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{{More footnotes|article|date=October 2008}}
[[File:Atomic_blast_Nevada_Yucca_1951_(better_quality).png|right|thumb|200px|The 14-kiloton [[nuclear testing|test shot]] Charlie of [[Operation Buster–Jangle]] at the [[Nevada Proving Grounds]] on October 30, 1951. The red/orange color seen here in the cap of the [[mushroom cloud]] is largely due to the [[nuclear fireball|fireball]]'s intense heat in combination with the [[oxygen]] and [[nitrogen]] naturally found in air. Oxygen and nitrogen, though generally unreactive toward each other, form [[NOx]] species when heated to excess, specifically [[nitrogen dioxide]], which is largely responsible for the color. There was concern in the 1970s and 1980s, later proven unfounded, regarding [[Nuclear winter#Early work|fireball NOx and ozone loss]].]]
{{nuclear weapons}}
The effects of a [[nuclear explosion]] on its immediate vicinity are typically much more destructive and multifaceted than those caused by [[conventional explosive]]s. In most cases, the energy released from a [[nuclear weapon]] detonated within the [[troposphere|lower atmosphere]] can be approximately divided into four basic categories:<ref name="remmNucExpl">{{cite web |url=http://www.remm.nlm.gov/nuclearexplosion.htm |title=Nuclear Explosions: Weapons, Improvised Nuclear Devices |publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services |date=2008-02-16 |access-date=2008-07-03}}</ref>
*the [[Explosion|blast]] itself: 40–50% of total energy
*[[thermal radiation]]: 30–50% of total energy
*[[ionizing radiation]]: 5% of total energy (more in a [[neutron bomb]])
*[[Nuclear fallout|residual radiation]]: 5–10% of total energy with the mass of the explosion.
Depending on the design of the weapon and the location in which it is detonated, the energy distributed to any one of these categories may be significantly higher or lower. The physical blast effect is created by the coupling of immense amounts of energy, spanning the [[electromagnetic spectrum]], with the surroundings. The environment of the explosion (e.g. submarine, [[ground burst]], [[air burst]], or exo-atmospheric) determines how much energy is distributed to the blast and how much to radiation. In general, surrounding a bomb with denser media, such as water, absorbs more energy and creates more powerful [[shockwave]]s while at the same time limiting the area of its effect. When a nuclear weapon is surrounded only by air, lethal blast and thermal effects proportionally scale much more rapidly than lethal radiation effects as explosive yield increases. This bubble is faster than the speed of sound.<ref name="remm.nlm.gov">http://www.remm.nlm.gov/RemmMockup_files/radiationlethality.jpg</ref> The physical damage mechanisms of a nuclear weapon (blast and thermal radiation) are identical to those of conventional explosives, but the energy produced by a nuclear explosion is usually millions of times more powerful per unit mass and temperatures may briefly reach the tens of millions of degrees.
Energy from a nuclear explosion is initially released in several forms of penetrating radiation. When there is surrounding material such as air, rock, or water, this radiation interacts with and rapidly heats the material to an equilibrium temperature (i.e. so that the matter is at the same temperature as the fuel powering the explosion). This causes [[vaporization]] of the surrounding material, resulting in its rapid expansion. [[Kinetic energy]] created by this expansion contributes to the formation of a [[shockwave]] which expands spherically from the center. Intense thermal radiation at the [[hypocenter]] forms a [[nuclear fireball]] which, if the explosion is low enough in altitude, is often associated with a [[mushroom cloud]]. In a high-altitude burst, where the density of the atmosphere is low, more energy is released as ionizing [[gamma radiation]] and [[X-ray]]s than as an atmosphere-displacing shockwave.
== Direct effects ==
=== Blast damage ===
[[File: Blastcurves psi.svg|thumb|right|Overpressure ranges from 1 to 50 [[Pounds per square inch|psi]] (6.9 to 345 kilopascals) of a 1 kiloton of TNT air burst as a function of burst height. The thin black curve indicates the optimum burst height for a given ground range. Military planners prefer to maximize the range at which 10 psi, or more, is extended over when attacking civilian targets, thus a 220 m height of burst would be preferred for a 1 kiloton blast. To find the optimum height of burst for any weapon yield, the cube root of the yield in kilotons is multiplied by the ideal H.O.B for a 1 kt blast, e.g. the optimum height of burst for a 500 kt weapon is ~ 1745 m.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/www/effects/|title=The Effects of Nuclear Weapons|first=Samuel Glasstone, Philip J.|last=Dolan|website=www.fourmilab.ch|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref>]]
[[File: Abombdamage1945.svg|thumb|left|An estimate of the size of the damage caused by the 16 kt and 21 kt [[atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]].]]
The high temperatures and radiation cause gas to move outward radially in a thin, dense shell called "the hydrodynamic front". The front acts like a piston that pushes against and compresses the surrounding medium to make a spherically expanding [[shock wave]]. At first, this shock wave is inside the surface of the developing fireball, which is created in a volume of air heated by the explosion's "soft" X-rays. Within a fraction of a second, the dense shock front obscures the fireball and continues to move past it, now expanding outwards, free from the fireball, causing a reduction of light emanating from a nuclear detonation. Eventually, the shock wave dissipates to the point where the light becomes visible again giving rise to the characteristic '''double flash''' due to the shock wave–fireball interaction.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nuclearweaponarchive.org/Russia/TsarBomba.html|title=The Soviet Weapons Program - The Tsar Bomba|website=www.nuclearweaponarchive.org|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref> It is this unique feature of nuclear explosions that is exploited when verifying that an atmospheric nuclear explosion has occurred and not simply a large conventional explosion, with [[radiometer]] instruments known as [[Bhangmeter]]s capable of determining the nature of explosions.
For air bursts at or near sea-level, 50–60% of the explosion's energy goes into the blast wave, depending on the size and the [[Nuclear weapon yield|yield of the bomb]]. As a general rule, the blast fraction is higher for low yield weapons. Furthermore, it decreases at high altitudes because there is less air mass to absorb radiation energy and convert it into a blast. This effect is most important for altitudes above 30 km, corresponding to less than 1 percent of sea-level air density.
The effects of a moderate rain storm during an [[Operation Castle]] nuclear explosion was found to dampen, or reduce, peak pressure levels by approximately 15% at all ranges.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/MilitaryEffectsStudiesonOperationCastle1954|title=Military Effects Studies on Operation CASTLE|last=AFSWP|date=30 March 2018|access-date=30 March 2018|via=Internet Archive}}</ref>
[[File: General Effects of Atomic Bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.ogv|thumb|left|The General Effects of the Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Describes effects, particularly blast effects, and the response of various types of structures to the weapons effects.]]
Much of the destruction caused by a nuclear explosion is due to blast effects. Most buildings, except reinforced or blast-resistant structures, will suffer moderate damage when subjected to overpressures of only 35.5 [[Pascal (unit)|kilopascals]] (kPa) (5.15 [[pounds-force per square inch]] or 0.35 atm).
Data obtained from the Japanese surveys found that {{convert|8|psi|kPa|abbr=on}} was sufficient to destroy all wooden and brick residential structures. This can reasonably be defined as the pressure capable of producing severe damage.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/MilitaryEffectsStudiesonOperationCastle1954|title=Military Effects Studies on Operation CASTLE|last=AFSWP|date=30 March 2018|access-date=30 March 2018|via=Internet Archive}}</ref>
The blast wind at sea level may exceed one thousand km/h, or ~300 m/s, approaching the [[speed of sound]] in air. The range for blast effects increases with the explosive yield of the weapon and also depends on the burst altitude. Contrary to what one might expect from geometry, the blast range is not maximal for surface or low altitude blasts but increases with altitude up to an "optimum burst altitude" and then decreases rapidly for higher altitudes. This is due to the nonlinear behavior of shock waves. When the blast wave from an air burst reaches the ground it is reflected. Below a certain reflection angle, the reflected wave and the direct wave merge and form a reinforced horizontal wave, this is known as the 'Mach stem' (named after [[Ernst Mach]]) and is a form of [[constructive interference]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atomicarchive.com/Effects/effects6.shtml|title=The Mach Stem – Effects of Nuclear Weapons – atomicarchive.com|website=www.atomicarchive.com|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref>
<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/blast.htm | title=Striving for a Safer World Since 1945}}</ref>
<ref>[http://www.atomicarchive.com/Movies/machstem.shtml] video of the mach 'Y' stem, it is not a phenomenon unique to nuclear explosions, conventional explosions also produce it.</ref> This constructive interference is the phenomenon responsible for the bumps or 'knees' in the above overpressure range graph.
For each goal overpressure, there is a certain optimum burst height at which the blast range is maximized over ground targets. In a typical air burst, where the blast range is maximized to produce the greatest range of severe damage, i.e. the greatest range that ~{{convert|10|psi|kPa|abbr=on}} of pressure is extended over, is a GR/ground range of 0.4 km for 1 [[kiloton]] (kt) of TNT yield; 1.9 km for 100 kt; and 8.6 km for 10 [[TNT equivalent|megatons]] (Mt) of TNT. The optimum height of burst to maximize this desired severe ground range destruction for a 1 kt bomb is 0.22 km; for 100 kt, 1 km; and for 10 Mt, 4.7 km.
Two distinct, simultaneous phenomena are associated with the [[blast wave]] in the air:
* '''[[Static overpressure]]''', i.e., the sharp increase in pressure exerted by the shock wave. The overpressure at any given point is directly proportional to the density of the air in the wave.
* '''[[Dynamic pressure]]s''', i.e., drag exerted by the blast winds required to form the blast wave. These winds push, tumble and tear objects.
Most of the material damage caused by a nuclear air burst is caused by a combination of the high static overpressures and the blast winds. The long compression of the blast wave weakens structures, which are then torn apart by the blast winds. The compression, vacuum and drag phases together may last several seconds or longer, and exert forces many times greater than the strongest [[hurricane]].
Acting on the human body, the shock waves cause pressure waves through the tissues. These waves mostly damage junctions between tissues of different densities (bone and muscle) or the interface between tissue and air. Lungs and the [[abdominal cavity]], which contain air, are particularly injured. The damage causes severe [[bleeding|hemorrhaging]] or [[air embolism]]s, either of which can be rapidly fatal. The overpressure estimated to damage lungs is about 70 kPa. Some [[eardrum]]s would probably rupture around 22 kPa (0.2 atm) and half would rupture between 90 and 130 kPa (0.9 to 1.2 atm).
'''Blast winds''': The drag energies of the blast winds are proportional to the cubes of their velocities multiplied by the durations. These winds may reach several hundred kilometers per hour.
=== Thermal radiation ===
[[File:342-usaf-11034 Medical Aspects-Hiroshima.webm|thumb|left|Silent USSBS ([[United States Strategic Bombing Survey]]) footage which is primarily an analysis of flash burn injuries to those at Hiroshima. At 2:00, as is typical of the shapes of sunburns, the protection afforded by clothing, in this case, pants, with the nurse pointing to the line of demarcation where the pants begin to completely protect the lower body from burns. At 4:27 it can be deduced from the burning shape that the man was facing the fireball and was wearing a vest at the time of the explosion etc. Many of the burn injuries exhibit raised [[keloid]] healing patterns. 25 female survivors required extensive post-war surgeries and were termed the [[Hiroshima maidens]].]]
Nuclear weapons emit large amounts of [[thermal radiation]] as visible, infrared, and ultraviolet light, to which the atmosphere is largely transparent. This is known as "Flash".<ref name="Nuclear Bomb Effects">{{cite web|title=Nuclear Bomb Effects|url=http://www.solcomhouse.com/nuclearholocaust.htm|work=The Atomic Archive|publisher=solcomhouse.com|access-date=12 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827052819/http://www.solcomhouse.com/nuclearholocaust.htm|archive-date=27 August 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> The chief hazards are burns and eye injuries. On clear days, these injuries can occur well beyond blast ranges, depending on weapon yield.<ref name="remm.nlm.gov"/> Fires may also be started by the initial thermal radiation, but the following high winds due to the blast wave may put out almost all such fires, unless the yield is very high, where the range of thermal effects vastly outranges blast effects, as observed from explosions in the multi-megaton range.<ref name="remm.nlm.gov"/> This is because the intensity of the blast effects drops off with the third power of distance from the explosion, while the intensity of radiation effects drops off with the second power of distance. This results in the range of thermal effects increasing markedly more than blast range as higher and higher device yields are detonated.<ref name="remm.nlm.gov"/> Thermal radiation accounts for between 35–45% of the energy released in the explosion, depending on the yield of the device. In urban areas, the extinguishing of fires ignited by thermal radiation may matter little, as in a surprise attack fires may also be started by blast-effect-induced electrical shorts, gas pilot lights, overturned stoves, and other ignition sources, as was the case in the breakfast-time [[Atomic bombing of Hiroshima|bombing of Hiroshima]].<ref name="osti.gov">{{cite journal|url=http://www.osti.gov/bridge/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=4421057|title=Medical Effects Of Atomic Bombs The Report Of The Joint Commission For The Investigation Of The Effects Of The Atomic Bomb In Japan Volume 1|first1=A. W.|last1=Oughterson|first2=G. V.|last2=LeRoy|first3=A. A.|last3=Liebow|first4=E. C.|last4=Hammond|first5=H. L.|last5=Barnett|first6=J. D.|last6=Rosenbaum|first7=B. A.|last7=Schneider|date=19 April 1951|website=osti.gov|access-date=30 March 2018|doi=10.2172/4421057}}</ref> Whether or not these secondary fires will in turn themselves be snuffed out as modern noncombustible brick and concrete buildings collapse in on themselves from the same blast wave is uncertain, not least of which, because of the masking effect of modern city landscapes on thermal and blast transmission are continually examined.<ref>[http://www.usuhs.mil/afrrianniversary/events/rcsymposium/pdf/Millage.pdf Modeling the Effects of Nuclear Weapons in an Urban Setting] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706161001/http://www.usuhs.mil/afrrianniversary/events/rcsymposium/pdf/Millage.pdf |date=July 6, 2011 }}</ref>
When combustible frame buildings were blown down in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, they did not burn as rapidly as they would have done had they remained standing. The noncombustible debris produced by the blast frequently covered and prevented the burning of combustible material.<ref>[https://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/www/effects/eonw_7.pdf Glasstone & Dolan (1977) Thermal effects Chapter] pg 26</ref>
Fire experts suggest that unlike Hiroshima, due to the nature of modern U.S. city design and construction, a [[firestorm]] in modern times is unlikely after a nuclear detonation.<ref name="hps.org">{{cite Q|Q63152882}}, p. 24. NOTE: No citation is provided to support the claim that "a firestorm in modern times is unlikely".</ref> This does not exclude fires from being started, but means that these fires will not form into a firestorm, due largely to the differences between modern building materials and those used in World War II-era Hiroshima.
There are two types of eye injuries from the thermal radiation of a weapon:
[[Flash blindness]] is caused by the initial brilliant flash of light produced by the nuclear detonation. More light energy is received on the retina than can be tolerated, but less than is required for irreversible injury. The retina is particularly susceptible to visible and short wavelength infrared light since this part of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]] is focused by the lens on the retina. The result is bleaching of the visual pigments and temporary blindness for up to 40 minutes.
[[File: The patient's skin is burned in a pattern corresponding to the dark portions of a kimono - NARA - 519686.jpg|right|thumb|upright|Burns visible on a woman in Hiroshima during the blast. Darker colors of her [[kimono]] at the time of detonation correspond to clearly visible burns on the skin which touched parts of the garment exposed to thermal radiation. Since kimono are not form-fitting attire, some parts not directly touching her skin are visible as breaks in the pattern, and the tighter-fitting areas approaching the waistline have a much more well-defined pattern.]]
A retinal burn resulting in permanent damage from scarring is also caused by the concentration of direct thermal energy on the retina by the lens. It will occur only when the fireball is actually in the individual's field of vision and would be a relatively uncommon injury. Retinal burns may be sustained at considerable distances from the explosion. The height of burst and apparent size of the fireball, a function of yield and range will determine the degree and extent of retinal scarring. A scar in the central visual field would be more debilitating. Generally, a limited visual field defect, which will be barely noticeable, is all that is likely to occur.
When thermal radiation strikes an object, part will be reflected, part transmitted, and the rest absorbed. The fraction that is absorbed depends on the nature and color of the material. A thin material may transmit a lot. A light-colored object may reflect much of the incident radiation and thus escape damage, like [[anti-flash white]] paint. The absorbed thermal radiation raises the temperature of the surface and results in scorching, charring, and burning of wood, paper, fabrics, etc. If the material is a poor thermal conductor, the heat is confined to the surface of the material.
The actual ignition of materials depends on how long the thermal pulse lasts and the thickness and moisture content of the target. Near ground zero where the energy flux exceeds 125 [[joule|J]]/cm<sup>2</sup>, what can burn, will. Farther away, only the most easily ignited materials will flame. Incendiary effects are compounded by secondary fires started by the blast wave effects such as from upset stoves and furnaces.
In [[Hiroshima]] on August 6, 1945, a tremendous [[firestorm]] developed within 20 minutes after detonation and destroyed many more buildings and homes, built out of predominantly 'flimsy' wooden materials.<ref name="osti.gov"/> A firestorm has gale-force winds blowing in towards the center of the fire from all points of the compass. It is not peculiar to nuclear explosions, having been observed frequently in large forest fires and following incendiary raids during [[World War II]]. Despite fires destroying a large area of the city of Nagasaki, no true firestorm occurred in the city, even though a higher yielding weapon was used. Many factors explain this seeming contradiction, including a different time of bombing than Hiroshima, terrain, and crucially, a lower fuel loading/fuel density in the city than that of Hiroshima.{{quote|
''Nagasaki probably did not furnish sufficient fuel for the development of a firestorm as compared to the many buildings on the flat terrain at Hiroshima.''<ref>[https://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/www/effects/eonw_7.pdf Glasstone & Dolan (1977) Thermal effects Chapter] pg 304</ref>}}
As thermal radiation travels, more or less, in a straight line from the fireball (unless scattered) any opaque object will produce a protective shadow that provides protection from the flash burn. Depending on the properties of the underlying surface material, the exposed area outside the protective shadow will be either burnt to a darker color, such as charring wood,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pcf.city.hiroshima.jp/virtual/VirtualMuseum_e/visit_e/subcon/he113c.html|title=Damage by the Heat Rays/Shadow Imprinted on an Electric Pole|website=www.pcf.city.hiroshima.jp|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref> or a brighter color, such as asphalt.<ref>"Various other effects of the radiated heat were noted, including the lightening of asphalt road surfaces in spots that had not been protected from the radiated heat by any object such as that of a person walking along the road. Various other surfaces were discolored in different ways by the radiated heat." From the [http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/hiroshim/hiro_med.html#FLASH_BURN Flash Burn] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140224094011/http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/hiroshim/hiro_med.html#FLASH_BURN |date=2014-02-24 }} section of [http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/hiroshim/hiro_med.html "The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki"], a report by the Manhattan Engineering District, June 29, 1946, </ref> If such a weather phenomenon as fog or haze is present at the point of the nuclear explosion, it [[Mie scattering|scatters the flash]], with [[radiant energy]] then reaching burn sensitive substances from all directions. Under these conditions, opaque objects are therefore less effective than they would otherwise be without scattering, as they demonstrate maximum shadowing effect in an environment of perfect visibility and therefore zero scatterings. Similar to a foggy or overcast day, although there are few if any, shadows produced by the sun on such a day, the solar energy that reaches the ground from the sun's [[infrared]] rays is nevertheless considerably diminished, due to it being absorbed by the water of the clouds and the energy also being scattered back into space. Analogously, so too is the intensity at a range of burning flash energy attenuated, in units of [[joule|J]]/cm<sup>2</sup>, along with the slant/horizontal range of a nuclear explosion, during fog or haze conditions. So despite any object that casts a shadow being rendered ineffective as a shield from the flash by fog or haze, due to scattering, the fog fills the same protective role, but generally only at the ranges that survival in the open is just a matter of being protected from the explosion's flash energy.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/www/effects/eonw_7.pdf#zoom=100|title=Glasstone & Dolan 1977 Thermal effects Chapter|website=fourmilab.ch|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref>
The thermal pulse also is responsible for warming the atmospheric nitrogen close to the bomb and causing the creation of atmospheric [[NOx]] smog components. This, as part of the mushroom cloud, is shot into the [[stratosphere]] where it is responsible for [[ozone depletion|dissociating]] [[ozone]] [[ozone layer|there]], in exactly the same way as combustion NOx compounds do. The amount created depends on the yield of the explosion and the blast's environment. Studies done on the total effect of nuclear blasts on the ozone layer have been at least tentatively exonerating after initial discouraging findings.<ref>{{cite journal|first=J.D.|last=Christie|date=1976-05-20|title=Atmospheric ozone depletion by nuclear weapons testing|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|issue=15|volume=81|pages=2583–2594|doi=10.1029/JC081i015p02583|bibcode=1976JGR....81.2583C}} This link is to the abstract; the whole paper is behind a paywall.</ref>
== Indirect effects ==
=== Electromagnetic pulse ===
{{main article|Nuclear electromagnetic pulse|Geomagnetically induced current}}
Gamma rays from a nuclear explosion produce high energy [[electron]]s through [[Compton scattering]]. For high altitude nuclear explosions, these electrons are captured in the [[Earth's magnetic field]] at altitudes between twenty and forty kilometers where they interact with the Earth's magnetic field to produce a coherent [[nuclear electromagnetic pulse]] (NEMP) which lasts about one millisecond. Secondary effects may last for more than a second.
The pulse is powerful enough to cause moderately long metal objects (such as cables) to act as antennas and generate high voltages due to interactions with the electromagnetic pulse. These voltages can destroy unshielded electronics. There are no known biological effects of EMP. The ionized air also disrupts radio traffic that would normally bounce off the [[ionosphere]].
Electronics can be shielded by wrapping them completely in [[conductor (material)|conductive material]] such as metal foil; the effectiveness of the shielding may be less than perfect. Proper shielding is a complex subject due to the large number of variables involved. Semiconductors, especially [[integrated circuits]], are extremely susceptible to the effects of EMP due to the close proximity of the PN junctions, but this is not the case with thermionic tubes (or valves) which are relatively immune to EMP. A [[Faraday cage]] does not offer protection from the effects of EMP unless the mesh is designed to have holes no bigger than the smallest wavelength emitted from a nuclear explosion.
Large nuclear weapons detonated at high altitudes also cause [[geomagnetically induced current]] in very long electrical conductors. The mechanism by which these geomagnetically induced currents are generated is entirely different from the gamma-ray induced pulse produced by Compton electrons.
=== Radar blackout===
{{See also|Nuclear blackout|Christofilos effect}}
The heat of the explosion causes air in the vicinity to become ionized, creating the fireball. The free electrons in the fireball affect radio waves, especially at lower frequencies. This causes a large area of the sky to become opaque to radar, especially those operating in the [[VHF]] and [[UHF]] frequencies, which is common for long-range [[early warning radar]]s. The effect is less for higher frequencies in the [[microwave]] region, as well as lasting a shorter time – the effect falls off both in strength and the affected frequencies as the fireball cools and the electrons begin to re-form onto free nuclei.<ref name=bethe>[https://fas.org/rlg/03%2000%201968%20Bethe-Garwin%20ABM%20Systems.pdf "Anti-Ballistic-Missile Systems"], ''Scientific American'', March 1968, pp. 21–32.</ref>
A second blackout effect is caused by the emission of [[beta particle]]s from the fission products. These can travel long distances, following the Earth's magnetic field lines. When they reach the upper atmosphere they cause ionization similar to the fireball, but over a wider area. Calculations demonstrate that one megaton of fission, typical of a two-megaton H-bomb, will create enough beta radiation to blackout an area {{convert|400|km|miles}} across for five minutes. Careful selection of the burst altitudes and locations can produce an extremely effective radar-blanking effect.<ref name=bethe/>
The physical effects giving rise to blackouts are those that also cause EMP, which itself can cause power blackouts. The two effects are otherwise unrelated, and the similar naming can be confusing.
=== Ionizing radiation ===
About 5% of the energy released in a nuclear air burst is in the form of [[ionizing radiation]]: [[Neutron radiation|neutrons]], [[gamma ray]]s, [[alpha particle]]s and [[electron]]s moving at speeds up to the speed of light. Gamma rays are high-energy electromagnetic radiation; the others are particles that move slower than light. The neutrons result almost exclusively from the [[Nuclear fission|fission]] and [[Nuclear fusion|fusion]] reactions, while the initial gamma radiation includes that arising from these reactions as well as that resulting from the decay of short-lived fission products.
The intensity of initial nuclear radiation decreases rapidly with distance from the point of burst because the radiation spreads over a larger area as it travels away from the explosion (the [[inverse-square law]]). It is also reduced by atmospheric absorption and scattering.
The character of the radiation received at a given location also varies with the distance from the explosion.<ref>Pattison, J.E., Hugtenburg, R.P., Beddoe, A.H., and Charles, M.W. (2001). "Experimental Simulation of A-bomb Gamma-ray Spectra for Radiobiology Studies", ''Radiation Protection Dosimetry'' '''95'''(2):125–136.</ref> Near the point of the explosion, the neutron intensity is greater than the gamma intensity, but with increasing distance the neutron-gamma ratio decreases. Ultimately, the neutron component of the initial radiation becomes negligible in comparison with the gamma component. The range for significant levels of initial radiation does not increase markedly with weapon yield and, as a result, the initial radiation becomes less of a hazard with increasing yield. With larger weapons, above 50 kt (200 TJ), blast and thermal effects are so much greater in importance that prompt radiation effects can be ignored.
The neutron radiation serves to transmute the surrounding matter, often rendering it [[neutron activation|radioactive]]. When added to the dust of radioactive material released by the bomb itself, a large amount of radioactive material is released into the environment. This form of [[radioactive contamination]] is known as [[nuclear fallout]] and poses the primary risk of exposure to ionizing radiation for a large nuclear weapon.
Details of [[nuclear weapon design]] also affect neutron emission: the gun-type assembly [[Hiroshima bomb]] leaked far more neutrons than the implosion-type 21 kt [[Nagasaki bomb]] because the light hydrogen nuclei (protons) predominating in the exploded TNT molecules (surrounding the core of the Nagasaki bomb) slowed down neutrons very efficiently while the heavier iron atoms in the steel nose forging of the Hiroshima bomb scattered neutrons without absorbing much neutron energy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://glasstone.blogspot.com/2006/03/samuel-glasstone-and-philip-j-dolan.html|title=Credible effects of nuclear weapons for real-world peace: peace through tested, proved and practical declassified deterrence and countermeasures against collateral damage. Credible deterrence through simple, effective protection against concentrated and dispersed invasions and aerial attacks. Discussions of the facts as opposed to inaccurate, misleading lies of the "disarm or be annihilated" political dogma variety. Hiroshima and Nagasaki anti-nuclear propaganda debunked by the hard facts. Walls, not wars. Walls bring people together by stopping divisive terrorists.|website=glasstone.blogspot.com|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref>
It was found in early experimentation that normally most of the neutrons released in the cascading chain reaction of the fission bomb are absorbed by the bomb case. Building a bomb case of materials which transmitted rather than absorbed the neutrons could make the bomb more intensely lethal to humans from prompt neutron radiation. This is one of the features used in the development of the [[neutron bomb]].
=== Earthquake ===
The pressure wave from an underground explosion will propagate through the ground and cause a minor [[earthquake]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://alsos.wlu.edu/information.aspx?id=2017|title=Alsos: Nuclear Explosions and Earthquakes: The Parted Veil|website=alsos.wlu.edu|access-date=30 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310191337/http://alsos.wlu.edu/information.aspx?id=2017|archive-date=10 March 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, theory does not suggest that a nuclear explosion could trigger fault rupture and cause a major quake at distances beyond a few tens of kilometers from the shot point.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://seismo.berkeley.edu/seismo/faq/nuke_2.html |title=Nuke 2 |access-date=2006-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060526133051/http://seismo.berkeley.edu/seismo/faq/nuke_2.html |archive-date=2006-05-26 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
=== Summary of the effects ===
The following table summarizes the most important effects of single nuclear explosions under ideal, clear skies, weather conditions. Tables like these are calculated from nuclear weapons effects scaling laws.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=AOY9AQAAIAAJ Paul P. Craig, John A. Jungerman. (1990) ''The Nuclear Arms Race: Technology and Society'' pg 258]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=NO3626AOL9oC&pg=PA644 Calder, Nigel "The effects of a 100 Megaton bomb" ''New Scientist'', 14 Sep 1961, p 644]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Hckys7gpwl4C&pg=PA4 Sartori, Leo "Effects of nuclear weapons" ''Physics and Nuclear Arms Today'' (Readings from ''Physics Today'') pg 2]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq5.html#nfaq5.1|title=Effects of Nuclear Explosions|website=nuclearweaponarchive.org|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref> Advanced computer modelling of real-world conditions and how they impact on the damage to modern urban areas has found that most scaling laws are too simplistic and tend to overestimate nuclear explosion effects. As it is only simplistic and unclassified scaling laws that are commonly encountered, that do not take important things like varying land [[topography]] into account to ease calculation time and equation length. The scaling laws that were used to produce the table below, assume among other things, a perfectly level target area, no attenuating effects from urban [[terrain masking]], e.g. skyscraper shadowing, and no enhancement effects from reflections and tunneling by city streets.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usuhs.mil/afrrianniversary/events/rcsymposium/pdf/Millage.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706161001/http://www.usuhs.mil/afrrianniversary/events/rcsymposium/pdf/Millage.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=6 July 2011|date=6 July 2011|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref>
As a point of comparison in the chart below, the most likely nuclear weapons to be used against countervalue city targets in a global nuclear war are in the sub-megaton range. Weapons of yields from 100 to 475 kilotons have become the most numerous in the US and Russian nuclear arsenals; for example, the warheads equipping the Russian [[Bulava]] submarine-launched ballistic missile ([[SLBM]]) have a yield of 150 kilotons.<ref>[http://en15.rian.ru/img/118575033_free.html The modern Russian Bulava [[SLBM]] is armed with warheads of 100 – 150 kilotons in yield.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006140135/http://en15.rian.ru/img/118575033_free.html |date=October 6, 2014 }}</ref> US examples are the [[W76]] and [[W88]] warheads, with the lower yield W76 being over twice as numerous as the W88 in the US nuclear arsenal.
{| class=wikitable style="margin:1em 1em 1em 0; font-size:95%; text-align:center;"
|+
! rowspan=2 | Effects
! colspan=4 | Explosive yield / height of burst
|-
! 1 kt / 200 m
! 20 kt / 540 m
! 1 Mt / 2.0 km
! 20 Mt / 5.4 km
|-
| colspan=6| '''Blast—effective ground range ''GR'' / km'''
|-
| Urban areas completely levelled ({{convert|20|psi|kPa|abbr=on|disp=or}})
| 0.2
| 0.6
| 2.4
| 6.4
|-
| Destruction of most civilian buildings ({{convert|5|psi|kPa|abbr=on|disp=or}})
| 0.6
| 1.7
| 6.2
| 17
|-
| Moderate damage to civilian buildings ({{convert|1|psi|kPa|abbr=on|disp=or}})
| 1.7
| 4.7
| 17
| 47
|-
| Railway cars thrown from tracks and crushed<br>(<!-- 0.63 kp/cm<sup>2</sup>= -->62 kPa; values for other than 20 kt are extrapolated using the cube-root scaling)
| ≈0.4
| 1.0
| ≈4
| ≈10
|-
| colspan=6 | '''Thermal radiation—effective ground range ''GR'' / km'''
|-
| [[Fourth degree burn]]s, [[Conflagration]]
| 0.5
| 2.0
| 10
| 30
|-
| [[Third degree burn]]s
| 0.6
| 2.5
| 12
| 38
|-
| [[Second degree burn]]s
| 0.8
| 3.2
| 15
| 44
|-
| [[First degree burn]]s
| 1.1
| 4.2
| 19
| 53
|-
| colspan=6 | '''Effects of instant nuclear radiation—effective slant range<sup>1</sup> ''SR'' / km'''
|-
| Lethal<sup>2</sup> total dose (neutrons and gamma rays)
| 0.8
| 1.4
| 2.3
| 4.7
|-
| Total dose for acute radiation syndrome<sup>2</sup>
| 1.2
| 1.8
| 2.9
| 5.4
|}
<sup>1</sup><small> For the direct radiation effects the slant range instead of the ground range is shown here because some effects are not given even at ground zero for some burst heights. If the effect occurs at ground zero the ground range can be derived from slant range and burst altitude ([[Pythagorean theorem]]).</small>
<sup>2</sup><small> "Acute radiation syndrome" corresponds here to a total dose of one [[Gray (unit)|gray]], "lethal" to ten grays. This is only a rough estimate since [[Relative biological effectiveness|biological conditions]] are neglected here.</small>
Further complicating matters, under global nuclear war scenarios, with conditions similar to that during the [[Cold War]], major strategically important cities, like [[Moscow]], and [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] are likely to be hit not once, but numerous times from sub megaton [[multiple independently targetable re-entry vehicles]], in a [[cluster bomb]] or "cookie-cutter" configuration.<ref>[https://ota.fas.org/reports/7906.pdf "The Effects of Nuclear War" Office of Technology Assessment, May 1979. pages 42 and 44.] Compare the destruction from a single 1 megaton weapon detonation on Leningrad on page 42 to that of 10 clustered 40 kiloton weapon detonations in a 'cookie-cutter' configuration on page 44; the level of total destruction is similar in both cases despite the total yield in the second attack scenario being less than half of that delivered in the 1 megaton case</ref> It has been reported that during the height of the Cold War in the 1970s Moscow was targeted by up to 60 warheads.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Hckys7gpwl4C&pg=PA24 Sartori, Leo "Effects of nuclear weapons" ''Physics and Nuclear Arms Today'' (Readings from ''Physics Today'') pg 22]</ref> The reasons that the cluster bomb concept is preferable in the targeting of cities is twofold, the first is down to the fact that large singular warheads are much easier to neutralize as both tracking and successful interception by [[A-35 anti-ballistic missile system|anti-ballistic missile system]]s than it is when several smaller incoming warheads are approaching. This [[strength in numbers]] advantage to lower yield warheads is further compounded by such warheads tending to move at higher incoming speeds, due to their smaller, more slender [[physics package]] size, assuming both nuclear weapon designs are the same (a design exception being the advanced [[W88]]).<ref>
[https://books.google.com/books?id=x__CgnLTLqkC&pg=PA65 Robert C. Aldridge (1983) ''First Strike! The Pentagon's Strategy for Nuclear War'' pg 65]</ref> The second reason for this cluster bomb, or ‘layering’<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/nm_book_5_11/appendix_F.htm |title=The Nuclear Matters Handbook |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302091606/http://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/nm_book_5_11/appendix_F.htm |archive-date=2013-03-02 }}</ref> (using repeated hits by accurate low yield weapons), is that this tactic along with limiting the risk of failure, also reduces individual bomb yields, and therefore reduces the possibility of any serious collateral damage to non-targeted nearby civilian areas, including that of neighboring countries. This concept was pioneered by [[Philip J. Dolan]] and others.
== Other phenomena ==
[[Image:Nukecloud.png|thumb|left|250 px|Mushroom cloud height depending on yield for ground bursts.{{citation needed|date = September 2015|reason=The data so nicely plotted up here is ''not verifiable'' because its source is unstated.}}<br /> 0 = Approx. altitude at which a commercial aircraft operates<br />1 = [[Fat Man]]<br />2 = [[Castle Bravo]]]]
[[Gamma rays]] from the nuclear processes preceding the true explosion may be partially responsible for the following fireball, as they may superheat nearby air and/or other material.<ref name="Nuclear Bomb Effects"/> The vast majority of the energy that goes on to form the fireball is in the soft [[X-ray]] region of the electromagnetic spectrum, with these X-rays being produced by the [[inelastic collisions]] of the high-speed fission and fusion products. It is these reaction products and not the gamma rays which contain most of the energy of the nuclear reactions in the form of [[kinetic energy]]. This kinetic energy of the fission and fusion fragments is converted into internal and then radiation energy by approximately following the process of [[blackbody radiation]] emitting in the soft X-ray region.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/nukeffct/enw77b3.html|title='' The Effects of Nuclear Weapons'' (1977) CHAPTER II: "Descriptions of Nuclear Explosions, Scientific Aspects of Nuclear Explosion Phenomena."|website=vt.edu|access-date=30 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426231956/http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/nukeffct/enw77b3.html|archive-date=26 April 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> As a result of numerous inelastic collisions, part of the kinetic energy of the fission fragments is converted into internal and radiation energy. Some of the electrons are removed entirely from the atoms, thus causing ionization, others are raised to higher energy (or excited) states while still remaining attached to the nuclei. Within an extremely short time, perhaps a hundredth of a microsecond or so, the weapon residues consist essentially of completely and partially stripped (ionized) atoms, many of the latter being in excited states, together with the corresponding free electrons. The system then immediately emits electromagnetic (thermal) radiation, the nature of which is determined by the temperature. Since this is of the order of 10<sup>7</sup> degrees, most of the energy emitted within a microsecond or so is in the soft X-ray region. To understand this one must remember that temperature depends on the average internal energy/heat of the particles in a certain volume, and internal energy or heat is due to [[kinetic energy]].
For an explosion in the atmosphere, the fireball quickly expands to maximum size, and then begins to cool as it rises like a balloon through [[buoyancy]] in the surrounding air. As it does so it takes on the flow pattern of a [[vortex ring]] with incandescent material in the vortex core as seen in certain photographs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Ukgrable2.jpg|title=Photo|website=nuclearweaponarchive.org|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref> This effect is known as a [[mushroom cloud]].<ref name="Nuclear Bomb Effects"/>
Sand will fuse into glass if it is close enough to the nuclear fireball to be drawn into it, and is thus heated to the necessary temperatures to do so; this is known as [[trinitite]].<ref>Robert Hermes and William Strickfaden, 2005, ''New Theory on the Formation of Trinitite'', Nuclear Weapons Journal http://www.wsmr.army.mil/pao/TrinitySite/NewTrinititeTheory.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080726072410/http://www.wsmr.army.mil/pao/TrinitySite/NewTrinititeTheory.htm |date=2008-07-26 }}</ref>
At the explosion of nuclear bombs lightning discharges sometimes occur.<ref>[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987JGR....92.5696C An empirical study of the nuclear explosion-induced lightning seen on IVY-MIKE]</ref>
Smoke trails are often seen in photographs of nuclear explosions. These are not from the explosion; they are left by [[sounding rockets]] launched just prior to detonation. These trails allow observation of the blast's normally invisible shock wave in the moments following the explosion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/SmokeTrails.html|title=What are Those Smoke Trails Doing in That Test Picture?|website=nuclearweaponarchive.org|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref>
The heat and airborne debris created by a nuclear explosion can cause rain; the debris is thought to do this by acting as [[cloud condensation nuclei]]. During the city [[firestorm]] which followed the Hiroshima explosion, drops of water were recorded to have been about the size of [[Marble (toy)|marbles]].<ref>Hersey, John. "Hiroshima", ''The New Yorker'', August 31, 1946.</ref> This was termed ''black rain'', and has served as the source of a [[Black Rain (novel)|book and film by the same name]]. Black rain is not unusual following large fires and is commonly produced by [[pyrocumulus cloud]]s during large forest fires. The rain directly over Hiroshima on that day is said to have begun around 9 a.m. with it covering a wide area from the [[hypocenter]] to the north-west, raining heavily for one hour or more in some areas.<!--<ref name="hiroshima-spirit.jp">{{cite web|url=http://www.hiroshima-spirit.jp/en/museum/morgue_w17.html|title=hiroshima-spirit.jp - This website is for sale! - 原子 原爆 原理 平和 投下 爆弾 記念 資料館 Resources and Information.|website=www.hiroshima-spirit.jp|access-date=30 March 2018 }}</ref>--> The rain directly over the city may have carried [[neutron activation|neutron activated]] building material combustion products, but it did not carry any appreciable nuclear weapon debris or fallout,<ref>{{cite journal|title=Interaction of Fallout with Fires. Final Report.|first1=P. O.|last1=Strom|first2=C. F.|last2=Miller|date=1 January 1969|osti = 4078266}}</ref> although this is generally to the contrary to what other less technical sources state.<!--<ref name="hiroshima-spirit.jp"/>--> The "oily" black [[soot]] particles,<!--<ref name="hiroshima-spirit.jp"/>--> are a characteristic of [[incomplete combustion]] in the city firestorm.
The element [[einsteinium]] was discovered when analyzing nuclear fallout.
A side-effect of the Pascal-B nuclear test during [[Operation Plumbbob#Missing steel bore cap|Operation Plumbbob]] may have resulted in the first man-made object launched into space. The so-called "thunder well" effect from the underground explosion may have launched a metal cover plate into space at six times Earth's [[escape velocity]], although the evidence remains subject to debate.
In 1942, there was some initial speculation among the scientists developing the first nuclear weapons in the [[Manhattan Project]] that a large enough nuclear explosion might ignite the Earth's atmosphere. This notion concerned the nuclear reaction of two atmospheric nitrogen atoms forming carbon and an oxygen atom, with an associated release of energy. The scientists hypothesized that this energy would heat up the remaining atmospheric nitrogen enough to keep the reaction going until all nitrogen atoms were consumed, thereby burning all of the Earth's atmosphere (which is composed of nearly 80% diatomic nitrogen) in one single massive combustion event. [[Hans Bethe]] was assigned the task of studying this hypothesis from the project's earliest days, and eventually concluded that combustion of the entire atmosphere was not possible: the cooling of the fireball due to an inverse [[Compton effect]] all but guaranteed that such a scenario would not become a reality.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Konopinski|first1=E. J|last2=Marvin|first2=C.|last3=Teller|first3=Edward|year=1946|title=Ignition of the Atmosphere with Nuclear Bombs|volume=LA–602|publisher=Los Alamos National Laboratory|url=https://fas.org/sgp/othergov/doe/lanl/docs1/00329010.pdf|access-date=2013-12-06}} The date of the article is 1946; it may have been written to demonstrate due diligence on the problem. It was declassified in 1970.</ref> [[Richard Hamming]], a mathematician, was asked to make a similar calculation just before the [[Trinity (nuclear test)|first nuclear test]], with the same result.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hamming|first=Richard |year=1998 |title=Mathematics on a Distant Planet |journal=The American Mathematical Monthly |volume=105 |issue=7 |pages=640–650 |jstor=2589247 |doi=10.1080/00029890.1998.12004938 }}</ref> Nevertheless, the notion has persisted as a rumor for many years and was the source of apocalyptic [[gallows humor]] at the Trinity test.
==Survivability==
{{main article|Duck and Cover (film)|Protect and Survive|Nuclear bombs and health}}
This is highly dependent on factors such as if one is indoors or out, the size of the explosion, the proximity to the explosion, and to a lesser degree the direction of the wind carrying fallout.
Death is highly likely and radiation poisoning is almost certain if one is caught in the open with no terrain or building masking effects within a radius of 0–3 km from a 1 megaton airburst, and the [[LD50|50% chance of death]] from the blast extends out to ~8 km from the same 1 megaton atmospheric explosion.<ref>http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/nuclear/nukgr3.gif</ref>
To highlight the variability in the real world, and the effect that being indoors can make, despite the lethal radiation and blast zone extending well past her position at Hiroshima,<ref>http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/nuclear/nukgr1.gif</ref> Akiko Takakura survived the effects of a 16 kt atomic bomb at a distance of 300 meters from the hypocenter, with only minor injuries, due mainly to her position in the lobby of the Bank of Japan, a [[reinforced concrete]] building, at the time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pcf.city.hiroshima.jp/virtual/VirtualMuseum_e/visit_e/testimony_e/testimo07.html|title=What I Want to Say Now|website=www.pcf.city.hiroshima.jp|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/Hibakusha/Akiko.shtml|title=Testimony of Akiko Takakura - The Voice of Hibakusha - The Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki - Historical Documents - atomicarchive.com|website=www.atomicarchive.com|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref> In contrast, the unknown person sitting outside, fully exposed, on the steps of the Sumitomo Bank, next door to the Bank of Japan, received lethal third-degree burns and was then likely killed by the blast, in that order, within two seconds.<ref>http://www.pcf.city.hiroshima.jp/virtual/museum/index.php?l=e&no=1000</ref>
With medical attention, radiation exposure is survivable to 200 rems of acute dose exposure. If a group of people is exposed to a 50 to 59 rems acute (within 24 hours) radiation dose, none will get radiation sickness. If the group is exposed to 60 to 180 rems, 50% will become sick with radiation poisoning. If medically treated, all of the 60–180 rems group will survive. If the group is exposed to 200 to 450 rems, most if not all of the group will become sick. 50% of the 200–450 rems group will die within two to four weeks, even with medical attention. If the group is exposed to 460 to 600 rems, 100% of the group will get radiation poisoning. 50% of the 460–600 rems group will die within one to three weeks. If the group is exposed to 600 to 1000 rems, 50% will die in one to three weeks. If the group is exposed to 1,000 to 5,000 rems, 100% of the group will die within 2 weeks. At 5,000 rems, 100% of the group will die within 2 days.<ref>{{cite book|last1=McCarthy|first1=Walton|title=M.E.|date=2013|publisher=Brown Books Publishing Group|location=Dallas, TX|isbn=978-1612541143|page=420|edition=6th|url=https://noradshelters.com/radiation-shielding-materials/|access-date=9 December 2016|ref=pop}}</ref>
== See also ==
{{div col begin}}
* [[Bomb pulse]]
* [[Effects of nuclear explosions on human health]]
* [[Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents]]
* [[List of nuclear weapons tests]]
* [[Nuclear warfare]]
* [[Nuclear holocaust]]
* [[Nuclear terrorism]]
* [[Peaceful nuclear explosion]]
* [[Rope trick effect]]
* [[Underwater explosion]]
* [[Nuclear weapons in popular culture#List of visual depictions|Visual depictions of nuclear explosions in fiction]]
{{div col end}}
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
== External links ==
{{Commons category|Nuclear weapon tests}}
{{Commons category|Radiation health effects}}
{{Commons category|Nuclear explosion physics}}
* [http://sonicbomb.com/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=171 Nuclear Weapon Testing Effects] – Comprehensive video archive
* [http://www.undergroundbombshelter.com Underground Bomb Shelters]
* The [http://fas.org Federation of American Scientists] provide solid information on weapons of mass destruction, including [https://fas.org/nuke/ nuclear weapons] and their [https://web.archive.org/web/20150329105730/http://fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/effects.htm effects]
* The [http://www.oism.org/nwss/ Nuclear War Survival Skills] is a public domain text and is an excellent source on how to survive a nuclear attack.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130820065339/http://www.carloslabs.com/node/16 Ground Zero: A Javascript simulation of the effects of a nuclear explosion in a city]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140401010540/http://www.okgeosurvey1.gov/level2/nuke.cat.index.html Oklahoma Geological Survey Nuclear Explosion Catalog] lists 2,199 explosions with their date, country, location, yield, etc.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20030812181714/http://www.ga.gov.au/oracle/nukexp_query.html Australian Government database of all nuclear explosions]
* [http://nuclearweaponarchive.org Nuclear Weapon Archive from Carey Sublette] (NWA) is a reliable source of information and has links to other sources.
* [http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Library/Nukesims.html NWA repository of blast models] mainly used for the effects table (especially DOS programs BLAST and WE)
* [http://meyerweb.com/eric/tools/gmap/hydesim.html HYDESim: High-Yield Detonation Effects Simulator] – [[Mashup (web application hybrid)|Mashup]] of [[Google Maps]] and Javascript to calculate blast effects.
* [http://nuclearsecrecy.com/nukemap/ NUKEMAP] – Google Maps/Javascript effects mapper, which includes fireball size, blast pressure, ionizing radiation, and thermal radiation as well as qualitative descriptions.
* [http://www.nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq0.html Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions]
* [http://www.atomicforum.org/ Atomic Forum]
* [https://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/www/effects/ Samuel Glasstone and Philip J. Dolan, The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, Third Edition, United States Department of Defense & Energy Research and Development Administration] Available Online
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/rcip/nuclear.html Nuclear Emergency and Radiation Resources]
* [https://outrider.org/ Outrider] believes in the power of an informed, engaged public.
{{Nuclear Technology}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Effects Of Nuclear Explosions}}
[[Category:Nuclear weapons]]
[[Category:Nuclear physics]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[sv:Kärnexplosion]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext ) | '{{short description|Type and severity of damage caused by nuclear weapons}}
{{More footnotes|article|date=October 2008}}
[[File:Atomic_blast_Nevada_Yucca_1951_(better_quality).png|right|thumb|200px|The 14-kiloton [[nuclear testing|test shot]] Charlie of [[Operation Buster–Jangle]] at the [[Nevada Proving Grounds]] on October 30, 1951. The red/orange color seen here in the cap of the [[mushroom cloud]] is largely due to the [[nuclear fireball|fireball]]'s intense heat in combination with the [[oxygen]] and [[nitrogen]] naturally found in air. Oxygen and nitrogen, though generally unreactive toward each other, form [[NOx]] species when heated to excess, specifically [[nitrogen dioxide]], which is largely responsible for the color. There was concern in the 1970s and 1980s, later proven unfounded, regarding [[Nuclear winter#Early work|fireball NOx and ozone loss]].]]
{{nuclear weapons}}
The effects of a [[nuclear explosion]] on its immediate vicinity are typically much more destructive and multifaceted than those caused by [[conventional explosive]]s. In most cases, the energy released from a [[nuclear weapon]] detonated within the [[troposphere|lower atmosphere]] can be approximately divided into four basic categories:<ref name="remmNucExpl">{{cite web |url=http://www.remm.nlm.gov/nuclearexplosion.htm |title=Nuclear Explosions: Weapons, Improvised Nuclear Devices |publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services |date=2008-02-16 |access-date=2008-07-03}}</ref>
*the [[Explosion|blast]] itself: 40–50% of total energy
*[[thermal radiation]]: 30–50% of total energy
*[[ionizing radiation]]: 5% of total energy (more in a [[neutron bomb]])
*[[Nuclear fallout|residual radiation]]: 5–10% of total energy with the mass of the explosion.
Depending on the design of the weapon and the location in which it is detonated, the energy distributed to any one of these categories may be significantly higher or lower. The physical blast effect is created by the coupling of immense amounts of energy, spanning the [[electromagnetic spectrum]], with the surroundings. The environment of the explosion (e.g. submarine, [[ground burst]], [[air burst]], or exo-atmospheric) determines how much energy is distributed to the blast and how much to radiation. In general, surrounding a bomb with denser media, such as water, absorbs more energy and creates more powerful [[shockwave]]s while at the same time limiting the area of its effect. When a nuclear weapon is surrounded only by air, lethal blast and thermal effects proportionally scale much more rapidly than lethal radiation effects as explosive yield increases. This bubble is faster than the speed of sound.<ref name="remm.nlm.gov">http://www.remm.nlm.gov/RemmMockup_files/radiationlethality.jpg</ref> The physical damage mechanisms of a nuclear weapon (blast and thermal radiation) are identical to those of conventional explosives, but the energy produced by a nuclear explosion is usually millions of times more powerful per unit mass and temperatures may briefly reach the tens of millions of degrees.
Energy from a nuclear explosion is initially released in several forms of penetrating radiation. When there is surrounding material such as air, rock, or water, this radiation interacts with and rapidly heats the material to an equilibrium temperature (i.e. so that the matter is at the same temperature as the fuel powering the explosion). This causes [[vaporization]] of the surrounding material, resulting in its rapid expansion. [[Kinetic energy]] created by this expansion contributes to the formation of a [[shockwave]] which expands spherically from the center. Intense thermal radiation at the [[hypocenter]] forms a [[nuclear fireball]] which, if the explosion is low enough in altitude, is often associated with a [[mushroom cloud]]. In a high-altitude burst, where the density of the atmosphere is low, more energy is released as ionizing [[gamma radiation]] and [[X-ray]]s than as an atmosphere-displacing shockwave.
== Direct effects ==
=== Blast damage ===
[[File: Blastcurves psi.svg|thumb|right|Overpressure ranges from 1 to 50 [[Pounds per square inch|psi]] (6.9 to 345 kilopascals) of a 1 kiloton of TNT air burst as a function of burst height. The thin black curve indicates the optimum burst height for a given ground range. Military planners prefer to maximize the range at which 10 psi, or more, is extended over when attacking civilian targets, thus a 220 m height of burst would be preferred for a 1 kiloton blast. To find the optimum height of burst for any weapon yield, the cube root of the yield in kilotons is multiplied by the ideal H.O.B for a 1 kt blast, e.g. the optimum height of burst for a 500 kt weapon is ~ 1745 m.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/www/effects/|title=The Effects of Nuclear Weapons|first=Samuel Glasstone, Philip J.|last=Dolan|website=www.fourmilab.ch|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref>]]
[[File: Abombdamage very very strong bomb .svg|thumb|left|An estimate of the size of the damage caused by the 16 kt and 21 kt [[atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]].]]
The high temperatures and radiation cause gas to move outward radially in a thin, dense shell called "the hydrodynamic front". The front acts like a piston that pushes against and compresses the surrounding medium to make a spherically expanding [[shock wave]]. At first, this shock wave is inside the surface of the developing fireball, which is created in a volume of air heated by the explosion's "soft" X-rays. Within a fraction of a second, the dense shock front obscures the fireball and continues to move past it, now expanding outwards, free from the fireball, causing a reduction of light emanating from a nuclear detonation. Eventually, the shock wave dissipates to the point where the light becomes visible again giving rise to the characteristic '''double flash''' due to the shock wave–fireball interaction.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nuclearweaponarchive.org/Russia/TsarBomba.html|title=The Soviet Weapons Program - The Tsar Bomba|website=www.nuclearweaponarchive.org|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref> It is this unique feature of nuclear explosions that is exploited when verifying that an atmospheric nuclear explosion has occurred and not simply a large conventional explosion, with [[radiometer]] instruments known as [[Bhangmeter]]s capable of determining the nature of explosions.
For air bursts at or near sea-level, 50–60% of the explosion's energy goes into the blast wave, depending on the size and the [[Nuclear weapon yield|yield of the bomb]]. As a general rule, the blast fraction is higher for low yield weapons. Furthermore, it decreases at high altitudes because there is less air mass to absorb radiation energy and convert it into a blast. This effect is most important for altitudes above 30 km, corresponding to less than 1 percent of sea-level air density.
The effects of a moderate rain storm during an [[Operation Castle]] nuclear explosion was found to dampen, or reduce, peak pressure levels by approximately 15% at all ranges.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/MilitaryEffectsStudiesonOperationCastle1954|title=Military Effects Studies on Operation CASTLE|last=AFSWP|date=30 March 2018|access-date=30 March 2018|via=Internet Archive}}</ref>
[[File: General Effects of Atomic Bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.ogv|thumb|left|The General Effects of the Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Describes effects, particularly blast effects, and the response of various types of structures to the weapons effects.]]
Much of the destruction caused by a nuclear explosion is due to blast effects. Most buildings, except reinforced or blast-resistant structures, will suffer moderate damage when subjected to overpressures of only 35.5 [[Pascal (unit)|kilopascals]] (kPa) (5.15 [[pounds-force per square inch]] or 0.35 atm).
Data obtained from the Japanese surveys found that {{convert|8|psi|kPa|abbr=on}} was sufficient to destroy all wooden and brick residential structures. This can reasonably be defined as the pressure capable of producing severe damage.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/MilitaryEffectsStudiesonOperationCastle1954|title=Military Effects Studies on Operation CASTLE|last=AFSWP|date=30 March 2018|access-date=30 March 2018|via=Internet Archive}}</ref>
The blast wind at sea level may exceed one thousand km/h, or ~300 m/s, approaching the [[speed of sound]] in air. The range for blast effects increases with the explosive yield of the weapon and also depends on the burst altitude. Contrary to what one might expect from geometry, the blast range is not maximal for surface or low altitude blasts but increases with altitude up to an "optimum burst altitude" and then decreases rapidly for higher altitudes. This is due to the nonlinear behavior of shock waves. When the blast wave from an air burst reaches the ground it is reflected. Below a certain reflection angle, the reflected wave and the direct wave merge and form a reinforced horizontal wave, this is known as the 'Mach stem' (named after [[Ernst Mach]]) and is a form of [[constructive interference]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atomicarchive.com/Effects/effects6.shtml|title=The Mach Stem – Effects of Nuclear Weapons – atomicarchive.com|website=www.atomicarchive.com|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref>
<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/blast.htm | title=Striving for a Safer World Since 1945}}</ref>
<ref>[http://www.atomicarchive.com/Movies/machstem.shtml] video of the mach 'Y' stem, it is not a phenomenon unique to nuclear explosions, conventional explosions also produce it.</ref> This constructive interference is the phenomenon responsible for the bumps or 'knees' in the above overpressure range graph.
For each goal overpressure, there is a certain optimum burst height at which the blast range is maximized over ground targets. In a typical air burst, where the blast range is maximized to produce the greatest range of severe damage, i.e. the greatest range that ~{{convert|10|psi|kPa|abbr=on}} of pressure is extended over, is a GR/ground range of 0.4 km for 1 [[kiloton]] (kt) of TNT yield; 1.9 km for 100 kt; and 8.6 km for 10 [[TNT equivalent|megatons]] (Mt) of TNT. The optimum height of burst to maximize this desired severe ground range destruction for a 1 kt bomb is 0.22 km; for 100 kt, 1 km; and for 10 Mt, 4.7 km.
Two distinct, simultaneous phenomena are associated with the [[blast wave]] in the air:
* '''[[Static overpressure]]''', i.e., the sharp increase in pressure exerted by the shock wave. The overpressure at any given point is directly proportional to the density of the air in the wave.
* '''[[Dynamic pressure]]s''', i.e., drag exerted by the blast winds required to form the blast wave. These winds push, tumble and tear objects.
Most of the material damage caused by a nuclear air burst is caused by a combination of the high static overpressures and the blast winds. The long compression of the blast wave weakens structures, which are then torn apart by the blast winds. The compression, vacuum and drag phases together may last several seconds or longer, and exert forces many times greater than the strongest [[hurricane]].
Acting on the human body, the shock waves cause pressure waves through the tissues. These waves mostly damage junctions between tissues of different densities (bone and muscle) or the interface between tissue and air. Lungs and the [[abdominal cavity]], which contain air, are particularly injured. The damage causes severe [[bleeding|hemorrhaging]] or [[air embolism]]s, either of which can be rapidly fatal. The overpressure estimated to damage lungs is about 70 kPa. Some [[eardrum]]s would probably rupture around 22 kPa (0.2 atm) and half would rupture between 90 and 130 kPa (0.9 to 1.2 atm).
'''Blast winds''': The drag energies of the blast winds are proportional to the cubes of their velocities multiplied by the durations. These winds may reach several hundred kilometers per hour.
=== Thermal radiation ===
[[File:342-usaf-11034 Medical Aspects-Hiroshima.webm|thumb|left|Silent USSBS ([[United States Strategic Bombing Survey]]) footage which is primarily an analysis of flash burn injuries to those at Hiroshima. At 2:00, as is typical of the shapes of sunburns, the protection afforded by clothing, in this case, pants, with the nurse pointing to the line of demarcation where the pants begin to completely protect the lower body from burns. At 4:27 it can be deduced from the burning shape that the man was facing the fireball and was wearing a vest at the time of the explosion etc. Many of the burn injuries exhibit raised [[keloid]] healing patterns. 25 female survivors required extensive post-war surgeries and were termed the [[Hiroshima maidens]].]]
Nuclear weapons emit large amounts of [[thermal radiation]] as visible, infrared, and ultraviolet light, to which the atmosphere is largely transparent. This is known as "Flash".<ref name="Nuclear Bomb Effects">{{cite web|title=Nuclear Bomb Effects|url=http://www.solcomhouse.com/nuclearholocaust.htm|work=The Atomic Archive|publisher=solcomhouse.com|access-date=12 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827052819/http://www.solcomhouse.com/nuclearholocaust.htm|archive-date=27 August 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> The chief hazards are burns and eye injuries. On clear days, these injuries can occur well beyond blast ranges, depending on weapon yield.<ref name="remm.nlm.gov"/> Fires may also be started by the initial thermal radiation, but the following high winds due to the blast wave may put out almost all such fires, unless the yield is very high, where the range of thermal effects vastly outranges blast effects, as observed from explosions in the multi-megaton range.<ref name="remm.nlm.gov"/> This is because the intensity of the blast effects drops off with the third power of distance from the explosion, while the intensity of radiation effects drops off with the second power of distance. This results in the range of thermal effects increasing markedly more than blast range as higher and higher device yields are detonated.<ref name="remm.nlm.gov"/> Thermal radiation accounts for between 35–45% of the energy released in the explosion, depending on the yield of the device. In urban areas, the extinguishing of fires ignited by thermal radiation may matter little, as in a surprise attack fires may also be started by blast-effect-induced electrical shorts, gas pilot lights, overturned stoves, and other ignition sources, as was the case in the breakfast-time [[Atomic bombing of Hiroshima|bombing of Hiroshima]].<ref name="osti.gov">{{cite journal|url=http://www.osti.gov/bridge/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=4421057|title=Medical Effects Of Atomic Bombs The Report Of The Joint Commission For The Investigation Of The Effects Of The Atomic Bomb In Japan Volume 1|first1=A. W.|last1=Oughterson|first2=G. V.|last2=LeRoy|first3=A. A.|last3=Liebow|first4=E. C.|last4=Hammond|first5=H. L.|last5=Barnett|first6=J. D.|last6=Rosenbaum|first7=B. A.|last7=Schneider|date=19 April 1951|website=osti.gov|access-date=30 March 2018|doi=10.2172/4421057}}</ref> Whether or not these secondary fires will in turn themselves be snuffed out as modern noncombustible brick and concrete buildings collapse in on themselves from the same blast wave is uncertain, not least of which, because of the masking effect of modern city landscapes on thermal and blast transmission are continually examined.<ref>[http://www.usuhs.mil/afrrianniversary/events/rcsymposium/pdf/Millage.pdf Modeling the Effects of Nuclear Weapons in an Urban Setting] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706161001/http://www.usuhs.mil/afrrianniversary/events/rcsymposium/pdf/Millage.pdf |date=July 6, 2011 }}</ref>
When combustible frame buildings were blown down in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, they did not burn as rapidly as they would have done had they remained standing. The noncombustible debris produced by the blast frequently covered and prevented the burning of combustible material.<ref>[https://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/www/effects/eonw_7.pdf Glasstone & Dolan (1977) Thermal effects Chapter] pg 26</ref>
Fire experts suggest that unlike Hiroshima, due to the nature of modern U.S. city design and construction, a [[firestorm]] in modern times is unlikely after a nuclear detonation.<ref name="hps.org">{{cite Q|Q63152882}}, p. 24. NOTE: No citation is provided to support the claim that "a firestorm in modern times is unlikely".</ref> This does not exclude fires from being started, but means that these fires will not form into a firestorm, due largely to the differences between modern building materials and those used in World War II-era Hiroshima.
There are two types of eye injuries from the thermal radiation of a weapon:
[[Flash blindness]] is caused by the initial brilliant flash of light produced by the nuclear detonation. More light energy is received on the retina than can be tolerated, but less than is required for irreversible injury. The retina is particularly susceptible to visible and short wavelength infrared light since this part of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]] is focused by the lens on the retina. The result is bleaching of the visual pigments and temporary blindness for up to 40 minutes.
[[File: The patient's skin is burned in a pattern corresponding to the dark portions of a kimono - NARA - 519686.jpg|right|thumb|upright|Burns visible on a woman in Hiroshima during the blast. Darker colors of her [[kimono]] at the time of detonation correspond to clearly visible burns on the skin which touched parts of the garment exposed to thermal radiation. Since kimono are not form-fitting attire, some parts not directly touching her skin are visible as breaks in the pattern, and the tighter-fitting areas approaching the waistline have a much more well-defined pattern.]]
A retinal burn resulting in permanent damage from scarring is also caused by the concentration of direct thermal energy on the retina by the lens. It will occur only when the fireball is actually in the individual's field of vision and would be a relatively uncommon injury. Retinal burns may be sustained at considerable distances from the explosion. The height of burst and apparent size of the fireball, a function of yield and range will determine the degree and extent of retinal scarring. A scar in the central visual field would be more debilitating. Generally, a limited visual field defect, which will be barely noticeable, is all that is likely to occur.
When thermal radiation strikes an object, part will be reflected, part transmitted, and the rest absorbed. The fraction that is absorbed depends on the nature and color of the material. A thin material may transmit a lot. A light-colored object may reflect much of the incident radiation and thus escape damage, like [[anti-flash white]] paint. The absorbed thermal radiation raises the temperature of the surface and results in scorching, charring, and burning of wood, paper, fabrics, etc. If the material is a poor thermal conductor, the heat is confined to the surface of the material.
The actual ignition of materials depends on how long the thermal pulse lasts and the thickness and moisture content of the target. Near ground zero where the energy flux exceeds 125 [[joule|J]]/cm<sup>2</sup>, what can burn, will. Farther away, only the most easily ignited materials will flame. Incendiary effects are compounded by secondary fires started by the blast wave effects such as from upset stoves and furnaces.
In [[Hiroshima]] on August 6, 1945, a tremendous [[firestorm]] developed within 20 minutes after detonation and destroyed many more buildings and homes, built out of predominantly 'flimsy' wooden materials.<ref name="osti.gov"/> A firestorm has gale-force winds blowing in towards the center of the fire from all points of the compass. It is not peculiar to nuclear explosions, having been observed frequently in large forest fires and following incendiary raids during [[World War II]]. Despite fires destroying a large area of the city of Nagasaki, no true firestorm occurred in the city, even though a higher yielding weapon was used. Many factors explain this seeming contradiction, including a different time of bombing than Hiroshima, terrain, and crucially, a lower fuel loading/fuel density in the city than that of Hiroshima.{{quote|
''Nagasaki probably did not furnish sufficient fuel for the development of a firestorm as compared to the many buildings on the flat terrain at Hiroshima.''<ref>[https://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/www/effects/eonw_7.pdf Glasstone & Dolan (1977) Thermal effects Chapter] pg 304</ref>}}
As thermal radiation travels, more or less, in a straight line from the fireball (unless scattered) any opaque object will produce a protective shadow that provides protection from the flash burn. Depending on the properties of the underlying surface material, the exposed area outside the protective shadow will be either burnt to a darker color, such as charring wood,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pcf.city.hiroshima.jp/virtual/VirtualMuseum_e/visit_e/subcon/he113c.html|title=Damage by the Heat Rays/Shadow Imprinted on an Electric Pole|website=www.pcf.city.hiroshima.jp|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref> or a brighter color, such as asphalt.<ref>"Various other effects of the radiated heat were noted, including the lightening of asphalt road surfaces in spots that had not been protected from the radiated heat by any object such as that of a person walking along the road. Various other surfaces were discolored in different ways by the radiated heat." From the [http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/hiroshim/hiro_med.html#FLASH_BURN Flash Burn] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140224094011/http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/hiroshim/hiro_med.html#FLASH_BURN |date=2014-02-24 }} section of [http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/hiroshim/hiro_med.html "The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki"], a report by the Manhattan Engineering District, June 29, 1946, </ref> If such a weather phenomenon as fog or haze is present at the point of the nuclear explosion, it [[Mie scattering|scatters the flash]], with [[radiant energy]] then reaching burn sensitive substances from all directions. Under these conditions, opaque objects are therefore less effective than they would otherwise be without scattering, as they demonstrate maximum shadowing effect in an environment of perfect visibility and therefore zero scatterings. Similar to a foggy or overcast day, although there are few if any, shadows produced by the sun on such a day, the solar energy that reaches the ground from the sun's [[infrared]] rays is nevertheless considerably diminished, due to it being absorbed by the water of the clouds and the energy also being scattered back into space. Analogously, so too is the intensity at a range of burning flash energy attenuated, in units of [[joule|J]]/cm<sup>2</sup>, along with the slant/horizontal range of a nuclear explosion, during fog or haze conditions. So despite any object that casts a shadow being rendered ineffective as a shield from the flash by fog or haze, due to scattering, the fog fills the same protective role, but generally only at the ranges that survival in the open is just a matter of being protected from the explosion's flash energy.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/www/effects/eonw_7.pdf#zoom=100|title=Glasstone & Dolan 1977 Thermal effects Chapter|website=fourmilab.ch|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref>
The thermal pulse also is responsible for warming the atmospheric nitrogen close to the bomb and causing the creation of atmospheric [[NOx]] smog components. This, as part of the mushroom cloud, is shot into the [[stratosphere]] where it is responsible for [[ozone depletion|dissociating]] [[ozone]] [[ozone layer|there]], in exactly the same way as combustion NOx compounds do. The amount created depends on the yield of the explosion and the blast's environment. Studies done on the total effect of nuclear blasts on the ozone layer have been at least tentatively exonerating after initial discouraging findings.<ref>{{cite journal|first=J.D.|last=Christie|date=1976-05-20|title=Atmospheric ozone depletion by nuclear weapons testing|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|issue=15|volume=81|pages=2583–2594|doi=10.1029/JC081i015p02583|bibcode=1976JGR....81.2583C}} This link is to the abstract; the whole paper is behind a paywall.</ref>
== Indirect effects ==
=== Electromagnetic pulse ===
{{main article|Nuclear electromagnetic pulse|Geomagnetically induced current}}
Gamma rays from a nuclear explosion produce high energy [[electron]]s through [[Compton scattering]]. For high altitude nuclear explosions, these electrons are captured in the [[Earth's magnetic field]] at altitudes between twenty and forty kilometers where they interact with the Earth's magnetic field to produce a coherent [[nuclear electromagnetic pulse]] (NEMP) which lasts about one millisecond. Secondary effects may last for more than a second.
The pulse is powerful enough to cause moderately long metal objects (such as cables) to act as antennas and generate high voltages due to interactions with the electromagnetic pulse. These voltages can destroy unshielded electronics. There are no known biological effects of EMP. The ionized air also disrupts radio traffic that would normally bounce off the [[ionosphere]].
Electronics can be shielded by wrapping them completely in [[conductor (material)|conductive material]] such as metal foil; the effectiveness of the shielding may be less than perfect. Proper shielding is a complex subject due to the large number of variables involved. Semiconductors, especially [[integrated circuits]], are extremely susceptible to the effects of EMP due to the close proximity of the PN junctions, but this is not the case with thermionic tubes (or valves) which are relatively immune to EMP. A [[Faraday cage]] does not offer protection from the effects of EMP unless the mesh is designed to have holes no bigger than the smallest wavelength emitted from a nuclear explosion.
Large nuclear weapons detonated at high altitudes also cause [[geomagnetically induced current]] in very long electrical conductors. The mechanism by which these geomagnetically induced currents are generated is entirely different from the gamma-ray induced pulse produced by Compton electrons.
=== Radar blackout===
{{See also|Nuclear blackout|Christofilos effect}}
The heat of the explosion causes air in the vicinity to become ionized, creating the fireball. The free electrons in the fireball affect radio waves, especially at lower frequencies. This causes a large area of the sky to become opaque to radar, especially those operating in the [[VHF]] and [[UHF]] frequencies, which is common for long-range [[early warning radar]]s. The effect is less for higher frequencies in the [[microwave]] region, as well as lasting a shorter time – the effect falls off both in strength and the affected frequencies as the fireball cools and the electrons begin to re-form onto free nuclei.<ref name=bethe>[https://fas.org/rlg/03%2000%201968%20Bethe-Garwin%20ABM%20Systems.pdf "Anti-Ballistic-Missile Systems"], ''Scientific American'', March 1968, pp. 21–32.</ref>
A second blackout effect is caused by the emission of [[beta particle]]s from the fission products. These can travel long distances, following the Earth's magnetic field lines. When they reach the upper atmosphere they cause ionization similar to the fireball, but over a wider area. Calculations demonstrate that one megaton of fission, typical of a two-megaton H-bomb, will create enough beta radiation to blackout an area {{convert|400|km|miles}} across for five minutes. Careful selection of the burst altitudes and locations can produce an extremely effective radar-blanking effect.<ref name=bethe/>
The physical effects giving rise to blackouts are those that also cause EMP, which itself can cause power blackouts. The two effects are otherwise unrelated, and the similar naming can be confusing.
=== Ionizing radiation ===
About 5% of the energy released in a nuclear air burst is in the form of [[ionizing radiation]]: [[Neutron radiation|neutrons]], [[gamma ray]]s, [[alpha particle]]s and [[electron]]s moving at speeds up to the speed of light. Gamma rays are high-energy electromagnetic radiation; the others are particles that move slower than light. The neutrons result almost exclusively from the [[Nuclear fission|fission]] and [[Nuclear fusion|fusion]] reactions, while the initial gamma radiation includes that arising from these reactions as well as that resulting from the decay of short-lived fission products.
The intensity of initial nuclear radiation decreases rapidly with distance from the point of burst because the radiation spreads over a larger area as it travels away from the explosion (the [[inverse-square law]]). It is also reduced by atmospheric absorption and scattering.
The character of the radiation received at a given location also varies with the distance from the explosion.<ref>Pattison, J.E., Hugtenburg, R.P., Beddoe, A.H., and Charles, M.W. (2001). "Experimental Simulation of A-bomb Gamma-ray Spectra for Radiobiology Studies", ''Radiation Protection Dosimetry'' '''95'''(2):125–136.</ref> Near the point of the explosion, the neutron intensity is greater than the gamma intensity, but with increasing distance the neutron-gamma ratio decreases. Ultimately, the neutron component of the initial radiation becomes negligible in comparison with the gamma component. The range for significant levels of initial radiation does not increase markedly with weapon yield and, as a result, the initial radiation becomes less of a hazard with increasing yield. With larger weapons, above 50 kt (200 TJ), blast and thermal effects are so much greater in importance that prompt radiation effects can be ignored.
The neutron radiation serves to transmute the surrounding matter, often rendering it [[neutron activation|radioactive]]. When added to the dust of radioactive material released by the bomb itself, a large amount of radioactive material is released into the environment. This form of [[radioactive contamination]] is known as [[nuclear fallout]] and poses the primary risk of exposure to ionizing radiation for a large nuclear weapon.
Details of [[nuclear weapon design]] also affect neutron emission: the gun-type assembly [[Hiroshima bomb]] leaked far more neutrons than the implosion-type 21 kt [[Nagasaki bomb]] because the light hydrogen nuclei (protons) predominating in the exploded TNT molecules (surrounding the core of the Nagasaki bomb) slowed down neutrons very efficiently while the heavier iron atoms in the steel nose forging of the Hiroshima bomb scattered neutrons without absorbing much neutron energy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://glasstone.blogspot.com/2006/03/samuel-glasstone-and-philip-j-dolan.html|title=Credible effects of nuclear weapons for real-world peace: peace through tested, proved and practical declassified deterrence and countermeasures against collateral damage. Credible deterrence through simple, effective protection against concentrated and dispersed invasions and aerial attacks. Discussions of the facts as opposed to inaccurate, misleading lies of the "disarm or be annihilated" political dogma variety. Hiroshima and Nagasaki anti-nuclear propaganda debunked by the hard facts. Walls, not wars. Walls bring people together by stopping divisive terrorists.|website=glasstone.blogspot.com|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref>
It was found in early experimentation that normally most of the neutrons released in the cascading chain reaction of the fission bomb are absorbed by the bomb case. Building a bomb case of materials which transmitted rather than absorbed the neutrons could make the bomb more intensely lethal to humans from prompt neutron radiation. This is one of the features used in the development of the [[neutron bomb]].
=== Earthquake ===
The pressure wave from an underground explosion will propagate through the ground and cause a minor [[earthquake]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://alsos.wlu.edu/information.aspx?id=2017|title=Alsos: Nuclear Explosions and Earthquakes: The Parted Veil|website=alsos.wlu.edu|access-date=30 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310191337/http://alsos.wlu.edu/information.aspx?id=2017|archive-date=10 March 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, theory does not suggest that a nuclear explosion could trigger fault rupture and cause a major quake at distances beyond a few tens of kilometers from the shot point.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://seismo.berkeley.edu/seismo/faq/nuke_2.html |title=Nuke 2 |access-date=2006-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060526133051/http://seismo.berkeley.edu/seismo/faq/nuke_2.html |archive-date=2006-05-26 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
=== Summary of the effects ===
The following table summarizes the most important effects of single nuclear explosions under ideal, clear skies, weather conditions. Tables like these are calculated from nuclear weapons effects scaling laws.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=AOY9AQAAIAAJ Paul P. Craig, John A. Jungerman. (1990) ''The Nuclear Arms Race: Technology and Society'' pg 258]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=NO3626AOL9oC&pg=PA644 Calder, Nigel "The effects of a 100 Megaton bomb" ''New Scientist'', 14 Sep 1961, p 644]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Hckys7gpwl4C&pg=PA4 Sartori, Leo "Effects of nuclear weapons" ''Physics and Nuclear Arms Today'' (Readings from ''Physics Today'') pg 2]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq5.html#nfaq5.1|title=Effects of Nuclear Explosions|website=nuclearweaponarchive.org|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref> Advanced computer modelling of real-world conditions and how they impact on the damage to modern urban areas has found that most scaling laws are too simplistic and tend to overestimate nuclear explosion effects. As it is only simplistic and unclassified scaling laws that are commonly encountered, that do not take important things like varying land [[topography]] into account to ease calculation time and equation length. The scaling laws that were used to produce the table below, assume among other things, a perfectly level target area, no attenuating effects from urban [[terrain masking]], e.g. skyscraper shadowing, and no enhancement effects from reflections and tunneling by city streets.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usuhs.mil/afrrianniversary/events/rcsymposium/pdf/Millage.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706161001/http://www.usuhs.mil/afrrianniversary/events/rcsymposium/pdf/Millage.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=6 July 2011|date=6 July 2011|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref>
As a point of comparison in the chart below, the most likely nuclear weapons to be used against countervalue city targets in a global nuclear war are in the sub-megaton range. Weapons of yields from 100 to 475 kilotons have become the most numerous in the US and Russian nuclear arsenals; for example, the warheads equipping the Russian [[Bulava]] submarine-launched ballistic missile ([[SLBM]]) have a yield of 150 kilotons.<ref>[http://en15.rian.ru/img/118575033_free.html The modern Russian Bulava [[SLBM]] is armed with warheads of 100 – 150 kilotons in yield.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006140135/http://en15.rian.ru/img/118575033_free.html |date=October 6, 2014 }}</ref> US examples are the [[W76]] and [[W88]] warheads, with the lower yield W76 being over twice as numerous as the W88 in the US nuclear arsenal.
{| class=wikitable style="margin:1em 1em 1em 0; font-size:95%; text-align:center;"
|+
! rowspan=2 | Effects
! colspan=4 | Explosive yield / height of burst
|-
! 1 kt / 200 m
! 20 kt / 540 m
! 1 Mt / 2.0 km
! 20 Mt / 5.4 km
|-
| colspan=6| '''Blast—effective ground range ''GR'' / km'''
|-
| Urban areas completely levelled ({{convert|20|psi|kPa|abbr=on|disp=or}})
| 0.2
| 0.6
| 2.4
| 6.4
|-
| Destruction of most civilian buildings ({{convert|5|psi|kPa|abbr=on|disp=or}})
| 0.6
| 1.7
| 6.2
| 17
|-
| Moderate damage to civilian buildings ({{convert|1|psi|kPa|abbr=on|disp=or}})
| 1.7
| 4.7
| 17
| 47
|-
| Railway cars thrown from tracks and crushed<br>(<!-- 0.63 kp/cm<sup>2</sup>= -->62 kPa; values for other than 20 kt are extrapolated using the cube-root scaling)
| ≈0.4
| 1.0
| ≈4
| ≈10
|-
| colspan=6 | '''Thermal radiation—effective ground range ''GR'' / km'''
|-
| [[Fourth degree burn]]s, [[Conflagration]]
| 0.5
| 2.0
| 10
| 30
|-
| [[Third degree burn]]s
| 0.6
| 2.5
| 12
| 38
|-
| [[Second degree burn]]s
| 0.8
| 3.2
| 15
| 44
|-
| [[First degree burn]]s
| 1.1
| 4.2
| 19
| 53
|-
| colspan=6 | '''Effects of instant nuclear radiation—effective slant range<sup>1</sup> ''SR'' / km'''
|-
| Lethal<sup>2</sup> total dose (neutrons and gamma rays)
| 0.8
| 1.4
| 2.3
| 4.7
|-
| Total dose for acute radiation syndrome<sup>2</sup>
| 1.2
| 1.8
| 2.9
| 5.4
|}
<sup>1</sup><small> For the direct radiation effects the slant range instead of the ground range is shown here because some effects are not given even at ground zero for some burst heights. If the effect occurs at ground zero the ground range can be derived from slant range and burst altitude ([[Pythagorean theorem]]).</small>
<sup>2</sup><small> "Acute radiation syndrome" corresponds here to a total dose of one [[Gray (unit)|gray]], "lethal" to ten grays. This is only a rough estimate since [[Relative biological effectiveness|biological conditions]] are neglected here.</small>
Further complicating matters, under global nuclear war scenarios, with conditions similar to that during the [[Cold War]], major strategically important cities, like [[Moscow]], and [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] are likely to be hit not once, but numerous times from sub megaton [[multiple independently targetable re-entry vehicles]], in a [[cluster bomb]] or "cookie-cutter" configuration.<ref>[https://ota.fas.org/reports/7906.pdf "The Effects of Nuclear War" Office of Technology Assessment, May 1979. pages 42 and 44.] Compare the destruction from a single 1 megaton weapon detonation on Leningrad on page 42 to that of 10 clustered 40 kiloton weapon detonations in a 'cookie-cutter' configuration on page 44; the level of total destruction is similar in both cases despite the total yield in the second attack scenario being less than half of that delivered in the 1 megaton case</ref> It has been reported that during the height of the Cold War in the 1970s Moscow was targeted by up to 60 warheads.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Hckys7gpwl4C&pg=PA24 Sartori, Leo "Effects of nuclear weapons" ''Physics and Nuclear Arms Today'' (Readings from ''Physics Today'') pg 22]</ref> The reasons that the cluster bomb concept is preferable in the targeting of cities is twofold, the first is down to the fact that large singular warheads are much easier to neutralize as both tracking and successful interception by [[A-35 anti-ballistic missile system|anti-ballistic missile system]]s than it is when several smaller incoming warheads are approaching. This [[strength in numbers]] advantage to lower yield warheads is further compounded by such warheads tending to move at higher incoming speeds, due to their smaller, more slender [[physics package]] size, assuming both nuclear weapon designs are the same (a design exception being the advanced [[W88]]).<ref>
[https://books.google.com/books?id=x__CgnLTLqkC&pg=PA65 Robert C. Aldridge (1983) ''First Strike! The Pentagon's Strategy for Nuclear War'' pg 65]</ref> The second reason for this cluster bomb, or ‘layering’<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/nm_book_5_11/appendix_F.htm |title=The Nuclear Matters Handbook |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302091606/http://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/nm_book_5_11/appendix_F.htm |archive-date=2013-03-02 }}</ref> (using repeated hits by accurate low yield weapons), is that this tactic along with limiting the risk of failure, also reduces individual bomb yields, and therefore reduces the possibility of any serious collateral damage to non-targeted nearby civilian areas, including that of neighboring countries. This concept was pioneered by [[Philip J. Dolan]] and others.
== Other phenomena ==
[[Image:Nukecloud.png|thumb|left|250 px|Mushroom cloud height depending on yield for ground bursts.{{citation needed|date = September 2015|reason=The data so nicely plotted up here is ''not verifiable'' because its source is unstated.}}<br /> 0 = Approx. altitude at which a commercial aircraft operates<br />1 = [[Fat Man]]<br />2 = [[Castle Bravo]]]]
[[Gamma rays]] from the nuclear processes preceding the true explosion may be partially responsible for the following fireball, as they may superheat nearby air and/or other material.<ref name="Nuclear Bomb Effects"/> The vast majority of the energy that goes on to form the fireball is in the soft [[X-ray]] region of the electromagnetic spectrum, with these X-rays being produced by the [[inelastic collisions]] of the high-speed fission and fusion products. It is these reaction products and not the gamma rays which contain most of the energy of the nuclear reactions in the form of [[kinetic energy]]. This kinetic energy of the fission and fusion fragments is converted into internal and then radiation energy by approximately following the process of [[blackbody radiation]] emitting in the soft X-ray region.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/nukeffct/enw77b3.html|title='' The Effects of Nuclear Weapons'' (1977) CHAPTER II: "Descriptions of Nuclear Explosions, Scientific Aspects of Nuclear Explosion Phenomena."|website=vt.edu|access-date=30 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426231956/http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/nukeffct/enw77b3.html|archive-date=26 April 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> As a result of numerous inelastic collisions, part of the kinetic energy of the fission fragments is converted into internal and radiation energy. Some of the electrons are removed entirely from the atoms, thus causing ionization, others are raised to higher energy (or excited) states while still remaining attached to the nuclei. Within an extremely short time, perhaps a hundredth of a microsecond or so, the weapon residues consist essentially of completely and partially stripped (ionized) atoms, many of the latter being in excited states, together with the corresponding free electrons. The system then immediately emits electromagnetic (thermal) radiation, the nature of which is determined by the temperature. Since this is of the order of 10<sup>7</sup> degrees, most of the energy emitted within a microsecond or so is in the soft X-ray region. To understand this one must remember that temperature depends on the average internal energy/heat of the particles in a certain volume, and internal energy or heat is due to [[kinetic energy]].
For an explosion in the atmosphere, the fireball quickly expands to maximum size, and then begins to cool as it rises like a balloon through [[buoyancy]] in the surrounding air. As it does so it takes on the flow pattern of a [[vortex ring]] with incandescent material in the vortex core as seen in certain photographs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Ukgrable2.jpg|title=Photo|website=nuclearweaponarchive.org|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref> This effect is known as a [[mushroom cloud]].<ref name="Nuclear Bomb Effects"/>
Sand will fuse into glass if it is close enough to the nuclear fireball to be drawn into it, and is thus heated to the necessary temperatures to do so; this is known as [[trinitite]].<ref>Robert Hermes and William Strickfaden, 2005, ''New Theory on the Formation of Trinitite'', Nuclear Weapons Journal http://www.wsmr.army.mil/pao/TrinitySite/NewTrinititeTheory.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080726072410/http://www.wsmr.army.mil/pao/TrinitySite/NewTrinititeTheory.htm |date=2008-07-26 }}</ref>
At the explosion of nuclear bombs lightning discharges sometimes occur.<ref>[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987JGR....92.5696C An empirical study of the nuclear explosion-induced lightning seen on IVY-MIKE]</ref>
Smoke trails are often seen in photographs of nuclear explosions. These are not from the explosion; they are left by [[sounding rockets]] launched just prior to detonation. These trails allow observation of the blast's normally invisible shock wave in the moments following the explosion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/SmokeTrails.html|title=What are Those Smoke Trails Doing in That Test Picture?|website=nuclearweaponarchive.org|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref>
The heat and airborne debris created by a nuclear explosion can cause rain; the debris is thought to do this by acting as [[cloud condensation nuclei]]. During the city [[firestorm]] which followed the Hiroshima explosion, drops of water were recorded to have been about the size of [[Marble (toy)|marbles]].<ref>Hersey, John. "Hiroshima", ''The New Yorker'', August 31, 1946.</ref> This was termed ''black rain'', and has served as the source of a [[Black Rain (novel)|book and film by the same name]]. Black rain is not unusual following large fires and is commonly produced by [[pyrocumulus cloud]]s during large forest fires. The rain directly over Hiroshima on that day is said to have begun around 9 a.m. with it covering a wide area from the [[hypocenter]] to the north-west, raining heavily for one hour or more in some areas.<!--<ref name="hiroshima-spirit.jp">{{cite web|url=http://www.hiroshima-spirit.jp/en/museum/morgue_w17.html|title=hiroshima-spirit.jp - This website is for sale! - 原子 原爆 原理 平和 投下 爆弾 記念 資料館 Resources and Information.|website=www.hiroshima-spirit.jp|access-date=30 March 2018 }}</ref>--> The rain directly over the city may have carried [[neutron activation|neutron activated]] building material combustion products, but it did not carry any appreciable nuclear weapon debris or fallout,<ref>{{cite journal|title=Interaction of Fallout with Fires. Final Report.|first1=P. O.|last1=Strom|first2=C. F.|last2=Miller|date=1 January 1969|osti = 4078266}}</ref> although this is generally to the contrary to what other less technical sources state.<!--<ref name="hiroshima-spirit.jp"/>--> The "oily" black [[soot]] particles,<!--<ref name="hiroshima-spirit.jp"/>--> are a characteristic of [[incomplete combustion]] in the city firestorm.
The element [[einsteinium]] was discovered when analyzing nuclear fallout.
A side-effect of the Pascal-B nuclear test during [[Operation Plumbbob#Missing steel bore cap|Operation Plumbbob]] may have resulted in the first man-made object launched into space. The so-called "thunder well" effect from the underground explosion may have launched a metal cover plate into space at six times Earth's [[escape velocity]], although the evidence remains subject to debate.
In 1942, there was some initial speculation among the scientists developing the first nuclear weapons in the [[Manhattan Project]] that a large enough nuclear explosion might ignite the Earth's atmosphere. This notion concerned the nuclear reaction of two atmospheric nitrogen atoms forming carbon and an oxygen atom, with an associated release of energy. The scientists hypothesized that this energy would heat up the remaining atmospheric nitrogen enough to keep the reaction going until all nitrogen atoms were consumed, thereby burning all of the Earth's atmosphere (which is composed of nearly 80% diatomic nitrogen) in one single massive combustion event. [[Hans Bethe]] was assigned the task of studying this hypothesis from the project's earliest days, and eventually concluded that combustion of the entire atmosphere was not possible: the cooling of the fireball due to an inverse [[Compton effect]] all but guaranteed that such a scenario would not become a reality.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Konopinski|first1=E. J|last2=Marvin|first2=C.|last3=Teller|first3=Edward|year=1946|title=Ignition of the Atmosphere with Nuclear Bombs|volume=LA–602|publisher=Los Alamos National Laboratory|url=https://fas.org/sgp/othergov/doe/lanl/docs1/00329010.pdf|access-date=2013-12-06}} The date of the article is 1946; it may have been written to demonstrate due diligence on the problem. It was declassified in 1970.</ref> [[Richard Hamming]], a mathematician, was asked to make a similar calculation just before the [[Trinity (nuclear test)|first nuclear test]], with the same result.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hamming|first=Richard |year=1998 |title=Mathematics on a Distant Planet |journal=The American Mathematical Monthly |volume=105 |issue=7 |pages=640–650 |jstor=2589247 |doi=10.1080/00029890.1998.12004938 }}</ref> Nevertheless, the notion has persisted as a rumor for many years and was the source of apocalyptic [[gallows humor]] at the Trinity test.
==Survivability==
{{main article|Duck and Cover (film)|Protect and Survive|Nuclear bombs and health}}
This is highly dependent on factors such as if one is indoors or out, the size of the explosion, the proximity to the explosion, and to a lesser degree the direction of the wind carrying fallout.
Death is highly likely and radiation poisoning is almost certain if one is caught in the open with no terrain or building masking effects within a radius of 0–3 km from a 1 megaton airburst, and the [[LD50|50% chance of death]] from the blast extends out to ~8 km from the same 1 megaton atmospheric explosion.<ref>http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/nuclear/nukgr3.gif</ref>
To highlight the variability in the real world, and the effect that being indoors can make, despite the lethal radiation and blast zone extending well past her position at Hiroshima,<ref>http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/nuclear/nukgr1.gif</ref> Akiko Takakura survived the effects of a 16 kt atomic bomb at a distance of 300 meters from the hypocenter, with only minor injuries, due mainly to her position in the lobby of the Bank of Japan, a [[reinforced concrete]] building, at the time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pcf.city.hiroshima.jp/virtual/VirtualMuseum_e/visit_e/testimony_e/testimo07.html|title=What I Want to Say Now|website=www.pcf.city.hiroshima.jp|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/Hibakusha/Akiko.shtml|title=Testimony of Akiko Takakura - The Voice of Hibakusha - The Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki - Historical Documents - atomicarchive.com|website=www.atomicarchive.com|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref> In contrast, the unknown person sitting outside, fully exposed, on the steps of the Sumitomo Bank, next door to the Bank of Japan, received lethal third-degree burns and was then likely killed by the blast, in that order, within two seconds.<ref>http://www.pcf.city.hiroshima.jp/virtual/museum/index.php?l=e&no=1000</ref>
With medical attention, radiation exposure is survivable to 200 rems of acute dose exposure. If a group of people is exposed to a 50 to 59 rems acute (within 24 hours) radiation dose, none will get radiation sickness. If the group is exposed to 60 to 180 rems, 50% will become sick with radiation poisoning. If medically treated, all of the 60–180 rems group will survive. If the group is exposed to 200 to 450 rems, most if not all of the group will become sick. 50% of the 200–450 rems group will die within two to four weeks, even with medical attention. If the group is exposed to 460 to 600 rems, 100% of the group will get radiation poisoning. 50% of the 460–600 rems group will die within one to three weeks. If the group is exposed to 600 to 1000 rems, 50% will die in one to three weeks. If the group is exposed to 1,000 to 5,000 rems, 100% of the group will die within 2 weeks. At 5,000 rems, 100% of the group will die within 2 days.<ref>{{cite book|last1=McCarthy|first1=Walton|title=M.E.|date=2013|publisher=Brown Books Publishing Group|location=Dallas, TX|isbn=978-1612541143|page=420|edition=6th|url=https://noradshelters.com/radiation-shielding-materials/|access-date=9 December 2016|ref=pop}}</ref>
== See also ==
{{div col begin}}
* [[Bomb pulse]]
* [[Effects of nuclear explosions on human health]]
* [[Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents]]
* [[List of nuclear weapons tests]]
* [[Nuclear warfare]]
* [[Nuclear holocaust]]
* [[Nuclear terrorism]]
* [[Peaceful nuclear explosion]]
* [[Rope trick effect]]
* [[Underwater explosion]]
* [[Nuclear weapons in popular culture#List of visual depictions|Visual depictions of nuclear explosions in fiction]]
{{div col end}}
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
== External links ==
{{Commons category|Nuclear weapon tests}}
{{Commons category|Radiation health effects}}
{{Commons category|Nuclear explosion physics}}
* [http://sonicbomb.com/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=171 Nuclear Weapon Testing Effects] – Comprehensive video archive
* [http://www.undergroundbombshelter.com Underground Bomb Shelters]
* The [http://fas.org Federation of American Scientists] provide solid information on weapons of mass destruction, including [https://fas.org/nuke/ nuclear weapons] and their [https://web.archive.org/web/20150329105730/http://fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/effects.htm effects]
* The [http://www.oism.org/nwss/ Nuclear War Survival Skills] is a public domain text and is an excellent source on how to survive a nuclear attack.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130820065339/http://www.carloslabs.com/node/16 Ground Zero: A Javascript simulation of the effects of a nuclear explosion in a city]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140401010540/http://www.okgeosurvey1.gov/level2/nuke.cat.index.html Oklahoma Geological Survey Nuclear Explosion Catalog] lists 2,199 explosions with their date, country, location, yield, etc.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20030812181714/http://www.ga.gov.au/oracle/nukexp_query.html Australian Government database of all nuclear explosions]
* [http://nuclearweaponarchive.org Nuclear Weapon Archive from Carey Sublette] (NWA) is a reliable source of information and has links to other sources.
* [http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Library/Nukesims.html NWA repository of blast models] mainly used for the effects table (especially DOS programs BLAST and WE)
* [http://meyerweb.com/eric/tools/gmap/hydesim.html HYDESim: High-Yield Detonation Effects Simulator] – [[Mashup (web application hybrid)|Mashup]] of [[Google Maps]] and Javascript to calculate blast effects.
* [http://nuclearsecrecy.com/nukemap/ NUKEMAP] – Google Maps/Javascript effects mapper, which includes fireball size, blast pressure, ionizing radiation, and thermal radiation as well as qualitative descriptions.
* [http://www.nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq0.html Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions]
* [http://www.atomicforum.org/ Atomic Forum]
* [https://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/www/effects/ Samuel Glasstone and Philip J. Dolan, The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, Third Edition, United States Department of Defense & Energy Research and Development Administration] Available Online
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/rcip/nuclear.html Nuclear Emergency and Radiation Resources]
* [https://outrider.org/ Outrider] believes in the power of an informed, engaged public.
{{Nuclear Technology}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Effects Of Nuclear Explosions}}
[[Category:Nuclear weapons]]
[[Category:Nuclear physics]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[sv:Kärnexplosion]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff ) | '@@ -18,5 +18,5 @@
=== Blast damage ===
[[File: Blastcurves psi.svg|thumb|right|Overpressure ranges from 1 to 50 [[Pounds per square inch|psi]] (6.9 to 345 kilopascals) of a 1 kiloton of TNT air burst as a function of burst height. The thin black curve indicates the optimum burst height for a given ground range. Military planners prefer to maximize the range at which 10 psi, or more, is extended over when attacking civilian targets, thus a 220 m height of burst would be preferred for a 1 kiloton blast. To find the optimum height of burst for any weapon yield, the cube root of the yield in kilotons is multiplied by the ideal H.O.B for a 1 kt blast, e.g. the optimum height of burst for a 500 kt weapon is ~ 1745 m.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/www/effects/|title=The Effects of Nuclear Weapons|first=Samuel Glasstone, Philip J.|last=Dolan|website=www.fourmilab.ch|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref>]]
-[[File: Abombdamage1945.svg|thumb|left|An estimate of the size of the damage caused by the 16 kt and 21 kt [[atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]].]]
+[[File: Abombdamage very very strong bomb .svg|thumb|left|An estimate of the size of the damage caused by the 16 kt and 21 kt [[atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]].]]
The high temperatures and radiation cause gas to move outward radially in a thin, dense shell called "the hydrodynamic front". The front acts like a piston that pushes against and compresses the surrounding medium to make a spherically expanding [[shock wave]]. At first, this shock wave is inside the surface of the developing fireball, which is created in a volume of air heated by the explosion's "soft" X-rays. Within a fraction of a second, the dense shock front obscures the fireball and continues to move past it, now expanding outwards, free from the fireball, causing a reduction of light emanating from a nuclear detonation. Eventually, the shock wave dissipates to the point where the light becomes visible again giving rise to the characteristic '''double flash''' due to the shock wave–fireball interaction.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nuclearweaponarchive.org/Russia/TsarBomba.html|title=The Soviet Weapons Program - The Tsar Bomba|website=www.nuclearweaponarchive.org|access-date=30 March 2018}}</ref> It is this unique feature of nuclear explosions that is exploited when verifying that an atmospheric nuclear explosion has occurred and not simply a large conventional explosion, with [[radiometer]] instruments known as [[Bhangmeter]]s capable of determining the nature of explosions.
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Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html ) | '<div class="mw-parser-output"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Type and severity of damage caused by nuclear weapons</div>
<table class="box-More_footnotes plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div style="width:52px"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a list of general <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Fact_and_Reference_Check" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Fact and Reference Check">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2008</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Atomic_blast_Nevada_Yucca_1951_(better_quality).png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Atomic_blast_Nevada_Yucca_1951_%28better_quality%29.png/200px-Atomic_blast_Nevada_Yucca_1951_%28better_quality%29.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="251" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Atomic_blast_Nevada_Yucca_1951_%28better_quality%29.png/300px-Atomic_blast_Nevada_Yucca_1951_%28better_quality%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Atomic_blast_Nevada_Yucca_1951_%28better_quality%29.png/400px-Atomic_blast_Nevada_Yucca_1951_%28better_quality%29.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="877" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Atomic_blast_Nevada_Yucca_1951_(better_quality).png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The 14-kiloton <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear testing">test shot</a> Charlie of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Buster%E2%80%93Jangle" title="Operation Buster–Jangle">Operation Buster–Jangle</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Nevada_Proving_Grounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Nevada Proving Grounds">Nevada Proving Grounds</a> on October 30, 1951. The red/orange color seen here in the cap of the <a href="/wiki/Mushroom_cloud" title="Mushroom cloud">mushroom cloud</a> is largely due to the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fireball" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear fireball">fireball</a>'s intense heat in combination with the <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> naturally found in air. Oxygen and nitrogen, though generally unreactive toward each other, form <a href="/wiki/NOx" title="NOx">NOx</a> species when heated to excess, specifically <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide" title="Nitrogen dioxide">nitrogen dioxide</a>, which is largely responsible for the color. There was concern in the 1970s and 1980s, later proven unfounded, regarding <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter#Early_work" title="Nuclear winter">fireball NOx and ozone loss</a>.</div></div></div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1045330069">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:#f8f9fa;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:720px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Nuclear weapons</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Little_boy.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Photograph of a mock-up of the Little Boy nuclear weapon dropped on Hiroshima, Japan, in August 1945." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Little_boy.jpg/170px-Little_boy.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="112" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Little_boy.jpg/255px-Little_boy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Little_boy.jpg/340px-Little_boy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="703" data-file-height="462" /></a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee;">
Background</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Warfare</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design" title="Nuclear weapon design">Design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">Testing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_delivery" title="Nuclear weapons delivery">Delivery</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield" title="Nuclear weapon yield">Yield</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Effects</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_projected_death_tolls_from_nuclear_attacks_on_cities" title="List of projected death tolls from nuclear attacks on cities">estimated megadeaths</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_explosion" title="Nuclear explosion">explosions</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">Winter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_labor_issues" title="Nuclear labor issues">Workers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_ethics" title="Nuclear ethics">Ethics</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons" title="List of nuclear weapons">Arsenals</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Arms race</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_espionage" title="Nuclear espionage">Espionage</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">Proliferation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">Disarmament</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_terrorism" title="Nuclear terrorism">Terrorism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">Opposition</a></li></ul></td>
</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee;">
<a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons" title="List of states with nuclear weapons">Nuclear-armed states</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<dl><dd><i><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons">NPT</a> recognized</i><br /><a href="/wiki/United_States_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="United States and weapons of mass destruction">United States</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Russia_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Russia and weapons of mass destruction">Russia</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Nuclear weapons of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/wiki/France_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="France and weapons of mass destruction">France</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/wiki/China_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="China and weapons of mass destruction">China</a></dd></dl>
<dl><dd><i>Others</i><br /><a href="/wiki/India_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="India and weapons of mass destruction">India</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_and_Israel" title="Nuclear weapons and Israel">Israel</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(undeclared)</span></dd>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction">Pakistan</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/wiki/North_Korea_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="North Korea and weapons of mass destruction">North Korea</a></dd></dl>
<dl><dd><i>Former</i><br /><a href="/wiki/South_Africa_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="South Africa and weapons of mass destruction">South Africa</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons#Former_Soviet_Republics" title="List of states with nuclear weapons">Belarus </a></dd>
<dd><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons#Former_Soviet_Republics" title="List of states with nuclear weapons">Kazakhstan</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_and_Ukraine" title="Nuclear weapons and Ukraine">Ukraine</a></dd></dl></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1063604349">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_weapons" title="Template:Nuclear weapons"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_weapons" title="Template talk:Nuclear weapons"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Nuclear_weapons&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>The effects of a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_explosion" title="Nuclear explosion">nuclear explosion</a> on its immediate vicinity are typically much more destructive and multifaceted than those caused by <a href="/wiki/Conventional_explosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Conventional explosive">conventional explosives</a>. In most cases, the energy released from a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapon</a> detonated within the <a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">lower atmosphere</a> can be approximately divided into four basic categories:<sup id="cite_ref-remmNucExpl_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-remmNucExpl-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul><li>the <a href="/wiki/Explosion" title="Explosion">blast</a> itself: 40–50% of total energy</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">thermal radiation</a>: 30–50% of total energy</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a>: 5% of total energy (more in a <a href="/wiki/Neutron_bomb" title="Neutron bomb">neutron bomb</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">residual radiation</a>: 5–10% of total energy with the mass of the explosion.</li></ul>
<p>Depending on the design of the weapon and the location in which it is detonated, the energy distributed to any one of these categories may be significantly higher or lower. The physical blast effect is created by the coupling of immense amounts of energy, spanning the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic spectrum</a>, with the surroundings. The environment of the explosion (e.g. submarine, <a href="/wiki/Ground_burst" title="Ground burst">ground burst</a>, <a href="/wiki/Air_burst" title="Air burst">air burst</a>, or exo-atmospheric) determines how much energy is distributed to the blast and how much to radiation. In general, surrounding a bomb with denser media, such as water, absorbs more energy and creates more powerful <a href="/wiki/Shockwave" class="mw-redirect" title="Shockwave">shockwaves</a> while at the same time limiting the area of its effect. When a nuclear weapon is surrounded only by air, lethal blast and thermal effects proportionally scale much more rapidly than lethal radiation effects as explosive yield increases. This bubble is faster than the speed of sound.<sup id="cite_ref-remm.nlm.gov_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-remm.nlm.gov-2">[2]</a></sup> The physical damage mechanisms of a nuclear weapon (blast and thermal radiation) are identical to those of conventional explosives, but the energy produced by a nuclear explosion is usually millions of times more powerful per unit mass and temperatures may briefly reach the tens of millions of degrees.
</p><p>Energy from a nuclear explosion is initially released in several forms of penetrating radiation. When there is surrounding material such as air, rock, or water, this radiation interacts with and rapidly heats the material to an equilibrium temperature (i.e. so that the matter is at the same temperature as the fuel powering the explosion). This causes <a href="/wiki/Vaporization" title="Vaporization">vaporization</a> of the surrounding material, resulting in its rapid expansion. <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">Kinetic energy</a> created by this expansion contributes to the formation of a <a href="/wiki/Shockwave" class="mw-redirect" title="Shockwave">shockwave</a> which expands spherically from the center. Intense thermal radiation at the <a href="/wiki/Hypocenter" title="Hypocenter">hypocenter</a> forms a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fireball" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear fireball">nuclear fireball</a> which, if the explosion is low enough in altitude, is often associated with a <a href="/wiki/Mushroom_cloud" title="Mushroom cloud">mushroom cloud</a>. In a high-altitude burst, where the density of the atmosphere is low, more energy is released as ionizing <a href="/wiki/Gamma_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma radiation">gamma radiation</a> and <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a> than as an atmosphere-displacing shockwave.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Direct_effects"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Direct effects</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Blast_damage"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Blast damage</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Thermal_radiation"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Thermal radiation</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Indirect_effects"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Indirect effects</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Electromagnetic_pulse"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Electromagnetic pulse</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Radar_blackout"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Radar blackout</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Ionizing_radiation"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Ionizing radiation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Earthquake"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Earthquake</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Summary_of_the_effects"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Summary of the effects</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Other_phenomena"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Other phenomena</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Survivability"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Survivability</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Direct_effects">Direct effects</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_nuclear_explosions&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Direct effects">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Blast_damage">Blast damage</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_nuclear_explosions&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Blast damage">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Blastcurves_psi.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Blastcurves_psi.svg/220px-Blastcurves_psi.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Blastcurves_psi.svg/330px-Blastcurves_psi.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Blastcurves_psi.svg/440px-Blastcurves_psi.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Blastcurves_psi.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Overpressure ranges from 1 to 50 <a href="/wiki/Pounds_per_square_inch" class="mw-redirect" title="Pounds per square inch">psi</a> (6.9 to 345 kilopascals) of a 1 kiloton of TNT air burst as a function of burst height. The thin black curve indicates the optimum burst height for a given ground range. Military planners prefer to maximize the range at which 10 psi, or more, is extended over when attacking civilian targets, thus a 220 m height of burst would be preferred for a 1 kiloton blast. To find the optimum height of burst for any weapon yield, the cube root of the yield in kilotons is multiplied by the ideal H.O.B for a 1 kt blast, e.g. the optimum height of burst for a 500 kt weapon is ~ 1745 m.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup></div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Upload?wpDestFile=Abombdamage_very_very_strong_bomb_.svg" class="new" title="File:Abombdamage very very strong bomb .svg">File:Abombdamage very very strong bomb .svg</a> <div class="thumbcaption">An estimate of the size of the damage caused by the 16 kt and 21 kt <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a>.</div></div></div>
<p>The high temperatures and radiation cause gas to move outward radially in a thin, dense shell called "the hydrodynamic front". The front acts like a piston that pushes against and compresses the surrounding medium to make a spherically expanding <a href="/wiki/Shock_wave" title="Shock wave">shock wave</a>. At first, this shock wave is inside the surface of the developing fireball, which is created in a volume of air heated by the explosion's "soft" X-rays. Within a fraction of a second, the dense shock front obscures the fireball and continues to move past it, now expanding outwards, free from the fireball, causing a reduction of light emanating from a nuclear detonation. Eventually, the shock wave dissipates to the point where the light becomes visible again giving rise to the characteristic <b>double flash</b> due to the shock wave–fireball interaction.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> It is this unique feature of nuclear explosions that is exploited when verifying that an atmospheric nuclear explosion has occurred and not simply a large conventional explosion, with <a href="/wiki/Radiometer" title="Radiometer">radiometer</a> instruments known as <a href="/wiki/Bhangmeter" title="Bhangmeter">Bhangmeters</a> capable of determining the nature of explosions.
</p><p>For air bursts at or near sea-level, 50–60% of the explosion's energy goes into the blast wave, depending on the size and the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield" title="Nuclear weapon yield">yield of the bomb</a>. As a general rule, the blast fraction is higher for low yield weapons. Furthermore, it decreases at high altitudes because there is less air mass to absorb radiation energy and convert it into a blast. This effect is most important for altitudes above 30  km, corresponding to less than 1 percent of sea-level air density.
</p><p>The effects of a moderate rain storm during an <a href="/wiki/Operation_Castle" title="Operation Castle">Operation Castle</a> nuclear explosion was found to dampen, or reduce, peak pressure levels by approximately 15% at all ranges.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><div id="mwe_player_0" class="PopUpMediaTransform" style="width:220px;" videopayload="<div class="mediaContainer" style="width:400px"><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/General_Effects_of_Atomic_Bomb_on_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki.ogv/400px--General_Effects_of_Atomic_Bomb_on_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" autoplay="" style="width:400px;height:300px" class="kskin" data-durationhint="1320.3203203203" data-startoffset="0" data-mwtitle="General_Effects_of_Atomic_Bomb_on_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/General_Effects_of_Atomic_Bomb_on_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs=&quot;theora, vorbis&quot;" data-title="Original Ogg file, 400 × 300 (630 kbps)" data-shorttitle="Ogg source" data-width="400" data-height="300" data-bandwidth="630105" data-framerate="59.94"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b1/General_Effects_of_Atomic_Bomb_on_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki.ogv/General_Effects_of_Atomic_Bomb_on_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki.ogv.120p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;" data-title="Lowest bandwidth VP9 (120P)" data-shorttitle="VP9 120P" data-transcodekey="120p.vp9.webm" data-width="160" data-height="120" data-bandwidth="204664" data-framerate="59.94"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b1/General_Effects_of_Atomic_Bomb_on_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki.ogv/General_Effects_of_Atomic_Bomb_on_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki.ogv.160p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp8, vorbis&quot;" data-title="Low bandwidth WebM (160P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 160P" data-transcodekey="160p.webm" data-width="214" data-height="160" data-bandwidth="222208" data-framerate="59.94"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b1/General_Effects_of_Atomic_Bomb_on_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki.ogv/General_Effects_of_Atomic_Bomb_on_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki.ogv.180p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;" data-title="Low bandwidth VP9 (180P)" data-shorttitle="VP9 180P" data-transcodekey="180p.vp9.webm" data-width="240" data-height="180" data-bandwidth="287688" data-framerate="59.94"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b1/General_Effects_of_Atomic_Bomb_on_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki.ogv/General_Effects_of_Atomic_Bomb_on_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki.ogv.240p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp8, vorbis&quot;" data-title="Small WebM (240P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 240P" data-transcodekey="240p.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" data-bandwidth="324448" data-framerate="59.94"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b1/General_Effects_of_Atomic_Bomb_on_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki.ogv/General_Effects_of_Atomic_Bomb_on_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;" data-title="Small VP9 (240P)" data-shorttitle="VP9 240P" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" data-bandwidth="387624" data-framerate="59.94"/></video></div>"><img alt="File:General Effects of Atomic Bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.ogv" style="width:220px;height:165px" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/General_Effects_of_Atomic_Bomb_on_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki.ogv/220px--General_Effects_of_Atomic_Bomb_on_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki.ogv.jpg" /><a href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/General_Effects_of_Atomic_Bomb_on_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki.ogv" title="Play media" target="new"><span class="play-btn-large"><span class="mw-tmh-playtext">Play media</span></span></a></div> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:General_Effects_of_Atomic_Bomb_on_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki.ogv" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The General Effects of the Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Describes effects, particularly blast effects, and the response of various types of structures to the weapons effects.</div></div></div>
<p>Much of the destruction caused by a nuclear explosion is due to blast effects. Most buildings, except reinforced or blast-resistant structures, will suffer moderate damage when subjected to overpressures of only 35.5 <a href="/wiki/Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">kilopascals</a> (kPa) (5.15 <a href="/wiki/Pounds-force_per_square_inch" class="mw-redirect" title="Pounds-force per square inch">pounds-force per square inch</a> or 0.35 atm).
Data obtained from the Japanese surveys found that 8 psi (55 kPa) was sufficient to destroy all wooden and brick residential structures. This can reasonably be defined as the pressure capable of producing severe damage.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>The blast wind at sea level may exceed one thousand km/h, or ~300 m/s, approaching the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_sound" title="Speed of sound">speed of sound</a> in air. The range for blast effects increases with the explosive yield of the weapon and also depends on the burst altitude. Contrary to what one might expect from geometry, the blast range is not maximal for surface or low altitude blasts but increases with altitude up to an "optimum burst altitude" and then decreases rapidly for higher altitudes. This is due to the nonlinear behavior of shock waves. When the blast wave from an air burst reaches the ground it is reflected. Below a certain reflection angle, the reflected wave and the direct wave merge and form a reinforced horizontal wave, this is known as the 'Mach stem' (named after <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a>) and is a form of <a href="/wiki/Constructive_interference" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructive interference">constructive interference</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup>
<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup>
<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> This constructive interference is the phenomenon responsible for the bumps or 'knees' in the above overpressure range graph.
</p><p>For each goal overpressure, there is a certain optimum burst height at which the blast range is maximized over ground targets. In a typical air burst, where the blast range is maximized to produce the greatest range of severe damage, i.e. the greatest range that ~10 psi (69 kPa) of pressure is extended over, is a GR/ground range of 0.4 km for 1 <a href="/wiki/Kiloton" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiloton">kiloton</a> (kt) of TNT yield; 1.9 km for 100 kt; and 8.6 km for 10 <a href="/wiki/TNT_equivalent" title="TNT equivalent">megatons</a> (Mt) of TNT. The optimum height of burst to maximize this desired severe ground range destruction for a 1 kt bomb is 0.22  km; for 100 kt, 1  km; and for 10 Mt, 4.7  km.
</p><p>Two distinct, simultaneous phenomena are associated with the <a href="/wiki/Blast_wave" title="Blast wave">blast wave</a> in the air:
</p>
<ul><li><b><a href="/w/index.php?title=Static_overpressure&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Static overpressure (page does not exist)">Static overpressure</a></b>, i.e., the sharp increase in pressure exerted by the shock wave. The overpressure at any given point is directly proportional to the density of the air in the wave.</li>
<li><b><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_pressure" title="Dynamic pressure">Dynamic pressures</a></b>, i.e., drag exerted by the blast winds required to form the blast wave. These winds push, tumble and tear objects.</li></ul>
<p>Most of the material damage caused by a nuclear air burst is caused by a combination of the high static overpressures and the blast winds. The long compression of the blast wave weakens structures, which are then torn apart by the blast winds. The compression, vacuum and drag phases together may last several seconds or longer, and exert forces many times greater than the strongest <a href="/wiki/Hurricane" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurricane">hurricane</a>.
</p><p>Acting on the human body, the shock waves cause pressure waves through the tissues. These waves mostly damage junctions between tissues of different densities (bone and muscle) or the interface between tissue and air. Lungs and the <a href="/wiki/Abdominal_cavity" title="Abdominal cavity">abdominal cavity</a>, which contain air, are particularly injured. The damage causes severe <a href="/wiki/Bleeding" title="Bleeding">hemorrhaging</a> or <a href="/wiki/Air_embolism" title="Air embolism">air embolisms</a>, either of which can be rapidly fatal. The overpressure estimated to damage lungs is about 70 kPa. Some <a href="/wiki/Eardrum" title="Eardrum">eardrums</a> would probably rupture around 22 kPa (0.2 atm) and half would rupture between 90 and 130 kPa (0.9 to 1.2 atm).
</p><p><b>Blast winds</b>: The drag energies of the blast winds are proportional to the cubes of their velocities multiplied by the durations. These winds may reach several hundred kilometers per hour.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Thermal_radiation">Thermal radiation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_nuclear_explosions&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Thermal radiation">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;" data-title="Small VP9 (240P)" data-shorttitle="VP9 240P" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" data-bandwidth="83520" data-framerate="24"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7a/342-usaf-11034_Medical_Aspects-Hiroshima.webm/342-usaf-11034_Medical_Aspects-Hiroshima.webm.240p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp8, vorbis&quot;" data-title="Small WebM (240P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 240P" data-transcodekey="240p.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" data-bandwidth="257368" data-framerate="24"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7a/342-usaf-11034_Medical_Aspects-Hiroshima.webm/342-usaf-11034_Medical_Aspects-Hiroshima.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;" data-title="VP9 (360P)" data-shorttitle="VP9 360P" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" data-bandwidth="136360" data-framerate="24"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7a/342-usaf-11034_Medical_Aspects-Hiroshima.webm/342-usaf-11034_Medical_Aspects-Hiroshima.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp8, vorbis&quot;" data-title="WebM (360P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 360P" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" data-bandwidth="505832" data-framerate="24"/></video></div>"><img alt="File:342-usaf-11034 Medical Aspects-Hiroshima.webm" style="width:220px;height:124px" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/342-usaf-11034_Medical_Aspects-Hiroshima.webm/220px--342-usaf-11034_Medical_Aspects-Hiroshima.webm.jpg" /><a href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/342-usaf-11034_Medical_Aspects-Hiroshima.webm" title="Play media" target="new"><span class="play-btn-large"><span class="mw-tmh-playtext">Play media</span></span></a></div> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:342-usaf-11034_Medical_Aspects-Hiroshima.webm" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Silent USSBS (<a href="/wiki/United_States_Strategic_Bombing_Survey" title="United States Strategic Bombing Survey">United States Strategic Bombing Survey</a>) footage which is primarily an analysis of flash burn injuries to those at Hiroshima. At 2:00, as is typical of the shapes of sunburns, the protection afforded by clothing, in this case, pants, with the nurse pointing to the line of demarcation where the pants begin to completely protect the lower body from burns. At 4:27 it can be deduced from the burning shape that the man was facing the fireball and was wearing a vest at the time of the explosion etc. Many of the burn injuries exhibit raised <a href="/wiki/Keloid" title="Keloid">keloid</a> healing patterns. 25 female survivors required extensive post-war surgeries and were termed the <a href="/wiki/Hiroshima_maidens" class="mw-redirect" title="Hiroshima maidens">Hiroshima maidens</a>.</div></div></div>
<p>Nuclear weapons emit large amounts of <a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">thermal radiation</a> as visible, infrared, and ultraviolet light, to which the atmosphere is largely transparent. This is known as "Flash".<sup id="cite_ref-Nuclear_Bomb_Effects_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nuclear_Bomb_Effects-10">[10]</a></sup> The chief hazards are burns and eye injuries. On clear days, these injuries can occur well beyond blast ranges, depending on weapon yield.<sup id="cite_ref-remm.nlm.gov_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-remm.nlm.gov-2">[2]</a></sup> Fires may also be started by the initial thermal radiation, but the following high winds due to the blast wave may put out almost all such fires, unless the yield is very high, where the range of thermal effects vastly outranges blast effects, as observed from explosions in the multi-megaton range.<sup id="cite_ref-remm.nlm.gov_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-remm.nlm.gov-2">[2]</a></sup> This is because the intensity of the blast effects drops off with the third power of distance from the explosion, while the intensity of radiation effects drops off with the second power of distance. This results in the range of thermal effects increasing markedly more than blast range as higher and higher device yields are detonated.<sup id="cite_ref-remm.nlm.gov_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-remm.nlm.gov-2">[2]</a></sup> Thermal radiation accounts for between 35–45% of the energy released in the explosion, depending on the yield of the device. In urban areas, the extinguishing of fires ignited by thermal radiation may matter little, as in a surprise attack fires may also be started by blast-effect-induced electrical shorts, gas pilot lights, overturned stoves, and other ignition sources, as was the case in the breakfast-time <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombing_of_Hiroshima" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bombing of Hiroshima">bombing of Hiroshima</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-osti.gov_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-osti.gov-11">[11]</a></sup> Whether or not these secondary fires will in turn themselves be snuffed out as modern noncombustible brick and concrete buildings collapse in on themselves from the same blast wave is uncertain, not least of which, because of the masking effect of modern city landscapes on thermal and blast transmission are continually examined.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup>
When combustible frame buildings were blown down in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, they did not burn as rapidly as they would have done had they remained standing. The noncombustible debris produced by the blast frequently covered and prevented the burning of combustible material.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup>
Fire experts suggest that unlike Hiroshima, due to the nature of modern U.S.  city design and construction, a <a href="/wiki/Firestorm" title="Firestorm">firestorm</a> in modern times is unlikely after a nuclear detonation.<sup id="cite_ref-hps.org_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hps.org-14">[14]</a></sup> This does not exclude fires from being started, but means that these fires will not form into a firestorm, due largely to the differences between modern building materials and those used in World War II-era Hiroshima.
</p><p>There are two types of eye injuries from the thermal radiation of a weapon:
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Flash_blindness" title="Flash blindness">Flash blindness</a> is caused by the initial brilliant flash of light produced by the nuclear detonation. More light energy is received on the retina than can be tolerated, but less than is required for irreversible injury. The retina is particularly susceptible to visible and short wavelength infrared light since this part of the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic spectrum</a> is focused by the lens on the retina. The result is bleaching of the visual pigments and temporary blindness for up to 40 minutes.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/wiki/File:The_patient%27s_skin_is_burned_in_a_pattern_corresponding_to_the_dark_portions_of_a_kimono_-_NARA_-_519686.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/The_patient%27s_skin_is_burned_in_a_pattern_corresponding_to_the_dark_portions_of_a_kimono_-_NARA_-_519686.jpg/170px-The_patient%27s_skin_is_burned_in_a_pattern_corresponding_to_the_dark_portions_of_a_kimono_-_NARA_-_519686.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/The_patient%27s_skin_is_burned_in_a_pattern_corresponding_to_the_dark_portions_of_a_kimono_-_NARA_-_519686.jpg/255px-The_patient%27s_skin_is_burned_in_a_pattern_corresponding_to_the_dark_portions_of_a_kimono_-_NARA_-_519686.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/The_patient%27s_skin_is_burned_in_a_pattern_corresponding_to_the_dark_portions_of_a_kimono_-_NARA_-_519686.jpg/340px-The_patient%27s_skin_is_burned_in_a_pattern_corresponding_to_the_dark_portions_of_a_kimono_-_NARA_-_519686.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2362" data-file-height="2955" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:The_patient%27s_skin_is_burned_in_a_pattern_corresponding_to_the_dark_portions_of_a_kimono_-_NARA_-_519686.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Burns visible on a woman in Hiroshima during the blast. Darker colors of her <a href="/wiki/Kimono" title="Kimono">kimono</a> at the time of detonation correspond to clearly visible burns on the skin which touched parts of the garment exposed to thermal radiation. Since kimono are not form-fitting attire, some parts not directly touching her skin are visible as breaks in the pattern, and the tighter-fitting areas approaching the waistline have a much more well-defined pattern.</div></div></div>
<p>A retinal burn resulting in permanent damage from scarring is also caused by the concentration of direct thermal energy on the retina by the lens. It will occur only when the fireball is actually in the individual's field of vision and would be a relatively uncommon injury. Retinal burns may be sustained at considerable distances from the explosion. The height of burst and apparent size of the fireball, a function of yield and range will determine the degree and extent of retinal scarring. A scar in the central visual field would be more debilitating. Generally, a limited visual field defect, which will be barely noticeable, is all that is likely to occur.
</p><p>When thermal radiation strikes an object, part will be reflected, part transmitted, and the rest absorbed. The fraction that is absorbed depends on the nature and color of the material. A thin material may transmit a lot. A light-colored object may reflect much of the incident radiation and thus escape damage, like <a href="/wiki/Anti-flash_white" title="Anti-flash white">anti-flash white</a> paint. The absorbed thermal radiation raises the temperature of the surface and results in scorching, charring, and burning of wood, paper, fabrics, etc. If the material is a poor thermal conductor, the heat is confined to the surface of the material.
</p><p>The actual ignition of materials depends on how long the thermal pulse lasts and the thickness and moisture content of the target. Near ground zero where the energy flux exceeds 125 <a href="/wiki/Joule" title="Joule">J</a>/cm<sup>2</sup>, what can burn, will. Farther away, only the most easily ignited materials will flame. Incendiary effects are compounded by secondary fires started by the blast wave effects such as from upset stoves and furnaces.
</p><p>
In <a href="/wiki/Hiroshima" title="Hiroshima">Hiroshima</a> on August 6, 1945, a tremendous <a href="/wiki/Firestorm" title="Firestorm">firestorm</a> developed within 20 minutes after detonation and destroyed many more buildings and homes, built out of predominantly 'flimsy' wooden materials.<sup id="cite_ref-osti.gov_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-osti.gov-11">[11]</a></sup> A firestorm has gale-force winds blowing in towards the center of the fire from all points of the compass. It is not peculiar to nuclear explosions, having been observed frequently in large forest fires and following incendiary raids during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Despite fires destroying a large area of the city of Nagasaki, no true firestorm occurred in the city, even though a higher yielding weapon was used. Many factors explain this seeming contradiction, including a different time of bombing than Hiroshima, terrain, and crucially, a lower fuel loading/fuel density in the city than that of Hiroshima.<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r996844942">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote">
<p><i>Nagasaki probably did not furnish sufficient fuel for the development of a firestorm as compared to the many buildings on the flat terrain at Hiroshima.</i><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>As thermal radiation travels, more or less, in a straight line from the fireball (unless scattered) any opaque object will produce a protective shadow that provides protection from the flash burn. Depending on the properties of the underlying surface material, the exposed area outside the protective shadow will be either burnt to a darker color, such as charring wood,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup> or a brighter color, such as asphalt.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> If such a weather phenomenon as fog or haze is present at the point of the nuclear explosion, it <a href="/wiki/Mie_scattering" title="Mie scattering">scatters the flash</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Radiant_energy" title="Radiant energy">radiant energy</a> then reaching burn sensitive substances from all directions. Under these conditions, opaque objects are therefore less effective than they would otherwise be without scattering, as they demonstrate maximum shadowing effect in an environment of perfect visibility and therefore zero scatterings. Similar to a foggy or overcast day, although there are few if any, shadows produced by the sun on such a day, the solar energy that reaches the ground from the sun's <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> rays is nevertheless considerably diminished, due to it being absorbed by the water of the clouds and the energy also being scattered back into space. Analogously, so too is the intensity at a range of burning flash energy attenuated, in units of <a href="/wiki/Joule" title="Joule">J</a>/cm<sup>2</sup>, along with the slant/horizontal range of a nuclear explosion, during fog or haze conditions. So despite any object that casts a shadow being rendered ineffective as a shield from the flash by fog or haze, due to scattering, the fog fills the same protective role, but generally only at the ranges that survival in the open is just a matter of being protected from the explosion's flash energy.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p>The thermal pulse also is responsible for warming the atmospheric nitrogen close to the bomb and causing the creation of atmospheric <a href="/wiki/NOx" title="NOx">NOx</a> smog components. This, as part of the mushroom cloud, is shot into the <a href="/wiki/Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere">stratosphere</a> where it is responsible for <a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">dissociating</a> <a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">ozone</a> <a href="/wiki/Ozone_layer" title="Ozone layer">there</a>, in exactly the same way as combustion NOx compounds do. The amount created depends on the yield of the explosion and the blast's environment. Studies done on the total effect of nuclear blasts on the ozone layer have been at least tentatively exonerating after initial discouraging findings.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Indirect_effects">Indirect effects</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_nuclear_explosions&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Indirect effects">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Electromagnetic_pulse">Electromagnetic pulse</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_nuclear_explosions&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Electromagnetic pulse">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_electromagnetic_pulse" title="Nuclear electromagnetic pulse">Nuclear electromagnetic pulse</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetically_induced_current" title="Geomagnetically induced current">Geomagnetically induced current</a></div>
<p>Gamma rays from a nuclear explosion produce high energy <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> through <a href="/wiki/Compton_scattering" title="Compton scattering">Compton scattering</a>. For high altitude nuclear explosions, these electrons are captured in the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Earth's magnetic field</a> at altitudes between twenty and forty kilometers where they interact with the Earth's magnetic field to produce a coherent <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_electromagnetic_pulse" title="Nuclear electromagnetic pulse">nuclear electromagnetic pulse</a> (NEMP) which lasts about one millisecond. Secondary effects may last for more than a second.
</p><p>The pulse is powerful enough to cause moderately long metal objects (such as cables) to act as antennas and generate high voltages due to interactions with the electromagnetic pulse. These voltages can destroy unshielded electronics. There are no known biological effects of EMP. The ionized air also disrupts radio traffic that would normally bounce off the <a href="/wiki/Ionosphere" title="Ionosphere">ionosphere</a>.
</p><p>Electronics can be shielded by wrapping them completely in <a href="/wiki/Conductor_(material)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conductor (material)">conductive material</a> such as metal foil; the effectiveness of the shielding may be less than perfect. Proper shielding is a complex subject due to the large number of variables involved. Semiconductors, especially <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuits" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated circuits">integrated circuits</a>, are extremely susceptible to the effects of EMP due to the close proximity of the PN junctions, but this is not the case with thermionic tubes (or valves) which are relatively immune to EMP. A <a href="/wiki/Faraday_cage" title="Faraday cage">Faraday cage</a> does not offer protection from the effects of EMP unless the mesh is designed to have holes no bigger than the smallest wavelength emitted from a nuclear explosion.
</p><p>Large nuclear weapons detonated at high altitudes also cause <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetically_induced_current" title="Geomagnetically induced current">geomagnetically induced current</a> in very long electrical conductors. The mechanism by which these geomagnetically induced currents are generated is entirely different from the gamma-ray induced pulse produced by Compton electrons.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Radar_blackout">Radar blackout</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_nuclear_explosions&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Radar blackout">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_blackout" title="Nuclear blackout">Nuclear blackout</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christofilos_effect" title="Christofilos effect">Christofilos effect</a></div>
<p>The heat of the explosion causes air in the vicinity to become ionized, creating the fireball. The free electrons in the fireball affect radio waves, especially at lower frequencies. This causes a large area of the sky to become opaque to radar, especially those operating in the <a href="/wiki/VHF" class="mw-redirect" title="VHF">VHF</a> and <a href="/wiki/UHF" class="mw-redirect" title="UHF">UHF</a> frequencies, which is common for long-range <a href="/wiki/Early_warning_radar" class="mw-redirect" title="Early warning radar">early warning radars</a>. The effect is less for higher frequencies in the <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwave</a> region, as well as lasting a shorter time – the effect falls off both in strength and the affected frequencies as the fireball cools and the electrons begin to re-form onto free nuclei.<sup id="cite_ref-bethe_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bethe-20">[20]</a></sup>
</p><p>A second blackout effect is caused by the emission of <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">beta particles</a> from the fission products. These can travel long distances, following the Earth's magnetic field lines. When they reach the upper atmosphere they cause ionization similar to the fireball, but over a wider area. Calculations demonstrate that one megaton of fission, typical of a two-megaton H-bomb, will create enough beta radiation to blackout an area 400 kilometres (250 mi) across for five minutes. Careful selection of the burst altitudes and locations can produce an extremely effective radar-blanking effect.<sup id="cite_ref-bethe_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bethe-20">[20]</a></sup>
</p><p>The physical effects giving rise to blackouts are those that also cause EMP, which itself can cause power blackouts. The two effects are otherwise unrelated, and the similar naming can be confusing.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ionizing_radiation">Ionizing radiation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_nuclear_explosions&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ionizing radiation">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>About 5% of the energy released in a nuclear air burst is in the form of <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a>: <a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">neutrons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma rays</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> moving at speeds up to the speed of light. Gamma rays are high-energy electromagnetic radiation; the others are particles that move slower than light. The neutrons result almost exclusively from the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">fission</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">fusion</a> reactions, while the initial gamma radiation includes that arising from these reactions as well as that resulting from the decay of short-lived fission products.
</p><p>The intensity of initial nuclear radiation decreases rapidly with distance from the point of burst because the radiation spreads over a larger area as it travels away from the explosion (the <a href="/wiki/Inverse-square_law" title="Inverse-square law">inverse-square law</a>). It is also reduced by atmospheric absorption and scattering.
</p><p>The character of the radiation received at a given location also varies with the distance from the explosion.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup> Near the point of the explosion, the neutron intensity is greater than the gamma intensity, but with increasing distance the neutron-gamma ratio decreases. Ultimately, the neutron component of the initial radiation becomes negligible in comparison with the gamma component. The range for significant levels of initial radiation does not increase markedly with weapon yield and, as a result, the initial radiation becomes less of a hazard with increasing yield. With larger weapons, above 50 kt (200 TJ), blast and thermal effects are so much greater in importance that prompt radiation effects can be ignored.
</p><p>The neutron radiation serves to transmute the surrounding matter, often rendering it <a href="/wiki/Neutron_activation" title="Neutron activation">radioactive</a>. When added to the dust of radioactive material released by the bomb itself, a large amount of radioactive material is released into the environment. This form of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">radioactive contamination</a> is known as <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">nuclear fallout</a> and poses the primary risk of exposure to ionizing radiation for a large nuclear weapon.
</p><p>Details of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design" title="Nuclear weapon design">nuclear weapon design</a> also affect neutron emission: the gun-type assembly <a href="/wiki/Hiroshima_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Hiroshima bomb">Hiroshima bomb</a> leaked far more neutrons than the implosion-type 21 kt <a href="/wiki/Nagasaki_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagasaki bomb">Nagasaki bomb</a> because the light hydrogen nuclei (protons) predominating in the exploded TNT molecules (surrounding the core of the Nagasaki bomb) slowed down neutrons very efficiently while the heavier iron atoms in the steel nose forging of the Hiroshima bomb scattered neutrons without absorbing much neutron energy.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup>
</p><p>It was found in early experimentation that normally most of the neutrons released in the cascading chain reaction of the fission bomb are absorbed by the bomb case. Building a bomb case of materials which transmitted rather than absorbed the neutrons could make the bomb more intensely lethal to humans from prompt neutron radiation. This is one of the features used in the development of the <a href="/wiki/Neutron_bomb" title="Neutron bomb">neutron bomb</a>.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Earthquake">Earthquake</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_nuclear_explosions&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Earthquake">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The pressure wave from an underground explosion will propagate through the ground and cause a minor <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquake</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup> However, theory does not suggest that a nuclear explosion could trigger fault rupture and cause a major quake at distances beyond a few tens of kilometers from the shot point.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Summary_of_the_effects">Summary of the effects</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_nuclear_explosions&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Summary of the effects">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The following table summarizes the most important effects of single nuclear explosions under ideal, clear skies, weather conditions. Tables like these are calculated from nuclear weapons effects scaling laws.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup> Advanced computer modelling of real-world conditions and how they impact on the damage to modern urban areas has found that most scaling laws are too simplistic and tend to overestimate nuclear explosion effects. As it is only simplistic and unclassified scaling laws that are commonly encountered, that do not take important things like varying land <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a> into account to ease calculation time and equation length. The scaling laws that were used to produce the table below, assume among other things, a perfectly level target area, no attenuating effects from urban <a href="/wiki/Terrain_masking" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrain masking">terrain masking</a>, e.g. skyscraper shadowing, and no enhancement effects from reflections and tunneling by city streets.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup>
As a point of comparison in the chart below, the most likely nuclear weapons to be used against countervalue city targets in a global nuclear war are in the sub-megaton range. Weapons of yields from 100 to 475 kilotons have become the most numerous in the US and Russian nuclear arsenals; for example, the warheads equipping the Russian <a href="/wiki/Bulava" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulava">Bulava</a> submarine-launched ballistic missile (<a href="/wiki/SLBM" class="mw-redirect" title="SLBM">SLBM</a>) have a yield of 150 kilotons.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup> US examples are the <a href="/wiki/W76" title="W76">W76</a> and <a href="/wiki/W88" title="W88">W88</a> warheads, with the lower yield W76 being over twice as numerous as the W88 in the US nuclear arsenal.
</p>
<table class="wikitable" style="margin:1em 1em 1em 0; font-size:95%; text-align:center;">
<caption>
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th rowspan="2">Effects
</th>
<th colspan="4">Explosive yield / height of burst
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th>1 kt / 200 m
</th>
<th>20 kt / 540 m
</th>
<th>1 Mt / 2.0 km
</th>
<th>20 Mt / 5.4 km
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="6"><b>Blast—effective ground range <i>GR</i> / km</b>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Urban areas completely levelled (20 psi or 140 kPa)
</td>
<td>0.2
</td>
<td>0.6
</td>
<td>2.4
</td>
<td>6.4
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Destruction of most civilian buildings (5 psi or 34 kPa)
</td>
<td>0.6
</td>
<td>1.7
</td>
<td>6.2
</td>
<td>17
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Moderate damage to civilian buildings (1 psi or 6.9 kPa)
</td>
<td>1.7
</td>
<td>4.7
</td>
<td>17
</td>
<td>47
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Railway cars thrown from tracks and crushed<br />(62 kPa; values for other than 20 kt are extrapolated using the cube-root scaling)
</td>
<td>≈0.4
</td>
<td>1.0
</td>
<td>≈4
</td>
<td>≈10
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="6"><b>Thermal radiation—effective ground range <i>GR</i> / km</b>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Fourth_degree_burn" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth degree burn">Fourth degree burns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conflagration" title="Conflagration">Conflagration</a>
</td>
<td>0.5
</td>
<td>2.0
</td>
<td>10
</td>
<td>30
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Third_degree_burn" class="mw-redirect" title="Third degree burn">Third degree burns</a>
</td>
<td>0.6
</td>
<td>2.5
</td>
<td>12
</td>
<td>38
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Second_degree_burn" class="mw-redirect" title="Second degree burn">Second degree burns</a>
</td>
<td>0.8
</td>
<td>3.2
</td>
<td>15
</td>
<td>44
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/First_degree_burn" class="mw-redirect" title="First degree burn">First degree burns</a>
</td>
<td>1.1
</td>
<td>4.2
</td>
<td>19
</td>
<td>53
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="6"><b>Effects of instant nuclear radiation—effective slant range<sup>1</sup> <i>SR</i> / km</b>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Lethal<sup>2</sup> total dose (neutrons and gamma rays)
</td>
<td>0.8
</td>
<td>1.4
</td>
<td>2.3
</td>
<td>4.7
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Total dose for acute radiation syndrome<sup>2</sup>
</td>
<td>1.2
</td>
<td>1.8
</td>
<td>2.9
</td>
<td>5.4
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><sup>1</sup><small> For the direct radiation effects the slant range instead of the ground range is shown here because some effects are not given even at ground zero for some burst heights. If the effect occurs at ground zero the ground range can be derived from slant range and burst altitude (<a href="/wiki/Pythagorean_theorem" title="Pythagorean theorem">Pythagorean theorem</a>).</small>
</p><p><sup>2</sup><small> "Acute radiation syndrome" corresponds here to a total dose of one <a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">gray</a>, "lethal" to ten grays. This is only a rough estimate since <a href="/wiki/Relative_biological_effectiveness" title="Relative biological effectiveness">biological conditions</a> are neglected here.</small>
</p><p>Further complicating matters, under global nuclear war scenarios, with conditions similar to that during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, major strategically important cities, like <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington</a> are likely to be hit not once, but numerous times from sub megaton <a href="/wiki/Multiple_independently_targetable_re-entry_vehicles" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiple independently targetable re-entry vehicles">multiple independently targetable re-entry vehicles</a>, in a <a href="/wiki/Cluster_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Cluster bomb">cluster bomb</a> or "cookie-cutter" configuration.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> It has been reported that during the height of the Cold War in the 1970s Moscow was targeted by up to 60 warheads.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup> The reasons that the cluster bomb concept is preferable in the targeting of cities is twofold, the first is down to the fact that large singular warheads are much easier to neutralize as both tracking and successful interception by <a href="/wiki/A-35_anti-ballistic_missile_system" title="A-35 anti-ballistic missile system">anti-ballistic missile systems</a> than it is when several smaller incoming warheads are approaching. This <a href="/w/index.php?title=Strength_in_numbers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Strength in numbers (page does not exist)">strength in numbers</a> advantage to lower yield warheads is further compounded by such warheads tending to move at higher incoming speeds, due to their smaller, more slender <a href="/wiki/Physics_package" class="mw-redirect" title="Physics package">physics package</a> size, assuming both nuclear weapon designs are the same (a design exception being the advanced <a href="/wiki/W88" title="W88">W88</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup> The second reason for this cluster bomb, or ‘layering’<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup> (using repeated hits by accurate low yield weapons), is that this tactic along with limiting the risk of failure, also reduces individual bomb yields, and therefore reduces the possibility of any serious collateral damage to non-targeted nearby civilian areas, including that of neighboring countries. This concept was pioneered by <a href="/wiki/Philip_J._Dolan" title="Philip J. Dolan">Philip J. Dolan</a> and others.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Other_phenomena">Other phenomena</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_nuclear_explosions&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Other phenomena">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Nukecloud.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Nukecloud.png/250px-Nukecloud.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Nukecloud.png/375px-Nukecloud.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Nukecloud.png/500px-Nukecloud.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Nukecloud.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Mushroom cloud height depending on yield for ground bursts.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="The data so nicely plotted up here is ''not verifiable'' because its source is unstated. (September 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><br /> 0 = Approx. altitude at which a commercial aircraft operates<br />1 = <a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a><br />2 = <a href="/wiki/Castle_Bravo" title="Castle Bravo">Castle Bravo</a></div></div></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Gamma_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma rays">Gamma rays</a> from the nuclear processes preceding the true explosion may be partially responsible for the following fireball, as they may superheat nearby air and/or other material.<sup id="cite_ref-Nuclear_Bomb_Effects_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nuclear_Bomb_Effects-10">[10]</a></sup> The vast majority of the energy that goes on to form the fireball is in the soft <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a> region of the electromagnetic spectrum, with these X-rays being produced by the <a href="/wiki/Inelastic_collisions" class="mw-redirect" title="Inelastic collisions">inelastic collisions</a> of the high-speed fission and fusion products. It is these reaction products and not the gamma rays which contain most of the energy of the nuclear reactions in the form of <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a>. This kinetic energy of the fission and fusion fragments is converted into internal and then radiation energy by approximately following the process of <a href="/wiki/Blackbody_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackbody radiation">blackbody radiation</a> emitting in the soft X-ray region.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup> As a result of numerous inelastic collisions, part of the kinetic energy of the fission fragments is converted into internal and radiation energy. Some of the electrons are removed entirely from the atoms, thus causing ionization, others are raised to higher energy (or excited) states while still remaining attached to the nuclei. Within an extremely short time, perhaps a hundredth of a microsecond or so, the weapon residues consist essentially of completely and partially stripped (ionized) atoms, many of the latter being in excited states, together with the corresponding free electrons. The system then immediately emits electromagnetic (thermal) radiation, the nature of which is determined by the temperature. Since this is of the order of 10<sup>7</sup> degrees, most of the energy emitted within a microsecond or so is in the soft X-ray region. To understand this one must remember that temperature depends on the average internal energy/heat of the particles in a certain volume, and internal energy or heat is due to <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a>.
</p><p>For an explosion in the atmosphere, the fireball quickly expands to maximum size, and then begins to cool as it rises like a balloon through <a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">buoyancy</a> in the surrounding air. As it does so it takes on the flow pattern of a <a href="/wiki/Vortex_ring" title="Vortex ring">vortex ring</a> with incandescent material in the vortex core as seen in certain photographs.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup> This effect is known as a <a href="/wiki/Mushroom_cloud" title="Mushroom cloud">mushroom cloud</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nuclear_Bomb_Effects_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nuclear_Bomb_Effects-10">[10]</a></sup>
</p><p>Sand will fuse into glass if it is close enough to the nuclear fireball to be drawn into it, and is thus heated to the necessary temperatures to do so; this is known as <a href="/wiki/Trinitite" title="Trinitite">trinitite</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup>
</p><p>At the explosion of nuclear bombs lightning discharges sometimes occur.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup>
</p><p>Smoke trails are often seen in photographs of nuclear explosions. These are not from the explosion; they are left by <a href="/wiki/Sounding_rockets" class="mw-redirect" title="Sounding rockets">sounding rockets</a> launched just prior to detonation. These trails allow observation of the blast's normally invisible shock wave in the moments following the explosion.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup>
</p><p>The heat and airborne debris created by a nuclear explosion can cause rain; the debris is thought to do this by acting as <a href="/wiki/Cloud_condensation_nuclei" title="Cloud condensation nuclei">cloud condensation nuclei</a>. During the city <a href="/wiki/Firestorm" title="Firestorm">firestorm</a> which followed the Hiroshima explosion, drops of water were recorded to have been about the size of <a href="/wiki/Marble_(toy)" title="Marble (toy)">marbles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup> This was termed <i>black rain</i>, and has served as the source of a <a href="/wiki/Black_Rain_(novel)" title="Black Rain (novel)">book and film by the same name</a>. Black rain is not unusual following large fires and is commonly produced by <a href="/wiki/Pyrocumulus_cloud" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyrocumulus cloud">pyrocumulus clouds</a> during large forest fires. The rain directly over Hiroshima on that day is said to have begun around 9 a.m. with it covering a wide area from the <a href="/wiki/Hypocenter" title="Hypocenter">hypocenter</a> to the north-west, raining heavily for one hour or more in some areas. The rain directly over the city may have carried <a href="/wiki/Neutron_activation" title="Neutron activation">neutron activated</a> building material combustion products, but it did not carry any appreciable nuclear weapon debris or fallout,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> although this is generally to the contrary to what other less technical sources state. The "oily" black <a href="/wiki/Soot" title="Soot">soot</a> particles, are a characteristic of <a href="/wiki/Incomplete_combustion" class="mw-redirect" title="Incomplete combustion">incomplete combustion</a> in the city firestorm.
</p><p>The element <a href="/wiki/Einsteinium" title="Einsteinium">einsteinium</a> was discovered when analyzing nuclear fallout.
</p><p>A side-effect of the Pascal-B nuclear test during <a href="/wiki/Operation_Plumbbob#Missing_steel_bore_cap" title="Operation Plumbbob">Operation Plumbbob</a> may have resulted in the first man-made object launched into space. The so-called "thunder well" effect from the underground explosion may have launched a metal cover plate into space at six times Earth's <a href="/wiki/Escape_velocity" title="Escape velocity">escape velocity</a>, although the evidence remains subject to debate.
</p><p>In 1942, there was some initial speculation among the scientists developing the first nuclear weapons in the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> that a large enough nuclear explosion might ignite the Earth's atmosphere. This notion concerned the nuclear reaction of two atmospheric nitrogen atoms forming carbon and an oxygen atom, with an associated release of energy. The scientists hypothesized that this energy would heat up the remaining atmospheric nitrogen enough to keep the reaction going until all nitrogen atoms were consumed, thereby burning all of the Earth's atmosphere (which is composed of nearly 80% diatomic nitrogen) in one single massive combustion event. <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a> was assigned the task of studying this hypothesis from the project's earliest days, and eventually concluded that combustion of the entire atmosphere was not possible: the cooling of the fireball due to an inverse <a href="/wiki/Compton_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Compton effect">Compton effect</a> all but guaranteed that such a scenario would not become a reality.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hamming" title="Richard Hamming">Richard Hamming</a>, a mathematician, was asked to make a similar calculation just before the <a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">first nuclear test</a>, with the same result.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup> Nevertheless, the notion has persisted as a rumor for many years and was the source of apocalyptic <a href="/wiki/Gallows_humor" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallows humor">gallows humor</a> at the Trinity test.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Survivability">Survivability</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_nuclear_explosions&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Survivability">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Duck_and_Cover_(film)" title="Duck and Cover (film)">Duck and Cover (film)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protect_and_Survive" title="Protect and Survive">Protect and Survive</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_bombs_and_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear bombs and health">Nuclear bombs and health</a></div>
<p>This is highly dependent on factors such as if one is indoors or out, the size of the explosion, the proximity to the explosion, and to a lesser degree the direction of the wind carrying fallout.
Death is highly likely and radiation poisoning is almost certain if one is caught in the open with no terrain or building masking effects within a radius of 0–3 km from a 1 megaton airburst, and the <a href="/wiki/LD50" class="mw-redirect" title="LD50">50% chance of death</a> from the blast extends out to ~8  km from the same 1 megaton atmospheric explosion.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup>
</p><p>To highlight the variability in the real world, and the effect that being indoors can make, despite the lethal radiation and blast zone extending well past her position at Hiroshima,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> Akiko Takakura survived the effects of a 16 kt atomic bomb at a distance of 300 meters from the hypocenter, with only minor injuries, due mainly to her position in the lobby of the Bank of Japan, a <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">reinforced concrete</a> building, at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup> In contrast, the unknown person sitting outside, fully exposed, on the steps of the Sumitomo Bank, next door to the Bank of Japan, received lethal third-degree burns and was then likely killed by the blast, in that order, within two seconds.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup>
</p><p>With medical attention, radiation exposure is survivable to 200 rems of acute dose exposure. If a group of people is exposed to a 50 to 59 rems acute (within 24 hours) radiation dose, none will get radiation sickness. If the group is exposed to 60 to 180 rems, 50% will become sick with radiation poisoning. If medically treated, all of the 60–180 rems group will survive. If the group is exposed to 200 to 450 rems, most if not all of the group will become sick. 50% of the 200–450 rems group will die within two to four weeks, even with medical attention. If the group is exposed to 460 to 600 rems, 100% of the group will get radiation poisoning. 50% of the 460–600 rems group will die within one to three weeks. If the group is exposed to 600 to 1000 rems, 50% will die in one to three weeks. If the group is exposed to 1,000 to 5,000 rems, 100% of the group will die within 2 weeks. At 5,000 rems, 100% of the group will die within 2 days.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_nuclear_explosions&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bomb_pulse" title="Bomb pulse">Bomb pulse</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_nuclear_explosions_on_human_health" title="Effects of nuclear explosions on human health">Effects of nuclear explosions on human health</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_nuclear_disasters_and_radioactive_incidents" title="Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents">Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests" title="List of nuclear weapons tests">List of nuclear weapons tests</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Nuclear warfare</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_terrorism" title="Nuclear terrorism">Nuclear terrorism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_nuclear_explosion" title="Peaceful nuclear explosion">Peaceful nuclear explosion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rope_trick_effect" title="Rope trick effect">Rope trick effect</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_explosion" title="Underwater explosion">Underwater explosion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_in_popular_culture#List_of_visual_depictions" title="Nuclear weapons in popular culture">Visual depictions of nuclear explosions in fiction</a></li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_nuclear_explosions&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1011085734">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-remmNucExpl-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-remmNucExpl_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1067248974">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.remm.nlm.gov/nuclearexplosion.htm">"Nuclear Explosions: Weapons, Improvised Nuclear Devices"</a>. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2008-02-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-07-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Explosions%3A+Weapons%2C+Improvised+Nuclear+Devices&rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services&rft.date=2008-02-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.remm.nlm.gov%2Fnuclearexplosion.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-remm.nlm.gov-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-remm.nlm.gov_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-remm.nlm.gov_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-remm.nlm.gov_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-remm.nlm.gov_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.remm.nlm.gov/RemmMockup_files/radiationlethality.jpg">http://www.remm.nlm.gov/RemmMockup_files/radiationlethality.jpg</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFDolan" class="citation web cs1">Dolan, Samuel Glasstone, Philip J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/www/effects/">"The Effects of Nuclear Weapons"</a>. <i>www.fourmilab.ch</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.fourmilab.ch&rft.atitle=The+Effects+of+Nuclear+Weapons&rft.aulast=Dolan&rft.aufirst=Samuel+Glasstone%2C+Philip+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fourmilab.ch%2Fetexts%2Fwww%2Feffects%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nuclearweaponarchive.org/Russia/TsarBomba.html">"The Soviet Weapons Program - The Tsar Bomba"</a>. <i>www.nuclearweaponarchive.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nuclearweaponarchive.org&rft.atitle=The+Soviet+Weapons+Program+-+The+Tsar+Bomba&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nuclearweaponarchive.org%2FRussia%2FTsarBomba.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFAFSWP2018" class="citation web cs1">AFSWP (30 March 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/MilitaryEffectsStudiesonOperationCastle1954">"Military Effects Studies on Operation CASTLE"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2018</span> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Military+Effects+Studies+on+Operation+CASTLE&rft.date=2018-03-30&rft.au=AFSWP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FMilitaryEffectsStudiesonOperationCastle1954&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFAFSWP2018" class="citation web cs1">AFSWP (30 March 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/MilitaryEffectsStudiesonOperationCastle1954">"Military Effects Studies on Operation CASTLE"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2018</span> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Military+Effects+Studies+on+Operation+CASTLE&rft.date=2018-03-30&rft.au=AFSWP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FMilitaryEffectsStudiesonOperationCastle1954&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atomicarchive.com/Effects/effects6.shtml">"The Mach Stem – Effects of Nuclear Weapons – atomicarchive.com"</a>. <i>www.atomicarchive.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.atomicarchive.com&rft.atitle=The+Mach+Stem+%E2%80%93+Effects+of+Nuclear+Weapons+%E2%80%93+atomicarchive.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.atomicarchive.com%2FEffects%2Feffects6.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/blast.htm">"Striving for a Safer World Since 1945"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Striving+for+a+Safer+World+Since+1945&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fas.org%2Fnuke%2Fintro%2Fnuke%2Fblast.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.atomicarchive.com/Movies/machstem.shtml">[1]</a> video of the mach 'Y' stem, it is not a phenomenon unique to nuclear explosions, conventional explosions also produce it.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Nuclear_Bomb_Effects-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nuclear_Bomb_Effects_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nuclear_Bomb_Effects_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nuclear_Bomb_Effects_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110827052819/http://www.solcomhouse.com/nuclearholocaust.htm">"Nuclear Bomb Effects"</a>. <i>The Atomic Archive</i>. solcomhouse.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.solcomhouse.com/nuclearholocaust.htm">the original</a> on 27 August 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 September</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atomic+Archive&rft.atitle=Nuclear+Bomb+Effects&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.solcomhouse.com%2Fnuclearholocaust.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-osti.gov-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-osti.gov_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-osti.gov_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFOughtersonLeRoyLiebowHammond1951" class="citation journal cs1">Oughterson, A. W.; LeRoy, G. V.; Liebow, A. A.; Hammond, E. C.; Barnett, H. L.; Rosenbaum, J. D.; Schneider, B. A. (19 April 1951). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/bridge/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=4421057">"Medical Effects Of Atomic Bombs The Report Of The Joint Commission For The Investigation Of The Effects Of The Atomic Bomb In Japan Volume 1"</a>. <i>osti.gov</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2172%2F4421057">10.2172/4421057</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=osti.gov&rft.atitle=Medical+Effects+Of+Atomic+Bombs+The+Report+Of+The+Joint+Commission+For+The+Investigation+Of+The+Effects+Of+The+Atomic+Bomb+In+Japan+Volume+1&rft.date=1951-04-19&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2172%2F4421057&rft.aulast=Oughterson&rft.aufirst=A.+W.&rft.au=LeRoy%2C+G.+V.&rft.au=Liebow%2C+A.+A.&rft.au=Hammond%2C+E.+C.&rft.au=Barnett%2C+H.+L.&rft.au=Rosenbaum%2C+J.+D.&rft.au=Schneider%2C+B.+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fbridge%2Fproduct.biblio.jsp%3Fosti_id%3D4421057&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usuhs.mil/afrrianniversary/events/rcsymposium/pdf/Millage.pdf">Modeling the Effects of Nuclear Weapons in an Urban Setting</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110706161001/http://www.usuhs.mil/afrrianniversary/events/rcsymposium/pdf/Millage.pdf">Archived</a> July 6, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/www/effects/eonw_7.pdf">Glasstone & Dolan (1977) Thermal effects Chapter</a> pg 26</span>
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<li id="cite_note-hps.org-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hps.org_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/20130726-1821-25045-3023/planning_guidance_for_response_to_a_nuclear_detonation___2nd_edition_final.pdf"><i>Planning Guidance for a Response to a Nuclear Detonation</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <a href="/wiki/Federal_Emergency_Management_Agency" title="Federal Emergency Management Agency">Federal Emergency Management Agency</a>, June 2010, <a href="/wiki/WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">Wikidata</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q63152882" class="extiw" title="d:Q63152882">Q63152882</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Planning+Guidance+for+a+Response+to+a+Nuclear+Detonation&rft.pub=Federal+Emergency+Management+Agency&rft.date=2010-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fema.gov%2Fmedia-library-data%2F20130726-1821-25045-3023%2Fplanning_guidance_for_response_to_a_nuclear_detonation___2nd_edition_final.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span>, p. 24. NOTE: No citation is provided to support the claim that "a firestorm in modern times is unlikely".</span>
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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/www/effects/eonw_7.pdf">Glasstone & Dolan (1977) Thermal effects Chapter</a> pg 304</span>
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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pcf.city.hiroshima.jp/virtual/VirtualMuseum_e/visit_e/subcon/he113c.html">"Damage by the Heat Rays/Shadow Imprinted on an Electric Pole"</a>. <i>www.pcf.city.hiroshima.jp</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.pcf.city.hiroshima.jp&rft.atitle=Damage+by+the+Heat+Rays%2FShadow+Imprinted+on+an+Electric+Pole&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pcf.city.hiroshima.jp%2Fvirtual%2FVirtualMuseum_e%2Fvisit_e%2Fsubcon%2Fhe113c.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Various other effects of the radiated heat were noted, including the lightening of asphalt road surfaces in spots that had not been protected from the radiated heat by any object such as that of a person walking along the road. Various other surfaces were discolored in different ways by the radiated heat." From the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/hiroshim/hiro_med.html#FLASH_BURN">Flash Burn</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140224094011/http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/hiroshim/hiro_med.html#FLASH_BURN">Archived</a> 2014-02-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> section of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/hiroshim/hiro_med.html">"The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki"</a>, a report by the Manhattan Engineering District, June 29, 1946, </span>
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<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/www/effects/eonw_7.pdf#zoom=100">"Glasstone & Dolan 1977 Thermal effects Chapter"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>fourmilab.ch</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=fourmilab.ch&rft.atitle=Glasstone+%26+Dolan+1977+Thermal+effects+Chapter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fourmilab.ch%2Fetexts%2Fwww%2Feffects%2Feonw_7.pdf%23zoom%3D100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFChristie1976" class="citation journal cs1">Christie, J.D. (1976-05-20). "Atmospheric ozone depletion by nuclear weapons testing". <i>Journal of Geophysical Research</i>. <b>81</b> (15): 2583–2594. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1976JGR....81.2583C">1976JGR....81.2583C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2FJC081i015p02583">10.1029/JC081i015p02583</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research&rft.atitle=Atmospheric+ozone+depletion+by+nuclear+weapons+testing&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=2583-2594&rft.date=1976-05-20&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2FJC081i015p02583&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1976JGR....81.2583C&rft.aulast=Christie&rft.aufirst=J.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span> This link is to the abstract; the whole paper is behind a paywall.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-bethe-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bethe_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bethe_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/rlg/03%2000%201968%20Bethe-Garwin%20ABM%20Systems.pdf">"Anti-Ballistic-Missile Systems"</a>, <i>Scientific American</i>, March 1968, pp. 21–32.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pattison, J.E., Hugtenburg, R.P., Beddoe, A.H., and Charles, M.W. (2001). "Experimental Simulation of A-bomb Gamma-ray Spectra for Radiobiology Studies", <i>Radiation Protection Dosimetry</i> <b>95</b>(2):125–136.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://glasstone.blogspot.com/2006/03/samuel-glasstone-and-philip-j-dolan.html">"Credible effects of nuclear weapons for real-world peace: peace through tested, proved and practical declassified deterrence and countermeasures against collateral damage. Credible deterrence through simple, effective protection against concentrated and dispersed invasions and aerial attacks. Discussions of the facts as opposed to inaccurate, misleading lies of the "disarm or be annihilated" political dogma variety. Hiroshima and Nagasaki anti-nuclear propaganda debunked by the hard facts. Walls, not wars. Walls bring people together by stopping divisive terrorists"</a>. <i>glasstone.blogspot.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=glasstone.blogspot.com&rft.atitle=Credible+effects+of+nuclear+weapons+for+real-world+peace%3A+peace+through+tested%2C+proved+and+practical+declassified+deterrence+and+countermeasures+against+collateral+damage.+Credible+deterrence+through+simple%2C+effective+protection+against+concentrated+and+dispersed+invasions+and+aerial+attacks.+Discussions+of+the+facts+as+opposed+to+inaccurate%2C+misleading+lies+of+the+%22disarm+or+be+annihilated%22+political+dogma+variety.+Hiroshima+and+Nagasaki+anti-nuclear+propaganda+debunked+by+the+hard+facts.+Walls%2C+not+wars.+Walls+bring+people+together+by+stopping+divisive+terrorists.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fglasstone.blogspot.com%2F2006%2F03%2Fsamuel-glasstone-and-philip-j-dolan.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120310191337/http://alsos.wlu.edu/information.aspx?id=2017">"Alsos: Nuclear Explosions and Earthquakes: The Parted Veil"</a>. <i>alsos.wlu.edu</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alsos.wlu.edu/information.aspx?id=2017">the original</a> on 10 March 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=alsos.wlu.edu&rft.atitle=Alsos%3A+Nuclear+Explosions+and+Earthquakes%3A+The+Parted+Veil&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Falsos.wlu.edu%2Finformation.aspx%3Fid%3D2017&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060526133051/http://seismo.berkeley.edu/seismo/faq/nuke_2.html">"Nuke 2"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://seismo.berkeley.edu/seismo/faq/nuke_2.html">the original</a> on 2006-05-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-03-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nuke+2&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fseismo.berkeley.edu%2Fseismo%2Ffaq%2Fnuke_2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AOY9AQAAIAAJ">Paul P. Craig, John A. Jungerman. (1990) <i>The Nuclear Arms Race: Technology and Society</i> pg 258</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NO3626AOL9oC&pg=PA644">Calder, Nigel "The effects of a 100 Megaton bomb" <i>New Scientist</i>, 14 Sep 1961, p 644</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hckys7gpwl4C&pg=PA4">Sartori, Leo "Effects of nuclear weapons" <i>Physics and Nuclear Arms Today</i> (Readings from <i>Physics Today</i>) pg 2</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq5.html#nfaq5.1">"Effects of Nuclear Explosions"</a>. <i>nuclearweaponarchive.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nuclearweaponarchive.org&rft.atitle=Effects+of+Nuclear+Explosions&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnuclearweaponarchive.org%2FNwfaq%2FNfaq5.html%23nfaq5.1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 6 July 2011 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110706161001/http://www.usuhs.mil/afrrianniversary/events/rcsymposium/pdf/Millage.pdf">https://web.archive.org/web/20110706161001/http://www.usuhs.mil/afrrianniversary/events/rcsymposium/pdf/Millage.pdf</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usuhs.mil/afrrianniversary/events/rcsymposium/pdf/Millage.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 6 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.date=2011-07-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.usuhs.mil%2Fafrrianniversary%2Fevents%2Frcsymposium%2Fpdf%2FMillage.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Missing or empty <code class="cs1-code">|title=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#citation_missing_title" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en15.rian.ru/img/118575033_free.html">The modern Russian Bulava </a><a href="/wiki/SLBM" class="mw-redirect" title="SLBM">SLBM</a> is armed with warheads of 100 – 150 kilotons in yield. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141006140135/http://en15.rian.ru/img/118575033_free.html">Archived</a> October 6, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ota.fas.org/reports/7906.pdf">"The Effects of Nuclear War" Office of Technology Assessment, May 1979. pages 42 and 44.</a> Compare the destruction from a single 1 megaton weapon detonation on Leningrad on page 42 to that of 10 clustered 40 kiloton weapon detonations in a 'cookie-cutter' configuration on page 44; the level of total destruction is similar in both cases despite the total yield in the second attack scenario being less than half of that delivered in the 1 megaton case</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hckys7gpwl4C&pg=PA24">Sartori, Leo "Effects of nuclear weapons" <i>Physics and Nuclear Arms Today</i> (Readings from <i>Physics Today</i>) pg 22</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x__CgnLTLqkC&pg=PA65">Robert C. Aldridge (1983) <i>First Strike! The Pentagon's Strategy for Nuclear War</i> pg 65</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130302091606/http://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/nm_book_5_11/appendix_F.htm">"The Nuclear Matters Handbook"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/nm/nm_book_5_11/appendix_F.htm">the original</a> on 2013-03-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nuclear+Matters+Handbook&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.acq.osd.mil%2Fncbdp%2Fnm%2Fnm_book_5_11%2Fappendix_F.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120426231956/http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/nukeffct/enw77b3.html">"<i> The Effects of Nuclear Weapons</i> (1977) CHAPTER II: "Descriptions of Nuclear Explosions, Scientific Aspects of Nuclear Explosion Phenomena."<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>vt.edu</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/nukeffct/enw77b3.html">the original</a> on 26 April 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=vt.edu&rft.atitle=+The+Effects+of+Nuclear+Weapons+%281977%29+CHAPTER+II%3A+%22Descriptions+of+Nuclear+Explosions%2C+Scientific+Aspects+of+Nuclear+Explosion+Phenomena.%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cddc.vt.edu%2Fhost%2Fatomic%2Fnukeffct%2Fenw77b3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Ukgrable2.jpg">"Photo"</a>. <i>nuclearweaponarchive.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nuclearweaponarchive.org&rft.atitle=Photo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnuclearweaponarchive.org%2FUsa%2FTests%2FUkgrable2.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Hermes and William Strickfaden, 2005, <i>New Theory on the Formation of Trinitite</i>, Nuclear Weapons Journal <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.wsmr.army.mil/pao/TrinitySite/NewTrinititeTheory.htm">http://www.wsmr.army.mil/pao/TrinitySite/NewTrinititeTheory.htm</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080726072410/http://www.wsmr.army.mil/pao/TrinitySite/NewTrinititeTheory.htm">Archived</a> 2008-07-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987JGR....92.5696C">An empirical study of the nuclear explosion-induced lightning seen on IVY-MIKE</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/SmokeTrails.html">"What are Those Smoke Trails Doing in That Test Picture?"</a>. <i>nuclearweaponarchive.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nuclearweaponarchive.org&rft.atitle=What+are+Those+Smoke+Trails+Doing+in+That+Test+Picture%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnuclearweaponarchive.org%2FUsa%2FTests%2FSmokeTrails.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hersey, John. "Hiroshima", <i>The New Yorker</i>, August 31, 1946.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFStromMiller1969" class="citation journal cs1">Strom, P. O.; Miller, C. F. (1 January 1969). "Interaction of Fallout with Fires. Final Report". <a href="/wiki/OSTI_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OSTI (identifier)">OSTI</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4078266">4078266</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Interaction+of+Fallout+with+Fires.+Final+Report.&rft.date=1969-01-01&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fbiblio%2F4078266%23id-name%3DOSTI&rft.aulast=Strom&rft.aufirst=P.+O.&rft.au=Miller%2C+C.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFKonopinskiMarvinTeller1946" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Konopinski, E. J; Marvin, C.; Teller, Edward (1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/sgp/othergov/doe/lanl/docs1/00329010.pdf">"Ignition of the Atmosphere with Nuclear Bombs"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. LA–602. Los Alamos National Laboratory<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-12-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Ignition+of+the+Atmosphere+with+Nuclear+Bombs&rft.volume=LA%E2%80%93602&rft.date=1946&rft.aulast=Konopinski&rft.aufirst=E.+J&rft.au=Marvin%2C+C.&rft.au=Teller%2C+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffas.org%2Fsgp%2Fothergov%2Fdoe%2Flanl%2Fdocs1%2F00329010.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span> The date of the article is 1946; it may have been written to demonstrate due diligence on the problem. It was declassified in 1970.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFHamming1998" class="citation journal cs1">Hamming, Richard (1998). "Mathematics on a Distant Planet". <i>The American Mathematical Monthly</i>. <b>105</b> (7): 640–650. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00029890.1998.12004938">10.1080/00029890.1998.12004938</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/2589247">2589247</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Mathematical+Monthly&rft.atitle=Mathematics+on+a+Distant+Planet&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=640-650&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00029890.1998.12004938&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2589247%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hamming&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/nuclear/nukgr3.gif">http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/nuclear/nukgr3.gif</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/nuclear/nukgr1.gif">http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/nuclear/nukgr1.gif</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pcf.city.hiroshima.jp/virtual/VirtualMuseum_e/visit_e/testimony_e/testimo07.html">"What I Want to Say Now"</a>. <i>www.pcf.city.hiroshima.jp</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.pcf.city.hiroshima.jp&rft.atitle=What+I+Want+to+Say+Now&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pcf.city.hiroshima.jp%2Fvirtual%2FVirtualMuseum_e%2Fvisit_e%2Ftestimony_e%2Ftestimo07.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/Hibakusha/Akiko.shtml">"Testimony of Akiko Takakura - The Voice of Hibakusha - The Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki - Historical Documents - atomicarchive.com"</a>. <i>www.atomicarchive.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.atomicarchive.com&rft.atitle=Testimony+of+Akiko+Takakura+-+The+Voice+of+Hibakusha+-+The+Bombing+of+Hiroshima+and+Nagasaki+-+Historical+Documents+-+atomicarchive.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.atomicarchive.com%2FDocs%2FHibakusha%2FAkiko.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.pcf.city.hiroshima.jp/virtual/museum/index.php?l=e&no=1000">http://www.pcf.city.hiroshima.jp/virtual/museum/index.php?l=e&no=1000</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="pop" class="citation book cs1">McCarthy, Walton (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://noradshelters.com/radiation-shielding-materials/"><i>M.E.</i></a> (6th ed.). Dallas, TX: Brown Books Publishing Group. p. 420. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1612541143" title="Special:BookSources/978-1612541143"><bdi>978-1612541143</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=M.E.&rft.place=Dallas%2C+TX&rft.pages=420&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Brown+Books+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1612541143&rft.aulast=McCarthy&rft.aufirst=Walton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnoradshelters.com%2Fradiation-shielding-materials%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEffects+of+nuclear+explosions" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Effects_of_nuclear_explosions&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links">edit source</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000">
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<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Nuclear_weapon_tests" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Nuclear weapon tests">Nuclear weapon tests</a></span>.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000">
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<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Radiation_health_effects" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Radiation health effects">Radiation health effects</a></span>.</td></tr>
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<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Nuclear_explosion_physics" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Nuclear explosion physics">Nuclear explosion physics</a></span>.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sonicbomb.com/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=171">Nuclear Weapon Testing Effects</a> – Comprehensive video archive</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.undergroundbombshelter.com">Underground Bomb Shelters</a></li>
<li>The <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fas.org">Federation of American Scientists</a> provide solid information on weapons of mass destruction, including <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/nuke/">nuclear weapons</a> and their <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150329105730/http://fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/effects.htm">effects</a></li>
<li>The <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oism.org/nwss/">Nuclear War Survival Skills</a> is a public domain text and is an excellent source on how to survive a nuclear attack.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130820065339/http://www.carloslabs.com/node/16">Ground Zero: A Javascript simulation of the effects of a nuclear explosion in a city</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140401010540/http://www.okgeosurvey1.gov/level2/nuke.cat.index.html">Oklahoma Geological Survey Nuclear Explosion Catalog</a> lists 2,199 explosions with their date, country, location, yield, etc.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030812181714/http://www.ga.gov.au/oracle/nukexp_query.html">Australian Government database of all nuclear explosions</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org">Nuclear Weapon Archive from Carey Sublette</a> (NWA) is a reliable source of information and has links to other sources.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Library/Nukesims.html">NWA repository of blast models</a> mainly used for the effects table (especially DOS programs BLAST and WE)</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://meyerweb.com/eric/tools/gmap/hydesim.html">HYDESim: High-Yield Detonation Effects Simulator</a> – <a href="/wiki/Mashup_(web_application_hybrid)" title="Mashup (web application hybrid)">Mashup</a> of <a href="/wiki/Google_Maps" title="Google Maps">Google Maps</a> and Javascript to calculate blast effects.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nuclearsecrecy.com/nukemap/">NUKEMAP</a> – Google Maps/Javascript effects mapper, which includes fireball size, blast pressure, ionizing radiation, and thermal radiation as well as qualitative descriptions.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq0.html">Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atomicforum.org/">Atomic Forum</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/www/effects/">Samuel Glasstone and Philip J. Dolan, The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, Third Edition, United States Department of Defense & Energy Research and Development Administration</a> Available Online</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/rcip/nuclear.html">Nuclear Emergency and Radiation Resources</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://outrider.org/">Outrider</a> believes in the power of an informed, engaged public.</li></ul>
<div class="navbox-styles nomobile"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1061467846">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nuclear_technology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist | above = * [[Outline of nuclear technology|Outline]] mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"/><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_technology" title="Template:Nuclear technology"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_technology" title="Template talk:Nuclear technology"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Nuclear_technology&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nuclear_technology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology" title="Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">Chemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">Engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Physics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Atomic nucleus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Fission</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Fusion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">braking</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">Fuel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">Tritium</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">Deuterium</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">Helium-3</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_material" title="Fertile material">Fertile material</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fissile_material" title="Fissile material">Fissile material</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_separation" title="Isotope separation">Isotope separation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_material" title="Nuclear material">Nuclear material</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enriched_uranium" title="Enriched uranium">enriched</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">depleted</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">Thorium</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">Neutron</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_activation" title="Neutron activation">Activation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">Capture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_poison" title="Neutron poison">Poison</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_cross_section" title="Neutron cross section">Cross section</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_generator" title="Neutron generator">Generator</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">Radiation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_reflector" title="Neutron reflector">Reflector</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_temperature" title="Neutron temperature">Temperature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal neutron">Thermal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast neutron">Fast</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fusion_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Fusion neutron">Fusion</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Power</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_by_country" title="Nuclear power by country">by country</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">Power plant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_nuclear_power_plants" title="Economics of nuclear power plants">Economics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents">Accidents and incidents</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_policy" title="Nuclear energy policy">Policy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fusion_power" title="Fusion power">Fusion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multi-mission_radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator">MMRTG</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_propulsion" title="Nuclear propulsion">Propulsion</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_thermal_rocket" title="Nuclear thermal rocket">rocket</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_safety_and_security" title="Nuclear safety and security">Safety and security</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Imaging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;width:auto;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/RadBall" title="RadBall">RadBall</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scintigraphy" title="Scintigraphy">Scintigraphy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Single-photon_emission_computed_tomography" title="Single-photon emission computed tomography">Single-photon emission (SPECT)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">Positron-emission tomography (PET)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Therapy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;width:auto;;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron_therapy" title="Fast neutron therapy">Fast-neutron</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture_therapy_of_cancer" title="Neutron capture therapy of cancer">Neutron capture therapy of cancer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Targeted_alpha-particle_therapy" title="Targeted alpha-particle therapy">Targeted alpha-particle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proton_therapy" title="Proton therapy">Proton-beam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tomotherapy" title="Tomotherapy">Tomotherapy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Brachytherapy" title="Brachytherapy">Brachytherapy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation therapy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Radiosurgery" title="Radiosurgery">Radiosurgery</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Radiopharmacology" title="Radiopharmacology">Radiopharmacology</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_Processing&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nuclear Processing (page does not exist)">Industry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_irradiation" title="Food irradiation">Food Irradiation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Electron-beam_processing" title="Electron-beam processing">Electron beam processing</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Weapons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;width:auto;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Arms race</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_delivery" title="Nuclear weapons delivery">Delivery</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design" title="Nuclear weapon design">Design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">Disarmament</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_ethics" title="Nuclear ethics">Ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_explosion" title="Nuclear explosion">Explosion</a>
<ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">effects</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">Proliferation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">Testing</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/High-altitude_nuclear_explosion" title="High-altitude nuclear explosion">high-altitude</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Underground_nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Underground nuclear weapons testing">underground</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Warfare</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield" title="Nuclear weapon yield">Yield</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/TNT_equivalent" title="TNT equivalent">TNTe</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;width:auto;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_estimated_death_tolls_from_nuclear_attacks_on_cities" class="mw-redirect" title="List of estimated death tolls from nuclear attacks on cities">Estimated death tolls from attacks</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons" title="List of states with nuclear weapons">States with nuclear weapons</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historical_nuclear_weapons_stockpiles_and_nuclear_tests_by_country" title="Historical nuclear weapons stockpiles and nuclear tests by country">Historical stockpiles and tests</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests" title="List of nuclear weapons tests">Tests</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of the United States">Tests in the United States</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_of_mass_destruction_treaties" title="List of weapons of mass destruction treaties">WMD treaties</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear-weapon-free_zone" title="Nuclear-weapon-free zone">Weapon-free zones</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons" title="List of nuclear weapons">Weapons</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Waste</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Products</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;width:auto;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">Actinide</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reprocessed_uranium" title="Reprocessed uranium">Reprocessed uranium</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reactor-grade_plutonium" title="Reactor-grade plutonium">Reactor-grade plutonium</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Minor_actinide" title="Minor actinide">Minor actinide</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Activation_product" title="Activation product">Activation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Fission</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long-lived_fission_product" title="Long-lived fission product">LLFP</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Actinide_chemistry" title="Actinide chemistry">Actinide chemistry</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Disposal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;width:auto;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel_cycle" title="Nuclear fuel cycle">Fuel cycle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/High-level_waste" title="High-level waste">High-level (HLW)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Low-level_waste" title="Low-level waste">Low-level (LLW)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deep_geological_repository" title="Deep geological repository">Repository</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">Reprocessing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuel" title="Spent nuclear fuel">Spent fuel</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spent_fuel_pool" title="Spent fuel pool">pool</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dry_cask_storage" title="Dry cask storage">cask</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">Transmutation</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Debate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_debate" title="Nuclear power debate">Nuclear power</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_debate" title="Nuclear weapons debate">Nuclear weapons</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Ribbon_Commission_on_America%27s_Nuclear_Future" title="Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future">Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">Anti-nuclear movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining_debate" title="Uranium mining debate">Uranium mining</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_phase-out" title="Nuclear power phase-out">Nuclear power phase-out</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Nuclear_reactors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">Nuclear reactors</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fission" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor#Fission" title="Nuclear reactor">Fission</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="Moderator"><div style="float: left;"><b><a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">Moderator</a></b></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Light-water_reactor" title="Light-water reactor">Light water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aqueous_homogeneous_reactor" title="Aqueous homogeneous reactor">Aqueous homogeneous</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Boiling_water_reactor" title="Boiling water reactor">Boiling</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/GE_BWR" title="GE BWR">BWR</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_boiling_water_reactor" title="Advanced boiling water reactor">ABWR</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Simplified_Boiling_Water_Reactor" title="Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor">ESBWR</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kerena_boiling_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerena boiling water reactor">Kerena</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">Pressurized</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/AP1000" title="AP1000">AP1000</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/APR-1400" title="APR-1400">APR-1400</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/APR%2B" class="mw-redirect" title="APR+">APR+</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/APWR" class="mw-redirect" title="APWR">APWR</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/ATMEA1" class="mw-redirect" title="ATMEA1">ATMEA1</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/CAP1400" class="mw-redirect" title="CAP1400">CAP1400</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/CPR-1000" title="CPR-1000">CPR-1000</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/EPR_(nuclear_reactor)" title="EPR (nuclear reactor)">EPR</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hualong_One" title="Hualong One">HPR-1000</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/ACPR1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACPR1000">ACPR1000</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/ACP1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACP1000">ACP1000</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/VVER" title="VVER">VVER</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/IPWR-900" title="IPWR-900">IPWR-900</a></li>
<li>many others</li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Supercritical_water_reactor" title="Supercritical water reactor">Supercritical (SCWR)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_nuclear_fission_reactor" title="Natural nuclear fission reactor">Natural fission</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heavy-water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy-water reactor">Heavy water</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold">by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_coolant" title="Nuclear reactor coolant">coolant</a></span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;;background:whitesmoke;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Deuterium_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuterium oxide">D<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_heavy-water_reactor" title="Pressurized heavy-water reactor">Pressurized</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/CANDU_reactor" title="CANDU reactor">CANDU</a>
<ul><li>CANDU 6</li>
<li>CANDU 9</li>
<li>EC6</li>
<li>AFCR</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/ACR-1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACR-1000">ACR-1000</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Carolinas%E2%80%93Virginia_Tube_Reactor" title="Carolinas–Virginia Tube Reactor">CVTR</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR" title="IPHWR">IPHWR</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR-220" title="IPHWR-220">IPHWR-220</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR#IPHWR-540" title="IPHWR">IPHWR-540</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR-700" title="IPHWR-700">IPHWR-700</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Argentina" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Argentina">PHWR KWU</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MZFR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MZFR (page does not exist)">MZFR</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/%C3%85gestaverket" class="mw-redirect" title="Ågestaverket">R3</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/R4_nuclear_reactor" title="R4 nuclear reactor">R4 Marviken</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/H2O" class="mw-redirect" title="H2O">H<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=HWLWR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HWLWR (page does not exist)">HWLWR</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugen_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Fugen Nuclear Power Plant">ATR</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gentilly_Nuclear_Generating_Station#Gentilly-1" title="Gentilly Nuclear Generating Station">HW BLWR 250</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Steam-generating_heavy_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam-generating heavy water reactor">Steam-generating (SGHWR)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_heavy-water_reactor" title="Advanced heavy-water reactor">AHWR</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/WR-1" title="WR-1">WR-1</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=HWGCR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HWGCR (page does not exist)">HWGCR</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brennilis_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Brennilis Nuclear Power Plant">EL-4</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernkraftwerk_Niederaichbach&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kernkraftwerk Niederaichbach (page does not exist)">KKN</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/KS_150" title="KS 150">KS 150</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lucens_reactor" title="Lucens reactor">Lucens</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Graphite-moderated_reactor" title="Graphite-moderated reactor">Graphite</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold">by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_coolant" title="Nuclear reactor coolant">coolant</a></span></span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="H2O" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/H2O" class="mw-redirect" title="H2O">H<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obninsk_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant">AM-1</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Beloyarsk_Nuclear_Power_Station#Early_reactors" title="Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station">AMB-X</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/EGP-6" title="EGP-6">EGP-6</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/RBMK" title="RBMK">RBMK</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Gas-cooled_reactor" title="Gas-cooled reactor">Gas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/UNGG_reactor" title="UNGG reactor"><i>Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz</i> (UNGG)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Magnox" title="Magnox">Magnox</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Gas-cooled_Reactor" title="Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor">Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">He</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine_modular_helium_reactor" title="Gas turbine modular helium reactor">GTMHR</a>
<ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MHR-T&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MHR-T (page does not exist)">MHR-T</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/UHTREX" title="UHTREX">UHTREX</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Very-high-temperature_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Very-high-temperature reactor">VHTR (HTGR)</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pebble-bed_reactor" title="Pebble-bed reactor">PBR (PBMR)</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/AVR_reactor" title="AVR reactor">AVR</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/HTR-10" title="HTR-10">HTR-10</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/HTR-PM" title="HTR-PM">HTR-PM</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/THTR-300" title="THTR-300">THTR-300</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prismatic_block_reactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prismatic block reactor (page does not exist)">PMR</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Molten_salt_reactor" title="Molten salt reactor">Molten-salt</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Fluorides" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/FLiBe" title="FLiBe">Fluorides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuji_Molten_Salt_Reactor" title="Fuji Molten Salt Reactor">Fuji MSR</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_fluoride_thorium_reactor" title="Liquid fluoride thorium reactor">Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Molten-Salt_Reactor_Experiment" title="Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment">Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Integral_Molten_Salt_Reactor" title="Integral Molten Salt Reactor">Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/TMSR-500" title="TMSR-500">TMSR-500</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/TMSR-LF1" title="TMSR-LF1">TMSR-LF1</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">None<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Fast-neutron_reactor" title="Fast-neutron reactor">fast-neutron</a>)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fast_breeder_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast breeder reactor">Breeder (FBR)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Integral_fast_reactor" title="Integral fast reactor">Integral (IFR)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_metal_cooled_reactor" title="Liquid metal cooled reactor">Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Small,_sealed,_transportable,_autonomous_reactor" title="Small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor">Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Traveling_wave_reactor" title="Traveling wave reactor">Traveling-wave (TWR)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Energy_Multiplier_Module" title="Energy Multiplier Module">Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reduced_moderation_water_reactor" title="Reduced moderation water reactor">Reduced-moderation (RMWR)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fast_Breeder_Test_Reactor" title="Fast Breeder Test Reactor">Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dual_fluid_reactor" title="Dual fluid reactor">Dual fluid reactor (DFR)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Generation_IV_reactor" title="Generation IV reactor">Generation IV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sodium-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Sodium-cooled fast reactor">Sodium (SFR)</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/BN-350_reactor" title="BN-350 reactor">BN-350</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/BN-600_reactor" title="BN-600 reactor">BN-600</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/BN-800_reactor" title="BN-800 reactor">BN-800</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/BN-1200_reactor" title="BN-1200 reactor">BN-1200</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/CFR-600" title="CFR-600">CFR-600</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ph%C3%A9nix" title="Phénix">Phénix</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Superph%C3%A9nix" title="Superphénix">Superphénix</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prototype_Fast_Breeder_Reactor" title="Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor">PFBR</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/FBR-600" title="FBR-600">FBR-600</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/China_Experimental_Fast_Reactor" title="China Experimental Fast Reactor">CEFR</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dounreay#Prototype_Fast_Reactor_(PFR)" title="Dounreay">PFR</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/PRISM_(reactor)" title="PRISM (reactor)">PRISM</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lead-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Lead-cooled fast reactor">Lead</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gas-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Gas-cooled fast reactor">Helium gas (GFR)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stable_salt_reactor" title="Stable salt reactor">Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organic_nuclear_reactor" title="Organic nuclear reactor">Organic nuclear reactor</a>
<ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arbus-reactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arbus-reactor (page does not exist)">Arbus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Piqua_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Piqua Nuclear Generating Station">Piqua</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_Nuclear_Propulsion" title="Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion">Aircraft Reactor Experiment</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>
</div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fusion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor#Fusion_reactors" title="Nuclear reactor">Fusion</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="by_confinement">by <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_fusion#Confinement" title="Thermonuclear fusion">confinement</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_confinement_fusion" title="Magnetic confinement fusion">Magnetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field-reversed_configuration" title="Field-reversed configuration">Field-reversed configuration</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Levitated_dipole" title="Levitated dipole">Levitated dipole</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reversed_field_pinch" title="Reversed field pinch">Reversed field pinch</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spheromak" title="Spheromak">Spheromak</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stellarator" title="Stellarator">Stellarator</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tokamak" title="Tokamak">Tokamak</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">Inertial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bubble_fusion" title="Bubble fusion">Bubble <span style="font-size:85%;">(acoustic)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fusor" title="Fusor">Fusor</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_electrostatic_confinement" title="Inertial electrostatic confinement">electrostatic</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">Laser-driven</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Magnetized_target_fusion" title="Magnetized target fusion">Magnetized-target</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Z-pinch" title="Z-pinch">Z-pinch</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dense_plasma_focus" title="Dense plasma focus">Dense plasma focus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Migma" title="Migma">Migma</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Muon-catalyzed_fusion" title="Muon-catalyzed fusion">Muon-catalyzed</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polywell" title="Polywell">Polywell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pyroelectric_fusion" title="Pyroelectric fusion">Pyroelectric</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/File:Radioactive.svg" class="image"><img alt="Radioactive.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/32px-Radioactive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/48px-Radioactive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/64px-Radioactive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="446" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Nuclear_technology" title="Portal:Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology portal</a></b></li>
<li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Category" width="16" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_technology" title="Category:Nuclear technology">Category</a></b></li>
<li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Commons page" width="12" height="16" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Nuclear_technology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Nuclear technology">Commons</a></b></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node ) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp ) | 1646326708 |