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{{Indo-European topics}}
{{Indo-European topics}}


The '''Cimmerians''' ({{lang-akk|{{cuneiform|7|𒆳𒄀𒂇𒊏𒀀𒀀}}}} {{transl|akk|mat Gimirrāya}};<ref>{{cite book |last=Parpola |first=Simo |date=1970 |title=Neo-Assyrian Toponyms |url=https://archive.org/details/neoassyriantopon0000parp |location=Kevaeler |publisher=Butzon & Bercker |pages=132-134 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Gimirayu [CIMMERIAN] (EN) |url=http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/rinap/rinap4/cbd/qpn/x00000580.html |website=oracc.museum.upenn.edu}}</ref> {{lang-grc|[[wikt:Κιμμέριοι|Κιμμέριοι]]}} {{transl|grc|Kimmérioi}}) were a nomadic [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European people]], who appeared about 1000 BC.<ref>{{cite book|last1=MacKenzie|first1=David|last2=Curran|first2=Michael W.|title=A History of Russia, the Soviet Union, and Beyond|date=2002|publisher=Wadsworth/Thomson Learning|isbn=9780534586980|page=12|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eaI-AQAAIAAJ&q=cimmerians+date+from+1000+BC|language=en}}</ref> Originating in the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe|Pontic-Caspian steppe]], the Cimmerians subsequently migrated into Southwest Asia and into Central and Southeast Europe. while the Cimmerians were often described by contemporaries as [[Scythian cultures|culturally Scythian]], they evidently differed ethnically from the [[Scythians]] proper, who also displaced and replaced the Cimmerians.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/scythians |title=Scythians |last=Ivanchik |first=Askold |author-link=Askold Ivantchik |date=April 25, 2018 |website=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |quote=The Scythian archeological culture embraces not only the Scythians of the East-European steppes, but also the population of the forest steppes, about whose language and ethnic origins it is difficult to say anything precise, and also the Cimmerians }}</ref>
The '''Cimmerians''' ({{lang-akk|{{cuneiform|7|𒆳𒄀𒂇𒊏𒀀𒀀}}}} {{transl|akk|mat Gimirrāya}};<ref>{{cite book |last=Parpola |first=Simo |date=1970 |title=Neo-Assyrian Toponyms |url=https://archive.org/details/neoassyriantopon0000parp |location=Kevaeler |publisher=Butzon & Bercker |pages=132-134 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Gimirayu [CIMMERIAN] (EN) |url=http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/rinap/rinap4/cbd/qpn/x00000580.html |website=oracc.museum.upenn.edu}}</ref> {{lang-grc|[[wikt:Κιμμέριοι|Κιμμέριοι]]}} {{transl|grc|Kimmérioi}}) were a nomadic [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European people]], who appeared about 1000 BC.<ref>{{cite book|last1=MacKenzie|first1=David|last2=Curran|first2=Michael W.|title=A History of Russia, the Soviet Union, and Beyond|date=2002|publisher=Wadsworth/Thomson Learning|isbn=9780534586980|page=12|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eaI-AQAAIAAJ&q=cimmerians+date+from+1000+BC|language=en}}</ref> Originating in the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe|Pontic-Caspian steppe]], the Cimmerians subsequently migrated into Southwest Asia and into Central and Southeast Europe. While the Cimmerians were often described by contemporaries as [[Scythian cultures|culturally Scythian]], they evidently differed ethnically from the [[Scythians]] proper, who also displaced and replaced the Cimmerians.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/scythians |title=Scythians |last=Ivanchik |first=Askold |author-link=Askold Ivantchik |date=April 25, 2018 |website=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |quote=The Scythian archeological culture embraces not only the Scythians of the East-European steppes, but also the population of the forest steppes, about whose language and ethnic origins it is difficult to say anything precise, and also the Cimmerians }}</ref>


The Cimmerians themselves left no written records, and most information about them is largely derived from [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrian]] records of the 8th to 7th centuries BCE and from [[Greco-Roman world|Graeco-Roman]] authors from the 5th century BCE and later.
The Cimmerians themselves left no written records, and most information about them is largely derived from [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrian]] records of the 8th to 7th centuries BCE and from [[Greco-Roman world|Graeco-Roman]] authors from the 5th century BCE and later.

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'{{Short description|Nomadic Indo-European people, about 1000 BC}} {{Redirect|Cimmerian|other uses|Cimmeria (disambiguation){{!}}Cimmeria}} {{Infobox ethnic group | group = Cimmerians | native_name = | native_name_lang = | image = Thraco-Cimmerian.png | image_caption = Distribution of "Thraco-Cimmerian" finds. From map in ''Archaeology of Ukrainian SSR'' ([[Russian language|rus]]. Археология Украинской ССР) vol. 2, Kiev (1986) | total = <!-- total population worldwide --> | total_year = <!-- year of total population --> | total_source = <!-- source of total population; may be ''census'' or ''estimate'' --> | total_ref = <!-- references supporting total population --> | genealogy = | regions = <!-- for e.g. a list of regions (countries), especially if regionN etc below not used --> | languages = [[#Language|Cimmerian]] | philosophies = | religions = | related_groups = | footnotes = }} {{Indo-European topics}} The '''Cimmerians''' ({{lang-akk|{{cuneiform|7|𒆳𒄀𒂇𒊏𒀀𒀀}}}} {{transl|akk|mat Gimirrāya}};<ref>{{cite book |last=Parpola |first=Simo |date=1970 |title=Neo-Assyrian Toponyms |url=https://archive.org/details/neoassyriantopon0000parp |location=Kevaeler |publisher=Butzon & Bercker |pages=132-134 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Gimirayu [CIMMERIAN] (EN) |url=http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/rinap/rinap4/cbd/qpn/x00000580.html |website=oracc.museum.upenn.edu}}</ref> {{lang-grc|[[wikt:Κιμμέριοι|Κιμμέριοι]]}} {{transl|grc|Kimmérioi}}) were a nomadic [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European people]], who appeared about 1000 BC.<ref>{{cite book|last1=MacKenzie|first1=David|last2=Curran|first2=Michael W.|title=A History of Russia, the Soviet Union, and Beyond|date=2002|publisher=Wadsworth/Thomson Learning|isbn=9780534586980|page=12|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eaI-AQAAIAAJ&q=cimmerians+date+from+1000+BC|language=en}}</ref> Originating in the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe|Pontic-Caspian steppe]], the Cimmerians subsequently migrated into Southwest Asia and into Central and Southeast Europe. while the Cimmerians were often described by contemporaries as [[Scythian cultures|culturally Scythian]], they evidently differed ethnically from the [[Scythians]] proper, who also displaced and replaced the Cimmerians.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/scythians |title=Scythians |last=Ivanchik |first=Askold |author-link=Askold Ivantchik |date=April 25, 2018 |website=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |quote=The Scythian archeological culture embraces not only the Scythians of the East-European steppes, but also the population of the forest steppes, about whose language and ethnic origins it is difficult to say anything precise, and also the Cimmerians }}</ref> The Cimmerians themselves left no written records, and most information about them is largely derived from [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrian]] records of the 8th to 7th centuries BCE and from [[Greco-Roman world|Graeco-Roman]] authors from the 5th century BCE and later. == Name == The source and meaning of the Cimmerians' name remain uncertain, and there have been various proposals for its origin. According to the linguist [[János Harmatta]], it was derived from [[Iranian languages#Old Iranian|Old Iranian]] {{lang|xsc|*Gayamira}}, meaning "union of clans",<ref name="UNESCO">{{cite book|last=Harmatta|first=János|title=History of Humanity|date=1996|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-9-231-02812-0|editor-last1=Hermann|editor-first1=Joachim|volume=3|page=181|chapter=10.4.1. The Scythians|author-link=János Harmatta|editor-last2=de Laet|editor-first2=Sigfried}}</ref> while {{ill|Sergey Tokhtasyev|ru|Тохтасьев, Сергей Ремирович}} and [[Igor M. Diakonoff|Igor Diakonoff]] derive it from an [[Iranian languages#Old Iranian|Old Iranian]] term {{lang|xsc|*Gāmīra}} or {{lang|xsc|*Gmīra}}, meaning "mobile unit,"<ref name="Tokhtas’ev">{{cite web |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cimmerians-nomads |title=CIMMERIANS |last=Tokhtas’ev |first=Sergei R. |date=15 December 1991 |website=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |publisher= |access-date=13 November 2021 }}</ref><ref name="Diakonoff">{{cite book |last=Diakonoff |first=I. M. |author-link=Igor M. Diakonoff |editor-last=Gershevitch |editor-first=Ilya |editor-link=Ilya Gershevitch |date=1985 |title=The Cambridge History of Iran |volume=2 |chapter=Media |url= |location=[[Cambridge]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=36-148 |isbn=978-0-521-20091-2 }}</ref> [[Askold Ivantchik]] derives the name of the Cimmerians from an original form {{lang|mis|*Gimĕr-}} or {{lang|mis|*Gimĭr-}}, of uncertain meaning.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=127-154}} == History == [[File:Urartu 715 713-en.svg|thumb|right|Cimmerian invasions of Colchis, Urartu and Assyria 715–713 BC]] === Origins === The Cimmerians were most likely a nomadic [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] people of the [[Eurasian Steppe]].<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2006|encyclopedia=Brill's New Pauly, Antiquity volumes|last=von Bredow|first=Iris|quote=(Κιμμέριοι; Kimmérioi, Lat. Cimmerii). Nomadic tribe probably of Iranian descent, attested for the 8th/7th cents. BC. |title=Cimmeriin |doi=10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e613800 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last = Liverani |first = Mario |title = The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy |year = 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0415679060 |page=604 |quote=Cimmerians (Iranian population)}}</ref><ref name="UNESCO"/><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Kohl |editor1-first=Philip L. |editor2-last=Dadson |editor2-first=D.J. |title = The Culture and Social Institutions of Ancient Iran, by Muhammad A. Dandamaev and Vladimir G. Lukonin |year=1989 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521611916 |page=51 |quote=Ethnically and linguistically, the Scythians and Cimmerians were kindred groups (both people spoke Old Iranian dialects) (...)}}</ref> Other suggestions for the ethnicity for the Cimmerians include the possibility of them being [[Thracians|Thracian]],<ref>{{cite book |last = Frye |first = Richard Nelson |title=The History of Ancient Iran |year=1984 |publisher=Verlag C.H. Beck |isbn=978-3406093975 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000frye/page/70 70] |quote = The Cimmerians lived north of the Caucasus mountains in South Russia and probably were related to the Thracians, but they surely were a mixed group by the time they appeared south of the mountains, and we hear of them first in the year 714 B.C. after they presumably had defeated the Urartians |url-access=registration |url = https://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000frye/page/70 }}</ref> or Thracians with an Iranian ruling class, or a separate group closely related to Thracian peoples, as well as a [[Maeotians|Maeotian]] origin.{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=555}} However the proposal of a Thracian origin of the Cimmerians has been criticised as arising from a confusion by [[Strabo]] between the Cimmerians and their allies, the Thracian tribe of the [[Treri|Treres]].<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> The Cimmerians are first mentioned in the 8th century BCE in [[Homer]]'s ''[[Odyssey]]'' as a people living beyond the [[Oceanus]], in a land permanently deprived of sunlight at the edge of the world and the entrance of [[Hades]], and, in the 6th century BCE, [[Aristeas]] of Proconnesus recorded that the Cimmerians had once lived in the Pontic Steppe.<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> According to [[Herodotus]], the Cimmerians inhabited the region north of the [[Caucasus]] and the [[Black Sea]] during the 8th and 7th centuries BC (i.e. what is now [[Ukraine]] and [[Russia]]), although they have not been identified with any specific archaeological culture in the region.<ref>Renate Rolle, "Urartu und die Reiternomaden", in: ''Saeculum'' 28, 1977, 291–339</ref> [[Herodotus]] described the Cimmerians as consisting of two groups of equal numbers: the Cimmerian people properly called, that is the Cimmmerian common people, and the kings, or "royal race", implying that the Cimmerian ruling classes and lower classes originally constituted two different peoples who still had their own distinct identities at the end of the 2nd millennium BCE. The Cimmerian kings most likely were an Iranian people who had imposed their rule on a section of the people of the [[Catacomb culture]].{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=556}} === In Southwest Asia === In the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, the Cimmerians were expelled from their home in the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe|Pontic Steppe]] and forced to migrate into Southwest Asia due to a significant movement of the [[Eurasian nomads|nomads]] of the [[Eurasian Steppe]]. According to Herodotus, this movement started when the [[Massagetae]] migrated westwards, forcing the [[Scythians]] to the west across the Araxes river (likely the [[Volga]]),{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=553}} after which the Scythians moved into the Pontic Steppe and conquered the territory of the Cimmerians.<ref name="UNESCO"/>{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=553}} Under Scythian pressure, the Cimmerian aristocrats, who were unwilling to leave their lands, killed each other and were buried in a [[kurgan]] near the [[Dniester|Tyras river]]; then the common people migrated to Southwest Asia.<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> The Cimmerians fled to the south along the Black Sea coast and reached [[Anatolia]]. However, owing to the impracticability of the eastern Black Sea shore for horsemen, modern scholars instead suggest that the Cimmerians passed through the {{ill|Klukhor|ru|Клухорский перевал}}, [[Alagir]] and [[Darial Gorge|Darial]] passes in the Greater Caucasus,{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=93}} that is through the western Caucasus and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] into [[Colchis]], where the Cimmerians initially settled;{{sfn|Barnett|1991|p=355}} the Scythians in turn pursued the Cimmerians, but followed the coast of the [[Caspian Sea]] and arrived in the region of present-day [[Azerbaijan]].{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=97}}{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=562}}<ref name="Phillips">{{cite journal |last=Phillips |first=E. D. |date=1972 |title=The Scythian Domination in Southwest Asia: Its Record in History, Scripture and Archaeology |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/123971 |journal=World Archaeology |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=129-138 |doi= |access-date=5 November 2021 }}</ref> [[Austen Henry Layard]]'s discoveries in the royal archives at [[Nineveh]] and [[Calah]] included Assyrian primary records of the Cimmerian invasion.<ref>K. Deller, "Ausgewählte neuassyrische Briefe betreffend Urarṭu zur Zeit Sargons II.," in P.E. Pecorella and M. Salvini (eds), ''Tra lo Zagros e l'Urmia. Ricerche storiche ed archeologiche nell'Azerbaigian Iraniano'', ''Incunabula Graeca'' 78 (Rome 1984) 97–122.</ref> These records appear to place the Cimmerian homeland, ''Gamir'', south (rather than north) of the Black Sea.<ref name="Cozzoli 1968">{{cite book |last=Cozzoli |first=Umberto |title=I Cimmeri |year=1968 |publisher=Arti Grafiche Citta di Castello (Roma)|location=Rome Italy |url = https://openlibrary.org/b/OL19361902M/Cimmeri.}}</ref><ref name="Salvini 1984">{{cite book|last=Salvini|first=Mirjo|title=Tra lo Zagros e l'Urmia: richerche storiche ed archeologiche nell'Azerbaigian iraniano| year=1984|publisher=Ed. Dell'Ateneo (Roma)|location=Rome Italy|url=https://openlibrary.org/b/OL13958629M/Tra-lo-Zagros-e-l%27Urmia}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last=Kristensen| first=Anne Katrine Gade| title=Who were the Cimmerians, and where did they come from?: Sargon II, and the Cimmerians, and Rusa I|year=1988|publisher=The Royal Danish Academy of Science and Letters|location=Copenhagen Denmark}}</ref> ==== In Transcaucasia ==== During the early phase of the Cimmerians' presence in Southwest Asia, their centre of operations was located in Transcaucasia until the early 660s BCE.<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> The first mention of the Cimmerians in the records of the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] was from between 720 and 714 BCE, when Assyrian intelligence reported to the king [[Sargon II]] that the king [[Rusa I]] of [[Urartu]] had been defeated after attempting to attack the Cimmerians, either in what is now [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]],<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> or near [[Gürün|Gurania]] in eastern Cappadocia.{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=559}} According to another Assyrian intelligence report dated to those same years, the Cimmerians had attacked Urartu through the territory of the kingdom of [[Mannaeans|Mannae]].<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> In 705 BCE, the Cimmerians tried to cross the border of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, but they were defeated by Sargon II, who died in this battle.{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=559}} During the period coinciding with the rule of the Assyrian king [[Esarhaddon]] (reigned 681–669 BCE), the bulk of the Cimmerians migrated from Transcaucasia into Anatolia, while a smaller group remained in the area near the kingdom of [[Mannaeans|Mannae]] where they had been settled since the time of Sargon II, respectively forming a "western" and an "eastern" division of Cimmerians.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=57-94}} ==== The "eastern" Cimmerians ==== By 677 BCE, the eastern group of Cimmerians were present on the territory of Mannae,<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> and in 676 BCE they were the allies of Mannae against an Assyrian attack, after which the eastern Cimmerians remained allied to Mannae against Assyria.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=57-94}} Around 675 BCE, the eastern Cimmerians were recorded by the Assyrians as a possible threat against the collection of tribute from [[Medes|Media]]. And around the same time, in alliance with the Scythians, the eastern Cimmerians were menacing the Assyrian provinces of [[Parsua|Parsumaš]] and [[Bīt Ḫamban]], and the eastern Cimmerians and the Scythians together were threatening communication between the Assyrian Empire and its vassal of [[Ḫubuškia]].{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=57-94}} By the late 670s BCE, the eastern Cimmerians were allied to [[Ellipi]] and the [[Medes]], and when Ellipi and the Medes successfully rebelled against Assyria under [[Kashtariti]] from 671 to 669 BCE, the eastern Cimmerians were allied to them.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=57-94}} In the western [[Iranian Plateau]], the eastern Cimmerians might have introduced Bronze articles from the [[Koban culture]] into the [[Luristan bronze]] culture.{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=560}} ==== In Anatolia ==== By the later 7th century BCE, the centre of operations of the larger, western, division of the Cimmerians was located in Anatolia.<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/>{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=57-94}} In 679 BCE the Cimmerian king [[Teushpa|Teušpa]] was defeated and killed by Esarhaddon near [[Cybistra|Ḫubušna]] in Cappadocia.<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> Despite this victory, the military operations of the Assyrians were not fully successful and they were not able to firmly occupy the areas around Ḫubušna, nor were they able to secure their borders, and the Assyrian province of Quwê was left vulnerable to invasions from [[Tabal]], [[Kuzzurak]] and [[Cilicia|Ḫilakku]].{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=57-94}} An Assyrian contract dating to the same as Esarhaddon's victory over Teušpa records of the existence of a "Cimmerian detachment" in Nineveh, although it is uncertain whether this refers to Cimmerian mercenaries in Assyrian service, or simply of Assyrian soldiers armed in the "Cimmerian-style", that is using Cimmerian bows and horse harnesses.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=57-94}} Around 675 BCE, the Cimmerians in alliance with the Urartian king [[Rusa II]] invaded and destroyed the kingdom of [[Phrygia]], whose king [[Midas]] committed suicide.{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=559}}{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=57-94}} The Cimmerians appear to have partially subdued the Phrygians, and an Assyrian oracular text from the later 670s BCE mentioned the Cimmerians and the possibly subdued Phrygians as allies against the Assyrians' newly conquered province of [[Melid]].<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/>{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=57-94}} A document from 673 BCE records Rusa II as having recruited a large number of Cimmerian mercenaries, and Cimmerian allies of Rusa II probably participated in a military expedition of his in 672 BCE.{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=559}} From 671 to 669 BCE, Cimmerians in service of Rusa II attacked the Assyrian province of [[Shupria|Šubria]] near the Urartian border.{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=560}}{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=57-94}} Between 671 and 670 BCE, some Cimmerian divisions were recorded as serving in the Assyrian army, although these divisions might have instead simply referred to the "Cimmerian style" armed Assyrian soldiers.<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> Aat yet unknown dates, the Cimmerians imposed their rule on Cappadocia, invaded [[Bithynia]], [[Paphlagonia]] and the [[Troad]], and took [[Sinop, Turkey|Sinope]].{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=559}} In the beginning of that decade, the Cimmerians attacked the kingdom of [[Lydia]],{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=559}} whose king [[Gyges of Lydia|Gyges]] contacted the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] beginning in 667 BCE.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=95-125}} Gyges soon defeated the Cimmerians in 665 BCE without Assyrian help, and he sent Cimmerian soldiers captured while attacking the Lydian countryside as gifts to [[Ashurbanipal]].<ref name="Spalinger">{{cite journal |last=Spalinger |first=Anthony J. |date=1978 |title=The Date of the Death of Gyges and Its Historical Implications |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/599752 |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=98 |issue=4 |pages=400-409 |doi=10.2307/599752 |access-date=25 October 2021 }}</ref><ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> According to the Assyrian records describing these events, the Cimmerians already had formed sedentary settlements in Anatolia.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=95-125}} According to Anthony Spalinger, the Cimmerians attacked Lydia again in 657 BCE, as recorded by contemporary Assyrian records, which referred to this attack as a "bad omen" for the "Westland", that is Lydia.<ref name="Spalinger"/> However this sequence of events is disputed by Askold Ivantchik, who instead identifies the "Westland" with western possessions of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (possibly [[Quwê]] or somewhere in [[Syria (region)|Syria]]) that the Cimmerians had conquered after their defeat by Gyges.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=95-125}} These Cimmerian aggressions worried Ashurbanipal about the security of the northwest border of the Neo-Assyrian Empire enough that he sought answers concerning this situation through divination,<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> and as a result of these Cimmerian conquests, by 657 BCE the Assyrian divinatory records were calling the Cimmerian king by the title of {{transl|akk|šar-kiššati}} ("[[King of the Universe]]"), a title which in the Mesopotamian worldview could belong to only a single ruler in the world at any given time and was normally held by the King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. These divinatory texts also assured to Assurbanipal that he would eventually regain the {{transl|akk|kiššūtu}}, that is the world hegemony, captured by the Cimmerians: the {{transl|akk|kiššūtu}}, which was considered to rightfully belong to the Assyrian king, had been usurped by the Cimmerians and had to be won back by Assyria. Thus, the Cimmerian king's successes against Assyria meant that he had become recognised in the ancient Near East as equally powerful as Ashurbanipal. This situation remained unchanged throughout the rest of the 650s BCE and the early 640s BCE.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=95-125}} As the result of these Assyrian setbacks, Gyges could not rely on Assyrian support against the Cimmerians and he ended diplomacy with the Neo-Assyrian Empire.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=95-125}} The Cimmerians attacked Lydia for a third time in 644 BCE, under their leader [[Tugdamme|Lygdamis]] ({{lang-grc|Λύγδαμις}}, {{transl|grc|Lúgdamis}}), the {{transl|akk|Tugdammi}} of the Assyrian records. This time, the Cimmerians defeated the [[Lydians]] and captured their capital, [[Sardis]], and Gyges died during this attack.<ref name="Spalinger"/><ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/>{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=559}} After sacking Sardis, Lygdamis led the Cimmerians into invading the Greek city-states of [[Ionia]] and [[Aeolis]] on the western coast of Anatolia, which caused the inhabitants of the [[Batinetis]] region to flee to the islands of the [[Aegean Sea]], and later Greek writings by [[Callimachus]] and [[Hesychius of Alexandria]] preserve the record that Lygdamis had destroyed the [[Temple of Artemis]] at [[Ephesus]] during these invasions.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=95-125}} After this third invasion of Lydia and the attack on the Asiatic Greek cities, around 640 BCE the Cimmerians moved to [[Cilicia]] on the north-west border of the Assyrian empire, where Tugdammi allied with Mugallu, the king of [[Tabal]], against Assyria. However, after facing a revolt against him, Tugdamme allied with Assyria and acknowledged Assyrian overlordship, and sent tribute to Ashurbanipal, to whom he swore an oath. Tugdammi soon broke this oath and attacked the Assyrian Empire again, but he fell ill and died in 640 BCE, and was succeeded by his son [[Sandakhshatra|Sandakšatru]].<ref name="Spalinger"/><ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> In 637 BCE, the Cimmerians participated in another attack on Lydia, this time led by the [[Thracians|Thracian]] [[Treri|Treres]] tribe who had migrated across the [[Bosporus|Thracian Bosporus]] and invaded [[Anatolia]],{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985}} under their king Kobos, and in alliance with the [[Lycians]].<ref name="Spalinger"/> During this invasion, in the seventh year of the reign of Gyges's son [[Ardys of Lydia|Ardys]], the Lydians were defeated again and for a second time Sardis was captured, except for its citadel, and Ardys might have been killed in this attack.<ref name="Dale">{{cite journal |last=Dale |first=Alexander |date=2015 |title=WALWET and KUKALIM: Lydian coin legends, dynastic succession, and the chronology of Mermnad kings |url=https://www.academia.edu/29719834/WALWET_and_KUKALIM_Lydian_coin_legends_dynastic_succession_and_the_chronology_of_Mermnad_kings |journal=Kadmos |volume=54 |issue= |pages=151-166 |doi=10.1515/kadmos-2015-0008 |access-date=10 November 2021}}</ref> Ardys's son and successor, [[Sadyattes]], might possibly also have been killed in another Cimmerian attack on Lydia.<ref name="Dale"/> Soon after that, with Assyrian approval<ref name=Rene>{{Cite book |last=Grousset |first=René |author-link=René Grousset |title=The Empire of the Steppes |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=1970 |isbn=0-8135-1304-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/8 9] |url=https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof |quote=A Scythian army, acting in conformity with Assyrian policy, entered Pontis to crush the last of the Cimmerians }}</ref> and in alliance with the Lydians,{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=126}} the Scythians under their king [[Madyes]] entered Anatolia, expelled the Treres from Asia Minor, and defeated the Cimmerians so that they no longer constituted a threat again, following which the Scythians extended their domination to Central Anatolia<ref>{{cite journal |last=Phillips |first=E. D. |date=1972 |title=The Scythian Domination in Western Asia: Its Record in History, Scripture and Archaeology |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/123971 |journal=World Archaeology |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=129-138 |doi= |access-date=5 November 2021 }}</ref> until they were themselves expelled by the Medes from Southwest Asia in the 590s BCE.<ref name="Spalinger"/><ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> This final defeat of the Cimmerians was carried out by the joint forces of Madyes, who [[Strabo]] credits with expelling the Cimmerians from Asia Minor, and of Gyges's great-grandson, the king [[Alyattes of Lydia]], whom [[Herodotus]] and [[Polyaenus]] claim finally defeated the Cimmerians.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=95-125}} The Cimmerians completely disappeared from history following this final defeat,<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> after which they likely remained in Cappadocia, whose name in Armenian, {{lang|hy|[[wikt:Գամիրք|Գամիրք]]}} {{transl|hy|Gamirkʿ}}, may have been derived from the name of the Cimmerians.{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=559}} A group of Cimmerians might also have subsisted for some time in the Troad, around [[Adramyttium]].{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=559}} == Archaeology == {{Main|Thraco-Cimmerian}} The origin of the culture is associated with the [[Belozerskaya culture]] (12th to 10th centuries BCE) and the later and more certain [[Novocerkassk culture]] (10th to 7th centuries) between the Danube and the Volga.<ref name="Сегеда">[http://litopys.org.ua/segeda/se02.htm Антропологічні особливості давнього населення території України (доба раннього заліза&nbsp;— пізнє середньовіччя)], website "Ізборник"</ref> The use of the name "Cimmerian" in this context is due to [[Paul Reinecke]], who in 1925 postulated a "North-Thracian-Cimmerian cultural sphere" (''nordthrakisch-kimmerischer Kulturkreis'') overlapping with the younger [[Hallstatt culture]] of the Eastern Alps. The term [[Thraco-Cimmerian]] (''thrako-kimmerisch'') was first introduced by I. Nestor in the 1930s. Nestor intended to suggest that there was a historical migration of Cimmerians into Eastern Europe from the area of the former [[Srubnaya culture]], perhaps triggered by the Scythian expansion, at the beginning of the European Iron Age. In the 1980s and 1990s, more systematic studies{{by whom|date=March 2019}} of the artifacts revealed a more gradual development over the 9th to 7th centuries BCE, so that the term "Thraco-Cimmerian" is now merely used by convention and does not necessarily imply a direct connection with either the Thracians or the Cimmerians.<ref>Ioannis K. Xydopoulos, "The Cimmerians: their origins, movements and their difficulties" in: Gocha R. Tsetskhladze, Alexandru Avram, James Hargrave (eds.), ''The Danubian Lands between the Black, Aegean and Adriatic Seas (7th Century BC – 10th Century AD)'', Proceedings of the Fifth International Congress on Black Sea Antiquities (Belgrade – 17–21 September 2013), Archaeopress Archaeology (2015), [https://www.academia.edu/20037727/_The_Cimmerians_their_origins_movements_and_their_difficulties_ 119–123]. Dorin Sârbu, ''Un Fenomen Arheologic Controversat de la Începutul Epocii Fierului dintre Gurile Dunării și Volga: 'Cultura Cimmerianã'<nowiki/>'' ("A controversial archaeological phenomenon of the early Iron Age between the mouths of the Danube and the Volga: the Cimmerian Culture"), ''Romanian Journal of Archaeology'' (2000) ({{in lang|ro}} [http://apar.archaeology.ro/ds_artrja.htm online version] (with bibliography); [http://apar.archaeology.ro/ds_artrjaeng.htm English abstract])</ref> ==Legacy== The term {{transl|akk|Gimirri}} was used about a century after the Cimmerians disappeared from history in the [[Behistun inscription]] (c. 515 BC) as an [[Assyro-Babylonian]] equivalent of Iranian [[Saka]] (Scythians).<ref>[[George Rawlinson]], noted in his translation of ''History of Herodotus'', Book VII, p. 378</ref> Otherwise, Cimmerians disappeared from the historical record. In sources beginning with the [[Royal Frankish Annals]], the [[Merovingian]] kings of the [[Franks]] traditionally traced their lineage through a pre-Frankish tribe called the [[Sicambri]] (or Sugambri), mythologized as a group of "Cimmerians" from the mouth of the [[Danube]] river, but who instead came from [[Gelderland]] in modern [[Netherlands]] and are named for the [[Sieg river]].<ref>Geary, Patrick J. ''Before France and Germany: The Creation and Transformation of the Merovingian World''. New York: [[Oxford University Press]], 1988</ref> Early modern historians asserted Cimmerian descent for the [[Celts]] or the [[Germanic peoples|Germans]], arguing from the similarity of ''Cimmerii'' to ''[[Cimbri]]'' or ''[[Cymry]]'', noted by 17th-century Celticists. But the word ''Cymro'' "Welshman" (plural: ''Cymry'') is now accepted by Celtic linguists as being derived from a [[Brythonic languages|Brythonic]] word *''kom-brogos'', meaning "compatriot".<ref> * ''[[Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru]]'', vol. I, p.&nbsp;770. * Jones, J. Morris. ''Welsh Grammar: Historical and Comparative''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995. * Russell, Paul. ''Introduction to the Celtic Languages''. London: Longman, 1995. * Delamarre, Xavier. ''Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise''. Paris: Errance, 2001.</ref> The Biblical name "[[Gomer]]" has been linked by some to the Cimmerians.<ref>Robert Drews, ''Early Riders'', 2004, p.&nbsp;119. He also links them to [[Gog and Magog]].</ref> According to [[Georgia (country)|Georgian]] national historiography, the Cimmerians, in Georgian known as ''Gimirri'', played an influential role in the development of the [[Colchis|Colchian]] and [[Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)|Iberian]] cultures.<ref>Berdzenishvili, N., Dondua V., Dumbadze, M., Melikishvili G., Meskhia, Sh., Ratiani, P., ''History of Georgia'', Vol. 1, Tbilisi, 1958, pp. 34–36</ref> The modern Georgian word for "hero", {{script|Geor|[[wikt:გმირი|გმირი]]}} ''gmiri'', is said to derive from their name.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} It has been speculated that the Cimmerians finally settled in [[Cappadocia]], te name Cappadocia, or in [[Armenian language|Armenian]] as {{lang|hy|[[wikt:Գամիրք|Գամիրք]]}}, {{transl|hy|Gamirkʿ}}, might have been derived from the name of the Cimmerians.{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=559}} It has also been speculated that the modern Armenian city of [[Gyumri]] (Arm.: Գյումրի [[Help:IPA for Armenian|{{IPA|[ˈgjumɾi]}}]]), founded as '''Kumayri''' (Arm.: Կումայրի), derived its name from the Cimmerians who conquered the region and founded a settlement there.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gyumri.am/eng/history.html|work=Kumayri infosite|title=Cimmerian|access-date=14 June 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106210024/http://www.gyumri.am/eng/history.html|archive-date=6 November 2012}}</ref> ==Language== {{Infobox language |name=Cimmerian |region=[[North Caucasus]] |era=8th century BC |familycolor=Indo-European |fam2=(unclassified) |iso3=none |linglist=08i |glotto=none }} According to the historian [[Muhammad Dandamayev]] and the linguist [[János Harmatta]], the Cimmerians spoke a dialect belonging to the [[Scythian languages|Scythian]] group of [[Iranian languages]], and were able to communicate with [[Scythians]] proper without needing interpreters.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/mesopotamia-01-iranians |title=MESOPOTAMIA i. Iranians in Ancient Mesopotamia |last=Dandamayev |first=Muhammad |author-link=Muhammad Dandamayev |date=27 January 2015 |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica |publisher= |access-date=20 October 2021 |quote=It seems that Cimmerians and Scythians (Sakai) were related, spoke among themselves different Iranian dialects, and could understand each other without interpreters.}}</ref><ref name="UNESCO" /> Only a few personal names in the Cimmerian language have survived in [[Assyria]]n inscriptions: *{{transl|akk|Teušpa}}: according to the linguist [[János Harmatta]], it goes back to Old [[Iranian language|Iranian]] {{lang|xsc|*Tavispaya}}, meaning "swelling with strength".<ref name="UNESCO"/> Based on linguistic analysis, [[Askold Ivantchik]] posits three suggestions for an Old Iranian origin of {{transl|akk|Teušpa}}: {{lang|xsc|*Taiu-aspa}}, meaning "abductor of horses"; {{lang|xsc|Taiu-spā}}, meaning "abductor dog"; {{lang|xsc|Daiva-spā}}, meaning "divine dog".{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=57-94}} *{{transl|akk|Dugdammê}}, also spelled {{transl|akk|Dugdammi}} and {{transl|akk|Tugdammê}}, and pronounced {{transl|grc|Lúgdamis}} by Greek authors: according to János Harmatta, it goes back to Old Iranian {{lang|xsc|*Duydamaya}}, meaning giving "happiness".<ref name="UNESCO"/> [[Edwin M. Yamauchi]] also interprets the name as Iranian, citing [[Ossetic language|Ossetic]] {{transl|os|Tux-domæg}} "Ruling with Strength".<ref>{{cite book|last=Yamauchi|first=Edwin M|title=Foes from the Northern Frontier: Invading Hordes from the Russian Steppes|year=1982|publisher=Baker Book House|location=Grand Rapids MI USA}}</ref> Based on linguistic analysis, Askold Ivantchik suggests that the name {{transl|akk|Dugdammê}}/{{transl|grc|Lúgdamis}} was a loanword from an [[Anatolian languages|Anatolian language]], more specifically [[Luwian language|Luwian]], while also accepting the alternative possibility of a derivation from a variant of the name of the [[Hurrians|Hurrian]] deity [[Teshub|Teyśəba/Tešub]].{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=95-125}} *{{transl|akk|Sandakšatru}}: this is an Iranian reading of the name, and [[Manfred Mayrhofer]] (1981) points out that the name may also be read as {{transl|akk|Sandakurru}}. According to János Harmatta, it goes back to [[Iranian language|Old Iranian]] {{lang|xsc|*Sandakuru}}, meaning "splendid son".<ref name="UNESCO" /> Askold Ivantchik derives the name {{transl|akk|Sandakšatru}} from a compound term consisting of the name of the Anatolian deity [[Sandas|Sanda]], and of the Iranian term {{transl|ira|-xšaθra}}.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=95-125}} Asimov (1991) attempted to trace various place names to Cimmerian origins. He suggested that ''Cimmerium'' gave rise to the [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] [[Toponymy|toponym]] ''[[Stary Krym|Qırım]]'' (which in turn gave rise to the [[name of Crimea|name "Crimea"]]).<ref>{{cite book |last=Asimov|first=Isaac|title=Asimov's Chronology of the World|year=1991|publisher=HarperCollins|location=New York, NY |page=50 }}</ref> Based on ancient Greek historical sources, a [[Thracians|Thracian]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Meljukova|first = A. I. |title=Skifija i Frakijskij Mir|year=1979|location=Moscow}}</ref> or a [[Celt]]ic<ref>[[Posidonius]] in [[Strabo]] 7.2.2.</ref> association is sometimes assumed. ==Genetics== A genetic study published in [[Science Advances]] in October 2018 examined the remains of three Cimmerians buried between around 1000 and 800 BCE. The two samples of [[Y-DNA]] extracted belonged to [[Haplogroup R1b|haplogroups R1b1a]] and [[Haplogroup Q-M242|Q1a1]], while the three samples of [[mtDNA]] extracted belonged to haplogroups [[Haplogroup H (mtDNA)|H9a]], [[Haplogroup C (mtDNA)|C5c]] and [[Haplogroup R (mtDNA)|R]]. {{sfn|Krzewińska et al.|2018|loc=Supplementary Materials, Table S3 Summary, Rows 23-25}} Another genetic study published in ''[[Current Biology]]'' in July 2019 examined the remains of three Cimmerians. The two samples of Y-DNA extracted belonged to haplogroups [[Haplogroup R1a|R1a-Z645]] and [[Haplogroup R1a|R1a2c-B111]], while the three samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to haplogroups [[Haplogroup H (mtDNA)|H35]], [[Haplogroup U (mtDNA)#Haplogroup U5|U5a1b1]] and [[Haplogroup U (mtDNA)#Haplogroup U5|U2e2]].{{sfn|Järve et al.|2019|loc=Table S2}} ==In popular culture== [[Conan the Barbarian]], created by [[Robert E. Howard]] in a series of fantasy stories published in ''[[Weird Tales]]'' in 1932, was described as a native Cimmerian, though in Howard's fictional world, his Cimmerians dwelt in a mythological [[Hyborian Age]]. The Cimmerians of Hyboria are a pre-Celtic people said by Howard to be the ancestors of the Irish and Scots ([[Gaels]]). ''[[If on a winter's night a traveler]]'': The novel by [[Italo Calvino]] is a framed presentation of a series of incomplete novels, one of them purported to be translated from the Cimmerian. However, in Calvino's novel, Cimmeria is a fictional country. ''[[The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay]]'': A novel by [[Michael Chabon]] has a chapter that talks about the oldest book in the world "The Book of Lo" created by ancient Cimmerians. == See also == * [[List of kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus]], including early kings of Cimmeria == References == === Citations === {{Reflist|40em}} === Sources === {{Refbegin}} *{{cite book |editor1-last=Boardman |editor1-first=John |editor1-link=John Boardman (art historian) |editor2-last=Edwards |editor2-first=I. E. S. |editor2-link=I. E. S. Edwards |editor3-last=Hammond |editor3-first=N. G. L. |editor3-link=N. G. L. Hammond |editor4-last=Sollberger |editor4-first=E. |editor4-link=Edmond Sollberger |last1=Barnett |first1=R. D. |date=1991 |title=The Cambridge Ancient History |volume=3.1 |chapter=Urartu |url= |location=[[Cambridge]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=314-371 |isbn=978-1-139-05428-7}} * Ivanchik A.I. "Cimmerians and Scythians", 2001 *{{cite book |last=Ivantchik |first=Askold |author-link=Askold Ivantchik |date=1993 |title=Les Cimmériens au Proche-Orient |trans-title=The Cimmerians in the Near East |url= |language=fr |location=[[Fribourg]], Switzerland; [[Göttingen]], Germany |publisher=Editions Universitaires (Switzerland); [[Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht]] (Germany) |isbn=978-3-727-80876-0}} * {{cite journal |last1=Järve |first1=Mari |last2=Saag |first2=Lehti |display-authors=1 |date=July 11, 2019 |title=Shifts in the Genetic Landscape of the Western Eurasian Steppe Associated with the Beginning and End of the Scythian Dominance |url = https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(19)30712-2 |access-date=July 4, 2020 |journal=[[Current Biology]] |publisher=[[Cell Press]] |volume=29 |issue=14 |pages=2430–2441 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2019.06.019 |doi-access=free |pmid=31303491 |ref={{harvid|Järve et al.|2019}} }} * {{cite journal |last1=Krzewińska |first1=Maja |last2=Kılınç |first2=Gülşah Merve |display-authors=1 |date=October 3, 2018 |title=Ancient genomes suggest the eastern Pontic-Caspian steppe as the source of western Iron Age nomads |journal=[[Science Advances]] |publisher=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages= eaat4457|bibcode= 2018SciA....4.4457K|doi=10.1126/sciadv.aat4457 |pmc=6223350 |pmid=30417088 |ref={{harvid|Krzewińska et al.|2018}} }} *{{cite book |editor1-last=Boardman |editor1-first=John |editor1-link=John Boardman (art historian) |editor2-last=Edwards |editor2-first=I. E. S. |editor2-link=I. E. S. Edwards |editor3-last=Hammond |editor3-first=N. G. L. |editor3-link=N. G. L. Hammond |editor4-last=Sollberger |editor4-first=E. |editor4-link=Edmond Sollberger |editor5-last=Walker |editor5-first=C. B. F. |last1=Sulimirski |first1=Tadeusz |author-link=Tadeusz Sulimirski |last2=Taylor |first2=T. F. |author-link2=Timothy Taylor (archaeologist) |date=1991 |title=The Cambridge Ancient History |volume=3.2 |chapter=The Scythians |url= |location=[[Cambridge]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=547-590 |isbn=978-1-139-05429-4}} *Terenozhkin A.I., Cimmerians, Kiev, 1983 *Collection of Slavonic and Foreign Language Manuscripts – St.St Cyril and Methodius – Bulgarian National Library: http://www.nationallibrary.bg/slavezryk_en.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090627215645/http://www.nationallibrary.bg/slavezryk_en.html |date=2009-06-27 }} {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Americana Poster|Cimmerians}} *[https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/cimmerians/cimmerians.html Cimmerians] by [[Jona Lendering]] *[http://www.ancientlibrary.com/wcd/Cimmerians Wiki Classical Dictionary: Cimmerians] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20070127042625/http://www.hostkingdom.net/siberia.html#Cimmerians Cimmerians on Regnal Chronologies] *{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Cimmerii|volume=6|page=368|short=1}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Cimmerians| ]] [[Category:Peoples of the Caucasus]] [[Category:History of the North Caucasus]] [[Category:Tribes described primarily by Herodotus]] [[Category:Indo-European peoples]] [[Category:Unclassified languages of Asia]] [[Category:Unclassified Indo-European languages]]'
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'{{Short description|Nomadic Indo-European people, about 1000 BC}} {{Redirect|Cimmerian|other uses|Cimmeria (disambiguation){{!}}Cimmeria}} {{Infobox ethnic group | group = Cimmerians | native_name = | native_name_lang = | image = Thraco-Cimmerian.png | image_caption = Distribution of "Thraco-Cimmerian" finds. From map in ''Archaeology of Ukrainian SSR'' ([[Russian language|rus]]. Археология Украинской ССР) vol. 2, Kiev (1986) | total = <!-- total population worldwide --> | total_year = <!-- year of total population --> | total_source = <!-- source of total population; may be ''census'' or ''estimate'' --> | total_ref = <!-- references supporting total population --> | genealogy = | regions = <!-- for e.g. a list of regions (countries), especially if regionN etc below not used --> | languages = [[#Language|Cimmerian]] | philosophies = | religions = | related_groups = | footnotes = }} {{Indo-European topics}} The '''Cimmerians''' ({{lang-akk|{{cuneiform|7|𒆳𒄀𒂇𒊏𒀀𒀀}}}} {{transl|akk|mat Gimirrāya}};<ref>{{cite book |last=Parpola |first=Simo |date=1970 |title=Neo-Assyrian Toponyms |url=https://archive.org/details/neoassyriantopon0000parp |location=Kevaeler |publisher=Butzon & Bercker |pages=132-134 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Gimirayu [CIMMERIAN] (EN) |url=http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/rinap/rinap4/cbd/qpn/x00000580.html |website=oracc.museum.upenn.edu}}</ref> {{lang-grc|[[wikt:Κιμμέριοι|Κιμμέριοι]]}} {{transl|grc|Kimmérioi}}) were a nomadic [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European people]], who appeared about 1000 BC.<ref>{{cite book|last1=MacKenzie|first1=David|last2=Curran|first2=Michael W.|title=A History of Russia, the Soviet Union, and Beyond|date=2002|publisher=Wadsworth/Thomson Learning|isbn=9780534586980|page=12|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eaI-AQAAIAAJ&q=cimmerians+date+from+1000+BC|language=en}}</ref> Originating in the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe|Pontic-Caspian steppe]], the Cimmerians subsequently migrated into Southwest Asia and into Central and Southeast Europe. While the Cimmerians were often described by contemporaries as [[Scythian cultures|culturally Scythian]], they evidently differed ethnically from the [[Scythians]] proper, who also displaced and replaced the Cimmerians.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/scythians |title=Scythians |last=Ivanchik |first=Askold |author-link=Askold Ivantchik |date=April 25, 2018 |website=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |quote=The Scythian archeological culture embraces not only the Scythians of the East-European steppes, but also the population of the forest steppes, about whose language and ethnic origins it is difficult to say anything precise, and also the Cimmerians }}</ref> The Cimmerians themselves left no written records, and most information about them is largely derived from [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrian]] records of the 8th to 7th centuries BCE and from [[Greco-Roman world|Graeco-Roman]] authors from the 5th century BCE and later. == Name == The source and meaning of the Cimmerians' name remain uncertain, and there have been various proposals for its origin. According to the linguist [[János Harmatta]], it was derived from [[Iranian languages#Old Iranian|Old Iranian]] {{lang|xsc|*Gayamira}}, meaning "union of clans",<ref name="UNESCO">{{cite book|last=Harmatta|first=János|title=History of Humanity|date=1996|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-9-231-02812-0|editor-last1=Hermann|editor-first1=Joachim|volume=3|page=181|chapter=10.4.1. The Scythians|author-link=János Harmatta|editor-last2=de Laet|editor-first2=Sigfried}}</ref> while {{ill|Sergey Tokhtasyev|ru|Тохтасьев, Сергей Ремирович}} and [[Igor M. Diakonoff|Igor Diakonoff]] derive it from an [[Iranian languages#Old Iranian|Old Iranian]] term {{lang|xsc|*Gāmīra}} or {{lang|xsc|*Gmīra}}, meaning "mobile unit,"<ref name="Tokhtas’ev">{{cite web |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cimmerians-nomads |title=CIMMERIANS |last=Tokhtas’ev |first=Sergei R. |date=15 December 1991 |website=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |publisher= |access-date=13 November 2021 }}</ref><ref name="Diakonoff">{{cite book |last=Diakonoff |first=I. M. |author-link=Igor M. Diakonoff |editor-last=Gershevitch |editor-first=Ilya |editor-link=Ilya Gershevitch |date=1985 |title=The Cambridge History of Iran |volume=2 |chapter=Media |url= |location=[[Cambridge]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=36-148 |isbn=978-0-521-20091-2 }}</ref> [[Askold Ivantchik]] derives the name of the Cimmerians from an original form {{lang|mis|*Gimĕr-}} or {{lang|mis|*Gimĭr-}}, of uncertain meaning.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=127-154}} == History == [[File:Urartu 715 713-en.svg|thumb|right|Cimmerian invasions of Colchis, Urartu and Assyria 715–713 BC]] === Origins === The Cimmerians were most likely a nomadic [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] people of the [[Eurasian Steppe]].<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2006|encyclopedia=Brill's New Pauly, Antiquity volumes|last=von Bredow|first=Iris|quote=(Κιμμέριοι; Kimmérioi, Lat. Cimmerii). Nomadic tribe probably of Iranian descent, attested for the 8th/7th cents. BC. |title=Cimmeriin |doi=10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e613800 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last = Liverani |first = Mario |title = The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy |year = 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0415679060 |page=604 |quote=Cimmerians (Iranian population)}}</ref><ref name="UNESCO"/><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Kohl |editor1-first=Philip L. |editor2-last=Dadson |editor2-first=D.J. |title = The Culture and Social Institutions of Ancient Iran, by Muhammad A. Dandamaev and Vladimir G. Lukonin |year=1989 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521611916 |page=51 |quote=Ethnically and linguistically, the Scythians and Cimmerians were kindred groups (both people spoke Old Iranian dialects) (...)}}</ref> Other suggestions for the ethnicity for the Cimmerians include the possibility of them being [[Thracians|Thracian]],<ref>{{cite book |last = Frye |first = Richard Nelson |title=The History of Ancient Iran |year=1984 |publisher=Verlag C.H. Beck |isbn=978-3406093975 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000frye/page/70 70] |quote = The Cimmerians lived north of the Caucasus mountains in South Russia and probably were related to the Thracians, but they surely were a mixed group by the time they appeared south of the mountains, and we hear of them first in the year 714 B.C. after they presumably had defeated the Urartians |url-access=registration |url = https://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000frye/page/70 }}</ref> or Thracians with an Iranian ruling class, or a separate group closely related to Thracian peoples, as well as a [[Maeotians|Maeotian]] origin.{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=555}} However the proposal of a Thracian origin of the Cimmerians has been criticised as arising from a confusion by [[Strabo]] between the Cimmerians and their allies, the Thracian tribe of the [[Treri|Treres]].<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> The Cimmerians are first mentioned in the 8th century BCE in [[Homer]]'s ''[[Odyssey]]'' as a people living beyond the [[Oceanus]], in a land permanently deprived of sunlight at the edge of the world and the entrance of [[Hades]], and, in the 6th century BCE, [[Aristeas]] of Proconnesus recorded that the Cimmerians had once lived in the Pontic Steppe.<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> According to [[Herodotus]], the Cimmerians inhabited the region north of the [[Caucasus]] and the [[Black Sea]] during the 8th and 7th centuries BC (i.e. what is now [[Ukraine]] and [[Russia]]), although they have not been identified with any specific archaeological culture in the region.<ref>Renate Rolle, "Urartu und die Reiternomaden", in: ''Saeculum'' 28, 1977, 291–339</ref> [[Herodotus]] described the Cimmerians as consisting of two groups of equal numbers: the Cimmerian people properly called, that is the Cimmmerian common people, and the kings, or "royal race", implying that the Cimmerian ruling classes and lower classes originally constituted two different peoples who still had their own distinct identities at the end of the 2nd millennium BCE. The Cimmerian kings most likely were an Iranian people who had imposed their rule on a section of the people of the [[Catacomb culture]].{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=556}} === In Southwest Asia === In the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, the Cimmerians were expelled from their home in the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe|Pontic Steppe]] and forced to migrate into Southwest Asia due to a significant movement of the [[Eurasian nomads|nomads]] of the [[Eurasian Steppe]]. According to Herodotus, this movement started when the [[Massagetae]] migrated westwards, forcing the [[Scythians]] to the west across the Araxes river (likely the [[Volga]]),{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=553}} after which the Scythians moved into the Pontic Steppe and conquered the territory of the Cimmerians.<ref name="UNESCO"/>{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=553}} Under Scythian pressure, the Cimmerian aristocrats, who were unwilling to leave their lands, killed each other and were buried in a [[kurgan]] near the [[Dniester|Tyras river]]; then the common people migrated to Southwest Asia.<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> The Cimmerians fled to the south along the Black Sea coast and reached [[Anatolia]]. However, owing to the impracticability of the eastern Black Sea shore for horsemen, modern scholars instead suggest that the Cimmerians passed through the {{ill|Klukhor|ru|Клухорский перевал}}, [[Alagir]] and [[Darial Gorge|Darial]] passes in the Greater Caucasus,{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=93}} that is through the western Caucasus and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] into [[Colchis]], where the Cimmerians initially settled;{{sfn|Barnett|1991|p=355}} the Scythians in turn pursued the Cimmerians, but followed the coast of the [[Caspian Sea]] and arrived in the region of present-day [[Azerbaijan]].{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=97}}{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=562}}<ref name="Phillips">{{cite journal |last=Phillips |first=E. D. |date=1972 |title=The Scythian Domination in Southwest Asia: Its Record in History, Scripture and Archaeology |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/123971 |journal=World Archaeology |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=129-138 |doi= |access-date=5 November 2021 }}</ref> [[Austen Henry Layard]]'s discoveries in the royal archives at [[Nineveh]] and [[Calah]] included Assyrian primary records of the Cimmerian invasion.<ref>K. Deller, "Ausgewählte neuassyrische Briefe betreffend Urarṭu zur Zeit Sargons II.," in P.E. Pecorella and M. Salvini (eds), ''Tra lo Zagros e l'Urmia. Ricerche storiche ed archeologiche nell'Azerbaigian Iraniano'', ''Incunabula Graeca'' 78 (Rome 1984) 97–122.</ref> These records appear to place the Cimmerian homeland, ''Gamir'', south (rather than north) of the Black Sea.<ref name="Cozzoli 1968">{{cite book |last=Cozzoli |first=Umberto |title=I Cimmeri |year=1968 |publisher=Arti Grafiche Citta di Castello (Roma)|location=Rome Italy |url = https://openlibrary.org/b/OL19361902M/Cimmeri.}}</ref><ref name="Salvini 1984">{{cite book|last=Salvini|first=Mirjo|title=Tra lo Zagros e l'Urmia: richerche storiche ed archeologiche nell'Azerbaigian iraniano| year=1984|publisher=Ed. Dell'Ateneo (Roma)|location=Rome Italy|url=https://openlibrary.org/b/OL13958629M/Tra-lo-Zagros-e-l%27Urmia}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last=Kristensen| first=Anne Katrine Gade| title=Who were the Cimmerians, and where did they come from?: Sargon II, and the Cimmerians, and Rusa I|year=1988|publisher=The Royal Danish Academy of Science and Letters|location=Copenhagen Denmark}}</ref> ==== In Transcaucasia ==== During the early phase of the Cimmerians' presence in Southwest Asia, their centre of operations was located in Transcaucasia until the early 660s BCE.<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> The first mention of the Cimmerians in the records of the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] was from between 720 and 714 BCE, when Assyrian intelligence reported to the king [[Sargon II]] that the king [[Rusa I]] of [[Urartu]] had been defeated after attempting to attack the Cimmerians, either in what is now [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]],<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> or near [[Gürün|Gurania]] in eastern Cappadocia.{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=559}} According to another Assyrian intelligence report dated to those same years, the Cimmerians had attacked Urartu through the territory of the kingdom of [[Mannaeans|Mannae]].<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> In 705 BCE, the Cimmerians tried to cross the border of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, but they were defeated by Sargon II, who died in this battle.{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=559}} During the period coinciding with the rule of the Assyrian king [[Esarhaddon]] (reigned 681–669 BCE), the bulk of the Cimmerians migrated from Transcaucasia into Anatolia, while a smaller group remained in the area near the kingdom of [[Mannaeans|Mannae]] where they had been settled since the time of Sargon II, respectively forming a "western" and an "eastern" division of Cimmerians.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=57-94}} ==== The "eastern" Cimmerians ==== By 677 BCE, the eastern group of Cimmerians were present on the territory of Mannae,<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> and in 676 BCE they were the allies of Mannae against an Assyrian attack, after which the eastern Cimmerians remained allied to Mannae against Assyria.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=57-94}} Around 675 BCE, the eastern Cimmerians were recorded by the Assyrians as a possible threat against the collection of tribute from [[Medes|Media]]. And around the same time, in alliance with the Scythians, the eastern Cimmerians were menacing the Assyrian provinces of [[Parsua|Parsumaš]] and [[Bīt Ḫamban]], and the eastern Cimmerians and the Scythians together were threatening communication between the Assyrian Empire and its vassal of [[Ḫubuškia]].{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=57-94}} By the late 670s BCE, the eastern Cimmerians were allied to [[Ellipi]] and the [[Medes]], and when Ellipi and the Medes successfully rebelled against Assyria under [[Kashtariti]] from 671 to 669 BCE, the eastern Cimmerians were allied to them.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=57-94}} In the western [[Iranian Plateau]], the eastern Cimmerians might have introduced Bronze articles from the [[Koban culture]] into the [[Luristan bronze]] culture.{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=560}} ==== In Anatolia ==== By the later 7th century BCE, the centre of operations of the larger, western, division of the Cimmerians was located in Anatolia.<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/>{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=57-94}} In 679 BCE the Cimmerian king [[Teushpa|Teušpa]] was defeated and killed by Esarhaddon near [[Cybistra|Ḫubušna]] in Cappadocia.<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> Despite this victory, the military operations of the Assyrians were not fully successful and they were not able to firmly occupy the areas around Ḫubušna, nor were they able to secure their borders, and the Assyrian province of Quwê was left vulnerable to invasions from [[Tabal]], [[Kuzzurak]] and [[Cilicia|Ḫilakku]].{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=57-94}} An Assyrian contract dating to the same as Esarhaddon's victory over Teušpa records of the existence of a "Cimmerian detachment" in Nineveh, although it is uncertain whether this refers to Cimmerian mercenaries in Assyrian service, or simply of Assyrian soldiers armed in the "Cimmerian-style", that is using Cimmerian bows and horse harnesses.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=57-94}} Around 675 BCE, the Cimmerians in alliance with the Urartian king [[Rusa II]] invaded and destroyed the kingdom of [[Phrygia]], whose king [[Midas]] committed suicide.{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=559}}{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=57-94}} The Cimmerians appear to have partially subdued the Phrygians, and an Assyrian oracular text from the later 670s BCE mentioned the Cimmerians and the possibly subdued Phrygians as allies against the Assyrians' newly conquered province of [[Melid]].<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/>{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=57-94}} A document from 673 BCE records Rusa II as having recruited a large number of Cimmerian mercenaries, and Cimmerian allies of Rusa II probably participated in a military expedition of his in 672 BCE.{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=559}} From 671 to 669 BCE, Cimmerians in service of Rusa II attacked the Assyrian province of [[Shupria|Šubria]] near the Urartian border.{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=560}}{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=57-94}} Between 671 and 670 BCE, some Cimmerian divisions were recorded as serving in the Assyrian army, although these divisions might have instead simply referred to the "Cimmerian style" armed Assyrian soldiers.<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> Aat yet unknown dates, the Cimmerians imposed their rule on Cappadocia, invaded [[Bithynia]], [[Paphlagonia]] and the [[Troad]], and took [[Sinop, Turkey|Sinope]].{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=559}} In the beginning of that decade, the Cimmerians attacked the kingdom of [[Lydia]],{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=559}} whose king [[Gyges of Lydia|Gyges]] contacted the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] beginning in 667 BCE.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=95-125}} Gyges soon defeated the Cimmerians in 665 BCE without Assyrian help, and he sent Cimmerian soldiers captured while attacking the Lydian countryside as gifts to [[Ashurbanipal]].<ref name="Spalinger">{{cite journal |last=Spalinger |first=Anthony J. |date=1978 |title=The Date of the Death of Gyges and Its Historical Implications |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/599752 |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=98 |issue=4 |pages=400-409 |doi=10.2307/599752 |access-date=25 October 2021 }}</ref><ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> According to the Assyrian records describing these events, the Cimmerians already had formed sedentary settlements in Anatolia.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=95-125}} According to Anthony Spalinger, the Cimmerians attacked Lydia again in 657 BCE, as recorded by contemporary Assyrian records, which referred to this attack as a "bad omen" for the "Westland", that is Lydia.<ref name="Spalinger"/> However this sequence of events is disputed by Askold Ivantchik, who instead identifies the "Westland" with western possessions of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (possibly [[Quwê]] or somewhere in [[Syria (region)|Syria]]) that the Cimmerians had conquered after their defeat by Gyges.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=95-125}} These Cimmerian aggressions worried Ashurbanipal about the security of the northwest border of the Neo-Assyrian Empire enough that he sought answers concerning this situation through divination,<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> and as a result of these Cimmerian conquests, by 657 BCE the Assyrian divinatory records were calling the Cimmerian king by the title of {{transl|akk|šar-kiššati}} ("[[King of the Universe]]"), a title which in the Mesopotamian worldview could belong to only a single ruler in the world at any given time and was normally held by the King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. These divinatory texts also assured to Assurbanipal that he would eventually regain the {{transl|akk|kiššūtu}}, that is the world hegemony, captured by the Cimmerians: the {{transl|akk|kiššūtu}}, which was considered to rightfully belong to the Assyrian king, had been usurped by the Cimmerians and had to be won back by Assyria. Thus, the Cimmerian king's successes against Assyria meant that he had become recognised in the ancient Near East as equally powerful as Ashurbanipal. This situation remained unchanged throughout the rest of the 650s BCE and the early 640s BCE.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=95-125}} As the result of these Assyrian setbacks, Gyges could not rely on Assyrian support against the Cimmerians and he ended diplomacy with the Neo-Assyrian Empire.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=95-125}} The Cimmerians attacked Lydia for a third time in 644 BCE, under their leader [[Tugdamme|Lygdamis]] ({{lang-grc|Λύγδαμις}}, {{transl|grc|Lúgdamis}}), the {{transl|akk|Tugdammi}} of the Assyrian records. This time, the Cimmerians defeated the [[Lydians]] and captured their capital, [[Sardis]], and Gyges died during this attack.<ref name="Spalinger"/><ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/>{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=559}} After sacking Sardis, Lygdamis led the Cimmerians into invading the Greek city-states of [[Ionia]] and [[Aeolis]] on the western coast of Anatolia, which caused the inhabitants of the [[Batinetis]] region to flee to the islands of the [[Aegean Sea]], and later Greek writings by [[Callimachus]] and [[Hesychius of Alexandria]] preserve the record that Lygdamis had destroyed the [[Temple of Artemis]] at [[Ephesus]] during these invasions.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=95-125}} After this third invasion of Lydia and the attack on the Asiatic Greek cities, around 640 BCE the Cimmerians moved to [[Cilicia]] on the north-west border of the Assyrian empire, where Tugdammi allied with Mugallu, the king of [[Tabal]], against Assyria. However, after facing a revolt against him, Tugdamme allied with Assyria and acknowledged Assyrian overlordship, and sent tribute to Ashurbanipal, to whom he swore an oath. Tugdammi soon broke this oath and attacked the Assyrian Empire again, but he fell ill and died in 640 BCE, and was succeeded by his son [[Sandakhshatra|Sandakšatru]].<ref name="Spalinger"/><ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> In 637 BCE, the Cimmerians participated in another attack on Lydia, this time led by the [[Thracians|Thracian]] [[Treri|Treres]] tribe who had migrated across the [[Bosporus|Thracian Bosporus]] and invaded [[Anatolia]],{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985}} under their king Kobos, and in alliance with the [[Lycians]].<ref name="Spalinger"/> During this invasion, in the seventh year of the reign of Gyges's son [[Ardys of Lydia|Ardys]], the Lydians were defeated again and for a second time Sardis was captured, except for its citadel, and Ardys might have been killed in this attack.<ref name="Dale">{{cite journal |last=Dale |first=Alexander |date=2015 |title=WALWET and KUKALIM: Lydian coin legends, dynastic succession, and the chronology of Mermnad kings |url=https://www.academia.edu/29719834/WALWET_and_KUKALIM_Lydian_coin_legends_dynastic_succession_and_the_chronology_of_Mermnad_kings |journal=Kadmos |volume=54 |issue= |pages=151-166 |doi=10.1515/kadmos-2015-0008 |access-date=10 November 2021}}</ref> Ardys's son and successor, [[Sadyattes]], might possibly also have been killed in another Cimmerian attack on Lydia.<ref name="Dale"/> Soon after that, with Assyrian approval<ref name=Rene>{{Cite book |last=Grousset |first=René |author-link=René Grousset |title=The Empire of the Steppes |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=1970 |isbn=0-8135-1304-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/8 9] |url=https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof |quote=A Scythian army, acting in conformity with Assyrian policy, entered Pontis to crush the last of the Cimmerians }}</ref> and in alliance with the Lydians,{{sfn|Diakonoff|1985|p=126}} the Scythians under their king [[Madyes]] entered Anatolia, expelled the Treres from Asia Minor, and defeated the Cimmerians so that they no longer constituted a threat again, following which the Scythians extended their domination to Central Anatolia<ref>{{cite journal |last=Phillips |first=E. D. |date=1972 |title=The Scythian Domination in Western Asia: Its Record in History, Scripture and Archaeology |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/123971 |journal=World Archaeology |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=129-138 |doi= |access-date=5 November 2021 }}</ref> until they were themselves expelled by the Medes from Southwest Asia in the 590s BCE.<ref name="Spalinger"/><ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> This final defeat of the Cimmerians was carried out by the joint forces of Madyes, who [[Strabo]] credits with expelling the Cimmerians from Asia Minor, and of Gyges's great-grandson, the king [[Alyattes of Lydia]], whom [[Herodotus]] and [[Polyaenus]] claim finally defeated the Cimmerians.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=95-125}} The Cimmerians completely disappeared from history following this final defeat,<ref name="Tokhtas’ev"/> after which they likely remained in Cappadocia, whose name in Armenian, {{lang|hy|[[wikt:Գամիրք|Գամիրք]]}} {{transl|hy|Gamirkʿ}}, may have been derived from the name of the Cimmerians.{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=559}} A group of Cimmerians might also have subsisted for some time in the Troad, around [[Adramyttium]].{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=559}} == Archaeology == {{Main|Thraco-Cimmerian}} The origin of the culture is associated with the [[Belozerskaya culture]] (12th to 10th centuries BCE) and the later and more certain [[Novocerkassk culture]] (10th to 7th centuries) between the Danube and the Volga.<ref name="Сегеда">[http://litopys.org.ua/segeda/se02.htm Антропологічні особливості давнього населення території України (доба раннього заліза&nbsp;— пізнє середньовіччя)], website "Ізборник"</ref> The use of the name "Cimmerian" in this context is due to [[Paul Reinecke]], who in 1925 postulated a "North-Thracian-Cimmerian cultural sphere" (''nordthrakisch-kimmerischer Kulturkreis'') overlapping with the younger [[Hallstatt culture]] of the Eastern Alps. The term [[Thraco-Cimmerian]] (''thrako-kimmerisch'') was first introduced by I. Nestor in the 1930s. Nestor intended to suggest that there was a historical migration of Cimmerians into Eastern Europe from the area of the former [[Srubnaya culture]], perhaps triggered by the Scythian expansion, at the beginning of the European Iron Age. In the 1980s and 1990s, more systematic studies{{by whom|date=March 2019}} of the artifacts revealed a more gradual development over the 9th to 7th centuries BCE, so that the term "Thraco-Cimmerian" is now merely used by convention and does not necessarily imply a direct connection with either the Thracians or the Cimmerians.<ref>Ioannis K. Xydopoulos, "The Cimmerians: their origins, movements and their difficulties" in: Gocha R. Tsetskhladze, Alexandru Avram, James Hargrave (eds.), ''The Danubian Lands between the Black, Aegean and Adriatic Seas (7th Century BC – 10th Century AD)'', Proceedings of the Fifth International Congress on Black Sea Antiquities (Belgrade – 17–21 September 2013), Archaeopress Archaeology (2015), [https://www.academia.edu/20037727/_The_Cimmerians_their_origins_movements_and_their_difficulties_ 119–123]. Dorin Sârbu, ''Un Fenomen Arheologic Controversat de la Începutul Epocii Fierului dintre Gurile Dunării și Volga: 'Cultura Cimmerianã'<nowiki/>'' ("A controversial archaeological phenomenon of the early Iron Age between the mouths of the Danube and the Volga: the Cimmerian Culture"), ''Romanian Journal of Archaeology'' (2000) ({{in lang|ro}} [http://apar.archaeology.ro/ds_artrja.htm online version] (with bibliography); [http://apar.archaeology.ro/ds_artrjaeng.htm English abstract])</ref> ==Legacy== The term {{transl|akk|Gimirri}} was used about a century after the Cimmerians disappeared from history in the [[Behistun inscription]] (c. 515 BC) as an [[Assyro-Babylonian]] equivalent of Iranian [[Saka]] (Scythians).<ref>[[George Rawlinson]], noted in his translation of ''History of Herodotus'', Book VII, p. 378</ref> Otherwise, Cimmerians disappeared from the historical record. In sources beginning with the [[Royal Frankish Annals]], the [[Merovingian]] kings of the [[Franks]] traditionally traced their lineage through a pre-Frankish tribe called the [[Sicambri]] (or Sugambri), mythologized as a group of "Cimmerians" from the mouth of the [[Danube]] river, but who instead came from [[Gelderland]] in modern [[Netherlands]] and are named for the [[Sieg river]].<ref>Geary, Patrick J. ''Before France and Germany: The Creation and Transformation of the Merovingian World''. New York: [[Oxford University Press]], 1988</ref> Early modern historians asserted Cimmerian descent for the [[Celts]] or the [[Germanic peoples|Germans]], arguing from the similarity of ''Cimmerii'' to ''[[Cimbri]]'' or ''[[Cymry]]'', noted by 17th-century Celticists. But the word ''Cymro'' "Welshman" (plural: ''Cymry'') is now accepted by Celtic linguists as being derived from a [[Brythonic languages|Brythonic]] word *''kom-brogos'', meaning "compatriot".<ref> * ''[[Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru]]'', vol. I, p.&nbsp;770. * Jones, J. Morris. ''Welsh Grammar: Historical and Comparative''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995. * Russell, Paul. ''Introduction to the Celtic Languages''. London: Longman, 1995. * Delamarre, Xavier. ''Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise''. Paris: Errance, 2001.</ref> The Biblical name "[[Gomer]]" has been linked by some to the Cimmerians.<ref>Robert Drews, ''Early Riders'', 2004, p.&nbsp;119. He also links them to [[Gog and Magog]].</ref> According to [[Georgia (country)|Georgian]] national historiography, the Cimmerians, in Georgian known as ''Gimirri'', played an influential role in the development of the [[Colchis|Colchian]] and [[Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)|Iberian]] cultures.<ref>Berdzenishvili, N., Dondua V., Dumbadze, M., Melikishvili G., Meskhia, Sh., Ratiani, P., ''History of Georgia'', Vol. 1, Tbilisi, 1958, pp. 34–36</ref> The modern Georgian word for "hero", {{script|Geor|[[wikt:გმირი|გმირი]]}} ''gmiri'', is said to derive from their name.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} It has been speculated that the Cimmerians finally settled in [[Cappadocia]], te name Cappadocia, or in [[Armenian language|Armenian]] as {{lang|hy|[[wikt:Գամիրք|Գամիրք]]}}, {{transl|hy|Gamirkʿ}}, might have been derived from the name of the Cimmerians.{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=559}} It has also been speculated that the modern Armenian city of [[Gyumri]] (Arm.: Գյումրի [[Help:IPA for Armenian|{{IPA|[ˈgjumɾi]}}]]), founded as '''Kumayri''' (Arm.: Կումայրի), derived its name from the Cimmerians who conquered the region and founded a settlement there.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gyumri.am/eng/history.html|work=Kumayri infosite|title=Cimmerian|access-date=14 June 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106210024/http://www.gyumri.am/eng/history.html|archive-date=6 November 2012}}</ref> ==Language== {{Infobox language |name=Cimmerian |region=[[North Caucasus]] |era=8th century BC |familycolor=Indo-European |fam2=(unclassified) |iso3=none |linglist=08i |glotto=none }} According to the historian [[Muhammad Dandamayev]] and the linguist [[János Harmatta]], the Cimmerians spoke a dialect belonging to the [[Scythian languages|Scythian]] group of [[Iranian languages]], and were able to communicate with [[Scythians]] proper without needing interpreters.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/mesopotamia-01-iranians |title=MESOPOTAMIA i. Iranians in Ancient Mesopotamia |last=Dandamayev |first=Muhammad |author-link=Muhammad Dandamayev |date=27 January 2015 |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica |publisher= |access-date=20 October 2021 |quote=It seems that Cimmerians and Scythians (Sakai) were related, spoke among themselves different Iranian dialects, and could understand each other without interpreters.}}</ref><ref name="UNESCO" /> Only a few personal names in the Cimmerian language have survived in [[Assyria]]n inscriptions: *{{transl|akk|Teušpa}}: according to the linguist [[János Harmatta]], it goes back to Old [[Iranian language|Iranian]] {{lang|xsc|*Tavispaya}}, meaning "swelling with strength".<ref name="UNESCO"/> Based on linguistic analysis, [[Askold Ivantchik]] posits three suggestions for an Old Iranian origin of {{transl|akk|Teušpa}}: {{lang|xsc|*Taiu-aspa}}, meaning "abductor of horses"; {{lang|xsc|Taiu-spā}}, meaning "abductor dog"; {{lang|xsc|Daiva-spā}}, meaning "divine dog".{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=57-94}} *{{transl|akk|Dugdammê}}, also spelled {{transl|akk|Dugdammi}} and {{transl|akk|Tugdammê}}, and pronounced {{transl|grc|Lúgdamis}} by Greek authors: according to János Harmatta, it goes back to Old Iranian {{lang|xsc|*Duydamaya}}, meaning giving "happiness".<ref name="UNESCO"/> [[Edwin M. Yamauchi]] also interprets the name as Iranian, citing [[Ossetic language|Ossetic]] {{transl|os|Tux-domæg}} "Ruling with Strength".<ref>{{cite book|last=Yamauchi|first=Edwin M|title=Foes from the Northern Frontier: Invading Hordes from the Russian Steppes|year=1982|publisher=Baker Book House|location=Grand Rapids MI USA}}</ref> Based on linguistic analysis, Askold Ivantchik suggests that the name {{transl|akk|Dugdammê}}/{{transl|grc|Lúgdamis}} was a loanword from an [[Anatolian languages|Anatolian language]], more specifically [[Luwian language|Luwian]], while also accepting the alternative possibility of a derivation from a variant of the name of the [[Hurrians|Hurrian]] deity [[Teshub|Teyśəba/Tešub]].{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=95-125}} *{{transl|akk|Sandakšatru}}: this is an Iranian reading of the name, and [[Manfred Mayrhofer]] (1981) points out that the name may also be read as {{transl|akk|Sandakurru}}. According to János Harmatta, it goes back to [[Iranian language|Old Iranian]] {{lang|xsc|*Sandakuru}}, meaning "splendid son".<ref name="UNESCO" /> Askold Ivantchik derives the name {{transl|akk|Sandakšatru}} from a compound term consisting of the name of the Anatolian deity [[Sandas|Sanda]], and of the Iranian term {{transl|ira|-xšaθra}}.{{sfn|Ivantchik|1993|p=95-125}} Asimov (1991) attempted to trace various place names to Cimmerian origins. He suggested that ''Cimmerium'' gave rise to the [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] [[Toponymy|toponym]] ''[[Stary Krym|Qırım]]'' (which in turn gave rise to the [[name of Crimea|name "Crimea"]]).<ref>{{cite book |last=Asimov|first=Isaac|title=Asimov's Chronology of the World|year=1991|publisher=HarperCollins|location=New York, NY |page=50 }}</ref> Based on ancient Greek historical sources, a [[Thracians|Thracian]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Meljukova|first = A. I. |title=Skifija i Frakijskij Mir|year=1979|location=Moscow}}</ref> or a [[Celt]]ic<ref>[[Posidonius]] in [[Strabo]] 7.2.2.</ref> association is sometimes assumed. ==Genetics== A genetic study published in [[Science Advances]] in October 2018 examined the remains of three Cimmerians buried between around 1000 and 800 BCE. The two samples of [[Y-DNA]] extracted belonged to [[Haplogroup R1b|haplogroups R1b1a]] and [[Haplogroup Q-M242|Q1a1]], while the three samples of [[mtDNA]] extracted belonged to haplogroups [[Haplogroup H (mtDNA)|H9a]], [[Haplogroup C (mtDNA)|C5c]] and [[Haplogroup R (mtDNA)|R]]. {{sfn|Krzewińska et al.|2018|loc=Supplementary Materials, Table S3 Summary, Rows 23-25}} Another genetic study published in ''[[Current Biology]]'' in July 2019 examined the remains of three Cimmerians. The two samples of Y-DNA extracted belonged to haplogroups [[Haplogroup R1a|R1a-Z645]] and [[Haplogroup R1a|R1a2c-B111]], while the three samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to haplogroups [[Haplogroup H (mtDNA)|H35]], [[Haplogroup U (mtDNA)#Haplogroup U5|U5a1b1]] and [[Haplogroup U (mtDNA)#Haplogroup U5|U2e2]].{{sfn|Järve et al.|2019|loc=Table S2}} ==In popular culture== [[Conan the Barbarian]], created by [[Robert E. Howard]] in a series of fantasy stories published in ''[[Weird Tales]]'' in 1932, was described as a native Cimmerian, though in Howard's fictional world, his Cimmerians dwelt in a mythological [[Hyborian Age]]. The Cimmerians of Hyboria are a pre-Celtic people said by Howard to be the ancestors of the Irish and Scots ([[Gaels]]). ''[[If on a winter's night a traveler]]'': The novel by [[Italo Calvino]] is a framed presentation of a series of incomplete novels, one of them purported to be translated from the Cimmerian. However, in Calvino's novel, Cimmeria is a fictional country. ''[[The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay]]'': A novel by [[Michael Chabon]] has a chapter that talks about the oldest book in the world "The Book of Lo" created by ancient Cimmerians. == See also == * [[List of kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus]], including early kings of Cimmeria == References == === Citations === {{Reflist|40em}} === Sources === {{Refbegin}} *{{cite book |editor1-last=Boardman |editor1-first=John |editor1-link=John Boardman (art historian) |editor2-last=Edwards |editor2-first=I. E. S. |editor2-link=I. E. S. Edwards |editor3-last=Hammond |editor3-first=N. G. L. |editor3-link=N. G. L. Hammond |editor4-last=Sollberger |editor4-first=E. |editor4-link=Edmond Sollberger |last1=Barnett |first1=R. D. |date=1991 |title=The Cambridge Ancient History |volume=3.1 |chapter=Urartu |url= |location=[[Cambridge]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=314-371 |isbn=978-1-139-05428-7}} * Ivanchik A.I. "Cimmerians and Scythians", 2001 *{{cite book |last=Ivantchik |first=Askold |author-link=Askold Ivantchik |date=1993 |title=Les Cimmériens au Proche-Orient |trans-title=The Cimmerians in the Near East |url= |language=fr |location=[[Fribourg]], Switzerland; [[Göttingen]], Germany |publisher=Editions Universitaires (Switzerland); [[Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht]] (Germany) |isbn=978-3-727-80876-0}} * {{cite journal |last1=Järve |first1=Mari |last2=Saag |first2=Lehti |display-authors=1 |date=July 11, 2019 |title=Shifts in the Genetic Landscape of the Western Eurasian Steppe Associated with the Beginning and End of the Scythian Dominance |url = https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(19)30712-2 |access-date=July 4, 2020 |journal=[[Current Biology]] |publisher=[[Cell Press]] |volume=29 |issue=14 |pages=2430–2441 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2019.06.019 |doi-access=free |pmid=31303491 |ref={{harvid|Järve et al.|2019}} }} * {{cite journal |last1=Krzewińska |first1=Maja |last2=Kılınç |first2=Gülşah Merve |display-authors=1 |date=October 3, 2018 |title=Ancient genomes suggest the eastern Pontic-Caspian steppe as the source of western Iron Age nomads |journal=[[Science Advances]] |publisher=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages= eaat4457|bibcode= 2018SciA....4.4457K|doi=10.1126/sciadv.aat4457 |pmc=6223350 |pmid=30417088 |ref={{harvid|Krzewińska et al.|2018}} }} *{{cite book |editor1-last=Boardman |editor1-first=John |editor1-link=John Boardman (art historian) |editor2-last=Edwards |editor2-first=I. E. S. |editor2-link=I. E. S. Edwards |editor3-last=Hammond |editor3-first=N. G. L. |editor3-link=N. G. L. Hammond |editor4-last=Sollberger |editor4-first=E. |editor4-link=Edmond Sollberger |editor5-last=Walker |editor5-first=C. B. F. |last1=Sulimirski |first1=Tadeusz |author-link=Tadeusz Sulimirski |last2=Taylor |first2=T. F. |author-link2=Timothy Taylor (archaeologist) |date=1991 |title=The Cambridge Ancient History |volume=3.2 |chapter=The Scythians |url= |location=[[Cambridge]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=547-590 |isbn=978-1-139-05429-4}} *Terenozhkin A.I., Cimmerians, Kiev, 1983 *Collection of Slavonic and Foreign Language Manuscripts – St.St Cyril and Methodius – Bulgarian National Library: http://www.nationallibrary.bg/slavezryk_en.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090627215645/http://www.nationallibrary.bg/slavezryk_en.html |date=2009-06-27 }} {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Americana Poster|Cimmerians}} *[https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/cimmerians/cimmerians.html Cimmerians] by [[Jona Lendering]] *[http://www.ancientlibrary.com/wcd/Cimmerians Wiki Classical Dictionary: Cimmerians] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20070127042625/http://www.hostkingdom.net/siberia.html#Cimmerians Cimmerians on Regnal Chronologies] *{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Cimmerii|volume=6|page=368|short=1}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Cimmerians| ]] [[Category:Peoples of the Caucasus]] [[Category:History of the North Caucasus]] [[Category:Tribes described primarily by Herodotus]] [[Category:Indo-European peoples]] [[Category:Unclassified languages of Asia]] [[Category:Unclassified Indo-European languages]]'
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'@@ -21,5 +21,5 @@ {{Indo-European topics}} -The '''Cimmerians''' ({{lang-akk|{{cuneiform|7|𒆳𒄀𒂇𒊏𒀀𒀀}}}} {{transl|akk|mat Gimirrāya}};<ref>{{cite book |last=Parpola |first=Simo |date=1970 |title=Neo-Assyrian Toponyms |url=https://archive.org/details/neoassyriantopon0000parp |location=Kevaeler |publisher=Butzon & Bercker |pages=132-134 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Gimirayu [CIMMERIAN] (EN) |url=http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/rinap/rinap4/cbd/qpn/x00000580.html |website=oracc.museum.upenn.edu}}</ref> {{lang-grc|[[wikt:Κιμμέριοι|Κιμμέριοι]]}} {{transl|grc|Kimmérioi}}) were a nomadic [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European people]], who appeared about 1000 BC.<ref>{{cite book|last1=MacKenzie|first1=David|last2=Curran|first2=Michael W.|title=A History of Russia, the Soviet Union, and Beyond|date=2002|publisher=Wadsworth/Thomson Learning|isbn=9780534586980|page=12|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eaI-AQAAIAAJ&q=cimmerians+date+from+1000+BC|language=en}}</ref> Originating in the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe|Pontic-Caspian steppe]], the Cimmerians subsequently migrated into Southwest Asia and into Central and Southeast Europe. while the Cimmerians were often described by contemporaries as [[Scythian cultures|culturally Scythian]], they evidently differed ethnically from the [[Scythians]] proper, who also displaced and replaced the Cimmerians.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/scythians |title=Scythians |last=Ivanchik |first=Askold |author-link=Askold Ivantchik |date=April 25, 2018 |website=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |quote=The Scythian archeological culture embraces not only the Scythians of the East-European steppes, but also the population of the forest steppes, about whose language and ethnic origins it is difficult to say anything precise, and also the Cimmerians }}</ref> +The '''Cimmerians''' ({{lang-akk|{{cuneiform|7|𒆳𒄀𒂇𒊏𒀀𒀀}}}} {{transl|akk|mat Gimirrāya}};<ref>{{cite book |last=Parpola |first=Simo |date=1970 |title=Neo-Assyrian Toponyms |url=https://archive.org/details/neoassyriantopon0000parp |location=Kevaeler |publisher=Butzon & Bercker |pages=132-134 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Gimirayu [CIMMERIAN] (EN) |url=http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/rinap/rinap4/cbd/qpn/x00000580.html |website=oracc.museum.upenn.edu}}</ref> {{lang-grc|[[wikt:Κιμμέριοι|Κιμμέριοι]]}} {{transl|grc|Kimmérioi}}) were a nomadic [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European people]], who appeared about 1000 BC.<ref>{{cite book|last1=MacKenzie|first1=David|last2=Curran|first2=Michael W.|title=A History of Russia, the Soviet Union, and Beyond|date=2002|publisher=Wadsworth/Thomson Learning|isbn=9780534586980|page=12|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eaI-AQAAIAAJ&q=cimmerians+date+from+1000+BC|language=en}}</ref> Originating in the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe|Pontic-Caspian steppe]], the Cimmerians subsequently migrated into Southwest Asia and into Central and Southeast Europe. While the Cimmerians were often described by contemporaries as [[Scythian cultures|culturally Scythian]], they evidently differed ethnically from the [[Scythians]] proper, who also displaced and replaced the Cimmerians.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/scythians |title=Scythians |last=Ivanchik |first=Askold |author-link=Askold Ivantchik |date=April 25, 2018 |website=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |quote=The Scythian archeological culture embraces not only the Scythians of the East-European steppes, but also the population of the forest steppes, about whose language and ethnic origins it is difficult to say anything precise, and also the Cimmerians }}</ref> The Cimmerians themselves left no written records, and most information about them is largely derived from [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrian]] records of the 8th to 7th centuries BCE and from [[Greco-Roman world|Graeco-Roman]] authors from the 5th century BCE and later. '
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[ 0 => 'The '''Cimmerians''' ({{lang-akk|{{cuneiform|7|𒆳𒄀𒂇𒊏𒀀𒀀}}}} {{transl|akk|mat Gimirrāya}};<ref>{{cite book |last=Parpola |first=Simo |date=1970 |title=Neo-Assyrian Toponyms |url=https://archive.org/details/neoassyriantopon0000parp |location=Kevaeler |publisher=Butzon & Bercker |pages=132-134 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Gimirayu [CIMMERIAN] (EN) |url=http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/rinap/rinap4/cbd/qpn/x00000580.html |website=oracc.museum.upenn.edu}}</ref> {{lang-grc|[[wikt:Κιμμέριοι|Κιμμέριοι]]}} {{transl|grc|Kimmérioi}}) were a nomadic [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European people]], who appeared about 1000 BC.<ref>{{cite book|last1=MacKenzie|first1=David|last2=Curran|first2=Michael W.|title=A History of Russia, the Soviet Union, and Beyond|date=2002|publisher=Wadsworth/Thomson Learning|isbn=9780534586980|page=12|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eaI-AQAAIAAJ&q=cimmerians+date+from+1000+BC|language=en}}</ref> Originating in the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe|Pontic-Caspian steppe]], the Cimmerians subsequently migrated into Southwest Asia and into Central and Southeast Europe. While the Cimmerians were often described by contemporaries as [[Scythian cultures|culturally Scythian]], they evidently differed ethnically from the [[Scythians]] proper, who also displaced and replaced the Cimmerians.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/scythians |title=Scythians |last=Ivanchik |first=Askold |author-link=Askold Ivantchik |date=April 25, 2018 |website=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |quote=The Scythian archeological culture embraces not only the Scythians of the East-European steppes, but also the population of the forest steppes, about whose language and ethnic origins it is difficult to say anything precise, and also the Cimmerians }}</ref>' ]
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[ 0 => 'The '''Cimmerians''' ({{lang-akk|{{cuneiform|7|𒆳𒄀𒂇𒊏𒀀𒀀}}}} {{transl|akk|mat Gimirrāya}};<ref>{{cite book |last=Parpola |first=Simo |date=1970 |title=Neo-Assyrian Toponyms |url=https://archive.org/details/neoassyriantopon0000parp |location=Kevaeler |publisher=Butzon & Bercker |pages=132-134 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Gimirayu [CIMMERIAN] (EN) |url=http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/rinap/rinap4/cbd/qpn/x00000580.html |website=oracc.museum.upenn.edu}}</ref> {{lang-grc|[[wikt:Κιμμέριοι|Κιμμέριοι]]}} {{transl|grc|Kimmérioi}}) were a nomadic [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European people]], who appeared about 1000 BC.<ref>{{cite book|last1=MacKenzie|first1=David|last2=Curran|first2=Michael W.|title=A History of Russia, the Soviet Union, and Beyond|date=2002|publisher=Wadsworth/Thomson Learning|isbn=9780534586980|page=12|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eaI-AQAAIAAJ&q=cimmerians+date+from+1000+BC|language=en}}</ref> Originating in the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe|Pontic-Caspian steppe]], the Cimmerians subsequently migrated into Southwest Asia and into Central and Southeast Europe. while the Cimmerians were often described by contemporaries as [[Scythian cultures|culturally Scythian]], they evidently differed ethnically from the [[Scythians]] proper, who also displaced and replaced the Cimmerians.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/scythians |title=Scythians |last=Ivanchik |first=Askold |author-link=Askold Ivantchik |date=April 25, 2018 |website=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |quote=The Scythian archeological culture embraces not only the Scythians of the East-European steppes, but also the population of the forest steppes, about whose language and ethnic origins it is difficult to say anything precise, and also the Cimmerians }}</ref>' ]
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