemotherapy-that-costs-70-000-in-the-us-costs-2-500-in-india/274847/ |work=[[The Atlantic]] |publisher=The Atlantic Monthly Group |access-date=18 April 2013 |last=Bollyky |first=Thomas |date=10 April 2013}}</ref> In the UK, IP has become a recognised asset class for use in [[Pension led funding|pension-led funding]] and other types of business finance. However, in 2013, the [[UK Intellectual Property Office]] stated: "There are millions of intangible business assets whose value is either not being leveraged at all, or only being leveraged inadvertently".<ref>{{cite book|last=Brassell, King|first=Martin, Kelvin|url=http://www.ipo.gov.uk/ipresearch-bankingip.pdf|title=Banking on IP?|publisher=The Intellectual Property Office|year=2013|isbn=978-1-908908-86-5|location=Newport, Wales|page=15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131114113720/http://www.ipo.gov.uk/ipresearch-bankingip.pdf|archive-date=14 November 2013}}</ref>
===Economic growth===
The WIPO treaty and several related international agreements underline that the protection of intellectual property rights is essential to maintaining economic growth. The ''WIPO Intellectual Property Handbook'' gives two reasons for intellectual property laws:
<blockquote>One is to give statutory expression to the moral and economic rights of creators in their creations and the rights of the public in access to those creations. The second is to promote, as a deliberate act of Government policy, creativity and the dissemination and application of its results and to encourage fair trading which would contribute to economic and social development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/about-ip/en/iprm/pdf/ch1.pdf |page=3 |title=The Concept of Intellectual Property |access-date=28 March 2019 |work=[[WIPO]] |archive-date=15 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115120714/http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/about-ip/en/iprm/pdf/ch1.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref></blockquote>
The [[Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement]] (ACTA) states that "effective enforcement of intellectual property rights is critical to sustaining economic growth across all industries and globally".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.international.gc.ca/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/assets/pdfs/acta-crc_apr15-2011_eng.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120507132516/http://www.international.gc.ca/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/assets/pdfs/acta-crc_apr15-2011_eng.pdf |archive-date=7 May 2012 |access-date=28 March 2019 |title=Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement |pages=24 |work=[[Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada]]}}</ref>
Economists estimate that two-thirds of the value of large businesses in the United States can be traced to intangible assets.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sonecon.com/docs/studies/0807_thevalueofip.pdf |title=Economic Effects of Intellectual Property-Intensive Manufacturing in the United States |first1=Robert J. |last1=Shapiro |first2=Nam D. |last2=Pham |work=Sonecon.com |access-date=17 August 2015 |date=July 2007 |first3=Alan S. |last3=Blinder |pages=29 |publisher=[[World Growth]]}}</ref> "IP-intensive industries" are estimated to generate 72 percent more [[value added]] (price minus material cost) per employee than "non-IP-intensive industries".<ref name="Shapiro-Pham">{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216195041/http://www.the-value-of-ip.org/ |title=Economic Effects of Intellectual Property-Intensive Manufacturing in the United States |first1=Robert |last1=Shapiro |first2=Nam |last2=Pham |date=July 2007 |access-date=28 March 2019 |archive-date=16 February 2008 |url=http://www.the-value-of-ip.org/ |first3=Alan S. |last3=Blinder |work=the-value-of-ip.org}}</ref>{{Dubious|date=July 2009}}<!--does advertising count as "value"-->
A joint research project of the [[WIPO]] and the [[United Nations University]] measuring the impact of IP systems on six Asian countries found "a positive correlation between the strengthening of the IP system and subsequent economic growth."<ref name="WIPO: Economic Impact">{{cite web |url=http://www.wipo.int/portal/en/news/2007/article_0032.html |title=Measuring the Economic Impact of IP Systems |work=[[WIPO]] |date=19 September 2007 |access-date=28 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170521064049/http://www.wipo.int/portal/en/news/2007/article_0032.html |archive-date=21 May 2017}}</ref>
===Morality===
According to Article 27 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], "everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author".<ref>{{cite web |publisher=United Nations |title=The Universal Declaration of Human Rights |url=https://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml |access-date=25 October 2011}}</ref> Although the relationship between intellectual property and [[human rights]] is a complex one,<ref>{{cite web |author=WIPO – The World Intellectual Property Organization |title=Human Rights and Intellectual Property: An Overview |url=http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/hr/ |access-date=25 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111022125749/http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/hr/ |archive-date=22 October 2011 }}</ref> there are moral arguments for intellectual property.
The arguments that justify intellectual property fall into three major categories. Personality theorists believe intellectual property is an extension of an individual. Utilitarians believe that intellectual property stimulates social progress and pushes people to further innovation. Lockeans argue that intellectual property is justified based on deservedness and hard work.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/intellectual-property/|title=Intellectual Property|last=Moore|first=Adam|year=2014|website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University}}</ref>
Various moral justifications for private property can be used to argue in favor of the morality of intellectual property, such as:
# ''Natural Rights/Justice Argument'': this argument is based on Locke's idea that a person has a natural right over the labour and products which are produced by their body. Appropriating these products is viewed as unjust. Although Locke had never explicitly stated that natural right applied to products of the mind,<ref>Ronald V. Bettig. "Critical Perspectives on the History and Philosophy of Copyright" in Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property, by Ronald V. Bettig. (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996), 19–20</ref> it is possible to apply his argument to intellectual property rights, in which it would be unjust for people to misuse another's ideas.<ref>Richard T. De George, "14. Intellectual Property Rights," in The Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics, by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp, vol. 1, 1st ed. (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.), 415–416.</ref> Locke's argument for intellectual property is based upon the idea that laborers have the right to control that which they create. They argue that we own our bodies which are the laborers, this right of ownership extends to what we create. Thus, intellectual property ensures this right when it comes to production.
# ''Utilitarian-Pragmatic Argument'': according to this rationale, a society that protects private property is more effective and prosperous than societies that do not. Innovation and invention in 19th century America has been attributed to the development of the [[patent]] system.<ref>Richard T. De George, "14. Intellectual Property Rights," in The Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics, by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp, vol. 1, 1st ed. (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.), 416.</ref> By providing innovators with "durable and tangible return on their investment of time, labor, and other resources", intellectual property rights seek to maximize social utility.<ref name="Spinello 2007">{{cite journal |last=Spinello |first=Richard A. |title=Intellectual property rights |journal=Library Hi Tech |date=January 2007 |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=12–22 |doi=10.1108/07378830710735821}}<!--|access-date=November 3, 2011--></ref> The presumption is that they promote public welfare by encouraging the "creation, production, and distribution of intellectual works".<ref name="Spinello 2007" /> Utilitarians argue that without intellectual property there would be a lack of incentive to produce new ideas. Systems of protection such as Intellectual property optimize social utility.
# ''"Personality" Argument'': this argument is based on a quote from [[Hegel]]: "Every man has the right to turn his will upon a thing or make the thing an object of his will, that is to say, to set aside the mere thing and recreate it as his own".<ref>Richard T. De George, "14. Intellectual Property Rights," in The Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics, by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp, vol. 1, 1st ed. (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.), 417.</ref> European intellectual property law is shaped by this notion that ideas are an "extension of oneself and of one's personality".<ref>Richard T. De George, "14. Intellectual Property Rights," in The Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics, by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp, vol. 1, 1st ed. (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.), 418.</ref> Personality theorists argue that by being a creator of something one is inherently at risk and vulnerable for having their ideas and designs stolen and/or altered. Intellectual property protects these moral claims that have to do with personality.
[[Lysander Spooner]] (1855) argues "that a man has a natural and absolute right—and if a natural and absolute, then necessarily a perpetual, right—of property, in the ideas, of which he is the discoverer or creator; that his right of property, in ideas, is intrinsically the same as, and stands on identically the same grounds with, his right of property in material things; that no distinction, of principle, exists between the two cases".<ref>The Law of Intellectual Property, Part 1 Chapter 1 Section 9 – Lysander Spooner</ref>
Writer [[Ayn Rand]] argued in her book ''[[Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal]]'' that the protection of intellectual property is essentially a moral issue. The belief is that the human mind itself is the source of wealth and survival and that all property at its base is intellectual property. To violate intellectual property is therefore no different morally than violating other property rights which compromises the very processes of survival and therefore constitutes an immoral act.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rand |first=Ayn |author-link=Ayn Rand |title=Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal |url=https://archive.org/details/capitalismunknow00rand |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=Signet |year=1967 |orig-year=1966 |edition=paperback 2nd}}</ref>
==Infringement, misappropriation, and enforcement==
{{Main|Intellectual property infringement}}
Violation of intellectual property rights, called "infringement" with respect to patents, copyright, and trademarks, and "misappropriation" with respect to trade secrets, may be a breach of civil law or criminal law, depending on the type of intellectual property involved, jurisdiction, and the nature of the action.
As of 2011 trade in counterfeit copyrighted and trademarked works was a $600 billion industry worldwide and accounted for 5–7% of global trade.<ref name="Bitton">Miriam Bitton (2012) [https://web.archive.org/web/20121010073552/http://www.law.northwestern.edu/jclc/backissues/v102/n1/1021_67.Bitton.pdf Rethinking the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement's Criminal Copyright Enforcement Measures] The Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology 102(1):67–117</ref>
===Patent infringement===
{{Main|Patent infringement|}}
Patent infringement typically is caused by using or selling a patented invention without permission from the patent holder. The scope of the patented invention or the extent of protection<ref>{{EPC Article|69}}</ref> is defined in the [[claim (patent)|claims]] of the granted patent. There is [[safe harbor (law)|safe harbor]] in many jurisdictions to use a patented invention for research. This safe harbor does not exist in the US unless the research is done for purely philosophical purposes, or in order to gather data in order to prepare an application for regulatory approval of a drug.<ref>Pradip K. Sahu and Shannon Mrksich, Ph.D. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130207023621/http://www.brinkshofer.com/resource_center/85-the-hatch-waxman-act-research-exempt-from-patent-infringement The Hatch-Waxman Act: When Is Research Exempt from Patent Infringement?] ABA-IPL Newsletter 22(4) Summer 2004</ref> In general, patent infringement cases are handled under civil law (e.g., in the United States) but several jurisdictions incorporate infringement in criminal law also (for example, Argentina, China, France, Japan, Russia, South Korea).<ref>Matthew L. Cutler (2008) [http://blog.hdp.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/60549706_1.PDF International Patent Litigation Survey: A Survey of the Characteristics of Patent Litigation in 17 International Jurisdictions] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922062127/http://blog.hdp.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/60549706_1.PDF |date=22 September 2013 }}</ref>
===Copyright infringement===
{{Main|Copyright infringement}}
Copyright infringement is reproducing, distributing, displaying or performing a [[Copyright law#Scope|work]], or to make [[derivative work]]s, without permission from the copyright holder, which is typically a publisher or other business representing or assigned by the work's creator. It is often called "piracy".<ref name="Panethiere_p2">{{cite web|title=The Persistence of Piracy: The Consequences for Creativity, for Culture, and for Sustainable Development|url=http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/files/28696/11513329261panethiere_en.pdf/panethiere_en.pdf|last=Panethiere|first=Darrell|date=July–September 2005|website=portal.unesco|publisher=UNESCO e-Copyright Bulletin|page=2|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080816063513/http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/files/28696/11513329261panethiere_en.pdf/panethiere_en.pdf|archive-date=16 August 2008}}</ref> While copyright is created the instant a work is fixed, generally the copyright holder can only get money damages if the owner registers the copyright.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}} Enforcement of copyright is generally the responsibility of the copyright holder.<ref name=Xuan_p211>{{cite book |last=Correa |first=Carlos Maria |author2=Li, Xuan |title=Intellectual property enforcement: international perspectives |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |year=2009 |page=211 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bN3o1uwpKF4C&q=copyright+infringement+international+acta |isbn=978-1-84844-663-2}}</ref> The [[Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement|ACTA trade agreement]], signed in May 2011 by the United States, Japan, Switzerland, and the EU, and which has not entered into force, requires that its parties add criminal penalties, including incarceration and fines, for copyright and trademark infringement, and obligated the parties to actively police for infringement.<ref name=Bitton /><ref name=Musa>Irina D. Manta Spring 2011 [http://jolt.law.harvard.edu/articles/pdf/v24/24HarvJLTech469.pdf The Puzzle of Criminal Sanctions for Intellectual Property Infringement] Harvard Journal of Law & Technology 24(2):469–518</ref> There are [[limitations and exceptions to copyright]], allowing limited use of copyrighted works, which does not constitute infringement. Examples of such doctrines are the [[fair use]] and [[fair dealing]] doctrine.
===Trademark infringement===
{{Main|Trademark infringement}}
Trademark infringement occurs when one party uses a trademark that is identical or [[confusing similarity|confusingly similar]] to a trademark owned by another party, in relation to products or services which are identical or similar to the products or services of the other party. In many countries, a trademark receives protection without registration, but registering a trademark provides legal advantages for enforcement. Infringement can be addressed by civil litigation and, in several jurisdictions, under criminal law.<ref name=Bitton /><ref name=Musa />
===Trade secret misappropriation===
{{Main|Trade secret#Misappropriation}}
Trade secret misappropriation is different from violations of other intellectual property laws, since by definition trade secrets are secret, while patents and registered copyrights and trademarks are publicly available. In the United States, trade secrets are protected under state law, and states have nearly universally adopted the [[Uniform Trade Secrets Act]]. The United States also has federal law in the form of the [[Economic Espionage Act of 1996]] ({{usc|18|1831|1839}}), which makes the theft or misappropriation of a trade secret a federal crime. This law contains two provisions criminalizing two sorts of activity. The first, {{uscsub|18|1831|a}}, criminalizes the theft of trade secrets to benefit foreign powers. The second, {{usc|18|1832}}, criminalizes their theft for commercial or economic purposes. (The statutory penalties are different for the two offenses.) In [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] [[common law]] jurisdictions, confidentiality and trade secrets are regarded as an [[Equity (law)|equitable]] right rather than a [[property]] right but penalties for theft are roughly the same as in the United States.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}
==Criticisms==
{{Further|Criticism of patents|Opposition to copyright}}
{{split|Criticism of intellectual property|date=June 2021|discuss=Talk:Intellectual property#Split proposal}}
[[File:Pro piracy demonstration.jpg|thumb|Demonstration in [[Sweden]] in support of [[file sharing]], 2006.]]
[[File:GlamCamp NY Kippelboy nina Paley (2).JPG|thumb|"Copying is not theft!" badge with a character resembling [[Mickey Mouse]] in reference to the "in popular culture" rationale behind the [[Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]] of 1998]]
===The term "intellectual property"===
Criticism of the term ''intellectual property'' ranges from discussing its vagueness and abstract overreach to direct contention to the semantic validity of using words like ''property'' and ''rights'' in fashions that contradict practice and law. Many detractors think this term specially serves the doctrinal agenda of parties opposing reform in the public interest or otherwise abusing related legislations, and that it disallows intelligent discussion about specific and often unrelated aspects of copyright, patents, trademarks, etc.<ref>{{cite web|title=If Intellectual Property Is Neither Intellectual, Nor Property, What Is It?|url=https://www.techdirt.com/articles/20080306/003240458/if-intellectual-property-is-neither-intellectual-property-what-is-it.shtml|author1=Mike Masnick|author-link1=Mike Masnick|date=6 March 2008|website=techdirt.com|publisher=[[Techdirt]]|access-date=17 August 2014}}</ref>
[[Free Software Foundation]] founder [[Richard Stallman]] argues that, although the term ''intellectual property'' is in wide use, it should be rejected altogether, because it "systematically distorts and confuses these issues, and its use was and is promoted by those who gain from this confusion". He claims that the term "operates as a catch-all to lump together disparate laws [which] originated separately, evolved differently, cover different activities, have different rules, and raise different public policy issues" and that it creates a "bias" by confusing these monopolies with ownership of limited physical things, likening them to "property rights".<ref name="mirage">{{cite web|title=Did You Say 'Intellectual Property'? It's a Seductive Mirage|url=https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/not-ipr.xhtml|author=Richard M. Stallman|website=gnu|publisher=Free Software Foundation, Inc.|access-date=28 March 2008}}</ref> Stallman advocates referring to copyrights, patents and trademarks in the singular and warns against abstracting disparate laws into a collective term. He argues that "to avoid spreading unnecessary bias and confusion, it is best to adopt a firm policy not to speak or even think in terms of 'intellectual property'."<ref name="words-to-avoid">{{cite web|title=Words to Avoid (or Use with Care) Because They Are Loaded or Confusing|url=https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/words-to-avoid.en.html#IntellectualProperty|author=Richard M. Stallman|website=gnu|publisher=The GNU Project|access-date=1 December 2016}}</ref>
Similarly, economists [[Michele Boldrin|Boldrin]] and [[David K. Levine|Levine]] prefer to use the term "intellectual monopoly" as a more appropriate and clear definition of the concept, which, they argue, is very dissimilar from property rights.<ref>Boldrin, Michele, and David K. Levine. [http://levine.sscnet.ucla.edu/general/intellectual/against.htm Against intellectual monopoly] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206094352/http://levine.sscnet.ucla.edu/general/intellectual/against.htm |date=6 December 2017 }}. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.</ref> They further argued that "stronger patents do little or nothing to encourage innovation", mainly explained by its tendency to create market monopolies, thereby restricting further innovations and technology transfer.<ref>Michele Boldrin and David K. Levine (2009): “Intellectual Property Rights and Economic Growth in the Long-Run”; A model Discovery, available; http://levine.sscnet.ucla.edu/papers/aea_pp09.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809070301/http://levine.sscnet.ucla.edu/papers/aea_pp09.pdf |date=9 August 2017 }}</ref>
On the assumption that intellectual property rights are actual rights, Stallman says that this claim does not live to the historical intentions behind these laws, which in the case of copyright served as a censorship system, and later on, a regulatory model for the printing press that may have benefited authors incidentally, but never interfered with the freedom of average readers.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://web.mit.edu/comm-forum/forums/copyright.html |title=copyright and globalization in the age of computer networks |date=19 April 2001 |access-date=21 October 2015 |website=mit.edu |last=Stallman |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Stallman |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150302072256/http://web.mit.edu/comm-forum/forums/copyright.html |archive-date=2 March 2015}}</ref> Still referring to copyright, he cites legal literature such as the United States Constitution and [[case law]] to demonstrate that the law is meant to be an optional and experimental bargain to temporarily trade property rights and free speech for public, not private, benefits in the form of increased artistic production and knowledge. He mentions that "if copyright were a natural right nothing could justify terminating this right after a certain period of time".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Misinterpreting Copyright|url=https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/misinterpreting-copyright.html|last=Stallman|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Stallman|website=gnu.org|access-date=21 October 2015}}</ref>
Law professor, writer and political activist [[Lawrence Lessig]], along with many other [[copyleft]] and free software activists, has criticized the implied analogy with physical property (like land or an automobile). They argue such an analogy fails because physical property is generally rivalrous while intellectual works are non-rivalrous (that is, if one makes a copy of a work, the enjoyment of the copy does not prevent enjoyment of the original).<ref name="lessigperpetual" /><ref>{{cite news |title="Intellectual property" is a silly euphemism |last=Doctorow |first=Cory |author-link=Cory Doctorow |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2008/feb/21/intellectual.property |date=21 February 2008 |access-date=23 February 2008}}</ref> Other arguments along these lines claim that unlike the situation with tangible property, there is [[artificial scarcity|no natural scarcity]] of a particular idea or information: once it exists at all, it can be re-used and duplicated indefinitely without such re-use diminishing the original. [[Stephan Kinsella]] has objected to ''intellectual property'' on the grounds that the word "property" implies scarcity, which may not be applicable to ideas.<ref>Stephan Kinsella (2001) [https://cdn.mises.org/15_2_1.pdf Against Intellectual Property] Journal of Libertarian Studies 15(2):1–53</ref>
Entrepreneur and politician [[Rickard Falkvinge]] and [[Hacker (programmer subculture)|hacker]] [[Alexandre Oliva]] have independently compared George Orwell's fictional dialect [[Newspeak]] to the terminology used by intellectual property supporters as a linguistic weapon to shape public opinion regarding copyright debate and [[Digital Rights Management|DRM]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Language Matters: Framing The Copyright Monopoly So We Can Keep Our Liberties|url=http://torrentfreak.com/language-matters-framing-the-copyright-monopoly-so-we-can-keep-our-liberties-130714/|author1=Rick Falkvinge|author-link1=Rick Falkvinge|date=14 July 2013|website=torrentfreak.com|url-status=dead|access-date=17 August 2014|archive-date=4 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140604193406/http://torrentfreak.com/language-matters-framing-the-copyright-monopoly-so-we-can-keep-our-liberties-130714/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=Alexandre Oliva |author-link1=Alexandre Oliva |title=1984+30: GNU speech to defeat e-newspeak |url=http://www.fsfla.org/~lxoliva/fsfla/1984+30.en.pdf |access-date=17 August 2014 }}</ref>
====Alternative terms====
In [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] jurisdictions, intellectual property has often been referred to as [[intellectual rights]], traditionally a somewhat broader concept that has included [[Moral rights (copyright law)|moral rights]] and other personal protections that cannot be bought or sold. Use of the term ''intellectual rights'' has declined since the early 1980s, as use of the term ''intellectual property'' has increased.
Alternative terms ''monopolies on information'' and ''intellectual monopoly'' have emerged among those who argue against the "property" or "intellect" or "rights" assumptions, notably [[Richard Stallman]]. The [[backronym]]s ''intellectual protectionism'' and ''intellectual poverty'',<ref>Stephan Kinsella for Ludwig von Mises Institute blog, 6 January 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120709151150/http://archive.mises.org/15240/intellectual-poverty/ Intellectual Poverty]</ref> whose initials are also ''IP'', have found supporters as well, especially among those who have used the backronym ''[[Opposition to digital rights management|digital restrictions management]]''.<ref>[http://drm.info/ Official drm.info site] run by the Free Software Foundation Europe (FSFE)</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=What is DRM?|url=http://www.defectivebydesign.org/what_is_drm_digital_restrictions_management|website=defectivebydesign|publisher=Defective by Design|access-date=17 August 2015}}</ref>
The argument that an intellectual property right should (in the interests of better balancing of relevant private and public interests) be termed an ''intellectual monopoly privilege'' (IMP) has been advanced by several academics including Birgitte Andersen<ref>Birgitte Andersen. "'Intellectual Property Right' Or 'Intellectual Monopoly Privilege: Which One Should Patent Analysts Focus On?" CONFERENCIA INTERNACIONAL SOBRE SISTEMAS DE INOVAÇÃO E ESTRATÉGIAS DE DESENVOLVIMENTO PARA O TERCEIRO MILÊNIO. Nov 2003</ref> and [[Thomas Alured Faunce]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=G |last2=Sorenson |first2=C |last3=Faunce |first3=TA |year=2007 |title=Balancing intellectual monopoly privileges and the need for essential medicines |journal=Globalization and Health |volume=3 |page=4 |doi=10.1186/1744-8603-3-4 |quote=Balancing the need to protect the intellectual property rights (IPRs) (which the third author considers are more accurately described as intellectual monopoly privileges (IMPs)) of pharmaceutical companies, with the need to ensure access to essential medicines in developing countries is one of the most pressing challenges facing international policy makers today. |pmid=17565684 |pmc=1904211}}</ref>
===Objections to overly broad intellectual property laws===
[[File:Definition of Free Cultural Works logo notext.svg|thumb|The [[free culture movement]] champions the production of [[Free content|content]] [[Information wants to be free|that bears little or no restrictions]].]]
Some critics of intellectual property, such as those in the [[free culture movement]], point at intellectual monopolies as harming health (in the case of [[pharmaceutical patent]]s), preventing progress, and benefiting concentrated interests to the detriment of the masses,<ref>Birgitte Andersen. [http://redesist.ie.ufrj.br/globelics/pdfs/GLOBELICS_0050_Andersen.pdf 'Intellectual Property Right' Or 'Intellectual Monopoly Privilege': Which One Should Patent Analysts Focus On?] Conferência Internacional Sobre Sistemas De Inovação E Estratégias De Desenvolvimento Para O Terceiro Milênio. Nov. 2003</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=G |last2=Sorenson |first2=C |last3=Faunce |first3=TA |year=2007 |title=Editorial: Balancing the need to protect the intellectual property rights (IPRs) |journal=Globalization and Health |volume=3 |page=4|doi=10.1186/1744-8603-3-4 |pmid=17565684 |pmc=1904211 }}</ref><ref>On patents – {{cite web|title=Protecting Freedom In The Patent System: The Public Patent Foundation's Mission and Activities|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d0chez_Jf5A|author=Daniel B. Ravicher|date=6 August 2008|website=YouTube}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Authors@Google: Joseph Stiglitz – Making Globalization Work.|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UzhD7KVs-R4#t=16m05s|last=Stiglitz|first=Joseph|author-link=Joseph Stiglitz|date=13 October 2006|website=YouTube}}</ref> and argue that the public interest is harmed by ever-expansive monopolies in the form of [[copyright extension]]s, [[software patents]], and [[business method patents]]. More recently scientists and engineers are expressing concern that [[patent thickets]] are undermining technological development even in high-tech fields like [[nanotechnology]].<ref>[https://arstechnica.com/science/2012/11/stallmans-got-company-researcher-wants-nanotech-patent-moratorium/ Stallman's got company: Researcher wants nanotech patent moratorium] – Ars Technica</ref><ref>[https://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2012-11/23/professor-seeks-nanotech-patent-moratorium Freeze on nanotechnology patents proposed to help grow the sector] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302113908/http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2012-11/23/professor-seeks-nanotech-patent-moratorium |date=2 March 2014 }}- Wired UK 23 Nov 2012</ref>
Petra Moser has asserted that historical analysis suggests that intellectual property laws may harm innovation:
<blockquote>Overall, the weight of the existing historical evidence suggests that patent policies, which grant strong intellectual property rights to early generations of inventors, may discourage innovation. On the contrary, policies that encourage the diffusion of ideas and modify patent laws to facilitate entry and encourage competition may be an effective mechanism to encourage innovation.<ref>Moser, Petra. 2013. "Patents and Innovation: Evidence from Economic History." Journal of Economic Perspectives, 27(1): 23–44.</ref></blockquote>
In support of that argument, [[Jörg Baten]], Nicola Bianchi and Petra Moser<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Baten|first1=Jörg|last2=Bianchi|first2=Nicola|last3=Moser|first3=Petra|title=Compulsory licensing and innovation–Historical evidence from German patents after WWI|journal=Journal of Development Economics|year=2017|volume=126|pages=231–242|doi=10.1016/j.jdeveco.2017.01.002|doi-access=free}}</ref> find historical evidence that especially compulsory licensing – which allows governments to license patents without the consent of patent-owners – encouraged invention in Germany in the early 20th century by increasing the threat of competition in fields with low pre-existing levels of competition.
[[Peter Drahos]] notes, "Property rights confer authority over resources. When authority is granted to the few over resources on which the many depend, the few gain power over the goals of the many. This has consequences for both political and economic freedom within a society."<ref>Peter Drahos and John Braithwaite. [http://www.anu.edu.au/fellows/pdrahos/books/Information%20Feudalism.pdf Information Feudalism: Who Owns the Knowledge Economy?], Earthscan 2002</ref>{{rp|13}}
The [[World Intellectual Property Organization]] (WIPO) recognizes that conflicts may exist between the respect for and implementation of current intellectual property systems and other human rights.<ref>{{cite web|title=Human Rights and Intellectual Property: An Overview|url=http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/hr/|author=WIPO – World Intellectual Property Organization|website=wipo|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111022125749/http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/hr/|archive-date=22 October 2011|access-date=25 October 2011}}</ref> In 2001 the UN [[Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights]] issued a document called "Human rights and intellectual property" that argued that intellectual property tends to be governed by economic goals when it should be viewed primarily as a social product; in order to serve human well-being, intellectual property systems must respect and conform to human rights laws. According to the Committee, when systems fail to do so, they risk infringing upon the human right to food and health, and to cultural participation and scientific benefits.<ref>Staff, UN Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights. Geneva, 12–30 November 2001. [http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cescr/docs/statements/E.C.12.2001.15HRIntel-property.pdf Human rights and intellectual property]</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Chapman |first=Audrey R. |title=The Human Rights Implications of Intellectual Property Protection |journal=Journal of International Economic Law |date=December 2002 |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=861–882 |doi=10.1093/jiel/5.4.861 }}</ref> In 2004 the General Assembly of WIPO adopted ''The Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization'' which argues that WIPO should "focus more on the needs of developing countries, and to view IP as one of many tools for development—not as an end in itself".<ref>[http://www.cptech.org/ip/wipo/genevadeclaration.html ''The Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization'']</ref>
Ethical problems are most pertinent when socially valuable goods like life-saving medicines are given IP protection. While the application of IP rights can allow companies to charge higher than the marginal cost of production in order to recoup the costs of research and development, the price may exclude from the market anyone who cannot afford the cost of the product, in this case a life-saving drug.<ref name=Sonderholm>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1111/j.1747-9991.2010.00358.x|title = Ethical Issues Surrounding Intellectual Property Rights| journal=Philosophy Compass| volume=5| issue=12| pages=1107–1115|year = 2010|last1 = Sonderholm|first1 = Jorn}}</ref> "An IPR driven regime is therefore not a regime that is conductive to the investment of R&D of products that are socially valuable to predominately poor populations".<ref name=Sonderholm />{{rp|1108–9}}
[[Libertarian]]s have [[Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property|differing views on intellectual property]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}} [[Stephan Kinsella]], an [[anarcho-capitalist]] on the [[right-libertarian|right-wing of libertarianism]],<ref>Stephan Kinsella, [https://web.archive.org/web/20180415041048/https://www.lewrockwell.com/2004/01/stephan-kinsella/what-it-means-to-be-an-anarcho-capitalist/ "What It Means To Be an Anarcho-Capitalist"], "LewRockwell.com", published 2004-01-20, archived 15 April 2018. Retrieved 4 August 2018</ref> argues against intellectual property because allowing property rights in ideas and information creates [[artificial scarcity]] and infringes on the right to own tangible property. Kinsella uses the following scenario to argue this point:
<blockquote>[I]magine the time when men lived in caves. One bright guy—let's call him Galt-Magnon—decides to build a log cabin on an open field, near his crops. To be sure, this is a good idea, and others notice it. They naturally imitate Galt-Magnon, and they start building their own cabins. But the first man to invent a house, according to IP advocates, would have a right to prevent others from building houses on their own land, with their own logs, or to charge them a fee if they do build houses. It is plain that the innovator in these examples becomes a partial owner of the tangible property (e.g., land and logs) of others, due not to first occupation and use of that property (for it is already owned), but due to his coming up with an idea. Clearly, this rule flies in the face of the first-user homesteading rule, arbitrarily and groundlessly overriding the very homesteading rule that is at the foundation of all property rights.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080730030236/https://mises.org/books/against.pdf N. Stephan Kinsella, ''Against Intellectual property''] (2008), p. 44.</ref></blockquote>
[[Thomas Jefferson]] once said in a letter to Isaac McPherson on 13 August 1813:
<blockquote>"If nature has made any one thing less susceptible than all others of exclusive property, it is the action of the thinking power called an idea, which an individual may exclusively possess as long as he keeps it to himself; but the moment it is divulged, it forces itself into the possession of every one, and the receiver cannot dispossess himself of it. Its peculiar character, too, is that no one possesses the less, because every other possesses the whole of it. He who receives an idea from me, receives instruction himself without lessening mine; as he who lights his [[candle|taper]] at mine, receives light without darkening me."<ref>[http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/a1_8_8s12.html Thomas Jefferson, ''Letter to Isaac McPherson''] (August 13, 1813)</ref></blockquote>
In 2005 the [[Royal Society of Arts]] launched the [[Adelphi Charter]], aimed at creating an international policy statement to frame how governments should make balanced intellectual property law.<ref>Boyle, James (14 October 2005). [http://education.guardian.co.uk/higher/comment/story/0,,1591467,00.html Protecting the public domain]. ''The Guardian''.</ref>
Another aspect of current U.S. Intellectual Property legislation is its focus on individual and joint works; thus, copyright protection can only be obtained in 'original' works of authorship. Critics like Philip Bennet argue that this does not provide adequate protection against [[cultural appropriation]] of indigenous knowledge, for which a [[indigenous intellectual property|collective IP regime]] is needed.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Philip |last=Bennet|title=Native Americans and Intellectual Property: the Necessity of Implementing Collective Ideals into Current United States Intellectual Property Laws|year= 2009 |ssrn=1498783}}</ref>
Intellectual property law has been criticized as not recognizing new forms of art such as the [[remix culture]], whose participants often commit what technically constitutes violations of such laws, creation works such as [[anime music video]]s and others, or are otherwise subject to unnecessary burdens and limitations which prevent them from fully expressing themselves.<ref name="JemielniakPrzegalinska20202">{{cite book|author1=Dariusz Jemielniak|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yLDMDwAAQBAJ|title=Collaborative Society|author2=Aleksandra Przegalinska|date=18 February 2020|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-35645-9}}</ref>{{Rp|70}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fiesler|first1=Casey|last2=Feuston|first2=Jessica L.|last3=Bruckman|first3=Amy S.|date=28 February 2015|title=Understanding Copyright Law in Online Creative Communities|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/2675133.2675234|journal=Proceedings of the 18th ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work & Social Computing|series=CSCW '15|location=Vancouver, BC, Canada|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=116–129|doi=10.1145/2675133.2675234|isbn=978-1-4503-2922-4|s2cid=28669082}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Freund|first=Katharina|date=1 August 2016|title="Fair use is legal use": Copyright negotiations and strategies in the fan-vidding community|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444814555952|journal=New Media & Society|language=en|volume=18|issue=7|pages=1347–1363|doi=10.1177/1461444814555952|s2cid=11258627|issn=1461-4448}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Allen|first=Peter James|date=24 August 2008|title=Rip, mix, burn … sue … ad infinitum: The effects of deterrence vs voluntary cooperation on non-commercial online copyright infringing behaviour|url=https://journals.uic.edu/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/2073|journal=First Monday|language=en|doi=10.5210/fm.v13i9.2073|issn=1396-0466}}</ref>
===Objections to the expansion in nature and scope of intellectual property laws===
[[File:Tom Bell's graph showing extension of U.S. copyright term over time.svg|thumb|Expansion of U.S. copyright law (Assuming authors create their works by age 35 and live for seventy years)]]
Other criticism of intellectual property law concerns the expansion of intellectual property, both in duration and in scope.
As scientific knowledge has expanded and allowed new industries to arise in fields such as biotechnology and nanotechnology, originators of technology have sought IP protection for the new technologies. Patents have been granted for living organisms,<ref>Council for Responsible Genetics, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20111002092235/http://www.actionbioscience.org/genomics/crg.html DNA Patents Create Monopolies on Living Organisms]". Retrieved 2008.12.18.</ref> and in the United States, [[Plant breeders' rights|certain living organisms]] have been patentable for over a century.<ref>Plant Patents [https://web.archive.org/web/19990220172601/http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/plant/ USPTO.gov]</ref>
The increase in terms of protection is particularly seen in relation to copyright, which has recently been the subject of serial extensions [[Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act|in the United States]] and [[Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection|in Europe]].<ref name="lessigperpetual">{{cite web|title=Against perpetual copyright|url=http://wiki.lessig.org/index.php/Against_perpetual_copyright|website=wiki.lessig.org|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091103224919/http://wiki.lessig.org/index.php/Against_perpetual_copyright|archive-date=3 November 2009}}</ref><ref>''E.g.'', the U.S. [[Copyright Term Extension Act]], Pub.L. 105–298.</ref><ref>Mark Helprin, Op-ed: [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/20/opinion/20helprin.html A Great Idea Lives Forever. Shouldn't Its Copyright?] ''The New York Times'', 20 May 2007.</ref><ref>''[[Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' [https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/01-618.ZS.html Eldred v. Ashcroft, 537 U. S. 186 (2003)]</ref><ref name="td_confused">{{cite web|title=Arguing For Infinite Copyright... Using Copied Ideas And A Near Total Misunderstanding Of Property|url=http://www.techdirt.com/articles/20070521/015928.shtml|last=Masnick|first=Mike|date=21 May 2007|website=techdirt|publisher=[[techdirt]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090907142130/http://www.techdirt.com/articles/20070521/015928.shtml|archive-date=7 September 2009}}</ref> With no need for registration or copyright notices, this is thought to have led to an increase in [[orphan works]] (copyrighted works for which the copyright owner cannot be contacted), a problem that has been noticed and addressed by governmental bodies around the world.<ref>Library of Congress Copyright Office [http://www.copyright.gov/fedreg/2012/77fr64555.pdf Docket No. 2012–12 Orphan Works and Mass Digitization] Federal Register, Vol. 77, No. 204. Monday, 22 October 2012. Notices. PP 64555–64561; see p 64555 first column for international efforts and 3rd column for description of the problem.</ref>
Also with respect to copyright, the American film industry helped to change the social construct of intellectual property via its trade organization, the [[Motion Picture Association of America]]. In amicus briefs in important cases, in lobbying before Congress, and in its statements to the public, the MPAA has advocated strong protection of intellectual property rights. In framing its presentations, the association has claimed that people are entitled to the property that is produced by their labor. Additionally Congress's awareness of the position of the United States as the world's largest producer of films has made it convenient to expand the conception of intellectual property.<ref>Dennis Wharton, "MPAA's Rebel With Cause Fights for Copyright Coin," Variety (3 August 1992), Vol. 348, No. 2, p. 18.</ref> These doctrinal reforms have further strengthened the industry, lending the MPAA even more power and authority.<ref>William W. Fisher III, [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/property99/history.html The Growth of Intellectual Property:A History of the Ownership of Ideas in the United States] Eigentumskulturen im Vergleich (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1999)</ref>
The growth of the [[Internet]], and particularly distributed search engines like [[Kazaa]] and [[Gnutella]], have represented a challenge for copyright policy. The [[Recording Industry Association of America]], in particular, has been on the front lines of the fight against [[copyright infringement]], which the industry calls "piracy". The industry has had victories against some services, including a highly publicized case against the file-sharing company [[Napster]], and some people have been prosecuted for sharing files in violation of copyright. The electronic age has seen an increase in the attempt to use software-based [[digital rights management]] tools to restrict the copying and use of digitally based works. Laws such as the [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] have been enacted that use criminal law to prevent any circumvention of software used to enforce digital rights management systems. Equivalent provisions, to prevent circumvention of copyright protection have existed in EU for some time, and are being expanded in, for example, Article 6 and 7 the [[Information Society Directive|Copyright Directive]]. Other examples are Article 7 of the Software Directive of 1991 (91/250/EEC), and the [[Conditional Access Directive]] of 1998 (98/84/EEC). This can hinder legal uses, affecting [[public domain]] works, [[limitations and exceptions to copyright]], or uses allowed by the copyright holder. Some [[copyleft]] licenses, like the [[GNU GPL 3]], are designed to counter this.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Quick Guide to GPLv3|url=https://www.gnu.org/licenses/quick-guide-gplv3.en.html|last=Smith|first=Brett|date=2007–2010|website=gnu|publisher=[[Free Software Foundation]]|access-date=15 February 2013}}</ref> Laws may permit circumvention under specific conditions, such as when it is necessary to achieve interoperability with the circumventor's program, or for [[accessibility]] reasons; however, distribution of circumvention tools or instructions may be illegal.
In the context of trademarks, this expansion has been driven by international efforts to harmonise the definition of "trademark", as exemplified by the [[TRIPS Agreement|Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights]] ratified in 1994, which formalized regulations for IP rights that had been handled by common law, or not at all, in member states. Pursuant to TRIPs, any [[sign (semiotics)|sign]] which is "capable of distinguishing" the products or services of one business from the products or services of another business is capable of constituting a trademark.<ref>Katherine Beckman and Christa Pletcher (2009) [http://ipjournal.law.wfu.edu/files/2010/10/article.10.215.pdf Expanding Global Trademark Regulation] Wake Forest Intellectual Property Law Journal 10(2): 215–239</ref>
===Use in corporate tax avoidance===
{{quote box
|width=23em|border=1px|align=right|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|qalign=left
|quote = Make no mistake: the headline [tax] rate is not what triggers tax evasion and aggressive tax planning. That comes from schemes that facilitate profit shifting.
|salign=left
|source=[[Pierre Moscovici]]<br>European Commissioner for Tax<br>''Financial Times'', 11 March 2018<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ft.com/content/2b356956-17fc-11e8-9376-4a6390addb44|title=Multinationals pay lower taxes than a decade ago|work=Financial Times|date=11 March 2018}}</ref>
}}
Intellectual property has become a core tool in corporate tax planning and [[tax avoidance]].<ref name="fordam">{{cite web|title=Intellectual Property and Tax Avoidance in Ireland|url=http://www.fordhamiplj.org/2016/08/30/ip-tax-avoidance-ireland/|date=30 August 2016|website=fordhamiplj|publisher=Fordham Intellectual Property, Media & Entertainment Law Journal|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502112434/http://www.fordhamiplj.org/2016/08/30/ip-tax-avoidance-ireland/|archive-date=2 May 2019}}</ref><ref name="ucla">Intellectual property (IP) has become the leading tax-avoidance vehicle.{{cite web|title=Intellectual Property Law Solutions to Tax Avoidance|url=https://www.uclalawreview.org/pdf/62-1-1.pdf|year=2015|website=uclalawreview|publisher=UCLA Law Review|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316232500/http://www.uclalawreview.org/pdf/62-1-1.pdf|archive-date=16 March 2015}}</ref><ref name="lux">{{cite journal|url=https://www.economist.com/business/2015/08/27/patently-problematic|title=Patently problematic|journal=The Economist|date=August 2015}}</ref> IP is a key component of the leading multinational tax avoidance [[base erosion and profit shifting]] (BEPS) tools,<ref name="tilburg">{{cite web | url=http://arno.uvt.nl/show.cgi?fid=143915| title=Intellectual Property Tax Planning in the light of Base Erosion and Profit Shifting | publisher=University of Tilburg | date=June 2017}}</ref><ref name="zew">{{cite web|url=http://ftp.zew.de/pub/zew-docs/dp/dp13078.pdf|title=Profit Shifting and "Aggressive" Tax Planning by Multinational Firms |publisher=Centre for European Economic Research (ZEW)|page=3|date=October 2013}}</ref> which the OECD estimates costs $100–240 billion in lost annual tax revenues.<ref name="BEPS Background"/>
In 2017–2018, both the U.S. and the EU Commission simultaneously decided to depart from the [[Base erosion and profit shifting (OECD project)|OECD BEPS Project]] timetable, which was set up in 2013 to combat IP BEPS tax tools like the above,<ref name="BEPS Background">{{cite web|title=BEPS Project Background Brief|url=http://www.oecd.org/tax/beps/background-brief-inclusive-framework-for-beps-implementation.pdf|publisher=OECD|date=January 2017}}</ref> and launch their own anti-IP BEPS tax regimes:
* U.S. [[Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017]], which has several anti-IP BEPS abuse tax regimes, including GILTI tax and the BEAT tax regimes.<ref>{{Cite web|title = A Hybrid Approach: The Treatment of Foreign Profits under the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act|url=https://taxfoundation.org/treatment-foreign-profits-tax-cuts-jobs-act/|publisher=Tax Foundation|date = 3 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/business/economy/trump-s-us-tax-reform-a-significant-challenge-for-ireland-1.3310866|title=Trump's US tax reform a significant challenge for Ireland|work=The Irish Times|date=30 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/business/donald-trump-singles-out-ireland-in-tax-speech-1.3310149?mode=sample&auth-failed=1&pw-origin=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishtimes.com%2Fbusiness%2Fdonald-trump-singles-out-ireland-in-tax-speech-1.3310149|title=Donald Trump singles out Ireland in tax speech|work=The Irish Times|date=29 November 2017}}</ref>
* EU Commission 2018 Digital Services Tax, which is less advanced than the U.S. TCJA, but does seek to override IP BEPS tools via a quasi-VAT.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/business/economy/why-ireland-faces-a-fight-on-the-corporate-tax-front-1.3426080|title=Why Ireland faces a fight on the corporate tax front|work=The Irish Times|date=14 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.ie/business/irish/eu-digital-levy-could-hit-tech-fdi-and-tax-revenue-here-36725944.html|title=EU digital levy could hit tech FDI and tax revenue here|work=Irish Independent|date=21 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thejournal.ie/eu-digital-tax-ireland-2-2-3918628-Mar2018/|title=What the EU's new taxes on the tech giants mean – and how they would hurt Ireland|publisher=thejournal.ie|date=24 March 2018}}</ref>
The departure of the U.S. and EU Commission from the OECD BEPS Project process, is attributed to frustrations with the rise in IP as a key BEPS tax tool, creating intangible assets, which are then turned into royalty payment BEPS schemes (double Irish), and/or [[capital allowance]] BEPS schemes (capital allowances for intangibles). In contrast, the OECD has spent years developing and advocating intellectual property as a legal and a GAAP accounting concept.<ref name="un1">{{cite web|url=https://www.taxjustice.net/2017/09/11/new-un-tax-handbook-sets-lower-income-countries-oecd-beps/|title=New UN tax handbook: Lower-income countries vs OECD BEPS failure|publisher=Tax Justice Network| date=11 September 2017}}</ref>
=== Gender gap in intellectual property ===
Women have historically been underrepresented in intellectual property rights. According to the World Intellectual Property Organization, women comprised only 16.5% of patent holders even as recently as 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|last=WIPO|first=World Intellectual Property Organization|date=8 March 2021|title=Gender Equality, Diversity and Intellectual Property|url=https://www.wipo.int/women-and-ip/en/|url-status=live|access-date=7 June 2021}}</ref> This disparity is the result of several factors including systemic bias, sexism and discrimination within the intellectual property space, underrepresentation within [[Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics|STEM]], and barriers to access of necessary finance and knowledge in order to obtain intellectual property rights, among other reasons.<ref>{{Cite web|last=WIPO|first=World Intellectual Property Organization|date=21 May 2021|title=Closing the Gender Gap in IP|url=https://www.wipo.int/women-and-ip/en/news/2021/news_0005.html|url-status=live|access-date=7 June 2021}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[Defensive publication]]
* [[Information policy]]
* [[Freedom of information]]
* [[Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property]]
* [[New product development]]
== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist |colwidth = 30em}}
=== Sources ===
{{refbegin |colwidth = 30em}}
* Arai, Hisamitsu. "Intellectual Property Policies for the Twenty-First Century: The Japanese Experience in Wealth Creation", WIPO Publication Number 834 (E). 2000. [https://archive.today/20121212232107/http://www.wipo.int/freepublications/en/intproperty/834/index.html wipo.int]
* Bettig, R. V. (1996). Critical Perspectives on the History and Philosophy of Copyright. In R. V. Bettig, Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property. (pp. 9–32). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
* Boldrin, Michele and David K. Levine. "Against Intellectual Monopoly", 2008. [http://www.dklevine.com/papers/imbookfinalall.pdf dkleving.com]
* Hahn, Robert W., ''Intellectual Property Rights in Frontier Industries: Software and Biotechnology'', AEI Press, March 2005.
* Branstetter, Lee, Raymond Fishman and C. Fritz Foley. "Do Stronger Intellectual Property Rights Increase International Technology Transfer? Empirical Evidence from US Firm-Level Data". NBER Working Paper 11516. July 2005. [https://web.archive.org/web/20081122150353/http://weblog.ipcentral.info/IPRs%20%26%20Tech%20Trans.pdf weblog.ipcentral.info]
* Connell, Shaun. "Intellectual Ownership". October 2007. [https://web.archive.org/web/20071221052053/http://rebirthoffreedom.org/freedom/property/intellectual-ownership/ rebithofffreedom.org]
* De George, Richard T. "14. Intellectual Property Rights." In ''The Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics'', by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp, 1:408–439. 1st ed. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.
* Farah, Paolo and Cima, Elena. "China's Participation in the World Trade Organization: Trade in Goods, Services, Intellectual Property Rights and Transparency Issues" in Aurelio Lopez-Tarruella Martinez (ed.), {{lang|es|El comercio con China. Oportunidades empresariales, incertidumbres jurídicas}}, Tirant lo Blanch, Valencia (Spain) 2010, pp. 85–121. {{ISBN|978-84-8456-981-7}}. Available at [https://ssrn.com/abstract=1527992 SSRN.com]
* Farah, Paolo Davide, Tremolada Riccardo, Desirability of Commodification of Intangible Cultural Heritage: The Unsatisfying Role of IPRs, in TRANSNATIONAL DISPUTE MANAGEMENT, Special Issues "The New Frontiers of Cultural Law: Intangible Heritage Disputes", Volume 11, Issue 2, March 2014, {{ISSN|1875-4120}} Available at [https://ssrn.com/abstract=2472339 SSRN.com]
* Farah, Paolo Davide, Tremolada Riccardo, Intellectual Property Rights, Human Rights and Intangible Cultural Heritage, Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Issue 2, Part I, June 2014, {{ISSN|0035-614X}}, Giuffre, pp. 21–47. Available at [https://ssrn.com/abstract=2472388 SSRN.com]
* {{cite book | first1 = Paul | last1 = Goldstein | first2 = R. Anthony | last2 = Reese | title = Copyright, Patent, Trademark and Related State Doctrines: Cases and Materials on the Law of Intellectual Property | year = 2008 | edition = 6th | location = New York | publisher = Foundation Press | isbn = 978-1-59941-139-2 }}
* [[Andrew Gowers|Gowers, Andrew]]. "Gowers Review of Intellectual Property". Her Majesty's Treasury, November 2006. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090407093401/http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/d/pbr06_gowers_report_755.pdf hm-treasury.gov.uk] {{ISBN|978-0-11-840483-9}}.
* Greenhalgh, C. & Rogers M., (2010). ''Innovation, Intellectual Property, and Economic Growth.'' New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
* [[Stephan Kinsella|Kinsella, Stephan]]. "Against Intellectual Property". ''Journal of Libertarian Studies'' 15.2 (Spring 2001): 1–53. [https://www.mises.org/journals/jls/15_2/15_2_1.pdf mises.org]
* Lai, Edwin. "The Economics of Intellectual Property Protection in the Global Economy". Princeton University. April 2001. [http://www.dklevine.com/archive/refs4122247000000000481.pdf dklevine.com]
* Lee, Richmond K. ''[http://www.philstar.com/business/320465/scope-and-interplay-ip-rights Scope and Interplay of IP Rights]'' Accralaw offices.
* [[Lawrence Lessig|Lessig, Lawrence]]. "Free Culture: How Big Media Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down Culture and Control Creativity". New York: Penguin Press, 2004. [http://www.free-culture.cc/freeculture.pdf free-culture.cc] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090916145748/http://www.free-culture.cc/freeculture.pdf |date=16 September 2009 }}.
* Lindberg, Van. ''Intellectual Property and Open Source: A Practical Guide to Protecting Code''. O'Reilly Books, 2008. {{ISBN|0-596-51796-3}} | {{ISBN|978-0-596-51796-0}}
* Maskus, Keith E. "Intellectual Property Rights and Economic Development". ''Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law'', Vol. 32, 471. [https://web.archive.org/web/20081223230716/http://www.law.case.edu/student_life/ journals/jil/32-3/maskusarticle.pdf law.case.edu]
* Mazzone, Jason. "[https://ssrn.com/abstract=787244 Copyfraud]". Brooklyn Law School, Legal Studies Paper No. 40. ''New York University Law Review'' 81 (2006): 1027. (Abstract.)
* Miller, Arthur Raphael, and Michael H. Davis. ''Intellectual Property: Patents, Trademarks, and Copyright''. 3rd ed. New York: West/Wadsworth, 2000. {{ISBN|0-314-23519-1}}.
* Moore, Adam, [http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2011/entries/intellectual-property "Intellectual Property"], The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
* [http://www.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/sites/chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/files/publications/morin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf Morin, Jean-Frédéric, Paradigm Shift in the Global IP Regime: The Agency of Academics, Review of International Political Economy, vol. 21(2), 2014, pp. 275–309.]
* Mossoff, A. [https://ssrn.com/abstract=787244 'Rethinking the Development of Patents: An Intellectual History, 1550–1800,'] Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 52, p. 1255, 2001
* Rozanski, Felix. "Developing Countries and Pharmaceutical Intellectual Property Rights: Myths and Reality" [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091009142207/http://www.stockholm-network.org/downloads/publications/Developing_Countries_and_Intellectual_Property_Rights_Myth_and_Reality_6.pdf stockholm-network.org]
* Perelman, Michael. ''Steal This Idea: Intellectual Property and The Corporate Confiscation of Creativity''. Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.
* Rand, Ayn. "Patents and Copyrights" in Ayn Rand, ed. 'Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal,' New York: New American Library, 1966, pp. 126–128
* Reisman, George. 'Capitalism: A Complete & Integrated Understanding of the Nature & Value of Human Economic Life,' Ottawa, Illinois: 1996, pp. 388–389
* Schechter, Roger E., and John R. Thomas. ''Intellectual Property: The Law of Copyrights, Patents and Trademarks''. New York: West/Wadsworth, 2003, {{ISBN|0-314-06599-7}}.
* Schneider, Patricia H. "International Trade, Economic Growth and Intellectual Property Rights: A Panel Data Study of Developed and Developing Countries". July 2004. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090226035349/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/~pschneid/images/Schneider_JDEJuly2004.pdf mtholyoke.edu]
* Shapiro, Robert and Nam Pham. "Economic Effects of Intellectual Property-Intensive Manufacturing in the United States". July 2007. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080216195041/http://www.the-value-of-ip.org/ the-value-of.ip.org]. Retrieved 2008-04-09.
* Spooner, Lysander. "The Law of Intellectual Property; or An Essay on the Right of Authors and Inventors to a Perpetual Property in their Ideas". Boston: Bela Marsh, 1855.
* [[Siva Vaidhyanathan|Vaidhyanathan, Siva]]. ''The Anarchist in the Library: How the Clash Between Freedom and Control Is Hacking the Real World and Crashing the System''. New York: Basic Books, 2004.
* {{cite book |author=Burk, Dan L. |author2=Mark A. Lemley |name-list-style=amp |title=The Patent Crisis and How the Courts Can Solve It |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-226-08061-1}}
{{refend}}
==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{scholia|topic}}
{{Library resources box}}
* The [[European Audiovisual Observatory]] hosts articles on [https://web.archive.org/web/20130729081345/http://www.obs.coe.int/en/legal/copyright/ copyright] legislature and covers media laws in their [http://merlin.obs.coe.int/newsletter.php/ newsletter]
* [https://www.statista.com/topics/3493/media-piracy/ Internet/Media Piracy: Statistics & Facts]—Statista
{{Intellectual property activism}}
{{Law}}
{{Property navbox}}
{{Intellectual property laws of the European Union}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Intellectual property law]]
[[Category:Social information processing]]
[[Category:Economics of the arts and literature]]
[[Category:Intangible assets]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff ) | '@@ -1,12 +1,3 @@
-{{pp-pc|small=yes}}
-{{Short description|Notion of ownership of ideas and processes}}
-{{redirect|Intellectual Property|the film|Intellectual Property (film)}}
-{{Intellectual property}}
-[[File:Nike, McDonald’s copyright infringing sandals in China.jpg|thumb|right|230px|Intellectual property laws such as trademark laws forbid the sale of infringing goods like these "[[McDonald's|McDnoald's]]"{{sic}} and "[[Nike, Inc.|NKIE]]" [''sic''] sandals.]]
-'''Intellectual property''' ('''IP''') is a category of [[property]] that includes intangible creations of the human intellect.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wipo.int/publications/en/details.jsp?id=4080|title=Understanding Industrial Property|publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/en/sheet/36/intellectual-industrial-and-commercial-property|title=Intellectual, industrial and commercial property {{!}} Fact Sheets on the European Union|publisher=European Parliament|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref> There are many types of intellectual property, and some countries recognize more than others.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/intel1_e.htm |title=What are intellectual property rights? |website=World Trade Organization |publisher=World Trade Organization |access-date=23 May 2016}}</ref><ref>"Intellectual property", ''[[Black's Law Dictionary]]'', 10th ed. (2014).</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_909_2016.pdf|title=Understanding Copyright and Related Rights|publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization|page=4|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wipo.int/publications/en/details.jsp?id=4528|title=What is Intellectual Property?|publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)|access-date=23 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_895_2016.pdf|title=Understanding Industrial Property|publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)|access-date=7 December 2018}}</ref> The most well-known types are [[copyright]]s, [[patent]]s, [[trademark]]s, and [[trade secret]]s. The modern concept of intellectual property developed in England in the 17th and 18th centuries. The term "intellectual property" began to be used in the 19th century, though it was not until the late 20th century that intellectual property became commonplace in the majority of the world's legal systems.<ref name="Lemley 2005">"property as a common descriptor of the field probably traces to the foundation of the [[World Intellectual Property Organization]] (WIPO) by the United Nations." in [[Mark A. Lemley]], [http://www.utexas.edu/law/journals/tlr/abstracts/83/83Lemley.pdf ''Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226035349/http://www.utexas.edu/law/journals/tlr/abstracts/83/83Lemley.pdf |date=26 February 2009 }}, Texas Law Review, 2005, Vol. 83:1031, page 1033, footnote 4.</ref>
-
-The main purpose of intellectual property law is to encourage the creation of a wide variety of intellectual goods.{{sfnp|Goldstein|Reese|2008|p=17}} To achieve this, the law gives people and businesses property rights to the information and intellectual goods they create, usually for a limited period of time. This gives economic incentive for their creation, because it allows people to benefit from the information and intellectual goods they create, and allows them to protect their ideas and prevent copying.{{sfnp|Goldstein|Reese|2008|p=17}} These economic incentives are expected to stimulate [[innovation]] and contribute to the technological progress of countries, which depends on the extent of protection granted to innovators.<ref>Rod Falvey and Neil Foster (2006): “The Role of Intellectual Property Rights in Technology Transfer and Economic Growth”: Theory and Evidence, In cooperation with Olga Memedovic UNITED NATIONS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION (UNIDO), available: https://www.unido.org/sites/default/files/2009-04/Role_of_intellectual_property_rights_in_technology_transfer_and_economic_growth_0.pdf</ref>
-
-The [[Intangible property|intangible]] nature of intellectual property presents difficulties when compared with traditional property like land or goods. Unlike traditional property, intellectual property is "indivisible", since an unlimited number of people can "consume" an intellectual good without it being depleted. Additionally, investments in intellectual goods suffer from problems of appropriation: a landowner can surround their land with a robust fence and hire armed guards to protect it, but a producer of information or literature can usually do very little to stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a lower price. Balancing rights so that they are strong enough to encourage the creation of intellectual goods but not so strong that they prevent the goods' wide use is the primary focus of modern intellectual property law.{{sfnp|Goldstein|Reese|2008|pp=18–19}}
+Fixed
==History==
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New page size (new_size ) | 89029 |
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0 => '{{pp-pc|small=yes}}',
1 => '{{Short description|Notion of ownership of ideas and processes}}',
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4 => '[[File:Nike, McDonald’s copyright infringing sandals in China.jpg|thumb|right|230px|Intellectual property laws such as trademark laws forbid the sale of infringing goods like these "[[McDonald's|McDnoald's]]"{{sic}} and "[[Nike, Inc.|NKIE]]" [''sic''] sandals.]]',
5 => ''''Intellectual property''' ('''IP''') is a category of [[property]] that includes intangible creations of the human intellect.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wipo.int/publications/en/details.jsp?id=4080|title=Understanding Industrial Property|publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/en/sheet/36/intellectual-industrial-and-commercial-property|title=Intellectual, industrial and commercial property {{!}} Fact Sheets on the European Union|publisher=European Parliament|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref> There are many types of intellectual property, and some countries recognize more than others.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/intel1_e.htm |title=What are intellectual property rights? |website=World Trade Organization |publisher=World Trade Organization |access-date=23 May 2016}}</ref><ref>"Intellectual property", ''[[Black's Law Dictionary]]'', 10th ed. (2014).</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_909_2016.pdf|title=Understanding Copyright and Related Rights|publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization|page=4|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wipo.int/publications/en/details.jsp?id=4528|title=What is Intellectual Property?|publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)|access-date=23 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_895_2016.pdf|title=Understanding Industrial Property|publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)|access-date=7 December 2018}}</ref> The most well-known types are [[copyright]]s, [[patent]]s, [[trademark]]s, and [[trade secret]]s. The modern concept of intellectual property developed in England in the 17th and 18th centuries. The term "intellectual property" began to be used in the 19th century, though it was not until the late 20th century that intellectual property became commonplace in the majority of the world's legal systems.<ref name="Lemley 2005">"property as a common descriptor of the field probably traces to the foundation of the [[World Intellectual Property Organization]] (WIPO) by the United Nations." in [[Mark A. Lemley]], [http://www.utexas.edu/law/journals/tlr/abstracts/83/83Lemley.pdf ''Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226035349/http://www.utexas.edu/law/journals/tlr/abstracts/83/83Lemley.pdf |date=26 February 2009 }}, Texas Law Review, 2005, Vol. 83:1031, page 1033, footnote 4.</ref>',
6 => '',
7 => 'The main purpose of intellectual property law is to encourage the creation of a wide variety of intellectual goods.{{sfnp|Goldstein|Reese|2008|p=17}} To achieve this, the law gives people and businesses property rights to the information and intellectual goods they create, usually for a limited period of time. This gives economic incentive for their creation, because it allows people to benefit from the information and intellectual goods they create, and allows them to protect their ideas and prevent copying.{{sfnp|Goldstein|Reese|2008|p=17}} These economic incentives are expected to stimulate [[innovation]] and contribute to the technological progress of countries, which depends on the extent of protection granted to innovators.<ref>Rod Falvey and Neil Foster (2006): “The Role of Intellectual Property Rights in Technology Transfer and Economic Growth”: Theory and Evidence, In cooperation with Olga Memedovic UNITED NATIONS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION (UNIDO), available: https://www.unido.org/sites/default/files/2009-04/Role_of_intellectual_property_rights_in_technology_transfer_and_economic_growth_0.pdf</ref>',
8 => '',
9 => 'The [[Intangible property|intangible]] nature of intellectual property presents difficulties when compared with traditional property like land or goods. Unlike traditional property, intellectual property is "indivisible", since an unlimited number of people can "consume" an intellectual good without it being depleted. Additionally, investments in intellectual goods suffer from problems of appropriation: a landowner can surround their land with a robust fence and hire armed guards to protect it, but a producer of information or literature can usually do very little to stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a lower price. Balancing rights so that they are strong enough to encourage the creation of intellectual goods but not so strong that they prevent the goods' wide use is the primary focus of modern intellectual property law.{{sfnp|Goldstein|Reese|2008|pp=18–19}}'
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137 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20111002092235/http://www.actionbioscience.org/genomics/crg.html',
138 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20111022125749/http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/hr/',
139 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20120507132516/http://www.international.gc.ca/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/assets/pdfs/acta-crc_apr15-2011_eng.pdf',
140 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20120606013942/http://www.wipo.int/freepublications/en/intproperty/909/wipo_pub_909.pdf',
141 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20120703105213/http://www.ipo.gov.uk/types/tm/t-about/t-whatis.htm',
142 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20120709151150/http://archive.mises.org/15240/intellectual-poverty/',
143 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20121010073552/http://www.law.northwestern.edu/jclc/backissues/v102/n1/1021_67.Bitton.pdf',
144 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20121213072252/http://www.uspto.gov/trademarks/basics/definitions.jsp',
145 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20130115040700/http://www.ladas.com/Patents/USPatentHistory.html',
146 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20130115120714/http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/about-ip/en/iprm/pdf/ch1.pdf',
147 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20130207023621/http://www.brinkshofer.com/resource_center/85-the-hatch-waxman-act-research-exempt-from-patent-infringement',
148 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20130520221306/http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/about-ip/en/iprm/pdf/ch2.pdf',
149 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20130729081345/http://www.obs.coe.int/en/legal/copyright/',
150 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20130922062127/http://blog.hdp.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/60549706_1.PDF',
151 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20131114113720/http://www.ipo.gov.uk/ipresearch-bankingip.pdf',
152 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20140302113908/http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2012-11/23/professor-seeks-nanotech-patent-moratorium',
153 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20140604193406/http://torrentfreak.com/language-matters-framing-the-copyright-monopoly-so-we-can-keep-our-liberties-130714/',
154 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20140711050507/http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/paris/index.html',
155 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20141129082624/http://www.patentamt.de/english/trade_marks/index.html',
156 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20150302072256/http://web.mit.edu/comm-forum/forums/copyright.html',
157 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20150316232500/http://www.uclalawreview.org/pdf/62-1-1.pdf',
158 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20170521064049/http://www.wipo.int/portal/en/news/2007/article_0032.html',
159 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20170809070301/http://levine.sscnet.ucla.edu/papers/aea_pp09.pdf',
160 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20171206094352/http://levine.sscnet.ucla.edu/general/intellectual/against.htm',
161 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20180415041048/https://www.lewrockwell.com/2004/01/stephan-kinsella/what-it-means-to-be-an-anarcho-capitalist/',
162 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20190502112434/http://www.fordhamiplj.org/2016/08/30/ip-tax-avoidance-ireland/',
163 => 'https://www.economist.com/business/2015/08/27/patently-problematic',
164 => 'https://www.economist.com/node/5015365',
165 => 'https://www.epo.org/law-practice/legal-texts/html/epc/2020/e/ar69.html',
166 => 'https://www.ft.com/content/2b356956-17fc-11e8-9376-4a6390addb44',
167 => 'https://www.gnu.org/licenses/quick-guide-gplv3.en.html',
168 => 'https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/misinterpreting-copyright.html',
169 => 'https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/not-ipr.xhtml',
170 => 'https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/words-to-avoid.en.html#IntellectualProperty',
171 => 'https://www.google.com/books?id=h-XBqKIryaQC&dq=idea-expression+dichotomy&lr=&as_brr=3&source=gbs_navlinks_s',
172 => 'https://www.google.com/books?id=tgK9BzcF5WgC&dq=statute+of+anne+copyright&lr=&as_brr=3&source=gbs_navlinks_s',
173 => 'https://www.google.com/books?id=u2aMRA-eF1gC&dq=statute+of+anne+copyright&lr=&as_brr=3&source=gbs_navlinks_s',
174 => 'https://www.independent.ie/business/irish/eu-digital-levy-could-hit-tech-fdi-and-tax-revenue-here-36725944.html',
175 => 'https://www.irishtimes.com/business/donald-trump-singles-out-ireland-in-tax-speech-1.3310149?mode=sample&auth-failed=1&pw-origin=https://www.irishtimes.com/business/donald-trump-singles-out-ireland-in-tax-speech-1.3310149',
176 => 'https://www.irishtimes.com/business/economy/trump-s-us-tax-reform-a-significant-challenge-for-ireland-1.3310866',
177 => 'https://www.irishtimes.com/business/economy/why-ireland-faces-a-fight-on-the-corporate-tax-front-1.3426080',
178 => 'https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/01-618.ZS.html',
179 => 'https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1831#a',
180 => 'https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1831',
181 => 'https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1839',
182 => 'https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1832',
183 => 'https://www.mises.org/journals/jls/15_2/15_2_1.pdf',
184 => 'https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/20/opinion/20helprin.html',
185 => 'https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary',
186 => 'https://www.statista.com/topics/3493/media-piracy/',
187 => 'https://www.taxjustice.net/2017/09/11/new-un-tax-handbook-sets-lower-income-countries-oecd-beps/',
188 => 'https://www.techdirt.com/articles/20080306/003240458/if-intellectual-property-is-neither-intellectual-property-what-is-it.shtml',
189 => 'https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2013/04/why-chemotherapy-that-costs-70-000-in-the-us-costs-2-500-in-india/274847/',
190 => 'https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2008/feb/21/intellectual.property',
191 => 'https://www.uclalawreview.org/pdf/62-1-1.pdf',
192 => 'https://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml',
193 => 'https://www.unido.org/sites/default/files/2009-04/Role_of_intellectual_property_rights_in_technology_transfer_and_economic_growth_0.pdf',
194 => 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131257#identifiers',
195 => 'https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_909_2016.pdf',
196 => 'https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_895_2016.pdf',
197 => 'https://www.wipo.int/publications/en/details.jsp?id=4528',
198 => 'https://www.wipo.int/publications/en/details.jsp?id=4080',
199 => 'https://www.wipo.int/women-and-ip/en/',
200 => 'https://www.wipo.int/women-and-ip/en/news/2021/news_0005.html',
201 => 'https://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2012-11/23/professor-seeks-nanotech-patent-moratorium',
202 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1875-4120',
203 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0035-614X',
204 => 'https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/ldc_e.htm',
205 => 'https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/intel1_e.htm',
206 => 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UzhD7KVs-R4#t=16m05s',
207 => 'https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d0chez_Jf5A'
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Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html ) | '<div class="mw-parser-output"><p>Fixed
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Rights"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Rights</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Patents"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Patents</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Copyright"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Copyright</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Industrial_design_rights"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Industrial design rights</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Plant_varieties"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Plant varieties</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Trademarks"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Trademarks</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Trade_dress"><span class="tocnumber">2.6</span> <span class="toctext">Trade dress</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Trade_secrets"><span class="tocnumber">2.7</span> <span class="toctext">Trade secrets</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Motivation_and_justification"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Motivation and justification</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Financial_incentive"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Financial incentive</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Economic_growth"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Economic growth</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Morality"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Morality</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Infringement,_misappropriation,_and_enforcement"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Infringement, misappropriation, and enforcement</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Patent_infringement"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Patent infringement</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Copyright_infringement"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Copyright infringement</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Trademark_infringement"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Trademark infringement</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Trade_secret_misappropriation"><span class="tocnumber">4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Trade secret misappropriation</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Criticisms"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Criticisms</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#The_term_"intellectual_property""><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">The term "intellectual property"</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="#Alternative_terms"><span class="tocnumber">5.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Alternative terms</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Objections_to_overly_broad_intellectual_property_laws"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Objections to overly broad intellectual property laws</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Objections_to_the_expansion_in_nature_and_scope_of_intellectual_property_laws"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Objections to the expansion in nature and scope of intellectual property laws</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Use_in_corporate_tax_avoidance"><span class="tocnumber">5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Use in corporate tax avoidance</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Gender_gap_in_intellectual_property"><span class="tocnumber">5.5</span> <span class="toctext">Gender gap in intellectual property</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Citations"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">Citations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Sources"><span class="tocnumber">7.2</span> <span class="toctext">Sources</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_copyright_law" class="mw-redirect" title="History of copyright law">History of copyright law</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_patent_law" title="History of patent law">History of patent law</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Statute_of_anne.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Statute_of_anne.jpg/220px-Statute_of_anne.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="407" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="461" data-file-height="852" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Statute_of_anne.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Anne" title="Statute of Anne">Statute of Anne</a> came into force in 1710</div></div></div>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Monopolies" title="Statute of Monopolies">Statute of Monopolies</a> (1624) and the British <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Anne" title="Statute of Anne">Statute of Anne</a> (1710) are seen as the origins of <a href="/wiki/Patent_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Patent law">patent law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">copyright</a> respectively,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> firmly establishing the concept of intellectual property.
</p><p>"Literary property" was the term predominantly used in the British legal debates of the 1760s and 1770s over the extent to which authors and publishers of works also had rights deriving from the common law of property (<i><a href="/wiki/Millar_v_Taylor" title="Millar v Taylor">Millar v Taylor</a></i> (1769), <i><a href="/wiki/Hinton_v_Donaldson" title="Hinton v Donaldson">Hinton v Donaldson</a></i> (1773), <i><a href="/wiki/Donaldson_v_Becket" title="Donaldson v Becket">Donaldson v Becket</a></i> (1774)). The first known use of the term <i>intellectual property</i> dates to this time, when a piece published in the <i><a href="/wiki/Monthly_Review_(London)" title="Monthly Review (London)">Monthly Review</a></i> in 1769 used the phrase.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> The first clear example of modern usage goes back as early as 1808, when it was used as a heading title in a collection of essays.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup>
</p><p>The German equivalent was used with the founding of the <a href="/wiki/North_German_Confederation" title="North German Confederation">North German Confederation</a> whose <a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">constitution</a> granted legislative power over the protection of intellectual property (<i>Schutz des geistigen Eigentums</i>) to the confederation.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> When the administrative secretariats established by the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Industrial_Property" title="Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property">Paris Convention</a> (1883) and the <a href="/wiki/Berne_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Literary_and_Artistic_Works" class="mw-redirect" title="Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works">Berne Convention</a> (1886) merged in 1893, they located in Berne, and also adopted the term intellectual property in their new combined title, the <a href="/wiki/United_International_Bureaux_for_the_Protection_of_Intellectual_Property" title="United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property">United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property</a>.
</p><p>The organization subsequently relocated to Geneva in 1960 and was succeeded in 1967 with the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/World_Intellectual_Property_Organization" title="World Intellectual Property Organization">World Intellectual Property Organization</a> (WIPO) by <a href="/wiki/Convention_Establishing_the_World_Intellectual_Property_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization">treaty</a> as an agency of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>. According to legal scholar <a href="/wiki/Mark_Lemley" title="Mark Lemley">Mark Lemley</a>, it was only at this point that the term really began to be used in the United States (which had not been a party to the Berne Convention),<sup id="cite_ref-Lemley_2005_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lemley_2005-5">[5]</a></sup> and it did not enter popular usage there until passage of the <a href="/wiki/Bayh-Dole_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Bayh-Dole Act">Bayh-Dole Act</a> in 1980.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p>
<blockquote><p>"The history of patents does not begin with inventions, but rather with royal grants by <a href="/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen Elizabeth I">Queen Elizabeth I</a> (1558–1603) for monopoly privileges. Approximately 200 years after the end of Elizabeth's reign, however, a patent represents a legal <a href="/wiki/Right" class="mw-redirect" title="Right">right</a> obtained by an inventor providing for exclusive control over the production and sale of his mechanical or scientific invention. demonstrating the evolution of patents from royal prerogative to common-law doctrine."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>The term can be found used in an October 1845 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Massachusetts_Circuit_Court&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Massachusetts Circuit Court (page does not exist)">Massachusetts Circuit Court</a> ruling in the patent case <i>Davoll et al. v. Brown.</i>, in which Justice Charles L. Woodbury wrote that "only in this way can we protect intellectual property, the labors of the mind, productions and interests are as much a man's own...as the wheat he cultivates, or the flocks he rears."<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> The statement that "discoveries are..property" goes back earlier. Section 1 of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=French_law_of_1791&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="French law of 1791 (page does not exist)">French law of 1791</a> stated, "All new discoveries are the property of the author; to assure the inventor the property and temporary enjoyment of his discovery, there shall be delivered to him a patent for five, ten or fifteen years."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> In Europe, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> author A. Nion mentioned <i>propriété intellectuelle</i> in his <i>Droits civils des auteurs, artistes et inventeurs</i>, published in 1846.
</p><p>Until recently, the purpose of intellectual property law was to give as little protection as possible in order to encourage <a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">innovation</a>. Historically, therefore, they were granted only when they were necessary to encourage invention, limited in time and scope.<sup id="cite_ref-Mark_A._Lemley_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mark_A._Lemley-10">[10]</a></sup> This is mainly as a result of knowledge being traditionally viewed as a public good, in order to allow its extensive dissemination and improvement thereof.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup>
</p><p>The concept's origin can potentially be traced back further. <a href="/wiki/Jewish_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish law">Jewish law</a> includes several considerations whose effects are similar to those of modern intellectual property laws, though the notion of intellectual creations as property does not seem to exist – notably the principle of Hasagat Ge'vul (unfair encroachment) was used to justify limited-term publisher (but not author) copyright in the 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> In 500 BCE, the government of the Greek state of <a href="/wiki/Sybaris" title="Sybaris">Sybaris</a> offered one year's patent "to all who should discover any new refinement in luxury".<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup>
</p><p>According to Jean-Frédéric Morin, "the global intellectual property regime is currently in the midst of a paradigm shift".<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> Indeed, up until the early 2000s the global IP regime used to be dominated by high standards of protection characteristic of IP laws from Europe or the United States, with a vision that uniform application of these standards over every country and to several fields with little consideration over social, cultural or environmental values or of the national level of economic development. Morin argues that "the emerging discourse of the global IP regime advocates for greater policy flexibility and greater access to knowledge, especially for developing countries." Indeed, with the Development Agenda adopted by WIPO in 2007, a set of 45 recommendations to adjust WIPO's activities to the specific needs of developing countries and aim to reduce distortions especially on issues such as patients’ access to medicines, Internet users’ access to information, farmers’ access to seeds, programmers’ access to source codes or students’ access to scientific articles.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> However, this paradigm shift has not yet manifested itself in concrete legal reforms at the international level.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup>
</p><p>Similarly, it is based on these background that the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement requires members of the WTO to set minimum standards of legal protection, but its objective to have a “one-fits-all” protection law on Intellectual Property has been viewed with controversies regarding differences in the development level of countries.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> Despite the controversy, the agreement has extensively incorporated intellectual property rights into the global trading system for the first time in 1995, and has prevailed as the most comprehensive agreement reached by the world.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Rights">Rights</span></h2>
<p>Intellectual property rights include <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">copyright</a>, <a href="/wiki/Industrial_design_right" title="Industrial design right">industrial design rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trademark" title="Trademark">trademarks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant_variety_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant variety rights">plant variety rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trade_dress" title="Trade dress">trade dress</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geographical_indications" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographical indications">geographical indications</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> and in some jurisdictions <a href="/wiki/Trade_secret" title="Trade secret">trade secrets</a>. There are also more specialized or derived varieties of <i><a href="/wiki/Sui_generis" title="Sui generis">sui generis</a></i> exclusive rights, such as circuit design rights (called <a href="/wiki/Mask_work" class="mw-redirect" title="Mask work">mask work</a> rights in the US), <a href="/wiki/Supplementary_protection_certificate" title="Supplementary protection certificate">supplementary protection certificates</a> for pharmaceutical products (after expiry of a patent protecting them), and <a href="/wiki/Database_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Database rights">database rights</a> (in <a href="/wiki/EC_law" class="mw-redirect" title="EC law">European law</a>). The term "industrial property" is sometimes used to refer to a large subset of intellectual property rights including patents, trademarks, industrial designs, utility models, service marks, trade names, and geographical indications.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Patents">Patents</span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">Patent</a></div>
<p>A <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patent</a> is a form of right granted by the government to an inventor or their successor-in-title, giving the owner the right to exclude others from making, using, selling, offering to sell, and importing an <a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">invention</a> for a limited period of time, in exchange for the public disclosure of the invention. An invention is a solution to a specific technological problem, which may be a product or a process and generally has to fulfill three main requirements: it has to be <a href="/wiki/Novelty_(patent)" title="Novelty (patent)">new</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inventive_step_and_non-obviousness" title="Inventive step and non-obviousness">not obvious</a> and there needs to be an <a href="/wiki/Industrial_applicability" title="Industrial applicability">industrial applicability</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-WIPO_Handbook_Ch_2_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WIPO_Handbook_Ch_2-21">[21]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>17</span></sup> To enrich the body of knowledge and stimulate innovation, it is an obligation for patent owners to disclose valuable information about their inventions to the public.<sup id="cite_ref-wipo.int_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wipo.int-22">[22]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Copyright">Copyright</span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">Copyright</a></div>
<p>A <a href="/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">copyright</a> gives the creator of an original work <a href="/wiki/Exclusive_right" title="Exclusive right">exclusive rights</a> to it, usually for a limited time. Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or "works".<sup id="cite_ref-Intellectual_Property_and_Information_Wealth:_Copyright_and_related_rights_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Intellectual_Property_and_Information_Wealth:_Copyright_and_related_rights-23">[23]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.<sup id="cite_ref-Art_and_copyright_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Art_and_copyright-25">[25]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Industrial_design_rights">Industrial design rights</span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Industrial_design_right" title="Industrial design right">Industrial design right</a></div>
<p>An <a href="/wiki/Industrial_design_right" title="Industrial design right">industrial design right</a> (sometimes called "design right" or <i>design patent</i>) protects the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian. An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or color, or combination of pattern and color in three-dimensional form containing aesthetic value. An industrial design can be a two- or three-dimensional pattern used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft. Generally speaking, it is what makes a product look appealing, and as such, it increases the commercial value of goods.<sup id="cite_ref-wipo.int_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wipo.int-22">[22]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Plant_varieties">Plant varieties</span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Plant_breeders%27_rights" title="Plant breeders' rights">Plant breeders' rights</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Plant_breeders%27_rights" title="Plant breeders' rights">Plant breeders' rights</a> or plant variety rights are the rights to commercially use a new variety of a plant. The variety must amongst others be novel and distinct and for registration the evaluation of propagating material of the variety is considered.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Trademarks">Trademarks</span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Trademark" title="Trademark">Trademark</a></div>
<p>A <a href="/wiki/Trademark" title="Trademark">trademark</a> is a recognizable <a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">sign</a>, <a href="/wiki/Design" title="Design">design</a> or <a href="/wiki/Expression_(language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Expression (language)">expression</a> which distinguishes <a href="/wiki/Good_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Good (economics)">products</a> or <a href="/wiki/Service_(economics)" title="Service (economics)">services</a> of a particular trader from similar products or services of other traders.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Trade_dress">Trade dress</span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Trade_dress" title="Trade dress">Trade dress</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Trade_dress" title="Trade dress">Trade dress</a> is a legal term of art that generally refers to characteristics of the visual and aesthetic appearance of a product or its packaging (or even the design of a building) that signify the source of the product to consumers.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Trade_secrets">Trade secrets</span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Trade_secret" title="Trade secret">Trade secret</a></div>
<p>A <a href="/wiki/Trade_secret" title="Trade secret">trade secret</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Formula" title="Formula">formula</a>, practice, process, <a href="/wiki/Design" title="Design">design</a>, instrument, <a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">pattern</a>, or compilation of <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a> which is not generally known or reasonably ascertainable, by which a <a href="/wiki/Business" title="Business">business</a> can obtain an economic advantage over competitors and customers. There is no formal government protection granted; each business must take measures to guard its own trade secrets (e.g., Formula of its soft drinks is a trade secret for Coca-Cola.)
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Motivation_and_justification">Motivation and justification</span></h2>
<p>The main purpose of intellectual property law is to encourage the creation of a wide variety of intellectual goods for consumers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817-30">[30]</a></sup> To achieve this, the law gives people and businesses property rights to the information and intellectual goods they create, usually for a limited period of time. Because they can then profit from them, this gives economic incentive for their creation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817-30">[30]</a></sup> The intangible nature of intellectual property presents difficulties when compared with traditional property like land or goods. Unlike traditional property, intellectual property is indivisible – an unlimited number of people can "consume" an intellectual good without it being depleted. Additionally, investments in intellectual goods suffer from problems of appropriation – while a landowner can surround their land with a robust fence and hire armed guards to protect it, a producer of information or an intellectual good can usually do very little to stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a lower price. Balancing rights so that they are strong enough to encourage the creation of information and intellectual goods but not so strong that they prevent their wide use is the primary focus of modern intellectual property law.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200818–19_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200818–19-31">[31]</a></sup>
</p><p>By exchanging limited exclusive rights for disclosure of inventions and creative works, society and the patentee/copyright owner mutually benefit, and an incentive is created for inventors and authors to create and disclose their work. Some commentators have noted that the objective of intellectual property legislators and those who support its implementation appears to be "absolute protection". "If some intellectual property is desirable because it encourages innovation, they reason, more is better. The thinking is that creators will not have sufficient incentive to invent unless they are legally entitled to capture the full social value of their inventions".<sup id="cite_ref-Mark_A._Lemley_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mark_A._Lemley-10">[10]</a></sup> This absolute protection or full value view treats intellectual property as another type of "real" property, typically adopting its law and rhetoric. Other recent developments in intellectual property law, such as the <a href="/wiki/Leahy%E2%80%93Smith_America_Invents_Act" title="Leahy–Smith America Invents Act">America Invents Act</a>, stress international harmonization. Recently there has also been much debate over the desirability of using intellectual property rights to protect cultural heritage, including intangible ones, as well as over risks of <a href="/wiki/Commodification" title="Commodification">commodification</a> derived from this possibility.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup> The issue still remains open in legal scholarship.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Financial_incentive">Financial incentive</span></h3>
<p>These exclusive rights allow owners of intellectual property to benefit from the property they have created, providing a financial incentive for the creation of an investment in intellectual property, and, in case of patents, pay associated <a href="/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">research and development</a> costs.<sup id="cite_ref-MonoProf_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MonoProf-33">[33]</a></sup> In the United States Article I Section 8 Clause 8 of the Constitution, commonly called the Patent and Copyright Clause, reads; "The Congress shall have power 'To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries.'"<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup> ”Some commentators, such as <a href="/wiki/David_K._Levine" title="David K. Levine">David Levine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michele_Boldrin" title="Michele Boldrin">Michele Boldrin</a>, dispute this justification.<sup id="cite_ref-R000000_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-R000000-35">[35]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 2013 the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Patent_%26_Trademark_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Patent & Trademark Office">United States Patent & Trademark Office</a> approximated that the worth of intellectual property to the <a href="/wiki/U.S._economy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. economy">U.S. economy</a> is more than US $5 trillion and creates employment for an estimated 18 million American people. The value of intellectual property is considered similarly high in other developed nations, such as those in the European Union.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup> In the UK, IP has become a recognised asset class for use in <a href="/wiki/Pension_led_funding" title="Pension led funding">pension-led funding</a> and other types of business finance. However, in 2013, the <a href="/wiki/UK_Intellectual_Property_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="UK Intellectual Property Office">UK Intellectual Property Office</a> stated: "There are millions of intangible business assets whose value is either not being leveraged at all, or only being leveraged inadvertently".<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Economic_growth">Economic growth</span></h3>
<p>The WIPO treaty and several related international agreements underline that the protection of intellectual property rights is essential to maintaining economic growth. The <i>WIPO Intellectual Property Handbook</i> gives two reasons for intellectual property laws:
</p>
<blockquote><p>One is to give statutory expression to the moral and economic rights of creators in their creations and the rights of the public in access to those creations. The second is to promote, as a deliberate act of Government policy, creativity and the dissemination and application of its results and to encourage fair trading which would contribute to economic and social development.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Anti-Counterfeiting_Trade_Agreement" title="Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement">Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement</a> (ACTA) states that "effective enforcement of intellectual property rights is critical to sustaining economic growth across all industries and globally".<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup>
</p><p>Economists estimate that two-thirds of the value of large businesses in the United States can be traced to intangible assets.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup> "IP-intensive industries" are estimated to generate 72 percent more <a href="/wiki/Value_added" title="Value added">value added</a> (price minus material cost) per employee than "non-IP-intensive industries".<sup id="cite_ref-Shapiro-Pham_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shapiro-Pham-41">[41]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (July 2009)">dubious</span></a> <span class="metadata"> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Intellectual_property#Dubious" title="Talk:Intellectual property">discuss</a></span></i>]</sup>
</p><p>A joint research project of the <a href="/wiki/WIPO" class="mw-redirect" title="WIPO">WIPO</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_University" title="United Nations University">United Nations University</a> measuring the impact of IP systems on six Asian countries found "a positive correlation between the strengthening of the IP system and subsequent economic growth."<sup id="cite_ref-WIPO:_Economic_Impact_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WIPO:_Economic_Impact-42">[42]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Morality">Morality</span></h3>
<p>According to Article 27 of the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>, "everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author".<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup> Although the relationship between intellectual property and <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> is a complex one,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup> there are moral arguments for intellectual property.
</p><p>The arguments that justify intellectual property fall into three major categories. Personality theorists believe intellectual property is an extension of an individual. Utilitarians believe that intellectual property stimulates social progress and pushes people to further innovation. Lockeans argue that intellectual property is justified based on deservedness and hard work.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup>
</p><p>Various moral justifications for private property can be used to argue in favor of the morality of intellectual property, such as:
</p>
<ol><li><i>Natural Rights/Justice Argument</i>: this argument is based on Locke's idea that a person has a natural right over the labour and products which are produced by their body. Appropriating these products is viewed as unjust. Although Locke had never explicitly stated that natural right applied to products of the mind,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup> it is possible to apply his argument to intellectual property rights, in which it would be unjust for people to misuse another's ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup> Locke's argument for intellectual property is based upon the idea that laborers have the right to control that which they create. They argue that we own our bodies which are the laborers, this right of ownership extends to what we create. Thus, intellectual property ensures this right when it comes to production.</li>
<li><i>Utilitarian-Pragmatic Argument</i>: according to this rationale, a society that protects private property is more effective and prosperous than societies that do not. Innovation and invention in 19th century America has been attributed to the development of the <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patent</a> system.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup> By providing innovators with "durable and tangible return on their investment of time, labor, and other resources", intellectual property rights seek to maximize social utility.<sup id="cite_ref-Spinello_2007_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spinello_2007-49">[49]</a></sup> The presumption is that they promote public welfare by encouraging the "creation, production, and distribution of intellectual works".<sup id="cite_ref-Spinello_2007_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spinello_2007-49">[49]</a></sup> Utilitarians argue that without intellectual property there would be a lack of incentive to produce new ideas. Systems of protection such as Intellectual property optimize social utility.</li>
<li><i>"Personality" Argument</i>: this argument is based on a quote from <a href="/wiki/Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegel">Hegel</a>: "Every man has the right to turn his will upon a thing or make the thing an object of his will, that is to say, to set aside the mere thing and recreate it as his own".<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup> European intellectual property law is shaped by this notion that ideas are an "extension of oneself and of one's personality".<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup> Personality theorists argue that by being a creator of something one is inherently at risk and vulnerable for having their ideas and designs stolen and/or altered. Intellectual property protects these moral claims that have to do with personality.</li></ol>
<p><a href="/wiki/Lysander_Spooner" title="Lysander Spooner">Lysander Spooner</a> (1855) argues "that a man has a natural and absolute right—and if a natural and absolute, then necessarily a perpetual, right—of property, in the ideas, of which he is the discoverer or creator; that his right of property, in ideas, is intrinsically the same as, and stands on identically the same grounds with, his right of property in material things; that no distinction, of principle, exists between the two cases".<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup>
</p><p>Writer <a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Ayn Rand</a> argued in her book <i><a href="/wiki/Capitalism:_The_Unknown_Ideal" title="Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal">Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal</a></i> that the protection of intellectual property is essentially a moral issue. The belief is that the human mind itself is the source of wealth and survival and that all property at its base is intellectual property. To violate intellectual property is therefore no different morally than violating other property rights which compromises the very processes of survival and therefore constitutes an immoral act.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span id="Infringement.2C_misappropriation.2C_and_enforcement"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Infringement,_misappropriation,_and_enforcement">Infringement, misappropriation, and enforcement</span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property_infringement" title="Intellectual property infringement">Intellectual property infringement</a></div>
<p>Violation of intellectual property rights, called "infringement" with respect to patents, copyright, and trademarks, and "misappropriation" with respect to trade secrets, may be a breach of civil law or criminal law, depending on the type of intellectual property involved, jurisdiction, and the nature of the action.
</p><p>As of 2011 trade in counterfeit copyrighted and trademarked works was a $600 billion industry worldwide and accounted for 5–7% of global trade.<sup id="cite_ref-Bitton_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bitton-54">[54]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Patent_infringement">Patent infringement</span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Patent_infringement" title="Patent infringement">Patent infringement</a></div>
<p>Patent infringement typically is caused by using or selling a patented invention without permission from the patent holder. The scope of the patented invention or the extent of protection<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup> is defined in the <a href="/wiki/Claim_(patent)" class="mw-redirect" title="Claim (patent)">claims</a> of the granted patent. There is <a href="/wiki/Safe_harbor_(law)" title="Safe harbor (law)">safe harbor</a> in many jurisdictions to use a patented invention for research. This safe harbor does not exist in the US unless the research is done for purely philosophical purposes, or in order to gather data in order to prepare an application for regulatory approval of a drug.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup> In general, patent infringement cases are handled under civil law (e.g., in the United States) but several jurisdictions incorporate infringement in criminal law also (for example, Argentina, China, France, Japan, Russia, South Korea).<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Copyright_infringement">Copyright infringement</span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Copyright_infringement" title="Copyright infringement">Copyright infringement</a></div>
<p>Copyright infringement is reproducing, distributing, displaying or performing a <a href="/wiki/Copyright_law#Scope" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright law">work</a>, or to make <a href="/wiki/Derivative_work" title="Derivative work">derivative works</a>, without permission from the copyright holder, which is typically a publisher or other business representing or assigned by the work's creator. It is often called "piracy".<sup id="cite_ref-Panethiere_p2_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Panethiere_p2-58">[58]</a></sup> While copyright is created the instant a work is fixed, generally the copyright holder can only get money damages if the owner registers the copyright.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Enforcement of copyright is generally the responsibility of the copyright holder.<sup id="cite_ref-Xuan_p211_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xuan_p211-59">[59]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Anti-Counterfeiting_Trade_Agreement" title="Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement">ACTA trade agreement</a>, signed in May 2011 by the United States, Japan, Switzerland, and the EU, and which has not entered into force, requires that its parties add criminal penalties, including incarceration and fines, for copyright and trademark infringement, and obligated the parties to actively police for infringement.<sup id="cite_ref-Bitton_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bitton-54">[54]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Musa_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Musa-60">[60]</a></sup> There are <a href="/wiki/Limitations_and_exceptions_to_copyright" title="Limitations and exceptions to copyright">limitations and exceptions to copyright</a>, allowing limited use of copyrighted works, which does not constitute infringement. Examples of such doctrines are the <a href="/wiki/Fair_use" title="Fair use">fair use</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fair_dealing" title="Fair dealing">fair dealing</a> doctrine.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Trademark_infringement">Trademark infringement</span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Trademark_infringement" title="Trademark infringement">Trademark infringement</a></div>
<p>Trademark infringement occurs when one party uses a trademark that is identical or <a href="/wiki/Confusing_similarity" title="Confusing similarity">confusingly similar</a> to a trademark owned by another party, in relation to products or services which are identical or similar to the products or services of the other party. In many countries, a trademark receives protection without registration, but registering a trademark provides legal advantages for enforcement. Infringement can be addressed by civil litigation and, in several jurisdictions, under criminal law.<sup id="cite_ref-Bitton_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bitton-54">[54]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Musa_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Musa-60">[60]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Trade_secret_misappropriation">Trade secret misappropriation</span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Trade_secret#Misappropriation" title="Trade secret">Trade secret § Misappropriation</a></div>
<p>Trade secret misappropriation is different from violations of other intellectual property laws, since by definition trade secrets are secret, while patents and registered copyrights and trademarks are publicly available. In the United States, trade secrets are protected under state law, and states have nearly universally adopted the <a href="/wiki/Uniform_Trade_Secrets_Act" title="Uniform Trade Secrets Act">Uniform Trade Secrets Act</a>. The United States also has federal law in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Economic_Espionage_Act_of_1996" title="Economic Espionage Act of 1996">Economic Espionage Act of 1996</a> (<a href="/wiki/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 18 of the United States Code">18 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1831">§§ 1831</a>–<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1839">1839</a>), which makes the theft or misappropriation of a trade secret a federal crime. This law contains two provisions criminalizing two sorts of activity. The first, <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><a href="/wiki/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 18 of the United States Code">18 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1831#a">§ 1831(a)</a></span>, criminalizes the theft of trade secrets to benefit foreign powers. The second, <a href="/wiki/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 18 of the United States Code">18 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1832">§ 1832</a>, criminalizes their theft for commercial or economic purposes. (The statutory penalties are different for the two offenses.) In <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth</a> <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> jurisdictions, confidentiality and trade secrets are regarded as an <a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">equitable</a> right rather than a <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a> right but penalties for theft are roughly the same as in the United States.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Criticisms">Criticisms</span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_patents" class="mw-redirect" title="Criticism of patents">Criticism of patents</a> and <a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_copyright" class="mw-redirect" title="Opposition to copyright">Opposition to copyright</a></div>
<table class="box-Split plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-move" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div style="width:52px"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/50px-Split-arrows.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="17" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/75px-Split-arrows.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/100px-Split-arrows.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="60" data-file-height="20" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">It has been suggested that this article be <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Splitting" title="Wikipedia:Splitting">split</a></b> into a new article titled <i><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_intellectual_property" class="mw-redirect" title="Criticism of intellectual property">Criticism of intellectual property</a></i>. (<a href="/wiki/Talk:Intellectual_property#Split_proposal" title="Talk:Intellectual property">Discuss</a>) <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Pro_piracy_demonstration.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Pro_piracy_demonstration.jpg/220px-Pro_piracy_demonstration.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="511" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Pro_piracy_demonstration.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Demonstration in <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> in support of <a href="/wiki/File_sharing" title="File sharing">file sharing</a>, 2006.</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:GlamCamp_NY_Kippelboy_nina_Paley_(2).JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/GlamCamp_NY_Kippelboy_nina_Paley_%282%29.JPG/220px-GlamCamp_NY_Kippelboy_nina_Paley_%282%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="1414" data-file-height="1398" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:GlamCamp_NY_Kippelboy_nina_Paley_(2).JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>"Copying is not theft!" badge with a character resembling <a href="/wiki/Mickey_Mouse" title="Mickey Mouse">Mickey Mouse</a> in reference to the "in popular culture" rationale behind the <a href="/wiki/Sonny_Bono_Copyright_Term_Extension_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act">Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act</a> of 1998</div></div></div>
<h3><span id="The_term_.22intellectual_property.22"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="The_term_"intellectual_property"">The term "intellectual property"</span></h3>
<p>Criticism of the term <i>intellectual property</i> ranges from discussing its vagueness and abstract overreach to direct contention to the semantic validity of using words like <i>property</i> and <i>rights</i> in fashions that contradict practice and law. Many detractors think this term specially serves the doctrinal agenda of parties opposing reform in the public interest or otherwise abusing related legislations, and that it disallows intelligent discussion about specific and often unrelated aspects of copyright, patents, trademarks, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation" title="Free Software Foundation">Free Software Foundation</a> founder <a href="/wiki/Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Richard Stallman</a> argues that, although the term <i>intellectual property</i> is in wide use, it should be rejected altogether, because it "systematically distorts and confuses these issues, and its use was and is promoted by those who gain from this confusion". He claims that the term "operates as a catch-all to lump together disparate laws [which] originated separately, evolved differently, cover different activities, have different rules, and raise different public policy issues" and that it creates a "bias" by confusing these monopolies with ownership of limited physical things, likening them to "property rights".<sup id="cite_ref-mirage_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mirage-62">[62]</a></sup> Stallman advocates referring to copyrights, patents and trademarks in the singular and warns against abstracting disparate laws into a collective term. He argues that "to avoid spreading unnecessary bias and confusion, it is best to adopt a firm policy not to speak or even think in terms of 'intellectual property'."<sup id="cite_ref-words-to-avoid_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-words-to-avoid-63">[63]</a></sup>
</p><p>Similarly, economists <a href="/wiki/Michele_Boldrin" title="Michele Boldrin">Boldrin</a> and <a href="/wiki/David_K._Levine" title="David K. Levine">Levine</a> prefer to use the term "intellectual monopoly" as a more appropriate and clear definition of the concept, which, they argue, is very dissimilar from property rights.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup> They further argued that "stronger patents do little or nothing to encourage innovation", mainly explained by its tendency to create market monopolies, thereby restricting further innovations and technology transfer.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup>
</p><p>On the assumption that intellectual property rights are actual rights, Stallman says that this claim does not live to the historical intentions behind these laws, which in the case of copyright served as a censorship system, and later on, a regulatory model for the printing press that may have benefited authors incidentally, but never interfered with the freedom of average readers.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup> Still referring to copyright, he cites legal literature such as the United States Constitution and <a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">case law</a> to demonstrate that the law is meant to be an optional and experimental bargain to temporarily trade property rights and free speech for public, not private, benefits in the form of increased artistic production and knowledge. He mentions that "if copyright were a natural right nothing could justify terminating this right after a certain period of time".<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup>
</p><p>Law professor, writer and political activist <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Lessig" title="Lawrence Lessig">Lawrence Lessig</a>, along with many other <a href="/wiki/Copyleft" title="Copyleft">copyleft</a> and free software activists, has criticized the implied analogy with physical property (like land or an automobile). They argue such an analogy fails because physical property is generally rivalrous while intellectual works are non-rivalrous (that is, if one makes a copy of a work, the enjoyment of the copy does not prevent enjoyment of the original).<sup id="cite_ref-lessigperpetual_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lessigperpetual-68">[68]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup> Other arguments along these lines claim that unlike the situation with tangible property, there is <a href="/wiki/Artificial_scarcity" title="Artificial scarcity">no natural scarcity</a> of a particular idea or information: once it exists at all, it can be re-used and duplicated indefinitely without such re-use diminishing the original. <a href="/wiki/Stephan_Kinsella" title="Stephan Kinsella">Stephan Kinsella</a> has objected to <i>intellectual property</i> on the grounds that the word "property" implies scarcity, which may not be applicable to ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup>
</p><p>Entrepreneur and politician <a href="/wiki/Rickard_Falkvinge" class="mw-redirect" title="Rickard Falkvinge">Rickard Falkvinge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hacker_(programmer_subculture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hacker (programmer subculture)">hacker</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Oliva" title="Alexandre Oliva">Alexandre Oliva</a> have independently compared George Orwell's fictional dialect <a href="/wiki/Newspeak" title="Newspeak">Newspeak</a> to the terminology used by intellectual property supporters as a linguistic weapon to shape public opinion regarding copyright debate and <a href="/wiki/Digital_Rights_Management" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Rights Management">DRM</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Alternative_terms">Alternative terms</span></h4>
<p>In <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a> jurisdictions, intellectual property has often been referred to as <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Intellectual rights">intellectual rights</a>, traditionally a somewhat broader concept that has included <a href="/wiki/Moral_rights_(copyright_law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral rights (copyright law)">moral rights</a> and other personal protections that cannot be bought or sold. Use of the term <i>intellectual rights</i> has declined since the early 1980s, as use of the term <i>intellectual property</i> has increased.
</p><p>Alternative terms <i>monopolies on information</i> and <i>intellectual monopoly</i> have emerged among those who argue against the "property" or "intellect" or "rights" assumptions, notably <a href="/wiki/Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Richard Stallman</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Backronym" title="Backronym">backronyms</a> <i>intellectual protectionism</i> and <i>intellectual poverty</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup> whose initials are also <i>IP</i>, have found supporters as well, especially among those who have used the backronym <i><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_digital_rights_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Opposition to digital rights management">digital restrictions management</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></sup>
</p><p>The argument that an intellectual property right should (in the interests of better balancing of relevant private and public interests) be termed an <i>intellectual monopoly privilege</i> (IMP) has been advanced by several academics including Birgitte Andersen<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Alured_Faunce&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas Alured Faunce (page does not exist)">Thomas Alured Faunce</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Objections_to_overly_broad_intellectual_property_laws">Objections to overly broad intellectual property laws</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/220px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/330px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/440px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="219" data-file-height="218" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The <a href="/wiki/Free_culture_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Free culture movement">free culture movement</a> champions the production of <a href="/wiki/Free_content" title="Free content">content</a> <a href="/wiki/Information_wants_to_be_free" title="Information wants to be free">that bears little or no restrictions</a>.</div></div></div>
<p>Some critics of intellectual property, such as those in the <a href="/wiki/Free_culture_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Free culture movement">free culture movement</a>, point at intellectual monopolies as harming health (in the case of <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_patent" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical patent">pharmaceutical patents</a>), preventing progress, and benefiting concentrated interests to the detriment of the masses,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></sup> and argue that the public interest is harmed by ever-expansive monopolies in the form of <a href="/wiki/Copyright_extension" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright extension">copyright extensions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Software_patents" class="mw-redirect" title="Software patents">software patents</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Business_method_patents" class="mw-redirect" title="Business method patents">business method patents</a>. More recently scientists and engineers are expressing concern that <a href="/wiki/Patent_thickets" class="mw-redirect" title="Patent thickets">patent thickets</a> are undermining technological development even in high-tech fields like <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></sup>
</p><p>Petra Moser has asserted that historical analysis suggests that intellectual property laws may harm innovation:
</p>
<blockquote><p>Overall, the weight of the existing historical evidence suggests that patent policies, which grant strong intellectual property rights to early generations of inventors, may discourage innovation. On the contrary, policies that encourage the diffusion of ideas and modify patent laws to facilitate entry and encourage competition may be an effective mechanism to encourage innovation.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>In support of that argument, <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rg_Baten" title="Jörg Baten">Jörg Baten</a>, Nicola Bianchi and Petra Moser<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></sup> find historical evidence that especially compulsory licensing – which allows governments to license patents without the consent of patent-owners – encouraged invention in Germany in the early 20th century by increasing the threat of competition in fields with low pre-existing levels of competition.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Peter_Drahos" title="Peter Drahos">Peter Drahos</a> notes, "Property rights confer authority over resources. When authority is granted to the few over resources on which the many depend, the few gain power over the goals of the many. This has consequences for both political and economic freedom within a society."<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>13</span></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/World_Intellectual_Property_Organization" title="World Intellectual Property Organization">World Intellectual Property Organization</a> (WIPO) recognizes that conflicts may exist between the respect for and implementation of current intellectual property systems and other human rights.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></sup> In 2001 the UN <a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Economic,_Social_and_Cultural_Rights" title="Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights">Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights</a> issued a document called "Human rights and intellectual property" that argued that intellectual property tends to be governed by economic goals when it should be viewed primarily as a social product; in order to serve human well-being, intellectual property systems must respect and conform to human rights laws. According to the Committee, when systems fail to do so, they risk infringing upon the human right to food and health, and to cultural participation and scientific benefits.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></sup> In 2004 the General Assembly of WIPO adopted <i>The Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization</i> which argues that WIPO should "focus more on the needs of developing countries, and to view IP as one of many tools for development—not as an end in itself".<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></sup>
</p><p>Ethical problems are most pertinent when socially valuable goods like life-saving medicines are given IP protection. While the application of IP rights can allow companies to charge higher than the marginal cost of production in order to recoup the costs of research and development, the price may exclude from the market anyone who cannot afford the cost of the product, in this case a life-saving drug.<sup id="cite_ref-Sonderholm_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sonderholm-91">[91]</a></sup> "An IPR driven regime is therefore not a regime that is conductive to the investment of R&D of products that are socially valuable to predominately poor populations".<sup id="cite_ref-Sonderholm_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sonderholm-91">[91]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>1108–9</span></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Libertarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Libertarian">Libertarians</a> have <a href="/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_intellectual_property" title="Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property">differing views on intellectual property</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Stephan_Kinsella" title="Stephan Kinsella">Stephan Kinsella</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarcho-capitalist">anarcho-capitalist</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Right-libertarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Right-libertarian">right-wing of libertarianism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></sup> argues against intellectual property because allowing property rights in ideas and information creates <a href="/wiki/Artificial_scarcity" title="Artificial scarcity">artificial scarcity</a> and infringes on the right to own tangible property. Kinsella uses the following scenario to argue this point:
</p>
<blockquote><p>[I]magine the time when men lived in caves. One bright guy—let's call him Galt-Magnon—decides to build a log cabin on an open field, near his crops. To be sure, this is a good idea, and others notice it. They naturally imitate Galt-Magnon, and they start building their own cabins. But the first man to invent a house, according to IP advocates, would have a right to prevent others from building houses on their own land, with their own logs, or to charge them a fee if they do build houses. It is plain that the innovator in these examples becomes a partial owner of the tangible property (e.g., land and logs) of others, due not to first occupation and use of that property (for it is already owned), but due to his coming up with an idea. Clearly, this rule flies in the face of the first-user homesteading rule, arbitrarily and groundlessly overriding the very homesteading rule that is at the foundation of all property rights.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> once said in a letter to Isaac McPherson on 13 August 1813:
</p>
<blockquote><p>"If nature has made any one thing less susceptible than all others of exclusive property, it is the action of the thinking power called an idea, which an individual may exclusively possess as long as he keeps it to himself; but the moment it is divulged, it forces itself into the possession of every one, and the receiver cannot dispossess himself of it. Its peculiar character, too, is that no one possesses the less, because every other possesses the whole of it. He who receives an idea from me, receives instruction himself without lessening mine; as he who lights his <a href="/wiki/Candle" title="Candle">taper</a> at mine, receives light without darkening me."<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>In 2005 the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Arts" title="Royal Society of Arts">Royal Society of Arts</a> launched the <a href="/wiki/Adelphi_Charter" title="Adelphi Charter">Adelphi Charter</a>, aimed at creating an international policy statement to frame how governments should make balanced intellectual property law.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></sup>
</p><p>Another aspect of current U.S. Intellectual Property legislation is its focus on individual and joint works; thus, copyright protection can only be obtained in 'original' works of authorship. Critics like Philip Bennet argue that this does not provide adequate protection against <a href="/wiki/Cultural_appropriation" title="Cultural appropriation">cultural appropriation</a> of indigenous knowledge, for which a <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_intellectual_property" title="Indigenous intellectual property">collective IP regime</a> is needed.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></sup>
</p><p>Intellectual property law has been criticized as not recognizing new forms of art such as the <a href="/wiki/Remix_culture" title="Remix culture">remix culture</a>, whose participants often commit what technically constitutes violations of such laws, creation works such as <a href="/wiki/Anime_music_video" title="Anime music video">anime music videos</a> and others, or are otherwise subject to unnecessary burdens and limitations which prevent them from fully expressing themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-JemielniakPrzegalinska20202_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JemielniakPrzegalinska20202-97">[97]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>70</span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Objections_to_the_expansion_in_nature_and_scope_of_intellectual_property_laws">Objections to the expansion in nature and scope of intellectual property laws</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg/220px-Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg/330px-Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg/440px-Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="375" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Expansion of U.S. copyright law (Assuming authors create their works by age 35 and live for seventy years)</div></div></div>
<p>Other criticism of intellectual property law concerns the expansion of intellectual property, both in duration and in scope.
</p><p>As scientific knowledge has expanded and allowed new industries to arise in fields such as biotechnology and nanotechnology, originators of technology have sought IP protection for the new technologies. Patents have been granted for living organisms,<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></sup> and in the United States, <a href="/wiki/Plant_breeders%27_rights" title="Plant breeders' rights">certain living organisms</a> have been patentable for over a century.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></sup>
</p><p>The increase in terms of protection is particularly seen in relation to copyright, which has recently been the subject of serial extensions <a href="/wiki/Sonny_Bono_Copyright_Term_Extension_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act">in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Directive_on_harmonising_the_term_of_copyright_protection" class="mw-redirect" title="Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection">in Europe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-lessigperpetual_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lessigperpetual-68">[68]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-td_confused_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-td_confused-106">[106]</a></sup> With no need for registration or copyright notices, this is thought to have led to an increase in <a href="/wiki/Orphan_works" class="mw-redirect" title="Orphan works">orphan works</a> (copyrighted works for which the copyright owner cannot be contacted), a problem that has been noticed and addressed by governmental bodies around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a></sup>
</p><p>Also with respect to copyright, the American film industry helped to change the social construct of intellectual property via its trade organization, the <a href="/wiki/Motion_Picture_Association_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion Picture Association of America">Motion Picture Association of America</a>. In amicus briefs in important cases, in lobbying before Congress, and in its statements to the public, the MPAA has advocated strong protection of intellectual property rights. In framing its presentations, the association has claimed that people are entitled to the property that is produced by their labor. Additionally Congress's awareness of the position of the United States as the world's largest producer of films has made it convenient to expand the conception of intellectual property.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></sup> These doctrinal reforms have further strengthened the industry, lending the MPAA even more power and authority.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></sup>
</p><p>The growth of the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>, and particularly distributed search engines like <a href="/wiki/Kazaa" title="Kazaa">Kazaa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gnutella" title="Gnutella">Gnutella</a>, have represented a challenge for copyright policy. The <a href="/wiki/Recording_Industry_Association_of_America" title="Recording Industry Association of America">Recording Industry Association of America</a>, in particular, has been on the front lines of the fight against <a href="/wiki/Copyright_infringement" title="Copyright infringement">copyright infringement</a>, which the industry calls "piracy". The industry has had victories against some services, including a highly publicized case against the file-sharing company <a href="/wiki/Napster" title="Napster">Napster</a>, and some people have been prosecuted for sharing files in violation of copyright. The electronic age has seen an increase in the attempt to use software-based <a href="/wiki/Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">digital rights management</a> tools to restrict the copying and use of digitally based works. Laws such as the <a href="/wiki/Digital_Millennium_Copyright_Act" title="Digital Millennium Copyright Act">Digital Millennium Copyright Act</a> have been enacted that use criminal law to prevent any circumvention of software used to enforce digital rights management systems. Equivalent provisions, to prevent circumvention of copyright protection have existed in EU for some time, and are being expanded in, for example, Article 6 and 7 the <a href="/wiki/Information_Society_Directive" title="Information Society Directive">Copyright Directive</a>. Other examples are Article 7 of the Software Directive of 1991 (91/250/EEC), and the <a href="/wiki/Conditional_Access_Directive" title="Conditional Access Directive">Conditional Access Directive</a> of 1998 (98/84/EEC). This can hinder legal uses, affecting <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a> works, <a href="/wiki/Limitations_and_exceptions_to_copyright" title="Limitations and exceptions to copyright">limitations and exceptions to copyright</a>, or uses allowed by the copyright holder. Some <a href="/wiki/Copyleft" title="Copyleft">copyleft</a> licenses, like the <a href="/wiki/GNU_GPL_3" class="mw-redirect" title="GNU GPL 3">GNU GPL 3</a>, are designed to counter this.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a></sup> Laws may permit circumvention under specific conditions, such as when it is necessary to achieve interoperability with the circumventor's program, or for <a href="/wiki/Accessibility" title="Accessibility">accessibility</a> reasons; however, distribution of circumvention tools or instructions may be illegal.
</p><p>In the context of trademarks, this expansion has been driven by international efforts to harmonise the definition of "trademark", as exemplified by the <a href="/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement" title="TRIPS Agreement">Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights</a> ratified in 1994, which formalized regulations for IP rights that had been handled by common law, or not at all, in member states. Pursuant to TRIPs, any <a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">sign</a> which is "capable of distinguishing" the products or services of one business from the products or services of another business is capable of constituting a trademark.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Use_in_corporate_tax_avoidance">Use in corporate tax avoidance</span></h3>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038770936">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{background-color:#F9F9F9;text-align:center;font-size:larger;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:23em; border-width: 1px; background-color: #c6dbf7;">
<blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style="">
<p>Make no mistake: the headline [tax] rate is not what triggers tax evasion and aggressive tax planning. That comes from schemes that facilitate profit shifting.
</p>
</blockquote>
<p><cite class="left-aligned" style=""><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Moscovici" title="Pierre Moscovici">Pierre Moscovici</a><br />European Commissioner for Tax<br /><i>Financial Times</i>, 11 March 2018<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></sup></cite>
</p>
</div>
<p>Intellectual property has become a core tool in corporate tax planning and <a href="/wiki/Tax_avoidance" title="Tax avoidance">tax avoidance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-fordam_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fordam-113">[113]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ucla_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ucla-114">[114]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lux_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lux-115">[115]</a></sup> IP is a key component of the leading multinational tax avoidance <a href="/wiki/Base_erosion_and_profit_shifting" title="Base erosion and profit shifting">base erosion and profit shifting</a> (BEPS) tools,<sup id="cite_ref-tilburg_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tilburg-116">[116]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-zew_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zew-117">[117]</a></sup> which the OECD estimates costs $100–240 billion in lost annual tax revenues.<sup id="cite_ref-BEPS_Background_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BEPS_Background-118">[118]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 2017–2018, both the U.S. and the EU Commission simultaneously decided to depart from the <a href="/wiki/Base_erosion_and_profit_shifting_(OECD_project)" title="Base erosion and profit shifting (OECD project)">OECD BEPS Project</a> timetable, which was set up in 2013 to combat IP BEPS tax tools like the above,<sup id="cite_ref-BEPS_Background_118-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BEPS_Background-118">[118]</a></sup> and launch their own anti-IP BEPS tax regimes:
</p>
<ul><li>U.S. <a href="/wiki/Tax_Cuts_and_Jobs_Act_of_2017" title="Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017">Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017</a>, which has several anti-IP BEPS abuse tax regimes, including GILTI tax and the BEAT tax regimes.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a></sup></li>
<li>EU Commission 2018 Digital Services Tax, which is less advanced than the U.S. TCJA, but does seek to override IP BEPS tools via a quasi-VAT.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></sup></li></ul>
<p>The departure of the U.S. and EU Commission from the OECD BEPS Project process, is attributed to frustrations with the rise in IP as a key BEPS tax tool, creating intangible assets, which are then turned into royalty payment BEPS schemes (double Irish), and/or <a href="/wiki/Capital_allowance" title="Capital allowance">capital allowance</a> BEPS schemes (capital allowances for intangibles). In contrast, the OECD has spent years developing and advocating intellectual property as a legal and a GAAP accounting concept.<sup id="cite_ref-un1_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-un1-125">[125]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Gender_gap_in_intellectual_property">Gender gap in intellectual property</span></h3>
<p>Women have historically been underrepresented in intellectual property rights. According to the World Intellectual Property Organization, women comprised only 16.5% of patent holders even as recently as 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a></sup> This disparity is the result of several factors including systemic bias, sexism and discrimination within the intellectual property space, underrepresentation within <a href="/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics" title="Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics">STEM</a>, and barriers to access of necessary finance and knowledge in order to obtain intellectual property rights, among other reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_publication" title="Defensive publication">Defensive publication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_policy" title="Information policy">Information policy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_information" title="Freedom of information">Freedom of information</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_intellectual_property" title="Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property">Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_product_development" title="New product development">New product development</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Citations">Citations</span></h3>
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<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r999302996">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFBradLionel_Bently1999" class="citation book cs1">Brad, Sherman; Lionel Bently (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books?id=u2aMRA-eF1gC&dq=statute+of+anne+copyright&lr=&as_brr=3&source=gbs_navlinks_s"><i>The making of modern intellectual property law: the British experience, 1760–1911</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 207. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56363-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56363-5"><bdi>978-0-521-56363-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+making+of+modern+intellectual+property+law%3A+the+British+experience%2C+1760%E2%80%931911&rft.pages=207&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-56363-5&rft.aulast=Brad&rft.aufirst=Sherman&rft.au=Lionel+Bently&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du2aMRA-eF1gC%26dq%3Dstatute%2Bof%2Banne%2Bcopyright%26lr%3D%26as_brr%3D3%26source%3Dgbs_navlinks_s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-_intellectual_property" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oed.com/search?searchType=dictionary&q=intellectual+property">"intellectual property"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (Online ed.). Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=intellectual+property&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foed.com%2Fsearch%3FsearchType%3Ddictionary%26q%3Dintellectual%2Bproperty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:90%; color:#555">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.)</span> (Citing <i>Monthly Review</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cMsvAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA290#v=onepage&q&f=false">vol. 41. p. 290</a> (1769): "What a niggard this Doctor is of his own, and how profuse he is of other people's intellectual property.")</span>
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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-_intellectual_property" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oed.com/search?searchType=dictionary&q=intellectual+property">"intellectual property"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (Online ed.). Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=intellectual+property&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foed.com%2Fsearch%3FsearchType%3Ddictionary%26q%3Dintellectual%2Bproperty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:90%; color:#555">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.)</span> (Citing <i>Medical Repository Of Original Essays And Intelligence</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ij9JAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA303">vol. 11. p. 303</a> (1808): "New-England Association in favour of Inventors and Discoverers, and particularly for the Protection of intellectual Property.")</span>
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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040706175038/http://www.verfassungen.de/de/de67-18/verfassung67-i.htm">'Article 4 No. 6 of the Constitution of 1867 (German)'</a> Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 52, p. 1255, 2001</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Lemley_2005-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lemley_2005_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference <code>Lemley 2005</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>).
</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark A. Lemley, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=582602">"Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding"</a> (Abstract); see Table 1: 4–5.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mossoff, A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=863925">'Rethinking the Development of Patents: An Intellectual History, 1550–1800,'</a> Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 52, p. 1255, 2001</span>
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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>1 Woodb. & M. 53, 3 West.L.J. 151, 7 F.Cas. 197, No. 3662, 2 Robb.Pat.Cas. 303, Merw.Pat.Inv. 414</i></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130115040700/http://www.ladas.com/Patents/USPatentHistory.html">"Patent Archives – Ladas & Parry LLP"</a>. <i>Ladas & Parry</i>. Ladas.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ladas.com/Patents/USPatentHistory.html">the original</a> on 15 January 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ladas+%26+Parry&rft.atitle=Patent+Archives+%E2%80%93+Ladas+%26+Parry+LLP&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ladas.com%2FPatents%2FUSPatentHistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Mark_A._Lemley-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mark_A._Lemley_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mark_A._Lemley_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMark_A._Lemley" class="citation web cs1">Mark A. Lemley. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/tlr83&div=30&g_sent=1&collection=journals">"Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding"</a>. <i>Heinonline</i>. Heinonline.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Heinonline&rft.atitle=Property%2C+Intellectual+Property%2C+and+Free+Riding&rft.au=Mark+A.+Lemley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fheinonline.org%2FHOL%2FPage%3Fhandle%3Dhein.journals%2Ftlr83%26div%3D30%26g_sent%3D1%26collection%3Djournals&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Economist; (20 October 2005): “The Liquidity of Innovation”; How the new market for intellectual property is changing the technology industry, available; <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.economist.com/node/5015365">https://www.economist.com/node/5015365</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jlaw.com/Articles/copyright1.html">"Jewish Law – Articles ("Jewish Law and Copyright")"</a>. Jlaw.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jewish+Law+%E2%80%93+Articles+%28%22Jewish+Law+and+Copyright%22%29&rft.pub=Jlaw.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jlaw.com%2FArticles%2Fcopyright1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles Anthon, A Classical Dictionary: Containing an Account of the Principal Proper Names Mentioned in Ancient Authors, and Intended to Elucidate All the Important Points Connected with the Geography, History, Biography, Mythology, and Fine Arts of the Greek and Romans. Together with an Account of Coins, Weights, and Measures, with Tabular Values of the Same 1273 (Harper & Brothers 1841). See also "The first patent law was enacted in Sybaris, a city in the South of Italy, before the Roman domination; The law was mentioned by Atheneus, an ancient writer..." in Takenaka, Toshiko (2013). Intellectual Property in Common Law and Civil Law. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 419. (chapter by Mario Franzosi).</span>
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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMorin" class="citation web cs1">Morin, Jean-Frédéric. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/sites/chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/files/publications/morin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf">"Paradigm shift in the global IP regime: The agency of academics, Review of International Political Economy, vol 21-2, 2014, p.275"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Paradigm+shift+in+the+global+IP+regime%3A+The+agency+of+academics%2C+Review+of+International+Political+Economy%2C+vol+21-2%2C+2014%2C+p.275&rft.aulast=Morin&rft.aufirst=Jean-Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca%2Fsites%2Fchaire-epi.ulaval.ca%2Ffiles%2Fpublications%2Fmorin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMorin" class="citation web cs1">Morin, Jean-Frédéric. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/sites/chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/files/publications/morin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf">"Paradigm shift in the global IP regime: The agency of academics, Review of International Political Economy, vol 21-2, 2014, p.275"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Paradigm+shift+in+the+global+IP+regime%3A+The+agency+of+academics%2C+Review+of+International+Political+Economy%2C+vol+21-2%2C+2014%2C+p.275&rft.aulast=Morin&rft.aufirst=Jean-Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca%2Fsites%2Fchaire-epi.ulaval.ca%2Ffiles%2Fpublications%2Fmorin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMorin" class="citation web cs1">Morin, Jean-Frédéric. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/sites/chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/files/publications/morin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf">"Paradigm shift in the global IP regime: The agency of academics, Review of International Political Economy, vol 21-2, 2014, p.275"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Paradigm+shift+in+the+global+IP+regime%3A+The+agency+of+academics%2C+Review+of+International+Political+Economy%2C+vol+21-2%2C+2014%2C+p.275&rft.aulast=Morin&rft.aufirst=Jean-Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca%2Fsites%2Fchaire-epi.ulaval.ca%2Ffiles%2Fpublications%2Fmorin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFRoisah2017" class="citation journal cs1">Roisah, Kholis (26 December 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.20956%2Fhalrev.v3i3.1153">"Understanding Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Agreement: From Hard and Soft Law Perspective"</a>. <i>Hasanuddin Law Review</i>. <b>3</b> (3): 277–289. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.20956%2Fhalrev.v3i3.1153">10.20956/halrev.v3i3.1153</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/2442-9899">2442-9899</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hasanuddin+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Understanding+Trade-Related+Aspects+of+Intellectual+Property+Rights+Agreement%3A+From+Hard+and+Soft+Law+Perspective&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=277-289&rft.date=2017-12-26&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.20956%2Fhalrev.v3i3.1153&rft.issn=2442-9899&rft.aulast=Roisah&rft.aufirst=Kholis&rft_id=%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.20956%252Fhalrev.v3i3.1153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">WTO (2013): Intellectual Property; Responding to least developed countries’ special needs in intellectual property; <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/ldc_e.htm">https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/ldc_e.htm</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/treaties/text.jsp?file_id=288514">Article 1(2) of the Paris Convention</a>: "The protection of industrial property has as its object patents, utility models, industrial designs, trademarks, service marks, trade names, indications of source or appellations of origin, and the repression of unfair competition."</span>
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<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140711050507/http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/paris/index.html">"Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property"</a>. <i>Wipo</i>. WIPO. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/paris/index.html">the original</a> on 11 July 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 September</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wipo&rft.atitle=Paris+Convention+for+the+Protection+of+Industrial+Property&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Ftreaties%2Fen%2Fip%2Fparis%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-WIPO_Handbook_Ch_2-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WIPO_Handbook_Ch_2_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/about-ip/en/iprm/pdf/ch2.pdf">WIPO Intellectual Property Handbook: Policy, Law and Use. Chapter 2: Fields of Intellectual Property Protection</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130520221306/http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/about-ip/en/iprm/pdf/ch2.pdf">Archived</a> 20 May 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> WIPO 2008</span>
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<li id="cite_note-wipo.int-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wipo.int_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wipo.int_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">WIPO (2008); “What is Intellectual Property” Handbook: WIPO Publication No. 450(E) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-805-1555-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-805-1555-0">978-92-805-1555-0</a>, available: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/intproperty/450/wipo_pub_450.pdf">http://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/intproperty/450/wipo_pub_450.pdf</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Intellectual_Property_and_Information_Wealth:_Copyright_and_related_rights-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Intellectual_Property_and_Information_Wealth:_Copyright_and_related_rights_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFPeter_K,_Yu2007" class="citation book cs1">Peter K, Yu (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books?id=tgK9BzcF5WgC&dq=statute+of+anne+copyright&lr=&as_brr=3&source=gbs_navlinks_s"><i>Intellectual Property and Information Wealth: Copyright and related rights</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 346. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98883-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98883-8"><bdi>978-0-275-98883-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intellectual+Property+and+Information+Wealth%3A+Copyright+and+related+rights&rft.pages=346&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-275-98883-8&rft.au=Peter+K%2C+Yu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtgK9BzcF5WgC%26dq%3Dstatute%2Bof%2Banne%2Bcopyright%26lr%3D%26as_brr%3D3%26source%3Dgbs_navlinks_s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFWorld_Intellectual_Property_Organisation" class="citation web cs1">World Intellectual Property Organisation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120606013942/http://www.wipo.int/freepublications/en/intproperty/909/wipo_pub_909.pdf">"Understanding Copyright and Related Rights"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. WIPO. p. 8. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wipo.int/freepublications/en/intproperty/909/wipo_pub_909.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 6 June 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 August</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Understanding+Copyright+and+Related+Rights&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=WIPO&rft.au=World+Intellectual+Property+Organisation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Ffreepublications%2Fen%2Fintproperty%2F909%2Fwipo_pub_909.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Art_and_copyright-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Art_and_copyright_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFSimon,_Stokes2001" class="citation book cs1">Simon, Stokes (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books?id=h-XBqKIryaQC&dq=idea-expression+dichotomy&lr=&as_brr=3&source=gbs_navlinks_s"><i>Art and copyright</i></a>. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84113-225-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84113-225-9"><bdi>978-1-84113-225-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Art+and+copyright&rft.pages=48-49&rft.pub=Hart+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-84113-225-9&rft.au=Simon%2C+Stokes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh-XBqKIryaQC%26dq%3Didea-expression%2Bdichotomy%26lr%3D%26as_brr%3D3%26source%3Dgbs_navlinks_s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121213072252/http://www.uspto.gov/trademarks/basics/definitions.jsp">"Trademark, Patent, or Copyright?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_Patent_and_Trademark_Office" title="United States Patent and Trademark Office">United States Patent and Trademark Office</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Commerce" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Commerce">Department of Commerce</a>. 13 December 2015. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uspto.gov/trademarks/basics/definitions.jsp">the original</a> on 13 December 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+States+Patent+and+Trademark+Office&rft.atitle=Trademark%2C+Patent%2C+or+Copyright%3F&rft.date=2015-12-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uspto.gov%2Ftrademarks%2Fbasics%2Fdefinitions.jsp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120703105213/http://www.ipo.gov.uk/types/tm/t-about/t-whatis.htm">"What is a trade mark (or brand)?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_Property_Office_(United_Kingdom)" title="Intellectual Property Office (United Kingdom)">Intellectual Property Office</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipo.gov.uk/types/tm/t-about/t-whatis.htm">the original</a> on 3 July 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 December</span> 2012</span>. <q>A trade mark is a sign which can distinguish your goods and services from those of your competitors (you may refer to your trade mark as your "brand").</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Intellectual+Property+Office&rft.atitle=What+is+a+trade+mark+%28or+brand%29%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipo.gov.uk%2Ftypes%2Ftm%2Ft-about%2Ft-whatis.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141129082624/http://www.patentamt.de/english/trade_marks/index.html">"Trade Marks"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Deutsches_Patent-_und_Markenamt" class="mw-redirect" title="Deutsches Patent- und Markenamt">Deutsches Patent- und Markenamt</a></i>. 28 November 2014. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.patentamt.de/english/trade_marks/index.html">the original</a> on 29 November 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 March</span> 2019</span>. <q>Trade marks identify the goods and services of particular traders</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Deutsches+Patent-+und+Markenamt&rft.atitle=Trade+Marks&rft.date=2014-11-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.patentamt.de%2Fenglish%2Ftrade_marks%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMergesMenellLemley2007" class="citation book cs1">Merges, Robert P.; Menell, Peter S.; Lemley, Mark A. (2007). <i>Intellectual Property in the New Technological Age</i> (4th rev. ed.). New York: Wolters Kluwer. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7355-6989-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7355-6989-8"><bdi>978-0-7355-6989-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intellectual+Property+in+the+New+Technological+Age&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=29&rft.edition=4th+rev.&rft.pub=Wolters+Kluwer&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7355-6989-8&rft.aulast=Merges&rft.aufirst=Robert+P.&rft.au=Menell%2C+Peter+S.&rft.au=Lemley%2C+Mark+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldsteinReese2008">Goldstein & Reese (2008)</a>, p. 17.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFFarahTremolada2014" class="citation journal cs1">Farah, Paolo Davide; Tremolada, Riccardo (15 March 2014). "Desirability of Commodification of Intangible Cultural Heritage: The Unsatisfying Role of Intellectual Property Rights". <i>Transnational Dispute Management</i>. <b>11</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//ssrn.com/abstract=2472339">2472339</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transnational+Dispute+Management&rft.atitle=Desirability+of+Commodification+of+Intangible+Cultural+Heritage%3A+The+Unsatisfying+Role+of+Intellectual+Property+Rights&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2014-03-15&rft_id=%2F%2Fssrn.com%2Fabstract%3D2472339%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Farah&rft.aufirst=Paolo+Davide&rft.au=Tremolada%2C+Riccardo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fairuse.stanford.edu/law/us-constitution/">"Copyright & Fair Use"</a>. <i>Stanford University Libraries</i>. 9 April 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 June</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+University+Libraries&rft.atitle=Copyright+%26+Fair+Use&rft.date=2013-04-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffairuse.stanford.edu%2Flaw%2Fus-constitution%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFWIPO_–_The_World_Intellectual_Property_Organization" class="citation web cs1">WIPO – The World Intellectual Property Organization. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111022125749/http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/hr/">"Human Rights and Intellectual Property: An Overview"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/hr/">the original</a> on 22 October 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Human+Rights+and+Intellectual+Property%3A+An+Overview&rft.au=WIPO+%E2%80%93+The+World+Intellectual+Property+Organization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Ftk%2Fen%2Fhr%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMoore2014" class="citation web cs1">Moore, Adam (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/intellectual-property/">"Intellectual Property"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Intellectual+Property&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fintellectual-property%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald V. Bettig. "Critical Perspectives on the History and Philosophy of Copyright" in Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property, by Ronald V. Bettig. (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996), 19–20</span>
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<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard T. De George, "14. Intellectual Property Rights," in The Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics, by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp, vol. 1, 1st ed. (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.), 415–416.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard T. De George, "14. Intellectual Property Rights," in The Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics, by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp, vol. 1, 1st ed. (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.), 416.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Spinello_2007-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Spinello_2007_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Spinello_2007_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFSpinello2007" class="citation journal cs1">Spinello, Richard A. (January 2007). "Intellectual property rights". <i>Library Hi Tech</i>. <b>25</b> (1): 12–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1108%2F07378830710735821">10.1108/07378830710735821</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Library+Hi+Tech&rft.atitle=Intellectual+property+rights&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=12-22&rft.date=2007-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2F07378830710735821&rft.aulast=Spinello&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard T. De George, "14. Intellectual Property Rights," in The Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics, by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp, vol. 1, 1st ed. (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.), 417.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard T. De George, "14. Intellectual Property Rights," in The Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics, by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp, vol. 1, 1st ed. (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.), 418.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Law of Intellectual Property, Part 1 Chapter 1 Section 9 – Lysander Spooner</span>
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<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFRand1967" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand, Ayn</a> (1967) [1966]. <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/capitalismunknow00rand"><i>Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal</i></a></span> (paperback 2nd ed.). New York: Signet.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Capitalism%3A+The+Unknown+Ideal&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=paperback+2nd&rft.pub=Signet&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Rand&rft.aufirst=Ayn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcapitalismunknow00rand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Bitton-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bitton_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bitton_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bitton_54-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Miriam Bitton (2012) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121010073552/http://www.law.northwestern.edu/jclc/backissues/v102/n1/1021_67.Bitton.pdf">Rethinking the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement's Criminal Copyright Enforcement Measures</a> The Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology 102(1):67–117</span>
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<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.epo.org/law-practice/legal-texts/html/epc/2020/e/ar69.html">Article 69</a> <a href="/wiki/European_Patent_Convention" title="European Patent Convention">EPC</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pradip K. Sahu and Shannon Mrksich, Ph.D. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130207023621/http://www.brinkshofer.com/resource_center/85-the-hatch-waxman-act-research-exempt-from-patent-infringement">The Hatch-Waxman Act: When Is Research Exempt from Patent Infringement?</a> ABA-IPL Newsletter 22(4) Summer 2004</span>
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<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Matthew L. Cutler (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blog.hdp.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/60549706_1.PDF">International Patent Litigation Survey: A Survey of the Characteristics of Patent Litigation in 17 International Jurisdictions</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130922062127/http://blog.hdp.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/60549706_1.PDF">Archived</a> 22 September 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Panethiere_p2-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Panethiere_p2_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFPanethiere2005" class="citation web cs1">Panethiere, Darrell (July–September 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080816063513/http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/files/28696/11513329261panethiere_en.pdf/panethiere_en.pdf">"The Persistence of Piracy: The Consequences for Creativity, for Culture, and for Sustainable Development"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>portal.unesco</i>. UNESCO e-Copyright Bulletin. p. 2. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/files/28696/11513329261panethiere_en.pdf/panethiere_en.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 16 August 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=portal.unesco&rft.atitle=The+Persistence+of+Piracy%3A+The+Consequences+for+Creativity%2C+for+Culture%2C+and+for+Sustainable+Development&rft.pages=2&rft.date=2005-07%2F2005-09&rft.aulast=Panethiere&rft.aufirst=Darrell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fportal.unesco.org%2Fculture%2Fen%2Ffiles%2F28696%2F11513329261panethiere_en.pdf%2Fpanethiere_en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Xuan_p211-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Xuan_p211_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFCorreaLi,_Xuan2009" class="citation book cs1">Correa, Carlos Maria; Li, Xuan (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bN3o1uwpKF4C&q=copyright+infringement+international+acta"><i>Intellectual property enforcement: international perspectives</i></a>. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 211. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84844-663-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84844-663-2"><bdi>978-1-84844-663-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intellectual+property+enforcement%3A+international+perspectives&rft.pages=211&rft.pub=Edward+Elgar+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-84844-663-2&rft.aulast=Correa&rft.aufirst=Carlos+Maria&rft.au=Li%2C+Xuan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbN3o1uwpKF4C%26q%3Dcopyright%2Binfringement%2Binternational%2Bacta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Musa-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Musa_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Musa_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Irina D. Manta Spring 2011 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jolt.law.harvard.edu/articles/pdf/v24/24HarvJLTech469.pdf">The Puzzle of Criminal Sanctions for Intellectual Property Infringement</a> Harvard Journal of Law & Technology 24(2):469–518</span>
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<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMike_Masnick2008" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mike_Masnick" class="mw-redirect" title="Mike Masnick">Mike Masnick</a> (6 March 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.techdirt.com/articles/20080306/003240458/if-intellectual-property-is-neither-intellectual-property-what-is-it.shtml">"If Intellectual Property Is Neither Intellectual, Nor Property, What Is It?"</a>. <i>techdirt.com</i>. <a href="/wiki/Techdirt" title="Techdirt">Techdirt</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=techdirt.com&rft.atitle=If+Intellectual+Property+Is+Neither+Intellectual%2C+Nor+Property%2C+What+Is+It%3F&rft.date=2008-03-06&rft.au=Mike+Masnick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.techdirt.com%2Farticles%2F20080306%2F003240458%2Fif-intellectual-property-is-neither-intellectual-property-what-is-it.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-mirage-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mirage_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFRichard_M._Stallman" class="citation web cs1">Richard M. Stallman. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/not-ipr.xhtml">"Did You Say 'Intellectual Property'? It's a Seductive Mirage"</a>. <i>gnu</i>. Free Software Foundation, Inc<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 March</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=gnu&rft.atitle=Did+You+Say+%27Intellectual+Property%27%3F+It%27s+a+Seductive+Mirage&rft.au=Richard+M.+Stallman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gnu.org%2Fphilosophy%2Fnot-ipr.xhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-words-to-avoid-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-words-to-avoid_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFRichard_M._Stallman" class="citation web cs1">Richard M. Stallman. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/words-to-avoid.en.html#IntellectualProperty">"Words to Avoid (or Use with Care) Because They Are Loaded or Confusing"</a>. <i>gnu</i>. The GNU Project<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=gnu&rft.atitle=Words+to+Avoid+%28or+Use+with+Care%29+Because+They+Are+Loaded+or+Confusing&rft.au=Richard+M.+Stallman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gnu.org%2Fphilosophy%2Fwords-to-avoid.en.html%23IntellectualProperty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boldrin, Michele, and David K. Levine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://levine.sscnet.ucla.edu/general/intellectual/against.htm">Against intellectual monopoly</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171206094352/http://levine.sscnet.ucla.edu/general/intellectual/against.htm">Archived</a> 6 December 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-lessigperpetual-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lessigperpetual_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lessigperpetual_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091103224919/http://wiki.lessig.org/index.php/Against_perpetual_copyright">"Against perpetual copyright"</a>. <i>wiki.lessig.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wiki.lessig.org/index.php/Against_perpetual_copyright">the original</a> on 3 November 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=wiki.lessig.org&rft.atitle=Against+perpetual+copyright&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwiki.lessig.org%2Findex.php%2FAgainst_perpetual_copyright&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFDoctorow2008" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cory_Doctorow" title="Cory Doctorow">Doctorow, Cory</a> (21 February 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2008/feb/21/intellectual.property">"<span class="cs1-kern-left">"</span>Intellectual property" is a silly euphemism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=%22Intellectual+property%22+is+a+silly+euphemism&rft.date=2008-02-21&rft.aulast=Doctorow&rft.aufirst=Cory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2F2008%2Ffeb%2F21%2Fintellectual.property&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephan Kinsella (2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cdn.mises.org/15_2_1.pdf">Against Intellectual Property</a> Journal of Libertarian Studies 15(2):1–53</span>
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<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFRick_Falkvinge2013" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rick_Falkvinge" title="Rick Falkvinge">Rick Falkvinge</a> (14 July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140604193406/http://torrentfreak.com/language-matters-framing-the-copyright-monopoly-so-we-can-keep-our-liberties-130714/">"Language Matters: Framing The Copyright Monopoly So We Can Keep Our Liberties"</a>. <i>torrentfreak.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://torrentfreak.com/language-matters-framing-the-copyright-monopoly-so-we-can-keep-our-liberties-130714/">the original</a> on 4 June 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=torrentfreak.com&rft.atitle=Language+Matters%3A+Framing+The+Copyright+Monopoly+So+We+Can+Keep+Our+Liberties&rft.date=2013-07-14&rft.au=Rick+Falkvinge&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftorrentfreak.com%2Flanguage-matters-framing-the-copyright-monopoly-so-we-can-keep-our-liberties-130714%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFAlexandre_Oliva" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Oliva" title="Alexandre Oliva">Alexandre Oliva</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fsfla.org/~lxoliva/fsfla/1984+30.en.pdf">"1984+30: GNU speech to defeat e-newspeak"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1984%2B30%3A+GNU+speech+to+defeat+e-newspeak&rft.au=Alexandre+Oliva&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fsfla.org%2F~lxoliva%2Ffsfla%2F1984%2B30.en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephan Kinsella for Ludwig von Mises Institute blog, 6 January 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120709151150/http://archive.mises.org/15240/intellectual-poverty/">Intellectual Poverty</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://drm.info/">Official drm.info site</a> run by the Free Software Foundation Europe (FSFE)</span>
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<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.defectivebydesign.org/what_is_drm_digital_restrictions_management">"What is DRM?"</a>. <i>defectivebydesign</i>. Defective by Design<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=defectivebydesign&rft.atitle=What+is+DRM%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.defectivebydesign.org%2Fwhat_is_drm_digital_restrictions_management&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birgitte Andersen. "'Intellectual Property Right' Or 'Intellectual Monopoly Privilege: Which One Should Patent Analysts Focus On?" CONFERENCIA INTERNACIONAL SOBRE SISTEMAS DE INOVAÇÃO E ESTRATÉGIAS DE DESENVOLVIMENTO PARA O TERCEIRO MILÊNIO. Nov 2003</span>
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<li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMartinSorensonFaunce2007" class="citation journal cs1">Martin, G; Sorenson, C; Faunce, TA (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1904211">"Balancing intellectual monopoly privileges and the need for essential medicines"</a>. <i>Globalization and Health</i>. <b>3</b>: 4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1744-8603-3-4">10.1186/1744-8603-3-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1904211">1904211</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17565684">17565684</a>. <q>Balancing the need to protect the intellectual property rights (IPRs) (which the third author considers are more accurately described as intellectual monopoly privileges (IMPs)) of pharmaceutical companies, with the need to ensure access to essential medicines in developing countries is one of the most pressing challenges facing international policy makers today.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Globalization+and+Health&rft.atitle=Balancing+intellectual+monopoly+privileges+and+the+need+for+essential+medicines&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=4&rft.date=2007&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1904211%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17565684&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1744-8603-3-4&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Sorenson%2C+C&rft.au=Faunce%2C+TA&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1904211&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birgitte Andersen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://redesist.ie.ufrj.br/globelics/pdfs/GLOBELICS_0050_Andersen.pdf">'Intellectual Property Right' Or 'Intellectual Monopoly Privilege': Which One Should Patent Analysts Focus On?</a> Conferência Internacional Sobre Sistemas De Inovação E Estratégias De Desenvolvimento Para O Terceiro Milênio. Nov. 2003</span>
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<li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMartinSorensonFaunce2007" class="citation journal cs1">Martin, G; Sorenson, C; Faunce, TA (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1904211">"Editorial: Balancing the need to protect the intellectual property rights (IPRs)"</a>. <i>Globalization and Health</i>. <b>3</b>: 4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1744-8603-3-4">10.1186/1744-8603-3-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1904211">1904211</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17565684">17565684</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Globalization+and+Health&rft.atitle=Editorial%3A+Balancing+the+need+to+protect+the+intellectual+property+rights+%28IPRs%29&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=4&rft.date=2007&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1904211%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17565684&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1744-8603-3-4&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Sorenson%2C+C&rft.au=Faunce%2C+TA&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1904211&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On patents – <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFDaniel_B._Ravicher2008" class="citation web cs1">Daniel B. Ravicher (6 August 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d0chez_Jf5A">"Protecting Freedom In The Patent System: The Public Patent Foundation's Mission and Activities"</a>. <i>YouTube</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=Protecting+Freedom+In+The+Patent+System%3A+The+Public+Patent+Foundation%27s+Mission+and+Activities&rft.date=2008-08-06&rft.au=Daniel+B.+Ravicher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3Dd0chez_Jf5A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFStiglitz2006" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Stiglitz, Joseph</a> (13 October 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UzhD7KVs-R4#t=16m05s">"Authors@Google: Joseph Stiglitz – Making Globalization Work"</a>. <i>YouTube</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=Authors%40Google%3A+Joseph+Stiglitz+%E2%80%93+Making+Globalization+Work.&rft.date=2006-10-13&rft.aulast=Stiglitz&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DUzhD7KVs-R4%23t%3D16m05s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arstechnica.com/science/2012/11/stallmans-got-company-researcher-wants-nanotech-patent-moratorium/">Stallman's got company: Researcher wants nanotech patent moratorium</a> – Ars Technica</span>
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<li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2012-11/23/professor-seeks-nanotech-patent-moratorium">Freeze on nanotechnology patents proposed to help grow the sector</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140302113908/http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2012-11/23/professor-seeks-nanotech-patent-moratorium">Archived</a> 2 March 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>- Wired UK 23 Nov 2012</span>
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<li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moser, Petra. 2013. "Patents and Innovation: Evidence from Economic History." Journal of Economic Perspectives, 27(1): 23–44.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBatenBianchiMoser2017" class="citation journal cs1">Baten, Jörg; Bianchi, Nicola; Moser, Petra (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jdeveco.2017.01.002">"Compulsory licensing and innovation–Historical evidence from German patents after WWI"</a>. <i>Journal of Development Economics</i>. <b>126</b>: 231–242. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jdeveco.2017.01.002">10.1016/j.jdeveco.2017.01.002</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Development+Economics&rft.atitle=Compulsory+licensing+and+innovation%E2%80%93Historical+evidence+from+German+patents+after+WWI&rft.volume=126&rft.pages=231-242&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jdeveco.2017.01.002&rft.aulast=Baten&rft.aufirst=J%C3%B6rg&rft.au=Bianchi%2C+Nicola&rft.au=Moser%2C+Petra&rft_id=%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.jdeveco.2017.01.002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Drahos and John Braithwaite. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anu.edu.au/fellows/pdrahos/books/Information%20Feudalism.pdf">Information Feudalism: Who Owns the Knowledge Economy?</a>, Earthscan 2002</span>
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<li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFWIPO_–_World_Intellectual_Property_Organization" class="citation web cs1">WIPO – World Intellectual Property Organization. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111022125749/http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/hr/">"Human Rights and Intellectual Property: An Overview"</a>. <i>wipo</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/hr/">the original</a> on 22 October 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=wipo&rft.atitle=Human+Rights+and+Intellectual+Property%3A+An+Overview&rft.au=WIPO+%E2%80%93+World+Intellectual+Property+Organization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Ftk%2Fen%2Fhr%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Staff, UN Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights. Geneva, 12–30 November 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cescr/docs/statements/E.C.12.2001.15HRIntel-property.pdf">Human rights and intellectual property</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFChapman2002" class="citation journal cs1">Chapman, Audrey R. (December 2002). "The Human Rights Implications of Intellectual Property Protection". <i>Journal of International Economic Law</i>. <b>5</b> (4): 861–882. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjiel%2F5.4.861">10.1093/jiel/5.4.861</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+International+Economic+Law&rft.atitle=The+Human+Rights+Implications+of+Intellectual+Property+Protection&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=861-882&rft.date=2002-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjiel%2F5.4.861&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=Audrey+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cptech.org/ip/wipo/genevadeclaration.html"><i>The Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization</i></a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Sonderholm-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sonderholm_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sonderholm_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFSonderholm2010" class="citation journal cs1">Sonderholm, Jorn (2010). "Ethical Issues Surrounding Intellectual Property Rights". <i>Philosophy Compass</i>. <b>5</b> (12): 1107–1115. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1747-9991.2010.00358.x">10.1111/j.1747-9991.2010.00358.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+Compass&rft.atitle=Ethical+Issues+Surrounding+Intellectual+Property+Rights&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1107-1115&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1747-9991.2010.00358.x&rft.aulast=Sonderholm&rft.aufirst=Jorn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephan Kinsella, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180415041048/https://www.lewrockwell.com/2004/01/stephan-kinsella/what-it-means-to-be-an-anarcho-capitalist/">"What It Means To Be an Anarcho-Capitalist"</a>, "LewRockwell.com", published 2004-01-20, archived 15 April 2018. Retrieved 4 August 2018</span>
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<li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/a1_8_8s12.html">Thomas Jefferson, <i>Letter to Isaac McPherson</i></a> (August 13, 1813)</span>
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<li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boyle, James (14 October 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://education.guardian.co.uk/higher/comment/story/0,,1591467,00.html">Protecting the public domain</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBennet2009" class="citation journal cs1">Bennet, Philip (2009). "Native Americans and Intellectual Property: the Necessity of Implementing Collective Ideals into Current United States Intellectual Property Laws". <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//ssrn.com/abstract=1498783">1498783</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Native+Americans+and+Intellectual+Property%3A+the+Necessity+of+Implementing+Collective+Ideals+into+Current+United+States+Intellectual+Property+Laws&rft.date=2009&rft_id=%2F%2Fssrn.com%2Fabstract%3D1498783%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Bennet&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-hidden-error error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-JemielniakPrzegalinska20202-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JemielniakPrzegalinska20202_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFDariusz_JemielniakAleksandra_Przegalinska2020" class="citation book cs1">Dariusz Jemielniak; Aleksandra Przegalinska (18 February 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yLDMDwAAQBAJ"><i>Collaborative Society</i></a>. MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-35645-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-35645-9"><bdi>978-0-262-35645-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Collaborative+Society&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2020-02-18&rft.isbn=978-0-262-35645-9&rft.au=Dariusz+Jemielniak&rft.au=Aleksandra+Przegalinska&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyLDMDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFFieslerFeustonBruckman2015" class="citation journal cs1">Fiesler, Casey; Feuston, Jessica L.; Bruckman, Amy S. (28 February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145/2675133.2675234">"Understanding Copyright Law in Online Creative Communities"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the 18th ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work & Social Computing</i>. CSCW '15. Vancouver, BC, Canada: Association for Computing Machinery: 116–129. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F2675133.2675234">10.1145/2675133.2675234</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4503-2922-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4503-2922-4"><bdi>978-1-4503-2922-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28669082">28669082</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+18th+ACM+Conference+on+Computer+Supported+Cooperative+Work+%26+Social+Computing&rft.atitle=Understanding+Copyright+Law+in+Online+Creative+Communities&rft.pages=116-129&rft.date=2015-02-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A28669082%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F2675133.2675234&rft.isbn=978-1-4503-2922-4&rft.aulast=Fiesler&rft.aufirst=Casey&rft.au=Feuston%2C+Jessica+L.&rft.au=Bruckman%2C+Amy+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1145%2F2675133.2675234&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFFreund2016" class="citation journal cs1">Freund, Katharina (1 August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444814555952">"<span class="cs1-kern-left">"</span>Fair use is legal use": Copyright negotiations and strategies in the fan-vidding community"</a>. <i>New Media & Society</i>. <b>18</b> (7): 1347–1363. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1461444814555952">10.1177/1461444814555952</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1461-4448">1461-4448</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11258627">11258627</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Media+%26+Society&rft.atitle=%22Fair+use+is+legal+use%22%3A+Copyright+negotiations+and+strategies+in+the+fan-vidding+community&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1347-1363&rft.date=2016-08-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A11258627%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1461-4448&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1461444814555952&rft.aulast=Freund&rft.aufirst=Katharina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%2F1461444814555952&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFAllen2008" class="citation journal cs1">Allen, Peter James (24 August 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.uic.edu/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/2073">"Rip, mix, burn … sue … ad infinitum: The effects of deterrence vs voluntary cooperation on non-commercial online copyright infringing behaviour"</a>. <i>First Monday</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5210%2Ffm.v13i9.2073">10.5210/fm.v13i9.2073</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1396-0466">1396-0466</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=First+Monday&rft.atitle=Rip%2C+mix%2C+burn+%E2%80%A6+sue+%E2%80%A6+ad+infinitum%3A+The+effects+of+deterrence+vs+voluntary+cooperation+on+non-commercial+online+copyright+infringing+behaviour&rft.date=2008-08-24&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5210%2Ffm.v13i9.2073&rft.issn=1396-0466&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Peter+James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.uic.edu%2Fojs%2Findex.php%2Ffm%2Farticle%2Fview%2F2073&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Council for Responsible Genetics, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111002092235/http://www.actionbioscience.org/genomics/crg.html">DNA Patents Create Monopolies on Living Organisms</a>". Retrieved 2008.12.18.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plant Patents <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19990220172601/http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/plant/">USPTO.gov</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>E.g.</i>, the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Term_Extension_Act" title="Copyright Term Extension Act">Copyright Term Extension Act</a>, Pub.L. 105–298.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark Helprin, Op-ed: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/20/opinion/20helprin.html">A Great Idea Lives Forever. Shouldn't Its Copyright?</a> <i>The New York Times</i>, 20 May 2007.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Eldred_v._Ashcroft" title="Eldred v. Ashcroft">Eldred v. Ashcroft</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/01-618.ZS.html">Eldred v. Ashcroft, 537 U. S. 186 (2003)</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-td_confused-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-td_confused_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMasnick2007" class="citation web cs1">Masnick, Mike (21 May 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090907142130/http://www.techdirt.com/articles/20070521/015928.shtml">"Arguing For Infinite Copyright... Using Copied Ideas And A Near Total Misunderstanding Of Property"</a>. <i>techdirt</i>. <a href="/wiki/Techdirt" title="Techdirt">techdirt</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.techdirt.com/articles/20070521/015928.shtml">the original</a> on 7 September 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=techdirt&rft.atitle=Arguing+For+Infinite+Copyright...+Using+Copied+Ideas+And+A+Near+Total+Misunderstanding+Of+Property&rft.date=2007-05-21&rft.aulast=Masnick&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.techdirt.com%2Farticles%2F20070521%2F015928.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Library of Congress Copyright Office <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.copyright.gov/fedreg/2012/77fr64555.pdf">Docket No. 2012–12 Orphan Works and Mass Digitization</a> Federal Register, Vol. 77, No. 204. Monday, 22 October 2012. Notices. PP 64555–64561; see p 64555 first column for international efforts and 3rd column for description of the problem.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dennis Wharton, "MPAA's Rebel With Cause Fights for Copyright Coin," Variety (3 August 1992), Vol. 348, No. 2, p. 18.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William W. Fisher III, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/property99/history.html">The Growth of Intellectual Property:A History of the Ownership of Ideas in the United States</a> Eigentumskulturen im Vergleich (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1999)</span>
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<li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFSmith2007–2010" class="citation web cs1">Smith, Brett (2007–2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gnu.org/licenses/quick-guide-gplv3.en.html">"A Quick Guide to GPLv3"</a>. <i>gnu</i>. <a href="/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation" title="Free Software Foundation">Free Software Foundation</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=gnu&rft.atitle=A+Quick+Guide+to+GPLv3&rft.date=2007%2F2010&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Brett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gnu.org%2Flicenses%2Fquick-guide-gplv3.en.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Katherine Beckman and Christa Pletcher (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ipjournal.law.wfu.edu/files/2010/10/article.10.215.pdf">Expanding Global Trademark Regulation</a> Wake Forest Intellectual Property Law Journal 10(2): 215–239</span>
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<li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ft.com/content/2b356956-17fc-11e8-9376-4a6390addb44">"Multinationals pay lower taxes than a decade ago"</a>. <i>Financial Times</i>. 11 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Financial+Times&rft.atitle=Multinationals+pay+lower+taxes+than+a+decade+ago&rft.date=2018-03-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcontent%2F2b356956-17fc-11e8-9376-4a6390addb44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-fordam-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fordam_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190502112434/http://www.fordhamiplj.org/2016/08/30/ip-tax-avoidance-ireland/">"Intellectual Property and Tax Avoidance in Ireland"</a>. <i>fordhamiplj</i>. Fordham Intellectual Property, Media & Entertainment Law Journal. 30 August 2016. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordhamiplj.org/2016/08/30/ip-tax-avoidance-ireland/">the original</a> on 2 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=fordhamiplj&rft.atitle=Intellectual+Property+and+Tax+Avoidance+in+Ireland&rft.date=2016-08-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fordhamiplj.org%2F2016%2F08%2F30%2Fip-tax-avoidance-ireland%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-ucla-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ucla_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Intellectual property (IP) has become the leading tax-avoidance vehicle.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150316232500/http://www.uclalawreview.org/pdf/62-1-1.pdf">"Intellectual Property Law Solutions to Tax Avoidance"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>uclalawreview</i>. UCLA Law Review. 2015. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uclalawreview.org/pdf/62-1-1.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 16 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=uclalawreview&rft.atitle=Intellectual+Property+Law+Solutions+to+Tax+Avoidance&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.uclalawreview.org%2Fpdf%2F62-1-1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-lux-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lux_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/business/2015/08/27/patently-problematic">"Patently problematic"</a>. <i>The Economist</i>. August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Patently+problematic&rft.date=2015-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fbusiness%2F2015%2F08%2F27%2Fpatently-problematic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-tilburg-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tilburg_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arno.uvt.nl/show.cgi?fid=143915">"Intellectual Property Tax Planning in the light of Base Erosion and Profit Shifting"</a>. University of Tilburg. June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Intellectual+Property+Tax+Planning+in+the+light+of+Base+Erosion+and+Profit+Shifting&rft.pub=University+of+Tilburg&rft.date=2017-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farno.uvt.nl%2Fshow.cgi%3Ffid%3D143915&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-zew-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-zew_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ftp.zew.de/pub/zew-docs/dp/dp13078.pdf">"Profit Shifting and "Aggressive" Tax Planning by Multinational Firms"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Centre for European Economic Research (ZEW). October 2013. p. 3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Profit+Shifting+and+%22Aggressive%22+Tax+Planning+by+Multinational+Firms&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Centre+for+European+Economic+Research+%28ZEW%29&rft.date=2013-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fftp.zew.de%2Fpub%2Fzew-docs%2Fdp%2Fdp13078.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-BEPS_Background-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BEPS_Background_118-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BEPS_Background_118-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oecd.org/tax/beps/background-brief-inclusive-framework-for-beps-implementation.pdf">"BEPS Project Background Brief"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. OECD. January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=BEPS+Project+Background+Brief&rft.pub=OECD&rft.date=2017-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oecd.org%2Ftax%2Fbeps%2Fbackground-brief-inclusive-framework-for-beps-implementation.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://taxfoundation.org/treatment-foreign-profits-tax-cuts-jobs-act/">"A Hybrid Approach: The Treatment of Foreign Profits under the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act"</a>. Tax Foundation. 3 May 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Hybrid+Approach%3A+The+Treatment+of+Foreign+Profits+under+the+Tax+Cuts+and+Jobs+Act&rft.pub=Tax+Foundation&rft.date=2018-05-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftaxfoundation.org%2Ftreatment-foreign-profits-tax-cuts-jobs-act%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irishtimes.com/business/economy/trump-s-us-tax-reform-a-significant-challenge-for-ireland-1.3310866">"Trump's US tax reform a significant challenge for Ireland"</a>. <i>The Irish Times</i>. 30 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Irish+Times&rft.atitle=Trump%27s+US+tax+reform+a+significant+challenge+for+Ireland&rft.date=2017-11-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishtimes.com%2Fbusiness%2Feconomy%2Ftrump-s-us-tax-reform-a-significant-challenge-for-ireland-1.3310866&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irishtimes.com/business/donald-trump-singles-out-ireland-in-tax-speech-1.3310149?mode=sample&auth-failed=1&pw-origin=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishtimes.com%2Fbusiness%2Fdonald-trump-singles-out-ireland-in-tax-speech-1.3310149">"Donald Trump singles out Ireland in tax speech"</a>. <i>The Irish Times</i>. 29 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Irish+Times&rft.atitle=Donald+Trump+singles+out+Ireland+in+tax+speech&rft.date=2017-11-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishtimes.com%2Fbusiness%2Fdonald-trump-singles-out-ireland-in-tax-speech-1.3310149%3Fmode%3Dsample%26auth-failed%3D1%26pw-origin%3Dhttps%253A%252F%252Fwww.irishtimes.com%252Fbusiness%252Fdonald-trump-singles-out-ireland-in-tax-speech-1.3310149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irishtimes.com/business/economy/why-ireland-faces-a-fight-on-the-corporate-tax-front-1.3426080">"Why Ireland faces a fight on the corporate tax front"</a>. <i>The Irish Times</i>. 14 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Irish+Times&rft.atitle=Why+Ireland+faces+a+fight+on+the+corporate+tax+front&rft.date=2018-03-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishtimes.com%2Fbusiness%2Feconomy%2Fwhy-ireland-faces-a-fight-on-the-corporate-tax-front-1.3426080&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.ie/business/irish/eu-digital-levy-could-hit-tech-fdi-and-tax-revenue-here-36725944.html">"EU digital levy could hit tech FDI and tax revenue here"</a>. <i>Irish Independent</i>. 21 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Irish+Independent&rft.atitle=EU+digital+levy+could+hit+tech+FDI+and+tax+revenue+here&rft.date=2018-03-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.ie%2Fbusiness%2Firish%2Feu-digital-levy-could-hit-tech-fdi-and-tax-revenue-here-36725944.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thejournal.ie/eu-digital-tax-ireland-2-2-3918628-Mar2018/">"What the EU's new taxes on the tech giants mean – and how they would hurt Ireland"</a>. thejournal.ie. 24 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+the+EU%27s+new+taxes+on+the+tech+giants+mean+%E2%80%93+and+how+they+would+hurt+Ireland&rft.pub=thejournal.ie&rft.date=2018-03-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thejournal.ie%2Feu-digital-tax-ireland-2-2-3918628-Mar2018%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-un1-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-un1_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taxjustice.net/2017/09/11/new-un-tax-handbook-sets-lower-income-countries-oecd-beps/">"New UN tax handbook: Lower-income countries vs OECD BEPS failure"</a>. Tax Justice Network. 11 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=New+UN+tax+handbook%3A+Lower-income+countries+vs+OECD+BEPS+failure&rft.pub=Tax+Justice+Network&rft.date=2017-09-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taxjustice.net%2F2017%2F09%2F11%2Fnew-un-tax-handbook-sets-lower-income-countries-oecd-beps%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFWIPO2021" class="citation web cs1">WIPO, World Intellectual Property Organization (8 March 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wipo.int/women-and-ip/en/">"Gender Equality, Diversity and Intellectual Property"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gender+Equality%2C+Diversity+and+Intellectual+Property&rft.date=2021-03-08&rft.aulast=WIPO&rft.aufirst=World+Intellectual+Property+Organization&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Fwomen-and-ip%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFWIPO2021" class="citation web cs1">WIPO, World Intellectual Property Organization (21 May 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wipo.int/women-and-ip/en/news/2021/news_0005.html">"Closing the Gender Gap in IP"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Closing+the+Gender+Gap+in+IP&rft.date=2021-05-21&rft.aulast=WIPO&rft.aufirst=World+Intellectual+Property+Organization&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Fwomen-and-ip%2Fen%2Fnews%2F2021%2Fnews_0005.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Sources">Sources</span></h3>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1011217839">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-100{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="refbegin references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em">
<ul><li>Arai, Hisamitsu. "Intellectual Property Policies for the Twenty-First Century: The Japanese Experience in Wealth Creation", WIPO Publication Number 834 (E). 2000. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121212232107/http://www.wipo.int/freepublications/en/intproperty/834/index.html">wipo.int</a></li>
<li>Bettig, R. V. (1996). Critical Perspectives on the History and Philosophy of Copyright. In R. V. Bettig, Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of Intellectual Property. (pp. 9–32). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.</li>
<li>Boldrin, Michele and David K. Levine. "Against Intellectual Monopoly", 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dklevine.com/papers/imbookfinalall.pdf">dkleving.com</a></li>
<li>Hahn, Robert W., <i>Intellectual Property Rights in Frontier Industries: Software and Biotechnology</i>, AEI Press, March 2005.</li>
<li>Branstetter, Lee, Raymond Fishman and C. Fritz Foley. "Do Stronger Intellectual Property Rights Increase International Technology Transfer? Empirical Evidence from US Firm-Level Data". NBER Working Paper 11516. July 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081122150353/http://weblog.ipcentral.info/IPRs%20%26%20Tech%20Trans.pdf">weblog.ipcentral.info</a></li>
<li>Connell, Shaun. "Intellectual Ownership". October 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071221052053/http://rebirthoffreedom.org/freedom/property/intellectual-ownership/">rebithofffreedom.org</a></li>
<li>De George, Richard T. "14. Intellectual Property Rights." In <i>The Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics</i>, by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp, 1:408–439. 1st ed. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.</li>
<li>Farah, Paolo and Cima, Elena. "China's Participation in the World Trade Organization: Trade in Goods, Services, Intellectual Property Rights and Transparency Issues" in Aurelio Lopez-Tarruella Martinez (ed.), <i lang="es" title="Spanish-language text">El comercio con China. Oportunidades empresariales, incertidumbres jurídicas</i>, Tirant lo Blanch, Valencia (Spain) 2010, pp. 85–121. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-8456-981-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-8456-981-7">978-84-8456-981-7</a>. Available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=1527992">SSRN.com</a></li>
<li>Farah, Paolo Davide, Tremolada Riccardo, Desirability of Commodification of Intangible Cultural Heritage: The Unsatisfying Role of IPRs, in TRANSNATIONAL DISPUTE MANAGEMENT, Special Issues "The New Frontiers of Cultural Law: Intangible Heritage Disputes", Volume 11, Issue 2, March 2014, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1875-4120">1875-4120</a> Available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=2472339">SSRN.com</a></li>
<li>Farah, Paolo Davide, Tremolada Riccardo, Intellectual Property Rights, Human Rights and Intangible Cultural Heritage, Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Issue 2, Part I, June 2014, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0035-614X">0035-614X</a>, Giuffre, pp. 21–47. Available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=2472388">SSRN.com</a></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFGoldsteinReese2008" class="citation book cs1">Goldstein, Paul; Reese, R. Anthony (2008). <i>Copyright, Patent, Trademark and Related State Doctrines: Cases and Materials on the Law of Intellectual Property</i> (6th ed.). New York: Foundation Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59941-139-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59941-139-2"><bdi>978-1-59941-139-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Copyright%2C+Patent%2C+Trademark+and+Related+State+Doctrines%3A+Cases+and+Materials+on+the+Law+of+Intellectual+Property&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Foundation+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-59941-139-2&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Reese%2C+R.+Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Gowers" title="Andrew Gowers">Gowers, Andrew</a>. "Gowers Review of Intellectual Property". Her Majesty's Treasury, November 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090407093401/http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/d/pbr06_gowers_report_755.pdf">hm-treasury.gov.uk</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-11-840483-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-11-840483-9">978-0-11-840483-9</a>.</li>
<li>Greenhalgh, C. & Rogers M., (2010). <i>Innovation, Intellectual Property, and Economic Growth.</i> New Jersey: Princeton University Press.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stephan_Kinsella" title="Stephan Kinsella">Kinsella, Stephan</a>. "Against Intellectual Property". <i>Journal of Libertarian Studies</i> 15.2 (Spring 2001): 1–53. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mises.org/journals/jls/15_2/15_2_1.pdf">mises.org</a></li>
<li>Lai, Edwin. "The Economics of Intellectual Property Protection in the Global Economy". Princeton University. April 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dklevine.com/archive/refs4122247000000000481.pdf">dklevine.com</a></li>
<li>Lee, Richmond K. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.philstar.com/business/320465/scope-and-interplay-ip-rights">Scope and Interplay of IP Rights</a></i> Accralaw offices.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Lessig" title="Lawrence Lessig">Lessig, Lawrence</a>. "Free Culture: How Big Media Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down Culture and Control Creativity". New York: Penguin Press, 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.free-culture.cc/freeculture.pdf">free-culture.cc</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090916145748/http://www.free-culture.cc/freeculture.pdf">Archived</a> 16 September 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li>
<li>Lindberg, Van. <i>Intellectual Property and Open Source: A Practical Guide to Protecting Code</i>. O'Reilly Books, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-596-51796-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-596-51796-3">0-596-51796-3</a> | <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-596-51796-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-596-51796-0">978-0-596-51796-0</a></li>
<li>Maskus, Keith E. "Intellectual Property Rights and Economic Development". <i>Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law</i>, Vol. 32, 471. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081223230716/http://www.law.case.edu/student_life/">journals/jil/32-3/maskusarticle.pdf law.case.edu</a></li>
<li>Mazzone, Jason. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=787244">Copyfraud</a>". Brooklyn Law School, Legal Studies Paper No. 40. <i>New York University Law Review</i> 81 (2006): 1027. (Abstract.)</li>
<li>Miller, Arthur Raphael, and Michael H. Davis. <i>Intellectual Property: Patents, Trademarks, and Copyright</i>. 3rd ed. New York: West/Wadsworth, 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-314-23519-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-314-23519-1">0-314-23519-1</a>.</li>
<li>Moore, Adam, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2011/entries/intellectual-property">"Intellectual Property"</a>, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/sites/chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/files/publications/morin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf">Morin, Jean-Frédéric, Paradigm Shift in the Global IP Regime: The Agency of Academics, Review of International Political Economy, vol. 21(2), 2014, pp. 275–309.</a></li>
<li>Mossoff, A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=787244">'Rethinking the Development of Patents: An Intellectual History, 1550–1800,'</a> Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 52, p. 1255, 2001</li>
<li>Rozanski, Felix. "Developing Countries and Pharmaceutical Intellectual Property Rights: Myths and Reality" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091009142207/http://www.stockholm-network.org/downloads/publications/Developing_Countries_and_Intellectual_Property_Rights_Myth_and_Reality_6.pdf">stockholm-network.org</a></li>
<li>Perelman, Michael. <i>Steal This Idea: Intellectual Property and The Corporate Confiscation of Creativity</i>. Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.</li>
<li>Rand, Ayn. "Patents and Copyrights" in Ayn Rand, ed. 'Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal,' New York: New American Library, 1966, pp. 126–128</li>
<li>Reisman, George. 'Capitalism: A Complete & Integrated Understanding of the Nature & Value of Human Economic Life,' Ottawa, Illinois: 1996, pp. 388–389</li>
<li>Schechter, Roger E., and John R. Thomas. <i>Intellectual Property: The Law of Copyrights, Patents and Trademarks</i>. New York: West/Wadsworth, 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-314-06599-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-314-06599-7">0-314-06599-7</a>.</li>
<li>Schneider, Patricia H. "International Trade, Economic Growth and Intellectual Property Rights: A Panel Data Study of Developed and Developing Countries". July 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090226035349/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/~pschneid/images/Schneider_JDEJuly2004.pdf">mtholyoke.edu</a></li>
<li>Shapiro, Robert and Nam Pham. "Economic Effects of Intellectual Property-Intensive Manufacturing in the United States". July 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080216195041/http://www.the-value-of-ip.org/">the-value-of.ip.org</a>. Retrieved 2008-04-09.</li>
<li>Spooner, Lysander. "The Law of Intellectual Property; or An Essay on the Right of Authors and Inventors to a Perpetual Property in their Ideas". Boston: Bela Marsh, 1855.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Siva_Vaidhyanathan" title="Siva Vaidhyanathan">Vaidhyanathan, Siva</a>. <i>The Anarchist in the Library: How the Clash Between Freedom and Control Is Hacking the Real World and Crashing the System</i>. New York: Basic Books, 2004.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBurk,_Dan_L.Mark_A._Lemley2009" class="citation book cs1">Burk, Dan L. & Mark A. Lemley (2009). <i>The Patent Crisis and How the Courts Can Solve It</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-08061-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-08061-1"><bdi>978-0-226-08061-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Patent+Crisis+and+How+the+Courts+Can+Solve+It&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-226-08061-1&rft.au=Burk%2C+Dan+L.&rft.au=Mark+A.+Lemley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
</div>
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<ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/European_Audiovisual_Observatory" title="European Audiovisual Observatory">European Audiovisual Observatory</a> hosts articles on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130729081345/http://www.obs.coe.int/en/legal/copyright/">copyright</a> legislature and covers media laws in their <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://merlin.obs.coe.int/newsletter.php/">newsletter</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.statista.com/topics/3493/media-piracy/">Internet/Media Piracy: Statistics & Facts</a>—Statista</li></ul>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Intellectual_property_activism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r992953826">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Intellectual_property_activism" title="Template:Intellectual property activism"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Intellectual_property_activism" title="Template talk:Intellectual property activism"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Intellectual_property_activism&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Intellectual_property_activism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Intellectual property</a> activism</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_scarcity" title="Artificial scarcity">Artificial scarcity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_infringement" title="Copyright infringement">Copyright infringement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_troll" title="Copyright troll">Copyright troll</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">Digital rights management</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gripe_site" title="Gripe site">Gripe site</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_aspects_of_file_sharing" title="Legal aspects of file sharing">Legal aspects of file sharing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_(culture)" title="Mashup (culture)">Mashup</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_(web_application_hybrid)" title="Mashup (web application hybrid)">digital</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_(music)" title="Mashup (music)">music</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_novel" title="Mashup novel">novel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_(video)" title="Mashup (video)">videos</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monopolies_of_knowledge" title="Monopolies of knowledge">Monopolies of knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Music_piracy" title="Music piracy">Music piracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orphan_work" title="Orphan work">Orphan works</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Societal_views_on_patents" title="Societal views on patents">Patents</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_patent" title="Biological patent">biological</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Software_patent" title="Software patent">software</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Software_patent_debate" title="Software patent debate">software patent debate</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Patent_troll" title="Patent troll">trolling</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">Public domain</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/All_rights_reversed" title="All rights reversed">All rights reversed</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_alternatives" title="Copyright alternatives">Alternative compensation system</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-copyright_notice" title="Anti-copyright notice">Anti-copyright notice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Business_models_for_open-source_software" title="Business models for open-source software">Business models for open-source software</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Copyleft" title="Copyleft">Copyleft</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_use_of_copyleft_works" title="Commercial use of copyleft works">Commercial use of copyleft works</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Commons-based_peer_production" title="Commons-based peer production">Commons-based peer production</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_sell-through" title="Electronic sell-through">Electronic sell-through</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free_content" title="Free content">Free content</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free-software_license" title="Free-software license">Free-software license</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_intellectual_property" title="Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property">Libertarian positions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Open_content" class="mw-redirect" title="Open content">Open content</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Open-design_movement" title="Open-design movement">Open-design movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Open_Music_Model" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Music Model">Open Music Model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Patentleft" title="Patentleft">Open patent</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Open_source" title="Open source">Open source</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_hardware" title="Open-source hardware">hardware</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">software</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prizes_as_an_alternative_to_patents" title="Prizes as an alternative to patents">Prize system</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inducement_prize_contest" title="Inducement prize contest">contests</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Share-alike" title="Share-alike">Share-alike</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Video_on_demand" title="Video on demand">Video on demand</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Access_to_Knowledge_movement" title="Access to Knowledge movement">Access to Knowledge movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_copyright" class="mw-redirect" title="Opposition to copyright">Anti-copyright</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_environmentalism" title="Cultural environmentalism">Cultural environmentalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free-culture_movement" title="Free-culture movement">Free-culture movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free_software_movement" title="Free software movement">Free software movement</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pro-copyright</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Alliance" title="Copyright Alliance">Copyright Alliance</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pro-copyleft</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creative_Commons" title="Creative Commons">Creative Commons</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation" title="Electronic Frontier Foundation">Electronic Frontier Foundation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation" title="Free Software Foundation">Free Software Foundation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Open_Rights_Group" title="Open Rights Group">Open Rights Group</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Transformative_Works" title="Organization for Transformative Works">Organization for Transformative Works</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/The_Pirate_Bay" title="The Pirate Bay">The Pirate Bay</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Piratbyr%C3%A5n" title="Piratbyrån">Piratbyrån</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_Party" title="Pirate Party">Pirate Party</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Public_Knowledge" title="Public Knowledge">Public Knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sci-Hub" title="Sci-Hub">Sci-Hub</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Students_for_Free_Culture" title="Students for Free Culture">Students for Free Culture</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cory_Doctorow" title="Cory Doctorow">Cory Doctorow</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Elbakyan" title="Alexandra Elbakyan">Alexandra Elbakyan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rick_Falkvinge" title="Rick Falkvinge">Rick Falkvinge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Lessig" title="Lawrence Lessig">Lawrence Lessig</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Richard Stallman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Suber" title="Peter Suber">Peter Suber</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Sunde" title="Peter Sunde">Peter Sunde</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Swartz" title="Aaron Swartz">Aaron Swartz</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Documentaries</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Steal_This_Film" title="Steal This Film"><i>Steal This Film</i><span style="font-size:90%;"> (2006, 2007)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Good_Copy_Bad_Copy" title="Good Copy Bad Copy"><i>Good Copy Bad Copy</i><span style="font-size:90%;"> (2007)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/RiP!:_A_Remix_Manifesto" title="RiP!: A Remix Manifesto"><i>RiP!: A Remix Manifesto</i><span style="font-size:90%;"> (2008)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/TPB_AFK" title="TPB AFK"><i>TPB AFK: The Pirate Bay Away From Keyboard</i><span style="font-size:90%;"> (2013)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/The_Internet%27s_Own_Boy" title="The Internet's Own Boy"><i>The Internet's Own Boy</i><span style="font-size:90%;"> (2014)</span></a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Law" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r992953826"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Law" title="Template:Law"><abbr title="View this template" style="text-align:center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Law" title="Template talk:Law"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="text-align:center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Law&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="text-align:center;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Law" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Law#Areas_of_law" title="Law">Core subjects</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">Administrative law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_civil_law_(common_law)" title="Outline of civil law (common law)">Civil law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law" title="Constitutional law">Constitutional law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">Contract</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Deed" title="Deed">Deed</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">Equity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_obligations" title="Law of obligations">Law of obligations</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">Tort</a></li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_law" title="Agricultural law">Agricultural law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_law" title="Aviation law">Aviation law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Amnesty_law" title="Amnesty law">Amnesty law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bank_regulation" title="Bank regulation">Banking law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy" title="Bankruptcy">Bankruptcy</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Competition_law" title="Competition law">Competition law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_laws" title="Conflict of laws">Conflict of laws</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Construction_law" title="Construction law">Construction law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_protection" title="Consumer protection">Consumer protection</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_law" title="Corporate law">Corporate law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/IT_law" title="IT law">Cyberlaw</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Election_law" title="Election law">Election law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Energy_law" title="Energy law">Energy law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_law" title="Entertainment law">Entertainment law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">Environmental law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Family_law" title="Family law">Family law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Financial_law" title="Financial law">Financial law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Financial_regulation" title="Financial regulation">Financial regulation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Health_law" title="Health law">Health law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_legal_profession" title="History of the legal profession">History of the legal profession</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_American_legal_profession" title="History of the American legal profession">History of the American legal profession</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_law" title="Immigration law">Immigration law</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Intellectual property</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International criminal law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/International_human_rights_law" title="International human rights law">International human rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International slavery laws</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jurimetrics" title="Jurimetrics">Jurimetrics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Labour_law" title="Labour law">Labour</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">Law of war</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_archaeology" title="Legal archaeology">Legal archaeology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_fiction" title="Legal fiction">Legal fiction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_law" title="Admiralty law">Maritime law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_law" title="Entertainment law">Media law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">Military law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law" title="Nationality law">Nationality law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Probate" title="Probate">Probate</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">Estate</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Will and testament</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Product_liability" title="Product liability">Product liability</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">Public international law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sports_law_in_the_United_States" title="Sports law in the United States">Sports law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tax_law" title="Tax law">Tax law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transport_law" title="Transport law">Transport law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trust_law" title="Trust law">Trust law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unenforced_law" title="Unenforced law">Unenforced law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_law" title="Women in law">Women in law</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_law" title="Sources of law">Sources of law</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charter" title="Charter">Charter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_law" title="Code of law">Legal code</a> / <a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">Constitution</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Custom</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divine_law" title="Divine law">Divine law</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal rights</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">Case law</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Precedent" title="Precedent">Precedent</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Law_report" title="Law report">Law reports</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_treatise" title="Legal treatise">Legal treatise</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulations</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Law_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Law making">Law making</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">Ballot measure</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">Codification</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Decree" title="Decree">Decree</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edict" title="Edict">Edict</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Executive_order_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Executive order (disambiguation)">Executive order</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation" title="Proclamation">Proclamation</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">Legislation</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_and_secondary_legislation" title="Primary and secondary legislation">Delegated legislation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rulemaking" title="Rulemaking">Rulemaking</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Promulgation" title="Promulgation">Promulgation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Repeal" title="Repeal">Repeal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaty</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concordat" title="Concordat">Concordat</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">Statute</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Parliament" title="Act of Parliament">Act of Parliament</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Act of Congress (US)</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">Legal systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Civil law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_law" title="Chinese law">Chinese law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_pluralism" title="Legal pluralism">Legal pluralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">Religious law</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Canon law of the Catholic Church">Catholic canon law</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_law" title="Hindu law">Hindu law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jain_law" title="Jain law">Jain law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Jewish law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_law" title="Socialist law">Socialist law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Xeer" title="Xeer">Xeer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yassa" title="Yassa">Yassa</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Law#Legal_theory" title="Law">Legal theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_law" title="Anarchist law">Anarchist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contract_theory" title="Contract theory">Contract theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Critical_legal_studies" title="Critical legal studies">Critical legal studies</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Feminist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy,_theology,_and_fundamental_theory_of_Catholic_canon_law" title="Philosophy, theology, and fundamental theory of Catholic canon law">Fundamental theory of Catholic canon law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_formalism" title="Legal formalism">Legal formalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theories" title="International legal theories">International legal theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legality" title="Legality">Principle of legality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_typicality" title="Principle of typicality">Principle of typicality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adjudication" title="Adjudication">Adjudication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Administration_of_justice" title="Administration of justice">Administration of justice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">Criminal justice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dispute_resolution" title="Dispute resolution">Dispute resolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">Lawsuit/Litigation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_opinion" title="Legal opinion">Legal opinion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_remedy" title="Legal remedy">Legal remedy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Judge" title="Judge">Judge</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace" title="Justice of the peace">Justice of the peace</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">Magistrate</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Judgment_(law)" title="Judgment (law)">Judgment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">Judicial review</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">Jurisdiction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">Jury</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Practice_of_law" title="Practice of law">Practice of law</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attorney_at_law" title="Attorney at law">Attorney</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Barrister" title="Barrister">Barrister</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Counsel" title="Counsel">Counsel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">Lawyer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Defense_(legal)" title="Defense (legal)">Legal representation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prosecutor" title="Prosecutor">Prosecutor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Solicitor" title="Solicitor">Solicitor</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_law#Question_of_fact" title="Question of law">Question of fact</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_law" title="Question of law">Question of law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trial" title="Trial">Trial</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trial_advocacy" title="Trial advocacy">Trial advocacy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trier_of_fact" title="Trier of fact">Trier of fact</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Verdict" title="Verdict">Verdict</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Law#Legal_institutions" title="Law">Legal institutions</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bar_(law)" title="Bar (law)">The bar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bench_(law)" title="Bench (law)">The bench</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Court" title="Court">Court</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Court_of_equity" title="Court of equity">Court of equity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Election_commission" title="Election commission">Election commission</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">Executive</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">Judiciary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">Law enforcement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_education" title="Legal education">Legal education</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_school" title="Law school">Law school</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">Legislature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Police" title="Police">Police</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">Political party</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tribunal" title="Tribunal">Tribunal</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Law" title="Category:Law">Category</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_law_articles" title="Index of law articles">Index</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_law" title="Outline of law">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Portal</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Property" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r992953826"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Property_navbox" title="Template:Property navbox"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Property_navbox" title="Template talk:Property navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Property_navbox&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Property" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By owner</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_ownership" title="Collective ownership">Collective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Common_ownership" title="Common ownership">Common</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communal_land" title="Communal land">Communal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Community_property" title="Community property">Community</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Crown_land" title="Crown land">Crown</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Customary_land" title="Customary land">Customary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">Cooperative</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Public_property" title="Public property">Public</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Self-ownership" title="Self-ownership">Self</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_ownership" title="Social ownership">Social</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/State_ownership" title="State ownership">State</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unowned_property" title="Unowned property">Unowned</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By nature</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estate_in_land" title="Estate in land">Estate</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Croft_(land)" title="Croft (land)">Croft</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intangible_property" title="Intangible property">Intangible</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Intellectual</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_intellectual_property" title="Indigenous intellectual property">indigenous</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Personal_property" title="Personal property">Personal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tangible_property" title="Tangible property">Tangible</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Real_property" title="Real property">real</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">Common land</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Common-pool_resource" title="Common-pool resource">Common-pool resource</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Digital_commons_(economics)" title="Digital commons (economics)">Digital</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Global_commons" title="Global commons">Global</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_commons" title="Information commons">Information</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_commons" title="Knowledge commons">Knowledge</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bundle_of_rights" title="Bundle of rights">Bundle of rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">Commodity</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fictitious_commodities" title="Fictitious commodities">fictitious commodities</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Common_good_(economics)" title="Common good (economics)">Common good (economics)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Excludability" title="Excludability">Excludability</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/First_possession_theory_of_property" title="First possession theory of property">First possession</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Original_appropriation" title="Original appropriation">appropriation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Homestead_principle" title="Homestead principle">homestead principle</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free-rider_problem" title="Free-rider problem">Free-rider problem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gift_economy" title="Gift economy">Gift economy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_property" title="Labor theory of property">Labor theory of property</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_rent" title="Law of rent">Law of rent</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rent-seeking" title="Rent-seeking">rent-seeking</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_plunder" title="Legal plunder">Legal plunder</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_and_legal_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural and legal rights">Natural rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ownership" title="Ownership">Ownership</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Property_rights_(economics)" title="Property rights (economics)">Property rights</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">primogeniture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Usufruct" title="Usufruct">usufruct</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_property_rights" title="Women's property rights">women's</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Right to property</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rivalry_(economics)" title="Rivalry (economics)">Rivalry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">Tragedy of the commons</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_anticommons" title="Tragedy of the anticommons">anticommons</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acequia" title="Acequia"><i>Acequia</i> (watercourse)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ejido" title="Ejido"><i>Ejido</i> (agrarian land)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_formally_designated_forests" title="List of types of formally designated forests">Forest types</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Huerta" title="Huerta">Huerta</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance" title="Inheritance">Inheritance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Land_tenure" title="Land tenure">Land tenure</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alienation_(property_law)" title="Alienation (property law)">alienation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Easement" title="Easement">easement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Restraint_on_alienation" title="Restraint on alienation">restraint on alienation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">real estate</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Title_(property)" title="Title (property)">title</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rights</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_rights" title="Air rights">Air</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone" title="Exclusive economic zone">Fishing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/The_Scheduled_Tribes_and_Other_Traditional_Forest_Dwellers_(Recognition_of_Forest_Rights)_Act,_2006" title="The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006">Forest-dwelling (India)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_to_roam" title="Freedom to roam">Freedom to roam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Grazing_rights" title="Grazing rights">Grazing</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pannage" title="Pannage">pannage</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">Hunting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Land_law#Land_rights" title="Land law">Land</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title" title="Aboriginal title">aboriginal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_rights" title="Indigenous land rights">indigenous</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Squatting" title="Squatting">squatting</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_rights" title="Littoral rights">Littoral</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">Mineral</a>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bergregal" title="Bergregal">Bergregal</a></i></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_way" title="Right of way">Right of way</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Water_right" title="Water right">Water</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prior-appropriation_water_rights" title="Prior-appropriation water rights">prior-appropriation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_water_rights" title="Riparian water rights">riparian</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Accumulation_by_dispossession" title="Accumulation by dispossession">Disposession</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Redistribution_of_income_and_wealth" title="Redistribution of income and wealth">redistribution</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eminent_domain" title="Eminent domain">Eminent domain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">Enclosure</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eviction" title="Eviction">Eviction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Expropriation" class="mw-redirect" title="Expropriation">Expropriation</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Farhud" title="Farhud">Farhud</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">Forced migration</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer" title="Population transfer">population transfer</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Illegal,_unreported_and_unregulated_fishing" title="Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing">Illegal fishing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">Land reform</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Legal_plunder" title="Legal plunder">Legal plunder</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Poaching" title="Poaching">Poaching</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_accumulation_of_capital" title="Primitive accumulation of capital">Primitive accumulation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatization</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_taking" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulatory taking">Regulatory taking</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">bride buying</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">human trafficking</a></li>
<li>spousal
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Husband-selling" class="mw-redirect" title="Husband-selling">husband-selling</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">wife selling</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">wage</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">Tax</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance_tax" title="Inheritance tax">inheritance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Poll_tax" title="Poll tax">poll</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_tax" title="Progressive tax">progressive</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Property_tax" title="Property tax">property</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theft" title="Theft">Theft</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars<br /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold">(<i>key work</i>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Frédéric Bastiat</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Ronald Coase</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">Henry George</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Garrett_Hardin" title="Garrett Hardin">Garrett Hardin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Harvey" title="David Harvey">David Harvey</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Gift_(essay)" title="The Gift (essay)">The Gift</a></i></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Elinor Ostrom</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Karl Polanyi</a>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Transformation_(book)" title="The Great Transformation (book)">The Great Transformation</a></i></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Pierre-Joseph Proudhon</a>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/What_Is_Property%3F" class="mw-redirect" title="What Is Property?">What Is Property?</a></i></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">David Ricardo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Murray N. Rothbard</a>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Ethics_of_Liberty" title="The Ethics of Liberty">The Ethics of Liberty</a></i></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a></i></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_category_class.svg" class="image" title="Category"><img alt="Category" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> Categories: <a href="/wiki/Category:Property" title="Category:Property">Property</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Property_law" title="Category:Property law">Property law</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Property_law_by_country" title="Category:Property law by country">by country</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Intellectual_property_laws_in_the_European_Union_(EU)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r992953826"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Intellectual_property_laws_of_the_European_Union" title="Template:Intellectual property laws of the European Union"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Intellectual_property_laws_of_the_European_Union" title="Template talk:Intellectual property laws of the European Union"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Intellectual_property_laws_of_the_European_Union&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Intellectual_property_laws_in_the_European_Union_(EU)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Intellectual property laws</a> in the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> (EU)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_European_Union" title="Copyright law of the European Union">Copyright</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Directive_(European_Union)" title="Directive (European Union)">Directives</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_Programs_Directive" title="Computer Programs Directive">Computer Programs Directive</a> (1991)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rental_Directive" title="Rental Directive">Rental Directive</a> (1992)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_and_Cable_Directive" title="Satellite and Cable Directive">Satellite and Cable Directive</a> (1993)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Duration_Directive" title="Copyright Duration Directive">Copyright Duration Directive</a> (1993)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Database_Directive" title="Database Directive">Database Directive</a> (1996)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conditional_Access_Directive" title="Conditional Access Directive">Conditional Access Directive</a> (1998)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_Commerce_Directive_2000" title="Electronic Commerce Directive 2000">Electronic Commerce Directive 2000</a> (2000)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_Society_Directive" title="Information Society Directive">Information Society Directive</a> (2001)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Resale_Rights_Directive" title="Resale Rights Directive">Resale Rights Directive</a> (2001)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Directive_on_the_re-use_of_public_sector_information" title="Directive on the re-use of public sector information">Directive on the re-use of public sector information</a> (2003)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Directive" title="Enforcement Directive">Enforcement Directive</a> (2004)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Term_Directive" title="Copyright Term Directive">Copyright Term Directive</a> (2006)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Directive_on_Copyright_in_the_Digital_Single_Market" title="Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market">Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market</a> (2019)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Customs_Regulation_1383/2003" title="Customs Regulation 1383/2003">Customs Regulation 1383/2003</a> (2003)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National laws</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_France" title="Copyright law of France">France</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Germany" title="Copyright law of Germany">Germany</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Ireland" title="Copyright law of Ireland">Ireland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Italy" title="Copyright law of Italy">Italy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_Netherlands" title="Copyright law of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Poland" title="Copyright law of Poland">Poland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Romania" title="Copyright law of Romania">Romania</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Spain" title="Copyright law of Spain">Spain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_Sweden" title="Copyright law of Sweden">Sweden</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Copyright law of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:European_copyright.svg" class="image"><img alt="European copyright.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/25/European_copyright.svg/70px-European_copyright.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="47" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/25/European_copyright.svg/105px-European_copyright.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/25/European_copyright.svg/140px-European_copyright.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="945" data-file-height="630" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Trade_mark_law_of_the_European_Union" title="Trade mark law of the European Union">Trade mark</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_trade_mark_law" title="Irish trade mark law">Ireland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_trade_mark_law" title="United Kingdom trade mark law">United Kingdom</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_trade_mark" title="European Union trade mark">European Union trade mark</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trade_Marks_Directive" title="Trade Marks Directive">Trade Marks Directive</a> (1988)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_des_Produits_Nestl%C3%A9_S.A._v._Cadbury_UK_Limited" title="Société des Produits Nestlé S.A. v. Cadbury UK Limited">Société des Produits Nestlé S.A. v. Cadbury UK Limited</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Patent_law_of_the_European_Union" title="Patent law of the European Union">Patent</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_patent_law" title="German patent law">Germany</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Patent_law_in_the_Netherlands" title="Patent law in the Netherlands">The Netherlands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property_in_Romania" title="Intellectual property in Romania">Romania</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Directive_on_the_legal_protection_of_biotechnological_inventions" title="Directive on the legal protection of biotechnological inventions">Directive on the legal protection of biotechnological inventions</a> (1998)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/European_patent_law" title="European patent law">European patent law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Patent_Court" title="Unified Patent Court">Unified Patent Court</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unitary_patent" title="Unitary patent">Unitary patent</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Industrial_design_rights_in_the_European_Union" title="Industrial design rights in the European Union">Designs</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Agreement_Concerning_the_International_Deposit_of_Industrial_Designs" title="Hague Agreement Concerning the International Deposit of Industrial Designs">Hague Agreement</a> (1999)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Directive_on_the_legal_protection_of_designs" title="Directive on the legal protection of designs">Directive on the legal protection of designs</a> (1998)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_on_Community_designs" title="Regulation on Community designs">Regulation on Community designs</a> (2001)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Community_design" title="Community design">Community design</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trade_secrets_in_the_European_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trade secrets in the European Union (page does not exist)">Trade secrets</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Directive_on_the_Protection_of_Trade_Secrets" title="Directive on the Protection of Trade Secrets">Directive on the Protection of Trade Secrets</a> (2016)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Law_on_the_Protection_of_Trade_Secrets" title="Law on the Protection of Trade Secrets">German Law on the Protection of Trade Secrets</a> (2019)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treaties</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berne_Convention" title="Berne Convention">Berne Convention</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Madrid_system" title="Madrid system">Madrid system</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Industrial_Property" title="Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property">Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rome_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Performers,_Producers_of_Phonograms_and_Broadcasting_Organisations" title="Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organisations">Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organisations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement" title="TRIPS Agreement">TRIPS Agreement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/WIPO_Copyright_Treaty" title="WIPO Copyright Treaty">WIPO Copyright Treaty</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/WIPO_Performances_and_Phonograms_Treaty" title="WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty">WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_frameless_&#124;text-top_&#124;10px_&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata_&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131257#identifiers&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_frameless_&#124;text-top_&#124;10px_&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata_&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131257#identifiers&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131257#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" style="vertical-align: text-top" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4136832-0">Integrated Authority File (Germany)</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National libraries</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX526938">Spain</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119510782">France</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119510782">(data)</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=12390">Ukraine</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects/sh85067167">United States</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00576736">Japan</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/048078">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.microsoft.com/v2/detail/34974158">Microsoft Academic</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10637584">National Archives (US)</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node ) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp ) | 1629306238 |