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22:44, 14 September 2010: 76.169.101.177 (talk) triggered filter 11, performing the action "edit" on Ernest Hemingway. Actions taken: Warn; Filter description: Warn and tag vandalism (examine)

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===Idaho and suicide===
===Idaho and suicide===
[[File:Hemingway SunValley.jpg|thumb|Hemingway in Sun Valley, January 1959. With him is [[Gary Cooper]], a friend first met at Sun Valley 20 years before, and who played Robert Jordan in the 1943 film adaptation of ''[[For Whom the Bell Tolls (film)|For Whom the Bell Tolls]]''.|alt=a white-bearded man dressed in a jacket, trousers and a head visor with a woman wearing a jacket and trousers, and a third man wearing jacket, trousers and a hat with water in the background]]
[[File:Hemingway SunValley.jpg|thumb|Hemingway in Sun Valley, January 1959. With him is [[Gary Cooper]], a friend first met at Sun Valley 20 years before, and who played Robert Jordan in the 1943 film adaptation of ''[[For Whom the Bell Tolls he sucked dicks for money(film)|For Whom the Bell Tolls]]''.|alt=a white-bearded man dressed in a jacket, trousers and a head visor with a woman wearing a jacket and trousers, and a third man wearing jacket, trousers and a hat with water in the background]]
He continued to work on ''A Moveable Feast'' through the end of the 1950s,<ref name="Meyers p533"/><ref name=Hotchner>{{cite news |first=A.E. |last=Hotchner |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Don't Touch 'A Movable Feast' |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/20/opinion/20hotchner.html?_r=1 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |publisher= |date=2009–07–19 |accessdate=2009–09–03}}</ref> and in the summer of 1959 he visited Spain to research a series of bullfighting articles for ''[[Life Magazine]]''.<ref name="Meyers p520">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=520}}</ref> Back in Ketchum at Christmas he appeared to be suffering from [[paranoia]]; at a restaurant one night with friends, he claimed the lights were on in the adjacent bank building because the FBI were "checking our accounts". By January he returned to Cuba and continued work on the ''Life'' magazine series. The manuscript grew to 63,000 words—''Life'' wanted only 10,000&nbsp;words—and he asked [[A. E. Hotchner]] to help organize the work that would become ''[[The Dangerous Summer]]''. Hotchner found Hemingway to be "unusually hesitant, disorganized, and confused".<ref name="Meyers p542-544">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=542–544}}</ref><ref name="Mellow pp598–600">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| pp=598–600}}</ref>
He continued to work on ''A Moveable Feast'' through the end of the 1950s,<ref name="Meyers p533"/><ref name=Hotchner>{{cite news |first=A.E. |last=Hotchner |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Don't Touch 'A Movable Feast' |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/20/opinion/20hotchner.html?_r=1 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |publisher= |date=2009–07–19 |accessdate=2009–09–03}}</ref> and in the summer of 1959 he visited Spain to research a series of bullfighting articles for ''[[Life Magazine]]''.<ref name="Meyers p520">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=520}}</ref> Back in Ketchum at Christmas he appeared to be suffering from [[paranoia]]; at a restaurant one night with friends, he claimed the lights were on in the adjacent bank building because the FBI were "checking our accounts". By January he returned to Cuba and continued work on the ''Life'' magazine series. The manuscript grew to 63,000 words—''Life'' wanted only 10,000&nbsp;words—and he asked [[A. E. Hotchner]] to help organize the work that would become ''[[The Dangerous Summer]]''. Hotchner found Hemingway to be "unusually hesitant, disorganized, and confused".<ref name="Meyers p542-544">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=542–544}}</ref><ref name="Mellow pp598–600">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| pp=598–600}}</ref>


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'{{pp-move-indef}} {{redirect|Hemingway}} {{Infobox Writer <!-- for more information see [[:Template:Infobox Writer/doc]] --> |name = Ernest Hemingway |caption = Ernest Hemingway |image = ErnestHemingway.jpg |caption = Hemingway in 1939 |image_alt = Dark-haired man in light colored short-sleeved shirt working on a typewriter at a table on which is an open book |birthname = Ernest Miller Hemingway |birthdate = {{birth date|1899|7|21|mf=y}} |birthplace = [[Oak Park, Illinois]], United States |nationality = American |deathdate = {{death date and age|1961|7|2|1899|7|21|mf=y}} |deathplace = [[Ketchum, Idaho]], United States |occupation = Author |genre = |movement = |spouse = [[Elizabeth Hadley Richardson]] (1921–1927)<br /> [[Pauline Pfeiffer]] (1927–1940)<br /> [[Martha Gellhorn]] (1940–1945)<br /> [[Mary Welsh Hemingway]] (1946–1961) |children = [[Jack Hemingway]] (1923–2000)<br /> [[Patrick Hemingway]] (1928–)<br /> [[Gregory Hemingway]] (1931–2001) |religion = Roman Catholic |influences = [[Pío Baroja]] |influenced = |awards = {{nowrap|[[Pulitzer Prize for Fiction]] (1953) <br /> [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] (1954)}} |signature = Ernest Hemingway Signature.svg }} '''Ernest Miller Hemingway''' (July 21, 1899 – July 2, 1961) was an American [[American literature|author]] and [[journalist]]. His distinctive writing style, characterized by economy and [[understatement]], influenced 20th-century fiction, as did his life of adventure and public image. He produced most of his work between the mid-1920s and the mid-1950s. He won the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in 1954. Hemingway's fiction was successful because the characters he presented exhibited authenticity that resonated with his audience. Many of his works are classics of [[American literature]]. He published seven novels, six short story collections, and two non-fiction works during his lifetime; a further three novels, four collections of short stories, and three non-fiction works were published [[posthumously]]. Hemingway was born and raised in [[Oak Park, Illinois]]. After leaving high school he worked for a few months as a reporter for the ''[[Kansas City Star]]'', before leaving for the [[Italian Campaign (World War I)|Italian front]] to become an [[List of ambulance drivers during World War I|ambulance driver during World War&nbsp;I]], which became the basis for his novel ''[[A Farewell to Arms]]''. He was seriously wounded and returned home within the year. In 1922 Hemingway married [[Hadley Richardson]], the first of his four wives, and the couple moved to Paris, where he worked as a [[Correspondent|foreign correspondent]]. During his time there he met and was influenced by [[modernism|modernist]] writers and artists of the 1920s expatriate community known as the "[[Lost Generation]]". His first novel, ''[[The Sun Also Rises]]'', was written in 1924. After divorcing Hadley Richardson in 1927 Hemingway married [[Pauline Pfeiffer]]; they divorced following Hemingway's return from covering the [[Spanish Civil War]], after which he wrote ''[[For Whom the Bell Tolls]]''. [[Martha Gellhorn]] became his third wife in 1940, but he left her for [[Mary Welsh Hemingway]] after World War&nbsp;II, during which he was present at [[Normandy Landings|D-Day]] and the [[liberation of Paris]]. Shortly after the publication of ''[[The Old Man and the Sea]]'' in 1952 Hemingway went on safari to Africa, where he was almost killed in a plane crash that left him in pain or ill-health for much of the rest of his life. Hemingway had permanent residences in [[Key West]], Florida, and [[Cuba]] during the 1930s and '40s, but in 1959 he moved from Cuba to [[Ketchum, Idaho]], where he committed suicide in the summer of 1961. ==Biography== ===Early life=== [[File:ErnestHemingwayBabyPicture.gif|thumb|right|Ernest Hemingway was the second child, and first son, born to his parents Clarence and Grace Hemingway.|alt= an infant dressed in light colored clothing propped on a chair faces the camera]] Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21, 1899, in [[Oak Park, Illinois]], a suburb of Chicago.<ref>{{Harvnb|Oliver|p=140}}</ref> His father Clarence Edmonds Hemingway was a physician, and his mother, Grace Hall-Hemingway, was a musician. Both were well-educated and well-respected in the conservative community of Oak Park.<ref>{{Harvnb|Reynolds|2000|p=17}}</ref> [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], a resident of Oak Park, said of the village: "So many churches for so many good people to go to".<ref>{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=4}}</ref> When Clarence and Grace Hemingway married in 1896, they moved in with Grace's father, Ernest Hall,<ref>{{Harvnb|Oliver|p=134}}</ref> after whom they named their first son.<ref group=note>Hemingway had five siblings: Marcelline (1898); Ursula (1902); Madelaine (1904); Carol (1911); and Leicester (1915). See {{Harvnb|Reynolds|2000|pp=17–18}}</ref> Hemingway claimed to dislike his name, which he "associated with the naive, even foolish hero of [[Oscar Wilde]]'s play ''[[The Importance of Being Earnest]]''".<ref name="Meyers p8">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=8}}</ref> The family's seven-bedroom home in a respectable neighborhood contained a music studio for Grace and a medical office for Clarence.<ref name = "Reynolds pp 17-18">{{Harvnb|Reynolds|2000|pp=17–18}}</ref> Hemingway's mother frequently performed in concerts around the village. As an adult Hemingway professed to hate his mother, although biographer Michael Reynolds points out that Hemingway mirrored her energy and enthusiasm.<ref name="Reynolds 2000 19">{{Harvnb|Reynolds|2000|p=19}}</ref> Her insistence that he learn to play the [[cello]] became a "source of conflict", but he later admitted the music lessons were useful in his writing, as in the "[[Counterpoint|contrapunctal]] structure" of ''[[For Whom the Bell Tolls]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=3}}</ref> The family owned a summer home called Windemere on [[Walloon Lake]], near [[Petoskey]], Michigan, where Hemingway learned to hunt, fish and camp in the woods and lakes of Northern Michigan. His early experiences in nature instilled a passion for outdoor adventure, and living in remote or isolated areas.<ref name="Meyers p13">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=13}}</ref> [[File:Hemingway birthplace.jpg|thumb|left|Ernest Hemingway's birthplace in Oak Park, Illinois. Hemingway lived here until he was seven, when the family moved to a house a few blocks away.|alt=gabled two-story house with corner turret and wrap-around porch under a clear sky]] Hemingway attended [[Oak Park and River Forest High School]] from 1913 until 1917. He took part in a number of sports—boxing, track and field, water polo, and football—and had good grades in English classes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|p=21}}</ref> He and his sister Marcelline performed in the school orchestra for two years.<ref name="Reynolds 2000 19"/> Hemingway wrote for and edited the ''Trapeze'' and ''Tabula'' (the school's newspaper and yearbook), for which he imitated the language of sportswriters, and used the [[pen name]] Ring Lardner, Jr.—a nod to [[Ring Lardner]] of the ''[[Chicago Tribune]]'' whose byline was "Line O'Type".<ref name="Meyers p19">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=19}}</ref> Like [[Mark Twain]], [[Stephen Crane]], [[Theodore Dreiser]] and [[Sinclair Lewis]], Hemingway was a journalist before becoming a novelist; after leaving high school he went to work for ''[[The Kansas City Star]]'' as a cub reporter.<ref name="Meyers p23">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=23}}</ref> Although he stayed there for only six months he relied on the ''Star'''s [[style guide]] as a foundation for his writing: "Use short sentences. Use short first paragraphs. Use vigorous English. Be positive, not negative."<ref>{{cite web |title=Star style and rules for writing |url=http://www.kcstar.com/hemingway/ehstarstyle.shtml |date= |work=The Kansas City Star |publisher=KansasCity.com |accessdate=2009–08–29}}</ref> ===World War I=== [[File:Ernest Hemingway in Milan 1918 retouched 3.jpg|thumb|Hemingway photographed in Milan, 1918, dressed in uniform. For two months he drove ambulances until he was wounded.|alt=young man dressed in a uniform sitting on a chair facing the camera]] Early in 1918 Hemingway responded to a [[Red Cross]] recruitment effort and signed on to be an ambulance driver in Italy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|pp=48–49}}</ref> He left New York in May, and arrived in Paris as the city was under bombardment from German artillery.<ref name="Meyers p27">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=27}}</ref> By June he was stationed at the [[Italian Campaign (World War I)|Italian Front]], and on his first day in Milan was sent to the scene of a munitions factory explosion where rescuers retrieved the shredded remains of female workers. He described the incident in his [[non-fiction]] book ''[[Death in the Afternoon]]'': "I remember that after we searched quite thoroughly for the complete dead we collected fragments".<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|p=57}}</ref> A few days later he was stationed at [[Fossalta di Piave]]. On July&nbsp;8 he was seriously wounded by mortar fire, having just returned from the canteen to deliver chocolate and cigarettes to the men at the front line.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|pp=59–60}}</ref> Despite his wounds, Hemingway carried an Italian soldier to safety, for which he received the [[Silver Medal of Military Valor|Italian Silver Medal of Bravery]].<ref name="Meyers pp30-31">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=30–31}}</ref> Still only eighteen, Hemingway said of the incident: "When you go to war as a boy you have a great illusion of immortality. Other people get killed; not you&nbsp;... Then when you are badly wounded the first time you lose that illusion and you know it can happen to you."<ref name = "Putnam">{{Harvnb|Putnam}}</ref> He sustained shrapnel wounds to both legs; underwent an operation at a distribution center; spent five days at a field hospital; and was transferred to the Red Cross hospital in Milan for recuperation.<ref name="Desnoyers p3">{{Harvnb|Desnoyers| p=3}}</ref> Hemingway spent six months in the hospital, where he met and fell in love with [[Agnes von Kurowsky]], a Red Cross nurse seven years his senior.<ref name="Meyers p37">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=37}}</ref> Agnes and Hemingway planned to marry, but she became engaged to an Italian officer in March&nbsp;1919, an incident that provided material for the short and bitter work "[[A Very Short Story]]".<ref>{{Harvnb|Scholes}}</ref> Biographer Jeffrey Meyers claims Hemingway was devastated by Agnes' rejection, and that he followed a pattern of abandoning a wife before she abandoned him in future relationships. During his six months in recuperation Hemingway met and formed a strong friendship with [[Eric Dorman-Smith|"Chink" Dorman-Smith]] that lasted for decades.<ref name="Meyers pp40-42">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=40–42}}</ref> ===Toronto and Chicago=== Hemingway returned home early in 1919 to a time of readjustment. At not yet 20 years old, the war had created in him a maturity at odds with living at home without a job and the need for recuperation.<ref name="Meyers pp45–46">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=45–46}}</ref> As Reynolds explains, "Hemingway could not really tell his parents what he thought when he saw his bloody knee. He could not say how scared he was in another country with surgeons who could not tell him in English if his leg was coming off or not."<ref>{{Harvnb|Reynolds|1998|p=21}}</ref> That summer he spent time in Michigan with high school friends, fishing and camping;<ref name = "Putnam"/> and in September he spent a week in the back-country. The trip became the inspiration for his short story "[[Big Two-Hearted River]]", in which the [[semi-autobiographical]] character [[Nick Adams (character)|Nick Adams]] takes to the country to find solitude after returning from war.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|p=101}}</ref> A family friend offered him a job in Toronto; having nothing else to do he accepted. Late that year he began as a freelancer, staff writer and foreign correspondent for the ''Toronto Star Weekly''.<ref name="Meyers pp51–53"/> However he returned to Michigan the following June,<ref name="Meyers pp51–53">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=51–53}}</ref> and then moved to Chicago in September&nbsp;1920 to live with friends, while still filing stories for the ''Toronto Star''. In Chicago he worked as an associate editor of the monthly journal ''[[Cooperative Commonwealth]]'', where he met [[Sherwood Anderson]].<ref name="Meyers pp56-59">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=56–58}}</ref> When St. Louis native Hadley Richardson came to Chicago to visit Hemingway's roommate's sister, Hemingway, who was infatuated, later claimed "I knew she was the girl I was going to marry". Hadley was red-haired, with a "nurturing instinct", and eight years older than Hemingway.<ref name="Kert pp83-90"/> Despite the difference in age, Hadley, who had an overprotective mother, seemed less mature than usual for a young woman her age.<ref name="Oliver p139">{{Harvnb|Oliver|p=139}}</ref> Bernice Kert, author of ''The Hemingway Women'', claims Hadley was "evocative" of Agnes, but that Hadley had a childishness that Agnes lacked. The two corresponded for a few months, and then decided to marry and travel to Europe.<ref name="Kert pp83-90">{{Harvnb|Kert|1983|pp=83–90}}</ref> They wanted to visit Rome, but Sherwood Anderson convinced them to visit Paris instead.<ref name="Baker 1972 pp7">{{Harvnb|Baker|1972|p=7}}</ref> They were married on September&nbsp;3, 1921; two months later Hemingway was hired as foreign correspondent for the ''Toronto Star''; and the couple left for Paris. Of Hemingway's marriage to Hadley, Meyers claims: "With Hadley, Hemingway achieved everything he had hoped for with Agnes: the love of a beautiful woman, a comfortable income, a life in Europe."<ref name="Meyers pp60–62">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=60–62}}</ref> ===Paris=== [[File:Ernest Hemingway 1923 passport photo.TIF.jpg|thumb|right|Hemingway's 1923 passport photo. At this time he lived in Paris with his wife Hadley, and worked as a journalist.|alt=front face view of dark-haired, dark-eyed young man dressed in shirt, tie and jacket]] Early Hemingway biographer [[Carlos Baker]] believes that, while Anderson suggested Paris because "the monetary exchange rate" made it an inexpensive place to live, more importantly it was where "the most interesting people in the world" resided. There Hemingway would meet writers such as [[Gertrude Stein]], [[James Joyce]] and [[Ezra Pound]] who "could help a young writer up the rungs of a career".<ref name="Baker 1972 pp7"/> The Hemingway of the early Paris years was a "tall, handsome, muscular, broad-shouldered, brown-eyed, rosy-cheeked, square-jawed, soft-voiced young man."<ref name="Meyers pp70–74"/> He and Hadley lived in a small walk-up at 74 Rue du Cardinal Lemoine in the [[Latin Quarter]], and he worked in a rented room in a nearby building.<ref name="Baker 1972 pp7"/> Anderson wrote letters of introduction to Gertrude Stein and other writers in Paris.<ref name="Meyers pp61-63">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=61–63}}</ref> Stein, who was the bastion of [[modernism]] in Paris,<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1991|p=8}}</ref> became Hemingway's mentor for a period, introducing him to the expatriate artists and writers of the [[Montparnasse Quarter]]. She referred to artists as the "[[Lost Generation]]"—a term Hemingway popularized with the publication of ''The Sun Also Rises''.<ref name="Mellow p308">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| p=308}}</ref> A regular at Stein's [[Salon (gathering)|salon]], Hemingway met influential painters such as [[Pablo Picasso]], [[Joan Miro]], and [[Juan Gris]].<ref name="Reynolds 2000 28">{{Harvnb|Reynolds|2000|p=28}}</ref> However, Hemingway eventually withdrew from Stein's influence and their relationship deteriorated into a literary quarrel that spanned decades.<ref name="Meyers pp77–81">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=77–81}}</ref> The American poet Ezra Pound, older than Hemingway by 14 years, met Hemingway by chance at Sylvia Beach's [[Shakespeare and Company (bookshop)|Shakespeare and Company]] in 1922. The two toured Italy in 1923 and lived on the same street in 1924.<ref name="Meyers pp70–74">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=70–74}}</ref> They forged a strong friendship and in Hemingway, Pound recognized and fostered a young talent.<ref name="Reynolds 2000 28"/> Pound—who had recently finished editing [[T. S. Eliot]]'s ''[[The Waste Land]]''—introduced Hemingway to the Irish writer James Joyce,<ref name="Meyers pp70–74"/> with whom Hemingway frequently embarked on "alcoholic sprees".<ref name="Meyers p82">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=82}}</ref> [[File:HemingwayLoeb.jpg|thumb|right|Ernest Hemingway with Lady Duff Twysden, Hadley Hemingway, and three unidentified people at a cafe in Pamplona, Spain, July 1925|alt=three men, dressed in light colored trousers and wearing hats, and two women, wearing light colored dresses, sitting at a sidewalk table]] During his first 20 months in Paris, Hemingway filed 88 stories for the ''Toronto Star''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Reynolds|p=24}}</ref> He covered the [[Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)|Greco-Turkish War]], where he witnessed the burning of [[Smyrna]]; wrote travel pieces such as "Tuna Fishing in Spain" and "Trout Fishing All Across Europe: Spain Has the Best, Then Germany"; and an article dedicated to [[bullfighting]]—"Pamplona in July; World's Series of Bull Fighting a Mad, Whirling Carnival".<ref name="Desnoyers p5">{{Harvnb|Desnoyers| p=5}}</ref> Hemingway was devastated on learning that Hadley had lost a suitcase filled with his manuscripts at the [[Paris-Gare de Lyon|Gare de Lyon]] as she was traveling to [[Geneva]] to meet him in December&nbsp;1922.<ref name="Meyers pp69–70">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=69–70}}</ref> The following September, because Hadley was pregnant, the couple returned to Toronto, where their son [[Jack Hemingway|John Hadley Nicanor]] was born on October 10, 1923. During their absence Hemingway's first book, ''Three Stories and Ten Poems'', was published. Two of the stories it contained were all that remained of his work after the loss of the suitcase, and the third had been written the previous spring in Italy. Within months a second volume, ''in our time'' (without capitals), was published. The small volume included six [[Vignette (literature)|vignettes]] and a dozen stories Hemingway had written the previous summer during his first visit to Spain where he discovered the thrill of the [[bullfighting|''corrida'']]. He missed Paris, considered Toronto boring, and wanted to return to the life of a writer, rather than live the life of a journalist.<ref name="Baker 1972 15–18">{{Harvnb|Baker|1972|pp=15–18}}</ref> Hemingway, Hadley and their son (nicknamed Bumby), returned to Paris in January&nbsp;1924 and moved into a new apartment on the Rue Notre Dame des Champs.<ref name="Baker 1972 15–18"/> Hemingway helped [[Ford Madox Ford]] edit the ''transatlantic review'' in which were published works by Pound, [[John Dos Passos]], and Gertrude Stein as well as some of Hemingway's own early stories such as "[[Indian Camp]]".<ref name="Meyers p126">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=126}}</ref> When ''[[In Our Time (book)|In Our Time]]'' (with capital letters) was published in 1925, the dust jacket had comments from Ford.<ref>{{Harvnb|Baker|1972|p=34}}</ref><ref name="Meyers p127">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=127}}</ref> "Indian Camp" received considerable praise; Ford saw it as an important early story by a young writer,<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow| page= 236}}</ref> and critics in the United States claimed Hemingway reinvigorated the short story with his use of declarative sentences and his crisp style.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow| page= 314}}</ref> Six months earlier, Hemingway met [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]], and the pair formed a friendship of "admiration and hostility".<ref name="Meyers pp159–160">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=159–160}}</ref> Fitzgerald's ''[[The Great Gatsby]]'' had been published that year: Hemingway read it, liked it, and decided his next work had to be a novel.<ref name = "Baker pp 30-34">{{Harvnb|Baker|1972|pp=30–34}}</ref> [[File:Ernest Hadley and Bumby Hemingway.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Ernest, Hadley, and Bumby Hemingway in [[Schruns]], Austria, in 1926, months before they separated|alt=a man, wearing a striped sweater and trousers and a hat, with a woman, wearing a skirt and a cardigan, holding the hand of a boy wearing shorts, on a walking path]] Since his first visit to see the bullfighting at the Festival of [[San Fermín]] in [[Pamplona]] in 1923, Hemingway was fascinated by the sport; he saw in it the brutality of war juxtaposed against a cruel beauty. In June&nbsp;1925, Hemingway and Hadley left Paris for their annual visit to Pamplona accompanied by a group of American and British expatriates.<ref name="Meyers pp117-119">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=117–119}}</ref> The trip inspired Hemingway's first novel, ''The Sun Also Rises'', which he began to write immediately after the fiesta, finishing in September.<ref name = "Baker pp 30-34"/> The novel presents the culture of bullfighting with the concept of ''afición'', depicted as an authentic way of life, contrasted with the Parisian [[bohemians]], depicted as inauthentic.<ref name="Müller 2010">{{Harvnb|Müller|2010}}</ref> Hemingway decided to slow his pace and devoted six months to the novel's rewrite.<ref name = "Baker pp 30-34"/> The manuscript arrived in New York in April,<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|p=328}}</ref> and he corrected the final proof in Paris in August&nbsp;1926.<ref name="Baker p44">{{Harvnb|Baker|1972| p=44}}</ref> [[Charles Scribner's Sons|Scribner's]] published the novel in October.<ref name="Meyers p189">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=189}}</ref> ''The Sun Also Rises'' epitomized the post-war expatriate generation,<ref name="Mellow p302">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| p=302}}</ref> received good reviews and is "recognized as Hemingway's greatest work".<ref name="Meyers p192">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=192}}</ref> However, Hemingway himself later wrote to his editor [[Max Perkins]] that the "point of the book" was not so much about a generation being lost, but that "the earth abideth forever"; he believed the characters in ''The Sun Also Rises'' may have been "battered" but were not lost.<ref name="Baker p82">{{Harvnb|Baker|1972| p=82}}</ref> Hemingway's marriage to Hadley deteriorated as he was working on ''The Sun Also Rises''.<ref name="Baker p44"/> In the spring of 1926, Hadley became aware of his affair with Pauline Pfeiffer,<ref name="Baker p43">{{Harvnb|Baker|1972| p=43}}</ref> although she endured Pauline's presence in Pamplona that July.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|p = 333}}</ref> On their return to Paris, Hadley and Hemingway decided to separate; and in November she formally requested a divorce. They split their possessions while Hadley accepted Hemingway's offer of the proceeds from ''The Sun Also Rises''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|pp = 338–340}}</ref> The couple were divorced in January&nbsp;1927, and Hemingway married Pauline Pfeiffer in May.<ref name="Meyers p172">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=172}}</ref> Pfeiffer was from [[Arkansas]]—her family was wealthy and Catholic—and before the marriage Hemingway converted to Catholicism.<ref name="Mellow p294">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|p = 294}}</ref><ref name="Meyers p174">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=174}}</ref> In Paris she worked for ''[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]''.<ref name="Mellow p294"/> After a honeymoon in [[Le Grau-du-Roi]], where he contracted [[anthrax]], Hemingway planned his next collection of short stories,<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|pp=348–353}}</ref> ''[[Men Without Women (short story collection)|Men Without Women]]'', published in October 1927.<ref name="Meyers p195">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=195}}</ref> By the end of the year Pauline, who was pregnant, wanted to move back to America. John Dos Passos recommended [[Key West]], and they left Paris in March&nbsp;1928. Some time that spring Hemingway suffered a severe injury in their Paris bathroom, when he pulled a skylight down on his head thinking he was pulling on a toilet chain. This left him with a prominent forehead scar, subject of numerous legends, which he carried for the rest of his life. When Hemingway was asked about the scar he was reluctant to answer.<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson, Daniel}}</ref> After his departure from Paris, Hemingway "never again lived in a big city".<ref name="Meyers p204">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=204}}</ref> ===Key West and the Caribbean=== [[File:Hemingwayhouse.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ernest Hemingway House|Hemingway house]] in Key West where he lived with Pauline. He wrote ''[[To Have and Have Not]]'' in the second story pool house not seen in picture.|alt=two story square house with tall windows and exterior shutters and a second story porch]] In the late spring Hemingway and Pauline traveled to Kansas City where their son [[Patrick Hemingway]] was born on June&nbsp;28, 1928. Pauline had a difficult delivery, which Hemingway fictionalized in ''[[A Farewell to Arms]]''.<ref name="Meyers p208">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=208}}</ref> After Patrick's birth, Pauline and Hemingway traveled to Wyoming, Massachusetts and New York.<ref name="Meyers p208"/> In the fall he was in New York with Bumby, about to board a train to Florida, when he received a cable telling him that his father had committed suicide.<ref group=note>Clarence Hemingway used his father's Civil War pistol to shoot himself. See {{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=2}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|p=367}}</ref> Hemingway was devastated, having earlier sent a letter to his father telling him not to worry about financial difficulties; the letter arrived minutes after the suicide. He realized how Hadley must have felt after her own father's suicide in 1903, and he suggested, "I'll probably go the same way."<ref>qtd. in {{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=210}}</ref> Upon his return to Key West in December, Hemingway worked on the draft of ''A Farewell to Arms'' before leaving for France in January. The draft had been finished in August but he delayed the revision. The serialization in ''[[Scribner's Magazine]]'' was scheduled to begin in May, but by April, Hemingway was still working on the ending, which he may have rewritten as many as seventeen times. ''A Farewell to Arms'' was published on September&nbsp;27.<ref name="Meyers p215">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=215}}</ref> Biographer James Mellow believes Hemingway's stature as an American writer was secured with the publication of ''A Farewell to Arms'', which has a complexity not apparent in ''The Sun Also Rises''.<ref name="Mellow p378">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| p=378}}</ref> While in Spain during the summer of 1929, Hemingway researched his next work, ''Death in the Afternoon''. He wanted to write a comprehensive [[treatise]] of bullfighting, with explanations of the ''toreros'' and ''corridas'', complete with glossaries and appendices, because he believed bullfighting was "of great tragic interest, being literally of life and death."<ref>{{Harvnb|Baker|1972|pp=144–145}}</ref> During the early 1930s Hemingway spent his winters in Key West and summers in Wyoming, where he found "the most beautiful country he had seen in the American West" and hunting that included deer, elk, and grizzly bear.<ref name="Meyers p222">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=222}}</ref> His third son, [[Gloria Hemingway|Gregory Hancock Hemingway]], was born on November&nbsp;12, 1931 in Kansas City.<ref name="Harvnb|Oliver|p=144">{{Harvnb|Oliver|p=144}}</ref><ref group=note>Gregory Hemingway underwent [[sex reassignment surgery]] in the mid-1990s and thereafter was known as [[Gloria Hemingway]]. See [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/arts/3160646.stm Hemingway legacy feud 'resolved']. BBC News. {{Nowrap|3 October}} 2003. Accessed 2010–19–02.</ref> Pauline's uncle bought the couple a [[Ernest Hemingway House|house]] in Key West with the second floor of the carriage house converted to a writing den.<ref name="Meyers pp222-227">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=222–227}}</ref> While in Key West he enticed his friends to join him on fishing expeditions—inviting [[Waldo Peirce]], John Dos Passos, and [[Max Perkins]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| pp=376–377}}</ref>—with one all male trip to the [[Dry Tortugas]], and he frequented the local bar, [[Sloppy Joe's (bar)|Sloppy Joe's]].<ref name="Mellow p402">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1985| p=402}}</ref> He continued to travel to Europe and to [[Cuba]], and although he wrote of Key West in 1933, "We have a fine house here, and kids are all well," Mellow believes he "was plainly restless."<ref name="Mellow p424">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1985| p=424}}</ref> [[File:Hemingway and Marlins.jpg|thumb|220px|right|Ernest, Pauline, Bumby, Patrick, and Gregory Hemingway pose with marlins after a fishing trip to [[Bimini]] in 1935|alt=a man, a woman, and three boys standing on a pier with four large fish suspended from hooks above their heads]] In 1933 Hemingway and Pauline went on safari to East Africa. The 10-week trip provided material for ''[[Green Hills of Africa]]'', as well as the short stories "[[The Snows of Kilimanjaro]]" and "[[The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber]]".<ref name="Desnoyers p9">{{Harvnb|Desnoyers| p=9}}</ref> They visited [[Mombasa]], [[Nairobi]], and [[Machakos]] in [[Kenya]], then on to [[Tanganyika]], where they hunted in the [[Serengeti]], around [[Lake Manyara]] and west and southeast of the present-day [[Tarangire National Park]]. Hemingway contracted [[amoebic dysentery]] that caused a prolapsed intestine, and he was evacuated by plane to Nairobi, an experience reflected in "The Snows of Kilimanjaro". Their guide was the noted "white hunter" Philip Hope Percival, who had guided [[Theodore Roosevelt]] on his 1909 safari. On his return to Key West in early 1934 Hemingway began work on ''Green Hills of Africa'', published in 1935 to mixed reviews.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|pp =337–340}}</ref> Hemingway bought a boat in 1934, named it the ''Pilar'', and began sailing the [[Caribbean]].<ref name="Meyers p280">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=280}}</ref> In 1935 he first arrived at [[Bimini]], where he spent a considerable amount of time.<ref name="Desnoyers p9"/> During this period he also worked on ''[[To Have and Have Not]]'', published in 1937 while he was in Spain, the only novel he wrote during the 1930s.<ref name="Meyers p292">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=292}}</ref> [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-84600-0001, Ivens und Hemingway bei Ludwig Renn, Chef der XI. Internationalen Brigaden.jpg|thumb|left|Hemingway (center) with Dutch filmmaker [[Joris Ivens]], and [[Ludwig Renn]] (German writer as International Brigades officer). Spanish Civil War, 1937. |alt=a man in a uniform and hat, a man with a mustache wearing a cardigan and a hat, a man wearing a uniform and a hat]] ===Spanish Civil War and World War II=== In 1937 Hemingway agreed to report on the [[Spanish Civil War]] for the [[North American Newspaper Alliance]] (NANA).<ref name="Mellow p488">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| p=488}}</ref> In March he arrived in Spain with Dutch filmmaker [[Joris Ivens]].<ref name="Koch p87">{{Harvnb|Koch|2005| p=87}}</ref> Ivens, who was filming ''[[The Spanish Earth]]'', needed Hemingway as a screenwriter to replace John Dos Passos, who left the project when his friend [[José Robles]] was arrested and later executed.<ref name="Meyers p311">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=311}}</ref> The incident changed Dos Passos' opinion of the leftist republicans, which created a rift between him and Hemingway, who spread a rumor that Dos Passos was a coward for leaving Spain.<ref name="Koch p164">{{Harvnb|Koch|2005| p=164}}</ref> Journalist and writer [[Martha Gellhorn]], whom Hemingway had met in Key West the previous Christmas (1936), joined him in Spain. Like Hadley, Martha was a native of St. Louis, and like Pauline, she had worked for ''Vogue'' in Paris. Of Martha, Kert explains, "she never catered to him the way other women did."<ref name="Kert pp287">{{Harvnb|Kert|1983| pp=287–295}}</ref> Late in 1937, while in Madrid with Martha, Hemingway wrote his only play, ''[[The Fifth Column and the First Forty-Nine Stories|The Fifth Column]]'', as the city was being bombarded.<ref name="Koch p134">{{Harvnb|Koch|2005| p=134}}</ref> He returned to Key West for a few months, then back to Spain twice in 1938. He was present at the [[Battle of the Ebro]], the last republican stand, and was among fellow British and American journalists who were some of the last to leave the battle as they crossed the river.<ref name="Meyers p321">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=321}}</ref><ref name = "Thomas p833">{{Harvnb|Thomas|2001| p=833}}</ref> [[File:Hemingwayboyscats cuba.jpg|thumb|right|alt=a dark-haired man wearing a light shirt with two dark-haired boys wearing shorts, sitting on a stone patio playing with three kittens |Hemingway and sons Patrick (left) and Gregory, with three cats at ''[[Finca Vigía]]'' ca. 1942–1943. The Hemingways kept cats in Cuba 1942–1960. The [[polydactyl]] cats at Hemingway's [[Ernest Hemingway House|Key West house]] arrived after the family's departure in 1940.]] In the spring of 1939, Hemingway crossed to Cuba in his boat to live in the [[Hotel Ambos Mundos]] in Havana. This was the separation phase of a slow and painful split from Pauline, which had begun when Hemingway met Martha.<ref name="Meyers p326">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=326}}</ref> Martha soon joined him in Cuba, and they almost immediately rented "[[Finca Vigia]]" ("Lookout Farm"), a 15-acre property 15 miles from Havana. Pauline and the children left Hemingway that summer, after the family was re-united during a visit to Wyoming. After Hemingway's divorce from Pauline was finalized, he and Martha were married November 20, 1940, in Cheyenne, Wyoming.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lynn|1987|479}}</ref> As he had after his divorce from Hadley, he changed locations; moving his primary summer residence to [[Ketchum, Idaho]], just outside the newly built resort of [[Sun Valley, Idaho|Sun Valley]], and his winter residence to Cuba.<ref name="Meyers p342">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=342}}</ref> Hemingway, who had been disgusted when a Parisian friend allowed his cats to eat from the table, "developed a passion for cats" in Cuba, keeping dozens of them on the property.<ref name="Meyers p353">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=353}}</ref> He was at work on ''For Whom the Bell Tolls,'' which he started in March 1939, finished in July 1940, and was published in October 1940.<ref name="Meyers p334">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=334}}</ref> Consistent with his pattern of moving around while working on a manuscript, he wrote ''For Whom the Bell Tolls'' in Cuba, Wyoming, and Sun Valley.<ref name="Meyers p326">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=326}}</ref> ''For Whom the Bell Tolls'' became a book-of-the-month choice, sold half a million copies within months, was nominated for a [[Pulitzer Prize]], and as Meyers describes, "triumphantly re-established Hemingway's literary reputation".<ref name="Meyers pp334–339">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=334–338}}</ref> In January&nbsp;1941 Martha was sent to China on assignment for ''[[Collier's]]'' magazine, and Hemingway accompanied her. Although Hemingway wrote dispatches for ''[[PM (newspaper)|PM]]'', he had little affinity for China.<ref name="Meyers pp=356–361">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=356–361}}</ref> They had returned to Cuba before the [[declaration of war by the United States]] that December, and he convinced the Cuban government to help him refit the Pilar to ambush German submarines.<ref name ="Putnam"/> [[File:Hemlatham-1.jpg|thumb|left|Hemingway with Col. Charles (Buck) T. Lanham in Germany, 1944, during the fighting in Hürtgenwald, after which he became ill with pneumonia.|alt=a dark haired man with mustache dressed in army boots, tucked in muddy pants, shirt and vest, with a light haired man dressed in army clothing standing in front of rubble]] During World War II, he was in Europe from June to December&nbsp;1944. At the [[Normandy Landings|D-Day]] landing, military officials who considered him "precious cargo", kept him to a landing craft,<ref name="Meyers pp398-405">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=398–405}}</ref> although biographer Kenneth Lynn claims Hemingway fabricated accounts that he went ashore during the landings.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lynn|1995|p=510}}</ref> Late in July he attached himself to "the [[22nd Infantry Regiment (United States)|22nd Infantry Regiment]] commanded by [[Charles T. Lanham|Col. Charles 'Buck' Lanaham]], as it drove toward Paris", and he led a small band of village militia in [[Rambouillet]], outside of Paris.<ref name="Meyers pp398-405">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=398–405}}</ref> Of Hemingway's exploits, World War&nbsp;II historian Paul Fussell remarks: "Hemingway got into considerable trouble playing infantry captain to a group of Resistance people that he gathered because a correspondent is not supposed to lead troops, even if he does it well".<ref name ="Putnam"/> This was in fact in contraversion to the [[Geneva Convention]], and Hemingway was brought up on formal charges; he said he "beat the rap" by claiming that his entire participation was to give advice.<ref name="Lynn 1987 518–519">{{Harvnb|Lynn|1987|pp=518–519}}</ref> On August&nbsp;25 he was present at the [[liberation of Paris]], although the assertion that he was first in the city, or that he liberated the Ritz is considered part of the Hemingway legend.<ref name="Meyers p408">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=408}}</ref><ref name="Mellow p535">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| p=535}}</ref> While in Paris he attended a reunion hosted by Sylvia Beach, and "made peace with" Gertrude Stein.<ref name="Mellow p541">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| p=540}}</ref> Hemingway was present at heavy fighting in the [[Battle of Hürtgen Forest|Hürtgenwald]] near the end of 1944.<ref name="Meyers p411">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=411}}</ref> On December&nbsp;17, a feverish and ill Hemingway had himself driven to [[Luxembourg]] to cover what would later be called [[The Battle of the Bulge]]. However, as soon as he arrived, Lanham handed him to the doctors, who hospitalized him with pneumonia, and by the time he recovered a week later, the main fighting was over.<ref name="Lynn 1987 518–519"/> In 1947 Hemingway was awarded a [[Bronze Star]] for his bravery during World War&nbsp;II. He was recognized for his valor in having been "under fire in combat areas in order to obtain an accurate picture of conditions", with the commendation that "through his talent of expression, Mr. Hemingway enabled readers to obtain a vivid picture of the difficulties and triumphs of the front-line soldier and his organization in combat".<ref name ="Putnam"/> When Hemingway initially arrived in England, he met ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine correspondent Mary Welsh in London, and was infatuated. Martha—who had been forced to cross the Atlantic in a ship filled with explosives because he refused to help her get a press pass on a plane—arrived in London to find Hemingway hospitalized with a [[concussion]] from a car accident. Unsympathetic to his plight, she accused him of being a bully, and told him she was "through, absolutely finished."<ref name ="Kert pp393-398">{{Harvnb|Kert|1983|pp=393–398}}</ref> The last time he saw her was in March&nbsp;1945, as he was preparing to return to Cuba.<ref name="Meyers p416">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=416}}</ref> Meanwhile, he had asked Mary Welsh to marry him on their third meeting.<ref name ="Kert pp393-398"/> ===Cuba=== [[File:Hemingway 1953 Kenia.jpg|thumb|Ernest Hemingway on [[safari]] in [[Kenya]] in 1953, shortly before he was injured in two plane accidents|alt=white-bearded man wearing light colored clothing writing at a small table]] Hemingway said he "was out of business as a writer" from 1942 to 1945.<ref name="Mellow p552">qtd in {{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| p=552}}</ref> In 1946 he married Mary, who had an [[ectopic pregnancy]] five months later. Hemingway and Mary had a series of accidents and health problems after the war: in a 1945 car accident he "smashed his knee" and sustained another "deep wound on his forehead"; Mary broke her right ankle and then her left ankle in successive skiing accidents. In 1947 his sons Patrick and Gregory were in a car accident, leaving Patrick with a head wound and severely ill.<ref name="Meyers pp420–421">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=420–421}}</ref> Hemingway became depressed as his literary friends died: in 1939 [[Yeats]] and Ford Madox Ford; in 1940 Scott Fitzgerald; in 1941 Sherwood Anderson and James Joyce; in 1946 Gertrude Stein; and the following year in 1947, Max Perkins, Hemingway's long time Scribner's editor and friend.<ref name="Mellow pp548–550">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| pp=548–550}}</ref> During this period he had severe headaches, high blood pressure, weight problems, and eventually diabetes—much of which was the result of previous accidents and heavy drinking.<ref name="Desnoyers p12">{{Harvnb|Desnoyers| p=12}}</ref> Nonetheless, early in 1946 he began work on ''[[The Garden of Eden]]'', finishing 800 pages by June.<ref>{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=436}}</ref><ref group=note>''The Garden of Eden'' was published posthumously in 1986. See {{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=436}}</ref> During the post–war years he also began work on a trilogy to be called "The Land", "The Sea" and "The Air" which he intended to combine in one novel known as ''The Sea Book''. However, both projects stalled and Mellow considers his inability to continue "a symptom of his troubles" during these years.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| p=552}}</ref><ref group=note>Published posthumously as ''[[Islands in the Stream]]'' in 1970. See {{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| p=552}}</ref> In 1948 Hemingway and Mary traveled to Europe. In Italy he returned to the site of his World War&nbsp;I accident, and shortly afterwards began work on ''[[Across the River and Into the Trees]]'', which he continued through 1949; it was published in 1950 to bad reviews.<ref name="Meyers p453">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=440}}</ref> The next year he wrote the draft of ''Old Man and the Sea'' in eight weeks, considering it "the best I can write ever for all of my life".<ref name="Desnoyers p12"/> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' became a book-of-the month selection, made Hemingway an international celebrity, and won the Pulitzer Prize in May 1952, a month before he left for his second trip to Africa.<ref name = "Desnoyers p13">{{Harvnb|Desnoyers| p= 13}}</ref><ref name="Meyers p489">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=489}}</ref> In Africa he was seriously injured in two successive plane crashes. Hemingway chartered a sightseeing flight of the [[Belgian Congo]] as a Christmas present to Mary. On their way to photograph [[Murchison Falls]] from the air, the plane struck an abandoned utility pole and "crash landed in heavy brush." Hemingway's injuries included a head wound, while Mary broke two ribs.<ref>{{Harvnb|Baker|1972|pp=331–333}}</ref> The next day, attempting to reach medical care in [[Entebbe]], they boarded a second plane that exploded at take-off with Hemingway suffering burns and another concussion, this one serious enough to cause leaking of cerebral fluid.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|p=586}}</ref> They eventually arrived in Entebbe to find reporters covering the story of Hemingway's death. He briefed the reporters, and spent the next few weeks recuperating and reading his obituaries.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|p=587}}</ref> Despite his injuries, Hemingway accompanied Patrick and his wife on a planned fishing expedition in February, but pain caused him to be irascible and difficult to get along with.<ref name="Mellow 1992 588">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|p=588}}</ref> When a [[bushfire]] broke out he was again injured, with second degree burns on his legs, front torso, lips, left hand and right forearm.<ref name="Meyers pp505-507">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=505–507}}</ref> Months later in [[Venice]], "according to Mary they learned the full extent of Hemingway's injuries". She reported to friends that he had two cracked [[Intervertebral disc|discs]], a kidney and liver rupture, a [[dislocated shoulder]] and a broken skull.<ref name="Mellow 1992 588"/> The accidents may have precipitated the physical deterioration that was to follow. After the plane crashes, Hemingway, who had been "a thinly controlled alcoholic throughout much of his life, drank more heavily than usual to combat the pain of his injuries."<ref>{{Harvnb|Beegel|1996|p=273}}</ref> [[File:Ernest Hemingway 1950.jpg|thumb|left|Ernest Hemingway in the cabin of his boat Pilar, off the coast of Cuba|alt=white-haired, white-bearded man with striped shirt]] In October&nbsp;1954 Hemingway received the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]. He modestly told the press that [[Carl Sandburg]], [[Isak Dinesen]] and [[Bernard Berenson]] deserved the prize,<ref>{{Harvnb|Lynn|1987|p=574}}</ref> but the prize money would be welcome.<ref name="Baker p338">{{Harvnb|Baker|1972| p=338}}</ref> Mellow claims Hemingway "had coveted the Nobel Prize", but when he won it, months after his plane accidents and the ensuing world-wide press coverage, "there must have been a lingering suspicion in Hemingway's mind that his obituary notices had played a part in the academy's decision."<ref name="Mellow pp588–589">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| pp=588–589}}</ref> Because he was suffering pain from the African accidents, he decided against traveling to [[Stockholm]].<ref name="Meyers p509">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=509}}</ref> Instead he sent a speech to be read, defining the writer's life: "Writing, at its best, is a lonely life. Organizations for writers palliate the writer's loneliness but I doubt if they improve his writing. He grows in public stature as he sheds his loneliness and often his work deteriorates. For he does his work alone and if he is a good enough writer he must face eternity, or the lack of it, each day."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1954/hemingway-speech.html|title=Ernest Hemingway The Nobel Prize in Literature 1954 Banquet Speech |author= |date= |work= |publisher=The Nobel Foundation|accessdate=2009-12-10}}</ref><ref group = note>The full speech is available at [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1954/hemingway-speech.html The Nobel Foundation]</ref> From the end of the year in 1955 to early 1956, Hemingway was bedridden.<ref name="Meyers p512">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=512}}</ref> He was told to stop drinking to mitigate liver damage, advice he initially followed but then disregarded.<ref>{{Harnvb|Reynolds|2000|pp=291–293}}</ref> In October&nbsp;1956 he returned to Europe and met [[Basque people|Basque]] writer [[Pio Baroja]], who was seriously ill and died weeks later. During the trip Hemingway became ill again, and was treated for "high blood pressure, liver disease, and arteriosclerosis".<ref name="Meyers p512"/> That November he recovered trunks left in the "basement of the Ritz Hotel in Paris when he left for Key West in 1928", filled with notebooks and writing from his Paris years. Back in Cuba in 1957 he started to shape the recovered work into his memoir ''[[A Moveable Feast]]''.<ref name="Meyers p533">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=533}}</ref> By 1959 he culminated a period of intense activity: finished ''A Moveable Feast'' (scheduled to be released the following year); brought ''True at First Light'' to 200,000 words; added chapters to ''The Garden of Eden''; and worked on ''Islands in the Stream''. The latter three were stored in a safe deposit box in Havana, as he focused on the finishing touches for ''A Moveable Feast''. Reynolds claims that it was during this period he slid into depression, from which he was unable to recover.<ref>{{Harvnb|Reynolds|1999|p=321}}</ref> The Finca Vigia became crowded with guests and tourists, as Hemingway, beginning to become unhappy with life there, considered a permanent move to Idaho. In 1959 he bought a home overlooking the [[Big Wood River]], outside of Ketchum, and left Cuba—although he apparently remained on easy terms with the [[Fidel Castro|Castro]] government, telling the ''New York Times'' he was "delighted" with Castro's overthrow of [[Havana]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|pp=494–495}}</ref><ref name="Meyers pp516–519">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=516–519}}</ref> In 1960 the Finca Vigia was expropriated by the Cuban government after the [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]], (two months before Hemingway's death), complete with Hemingway's collection of "four to six thousand books"; the Hemingways were forced to leave art and manuscripts in a bank vault in Havana.<ref name="Mellow p599">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| p=599}}</ref> ===Idaho and suicide=== [[File:Hemingway SunValley.jpg|thumb|Hemingway in Sun Valley, January 1959. With him is [[Gary Cooper]], a friend first met at Sun Valley 20 years before, and who played Robert Jordan in the 1943 film adaptation of ''[[For Whom the Bell Tolls (film)|For Whom the Bell Tolls]]''.|alt=a white-bearded man dressed in a jacket, trousers and a head visor with a woman wearing a jacket and trousers, and a third man wearing jacket, trousers and a hat with water in the background]] He continued to work on ''A Moveable Feast'' through the end of the 1950s,<ref name="Meyers p533"/><ref name=Hotchner>{{cite news |first=A.E. |last=Hotchner |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Don't Touch 'A Movable Feast' |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/20/opinion/20hotchner.html?_r=1 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |publisher= |date=2009–07–19 |accessdate=2009–09–03}}</ref> and in the summer of 1959 he visited Spain to research a series of bullfighting articles for ''[[Life Magazine]]''.<ref name="Meyers p520">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=520}}</ref> Back in Ketchum at Christmas he appeared to be suffering from [[paranoia]]; at a restaurant one night with friends, he claimed the lights were on in the adjacent bank building because the FBI were "checking our accounts". By January he returned to Cuba and continued work on the ''Life'' magazine series. The manuscript grew to 63,000 words—''Life'' wanted only 10,000&nbsp;words—and he asked [[A. E. Hotchner]] to help organize the work that would become ''[[The Dangerous Summer]]''. Hotchner found Hemingway to be "unusually hesitant, disorganized, and confused".<ref name="Meyers p542-544">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=542–544}}</ref><ref name="Mellow pp598–600">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| pp=598–600}}</ref> Although Hemingway's mental deterioration was noticeable in the summer of 1960, he again traveled to Spain to obtain photographs for the manuscript. Without Mary, he was lonely and took to his bed for days, retreating into silence. The first installments of ''The Dangerous Summer'' were published in ''Life'' in September 1960 to good reviews. When he left Spain, he went straight to Idaho,<ref name="Mellow pp598-601">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| pp=598–601}}</ref> but was worried about money and his safety.<ref name="Meyers p542-544"/> As his paranoia increased, he believed the FBI was actively monitoring his movements.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| pp=597–598}}</ref><ref group=note>In fact, the FBI had opened a file on him during WWII, when he used the Pilar to patrol the waters off Cuba, and [[J. Edgar Hoover]] had an agent in Havana watch Hemingway during the 1950s. See {{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| pp=597–598}}. The FBI knew Hemingway was at the Mayo, as an agent documented in a letter written in January 1961. See {{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=543–544}}</ref> Hemingway suffered from physical problems as well: his health declined and his eyesight was failing.<ref>{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=543–544}}</ref> In November he was admitted to the [[Mayo Clinic]] in Minnesota,<ref name="Mellow pp598-601"/> where he may have believed he was to be treated for [[hypertension]].<ref name="Meyers p545">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=545}}</ref> Meyers writes that "an aura of secrecy surrounds Hemingway's treatment at the Mayo", but confirms that in December 1960 he received [[electroconvulsive therapy]] as many as 15 times, then in January 1961 he was "released in ruins".<ref>{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=547–550}}</ref> [[File:Grave markers of Ernest Hemingway & wife.JPG|thumb|left|200px|Ernest and Mary Hemingway are buried in the town cemetery in Ketchum, Idaho.|alt=gravestones on the grass under three trees]] Three months later, back in Ketchum, Mary "found Hemingway holding a shotgun". His personal physician Dr. Saviers arrived, sedated him, and admitted him to the Sun Valley hospital; from there he was returned to the Mayo for more shock treatments.<ref name="Meyers p551">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=551}}</ref> He was released in late June and arrived home in Ketchum on June&nbsp;30. Two days later, in the early morning hours of July 2, 1961, Hemingway "quite deliberately" shot himself with his favorite shotgun.<ref>{{Harvnb|Reynolds|2000|p=16}}</ref> He unlocked the basement storeroom where his guns were kept, went upstairs to the front entrance foyer of their Ketchum home, and "pushed two shells into the twelve-gauge Boss shotgun&nbsp;...put the end of the barrel into his mouth, pulled the trigger and blew out his brains." Hemingway's chin, mouth, and lower cheeks were left, but the upper half of his head was blown away.<ref name="Meyers p560-1">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=560}}</ref> Mary called the Sun Valley Hospital, and Dr. Scott Earle arrived at the house within "fifteen minutes". Despite his finding that Hemingway "had died of a self-inflicted wound to the head", the story told to the press was that the death had been "accidental".<ref name="Kertp504">{{Harvnb|Kert|1983|p=504}}</ref> During his final years, Hemingway's behavior was similar to his father's before he himself committed suicide;<ref name="Burwell p234">{{Harvnb|Burwell|1996|p=234}}</ref> his father may have had the genetic disease [[hemochromatosis]], in which the inability to metabolize iron culminates in mental and physical deterioration.<ref name="Burwell p14">{{Harvnb|Burwell|1996|p=14}}</ref> Medical records made available in 1991 confirm that Hemingway's hemochromatosis had been diagnosed in early 1961.<ref name="Burwell p189">{{Harvnb|Burwell|1996|p=189}}</ref> His sister Ursula and his brother Leicester also committed suicide.<ref>{{Harvnb|Oliver|pp=139–149}}</ref> Added to Hemingway's physical ailments was the additional problem that he had been a heavy drinker for most of his life.<ref name="Desnoyers p12"/> Writing In "Ernest Hemingway: A Psychological Autopsy of a Suicide", Christopher Martin evaluates the causes of the suicide: "Careful reading of Hemingway's major biographies and his personal and public writings reveals evidence suggesting the presence of the following conditions during his lifetime: [[bipolar disorder]], [[alcohol dependence]], [[traumatic brain injury]], and probable [[Borderline personality disorder|borderline]] and [[Narcissistic personality disorder|narcissistic]] personality traits".<ref name = "Martin">{{Harvnb|Martin|2006}}</ref> Martin claims suicide was inevitable because Hemingway "suffered from an enormous burden of psychiatric comorbidities and risk factors for suicide", although without a clinical evaluation of the patient, Martin concedes a diagnosis is difficult.<ref name = "Martin"/> Hemingway's family and friends flew to Ketchum for the funeral, which was officiated by the local Catholic priest who believed the death accidental.<ref name="Kertp504"/> Of the funeral (during which an altar boy fainted at the head of the casket), his brother Leicester wrote: "It seemed to me Ernest would have approved of it all."<ref name="HemingwayLeicesterpp14-18">{{Harvnb|Hemingway, Leicester|1996|pp=14–18}}</ref> In a press interview five years later Mary Hemingway admitted her husband had committed suicide.<ref>{{cite news |title=Widow Believes Hemingway Committed Suicide; She Tells of His Depression and His 'Breakdown' Assails Hotchner Book |author=Gilroy, Harry |newspaper=The New York Times |date=August 23, 1966 |url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA061FF83555117B93C1AB1783D85F428685F9|accessdate=2010–05–15 }}</ref> ==Writing style== The ''New York Times'' wrote in 1926 of Hemingway's first novel: "No amount of analysis can convey the quality of ''The Sun Also Rises''. It is a truly gripping story, told in a lean, hard, athletic narrative prose that puts more literary English to shame".<ref>{{cite article |title=Marital Tragedy |date=October 31, 1926|url=http://www.nytimes.com/books/99/07/04/specials/hemingway-rises.htm |publisher=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=2010-01-15}}</ref> ''The Sun Also Rises'' is written in the spare, tightly written prose, for which Hemingway is famous; a style that has influenced countless crime and pulp fiction novels.<ref name="Nagel 1996 87">{{Harvnb|Nagel|1996|p=87}}</ref> In 1954, when Hemingway was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature, it was for "his mastery of the art of narrative, most recently demonstrated in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and for the influence that he has exerted on contemporary style."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1954/index.html|title=The Nobel Prize in Literature 1954 |author= |date= |work= |publisher=The Nobel Foundation|accessdate=2010-03-07}}</ref> [[Henry Louis Gates]] believes Hemingway's style was fundamentally shaped "in reaction to [his] experience of world war". After World War&nbsp;I, he and other modernists "lost faith in the central institutions of Western civilization," by reacting against the "elaborate style" of 19th century writers; and by creating a style "in which meaning is established through dialogue, through action, and silences—a fiction in which nothing crucial—or at least very little—is stated explicitly."<ref name="Putnam"/> {|class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:25em; max-width: 25%;" cellspacing="5" |style="text-align: left;"|If a writer of prose knows enough of what he is writing about he may omit things that he knows and the reader, if the writer is writing truly enough, will have a feeling of those things as strongly as though the writer had stated them. The dignity of movement of an ice-berg is due to only one-eighth of it being above water. A writer who omits things because he does not know them only makes hollow places in his writing. |- |style="text-align: left;"|—Ernest Hemingway in ''[[Death in the Afternoon]]''<ref>qtd. in {{Harvnb|Oliver|1999|p=322}}</ref> |} Because he began as a writer of short stories, Baker believes Hemingway learned to "get the most from the least, how to prune language how to multiply intensities, and how to tell nothing but the truth in a way that allowed for telling more than the truth."<ref name ="Baker p117">{{Harvnb|Baker|1972|p= 117}}</ref> Hemingway referred to his style as the [[Iceberg Theory|iceberg theory]]: in his writing the facts float above water; the supporting structure and symbolism operate out-of-sight.<ref name ="Baker p117"/> Writing in "The Art of the Short Story," he explains: "A few things I have found to be true. If you leave out important things or events that you know about, the story is strengthened. If you leave or skip something because you do not know it, the story will be worthless. The test of any story is how very good the stuff that you, not your editors, omit."<ref>{{Harvnb|Hemingway, The Art of the Short Story}}</ref> Jackson Benson believes Hemingway used autobiographical details as framing devices about life in general—not only about his life. For example, Benson postulates that Hemingway used his experiences and drew them out with "what if" scenarios: "what if I were wounded in such a way that I could not sleep at night? What if I were wounded and made crazy, what would happen if I were sent back to the front?"<ref>{{Harvnb|Benson|1989}}</ref> The concept of the iceberg theory is sometimes referred to as the "theory of omission." Hemingway believed the writer could describe one thing (such as Nick Adams fishing in "The Big Two-Hearted River") though an entirely different thing occurs below the surface (Nick Adams concentrating on fishing to the extent that he does not have to think about anything else).<ref>{{Harvnb|Oliver|1999|pp=321–322}}</ref> The simplicity of the prose is deceptive. Zoe Trodd believes Hemingway crafted skeletal sentences in response to [[Henry James]]'s observation that World War&nbsp;I had "used up words." Hemingway offers a "multi-focal" photographic reality. His iceberg theory of omission is the foundation on which he builds. The syntax, which lacks [[grammatical conjunction|subordinating conjunctions]], creates static sentences. The photographic "[[Snapshot (photography)|snapshot]]" style creates a [[collage]] of images. Many types of internal punctuation (colons, semicolons, dashes, parentheses) are omitted in favor of short declarative sentences. The sentences build on each other, as events build to create a sense of the whole. Multiple strands exist in one story; an "embedded text" bridges to a different angle. He also uses other cinematic techniques of "cutting" quickly from one scene to the next; or of "splicing" a scene into another. Intentional omissions allow the reader to fill the gap, as though responding to instructions from the author, and create three-dimensional prose.<ref>{{Harvnb|Trodd}}</ref> {|class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:25em; max-width: 25%;" cellspacing="5" |style="text-align: left;"|In the late summer that year we lived in a house in a village that looked across the river and the plain to the mountains. In the bed of the river there were pebbles and boulders, dry and white in the sun, and the water was clear and swiftly moving and blue in the channels. Troops went by the house and down the road and the dust they raised powdered the trees. |- |style="text-align: left;"|—Opening passage of ''[[A Farewell to Arms]]'' showing Hemingway's use of the word ''and''<ref>qtd. in {{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|p=379}}</ref> |} In his literature, and in his personal writing, Hemingway habitually used the word "and" in place of commas. This use of [[polysyndeton]] may serve to convey immediacy. Hemingway's polysyndetonic sentence—or in later works his use of subordinate clauses—uses conjunctions to juxtapose startling visions and images; Jackson Benson compares them to [[haiku]]s.<ref name="McCormick p49">{{Harvnb|McCormick|p=49}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Benson|p=309}}</ref> Many of Hemingway's followers misinterpreted his lead and frowned upon all expression of emotion; [[Saul Bellow]] satirized this style as "Do you have emotions? Strangle them."<ref>qtd. in {{Harvnb|Hoberek|p=309}}</ref> However, Hemingway's intent was not to eliminate emotion, but to portray it more scientifically. Hemingway thought it would be easy, and pointless, to describe emotions; he sculpted collages of images in order to grasp "the real thing, the sequence of motion and fact which made the emotion and which would be as valid in a year or in ten years or, with luck and if you stated it purely enough, always."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://books.simonandschuster.com/Death-In-The-Afternoon/Ernest-Hemingway/9780684859224/excerpt_with_id/11296 |title=Death in the Afternoon:Chapter One Excerpt |last =Hemingway|first=Ernest |publisher=Simon & Schuster |accessdate=2009-12-08}}</ref> This use of an image as an [[objective correlative]] is characteristic of Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, James Joyce, and [[Proust]].<ref>{{Harvnb|McCormick|p=47}}</ref> Hemingway's letters refer to Proust's [[In Search of Lost Time|''Remembrance of Things Past'']] several times over the years, and indicate he read the book at least twice.<ref name="Burwell p187">{{Harvnb|Burwell|1996|p=187}}</ref> His writing was likely also influenced by the [[Japanese poetry|Japanese poetic canon]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Starrs|1998|p=77}}</ref><ref group = note>Starrs draws a correlation between the "[[Imagism|Imagist]]" influences of Ezra Pound, who mentored Hemingway in the 1920s. See {{Harvnb|Starrs|1998|p=77}}</ref> ==Themes== Recurring themes in [[American literature]] exist with clarity in Hemingway's work. [[Leslie Fiedler]] sees the theme he defines as "The Sacred Land"—the [[American Old West|American West]]—extended in Hemingway's work, to include mountains in Spain, Switzerland and Africa, and to the streams of Michigan. The American West is given a symbolic nod with the naming of the "Hotel Montana" in ''The Sun Also Rises'' and ''For Whom the Bell Tolls''.<ref name="Fiedler"/> Although Hemingway writes about sports, Carlos Baker believes the emphasis is more on the athlete than the sport.<ref>{{Harvnb|Baker|pp=101–121}}</ref> According to Stoltzfus and Fiedler, Hemingway's nature is a place for rebirth, for therapy, and the hunter or fisherman has a moment of transcendence when the prey is killed.<ref name="Harvnb|Stoltzfus"/> Nature is where men are without women: men fish; men hunt; men find redemption in nature.<ref name="Fiedler"/> Fiedler believes Hemingway inverts the American literary theme of the evil "Dark Woman" versus the good "Light Woman". The dark woman—[[Brett Ashley]] of ''The Sun Also Rises''—is a goddess; the light woman—Margot Macomber of "The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber"—is a murderess.<ref name="Fiedler">{{Harvnb|Fiedler| pp=345–365}}</ref> Robert Sholes admits that early Hemingway stories, such as "A Very Short Story", present "a male character favorably and a female unfavorably."<ref>{{Harvnb|Sholes|1990|p= 42}}</ref> According to Rena Sanderson, early Hemingway critics lauded his male-centric world of masculine pursuits, and the fiction divided women into "castrators or love-slaves." Feminist critics attacked Hemingway as "public enemy number one", although more recent re-evaluations of his work "have given new visibility to Hemingway's female characters (and their strengths) and have revealed his own sensitivity to gender issues, thus casting doubts on the old assumption that his writings were one-sidedly masculine."<ref>{{Harvnb|Sanderson|1996|p= 171}}</ref> Nina Baym believes that Brett Ashley and Margot Macomber "are the two outstanding examples of Hemingway's 'bitch women.'"<ref>{{Harvnb|Baym|1990}}</ref> The theme of women and death is evident in stories as early as "Indian Camp". The theme of death permeates Hemingway's work. Young believes the emphasis in "Indian Camp" was not so much on the woman who gives birth or the father who commits suicide, but on Nick Adams who witnesses these events as a child, and becomes a "badly scarred and nervous young man." Hemingway sets the events in "Indian Camp" that shape the Adams persona. Young believes "Indian Camp" holds the "master key" to "what its author was up to for some thirty-five years of his writing career." <ref>{{Harvnb|Young|1964|p=6}}</ref> Stoltzfus considers Hemingway's work to be more complex with a representation of the truth inherent in [[existentialism]]: if "nothingness" is embraced, then redemption is achieved at the moment of death. Those who face death with dignity and courage live an authentic life. Francis Macomber dies happy because the last hours of his life are authentic; the [[bullfighter]] in the [[Bullfighting|corrida]] represents the pinnacle of a life lived with authenticity.<ref name="Harvnb|Stoltzfus">{{Harvnb|Stoltzfus}}</ref> In his paper ''The Uses of Authenticity: Hemingway and the Literary Field'', Timo Müller writes that Hemingway's fiction is successful because the characters live an "authentic life", and the "soldiers, fishers, boxers and backwoodsmen are among the archetypes of authenticity in modern literature".<ref name="Müller 2010"/> The theme of emasculation is prevalent in Hemingway's work, most notably in ''The Sun Also Rises''. Emasculation, according to Fiedler, is a result of a generation of wounded soldiers; and of a generation in which women such as Brett gained [[Women's suffrage|emancipation]].<ref name="Fiedler"/> Baker believes Hemingway's work emphasizes the "natural" versus the "unnatural". In "Alpine Idyll" the "unnaturalness" of skiing in the high country late spring snow is juxtaposed against the "unnaturalness" of the peasant who allowed his wife's dead body to linger too long in the shed during the winter. The skiers and peasant retreat to the valley to the "natural" spring for redemption.<ref>{{Harvnb|Baker|pp=101–121}}</ref> Hemingway's work has been characterized as misogynistic and homophobic. Susan Beegel analyzed four decades of Hemingway criticism, published in her essay "Critical Reception". She found, particularly in the 1980s, "critics interested in multiculturalism" simply ignored Hemingway; although some "apologetics" have been written. Typical is this analysis of ''The Sun Also Rises'': "Hemingway never lets the reader forget that Cohn is a Jew, not an unattractive character who happens to be a Jew but a character who is unattractive because he is a Jew." During the same decade, according to Beegel, criticism was published that investigated the "horror of homosexuality", and racism in Hemingway's fiction.<ref>{{Harvnb|Beegel|1996}}</ref> ==Influence and legacy== [[File:Floridita.JPG|thumb||Statue of Hemingway by [[José Villa Soberón]], ''[[El Floridita]]'' bar in [[Havana]], with a photo of Hemingway awarding [[Fidel Castro]] a prize in a fishing contest in 1960 (after the Cuban revolution) on the wall.]] Hemingway's legacy to American literature is his style: writers who came after him emulated it or avoided it.<ref>{{Harvnb|Oliver|1999|pp=140–141}}</ref> After his reputation was sealed with the publication of ''The Sun Also Rises'', he became the spokesperson for the post-World War&nbsp;I generation, having established a style to follow.<ref name="Nagel 1996 87"/> His books were [[Nazi book burning|burned]] in Berlin in 1933, "as being a monument of modern decadence", and disavowed by his parents as "filth".<ref name="Harvnb|Hallengren">{{Harvnb|Hallengren}}</ref> Reynolds asserts the legacy is that "he left stories and novels so starkly moving that some have become part of our cultural heritage."<ref>{{Harvnb|Reynolds|2000|p=15}}</ref> In a 2004 speech at the [[John F. Kennedy Library]], [[Russell Banks]] declared that he, like many male writers of his generation, was influenced by Hemingway's writing philosophy, style, and public image.<ref>{{Harvnb|Banks|p=54}}</ref> Conversely, as early as the 1930s Hemingway's style was [[parody|parodied]], and criticized as "lazy" within the context of the "American literary tradition."<ref>{{Harvnb|Trogdon|1996}}</ref> Benson believes the details of Hemingway's life have become a "prime vehicle for exploitation", resulting in a Hemingway industry.<ref>{{Harvnb|Benson|1989|p=347}}</ref> Hemingway scholar Hallengren believes the "hard boiled style" and the machismo must be separated from the author himself.<ref name="Harvnb|Hallengren"/> Benson agrees, describing him as introverted and private as [[J. D. Salinger]], although Hemingway masked his nature with braggadocio.<ref>{{Harvnb|Benson|1989|p=349}}</ref> In fact, during World War&nbsp;II, Salinger met and corresponded with Hemingway, whom he acknowledged as an influence.<ref>{{cite news|last=Lamb|first=Robert Paul|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0403/is_n4_v42/ai_20119140/pg_17|title=Hemingway and the creation of twentieth-century dialogue – American author Ernest Hemingway|publisher=Twentieth Century Literature|date=Winter 1996|accessdate=2007-07-10|format=reprint}}</ref> In a letter to Hemingway, Salinger claimed their talks "had given him his only hopeful minutes of the entire war" and jokingly "named himself national chairman of the Hemingway Fan Clubs."<ref>{{Harvnb|Baker|1969|p=420}}</ref> The extent of Hemingway's influence is seen in the tributes and echoes of his fiction in popular culture. A [[minor planet]], discovered in 1978 by [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] astronomer [[Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh]], was named for him ([[3656 Hemingway]]);<ref>{{cite book|last = Schmadel|first = Lutz D.|coauthors =|title = Dictionary of Minor Planet Names|page = 307|edition = 5th|year = 2003|publisher = Springer Verlag|location = New York|url = http://books.google.com/books?q=3656+Hemingway+1978+QX|isbn = 3-540-00238-3}}</ref> [[Ray Bradbury]] wrote ''The Kilimanjaro Device'', with Hemingway transported to the top of [[Mount Kilimanjaro]];<ref name="Harvnb|Oliver|p=144"/> the 1993 motion picture ''[[Wrestling Ernest Hemingway]]'', about the friendship of two retired men, Irish and Cuban, in a seaside town in Florida, starred [[Robert Duvall]], [[Richard Harris]], [[Shirley MacLaine]], [[Sandra Bullock]], and [[Piper Laurie]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Oliver|p=360}}</ref> The influence is evident with the many restaurants named "Hemingway"; and the proliferation of bars called "Harry's" (a nod to the bar in ''Across the River and Into the Trees'').<ref>{{Harvnb|Oliver|p=142}}</ref> A line of Hemingway furniture, promoted by Hemingway's son Jack (Bumby), has pieces such as the "Kilimanjaro" bedside table, and a "Catherine" slip-covered sofa. [[Montblanc (pens)|Montblanc]] offers a Hemingway fountain pen, and a line of Hemingway safari clothes has been created.<ref>Hoffman, Jan (June 15, 1999). [http://www.nytimes.com/library/books/061599lives-jackhemingway.html A Line of Hemingway Furniture, With a Veneer of Taste]. [[The New York Times]]. Retrieved 2009-09-03.</ref> The [[International Imitation Hemingway Competition]] was created in 1977 to publicly acknowledge his influence and the comically misplaced efforts of lesser authors to imitate his style. Entrants are encouraged to submit one "really good page of really bad Hemingway" and winners are flown to Italy to Harry's Bar.<ref name="LA">Smith, Jack (March 15, 1993). [http://articles.latimes.com/1993-03-15/news/vw-308_1_bad-hemingway Wanted: One Really Good Page of Really Bad Hemingway]. [[Los Angeles Times]]. Retrieved 2010-03-07.</ref> In 1965 Mary Hemingway established the Hemingway Foundation and in the 1970s she donated her husband's papers to the John F. Kennedy Library. In 1980 a group of Hemingway scholars gathered to assess the donated papers, subsequently forming the Hemingway Society, "committed to supporting and fostering Hemingway scholarship."<ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|2006}}</ref> Almost exactly 35 years after Hemingway's death, on July 1, 1996, his granddaughter [[Margaux Hemingway]] died in [[Santa Monica]], California. Margaux was a [[supermodel]] and [[actress]], co-starring with her sister [[Mariel Hemingway|Mariel]] in the 1976 movie ''[[Lipstick (film)|Lipstick]]''.<ref>{{cite news |title=Margaux Hemingway Is Dead; Model and Actress Was 41 |author=Holloway, Lynette |newspaper= The New York Times|date={{Nowrap|3 July}} 1966 |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1996/07/03/arts/margaux-hemingway-is-dead-model-and-actress-was-41.html|accessdate=2010–05–14 }}</ref> Her death was later ruled a suicide, making her "the fifth person in four generations of her family to commit suicide."<ref>{{cite news |title=Coroner Says Death of Actress Was Suicide |author=Holloway, Lynette |newspaper= The New York Times|date={{Nowrap|21 August}} 1996 |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1996/08/21/us/coroner-says-death-of-actress-was-suicide.html|accessdate=2010–05–14 }}</ref> Margaux's sister, [[Mariel Hemingway|Mariel]], is an actress, model, writer and [[film producer]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Mariel Hemingway |newspaper= The New York Times|url=http://movies.nytimes.com/person/93989/Mariel-Hemingway|accessdate=2010–05–14 | first=Caryn | last=James}}</ref> ==Selected list of works== {{Main|Bibliography of Ernest Hemingway}} * "[[Indian Camp]]" (1926) * ''[[The Sun Also Rises]]'' (1927) * ''[[A Farewell to Arms]]'' (1929) * "[[The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber]]" (1935) * ''[[For Whom the Bell Tolls]]'' (1940) * ''[[The Old Man and the Sea]]'' (1951) * ''[[A Moveable Feast]]'' (1964, posthumous) * ''[[True at First Light]]'' (1999) ==See also== * [[:File:Ernest Hemingway family tree.svg|Family tree showing Ernest Hemingway's parents, siblings, wives, children and grandchildren]] * [[Iceberg theory]] * [[American literature]] ==Notes== {{reflist|group=note}} == References == ===Citations=== {{reflist|3}} ===Sources=== {{refbegin|2}} * {{cite book|last=Baker|first=Carlos|coauthors=|title=Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story|year=1969|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|location=New York|isbn=0-02-001690-5|ref=CITEREFBaker1969}} * {{cite book|last=Baker|first=Carlos|title=Hemingway: The Writer as Artist|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1972|edition=4th|note=1st ed. 1952|url=http://books.google.com/?id=yP-cgVNr55wC&printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn=0691013055&cd=1#v=onepage&q=|isbn=0-691-01305-5|ref = CITEREFBaker1972}} * {{cite book |editor1-first= Carlos |editor1-last= Baker|title=Ernest Hemingway Selected Letters 1917–1961 |year=1981 |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|location=New York |isbn=0-684-16765-4}} * {{cite journal |last1=Banks |first1=Russell |year=2004 |title= PEN/Hemingway Prize Speech|journal=The Hemingway Review |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=53–60 |url= |doi=|ref = CITEREFBanks }} * {{cite book |title=New Critical Approaches to the short stories of Ernest Hemingway |editor-first=Benson |editor-last=Jackson J.|chapter ="Actually, I Felt Sorry for the Lion" |year= 1990|publisher=Duke University Press |location= |isbn=0-8223-1067-8 |page= |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=9ps69UBMNqcC&dq=decoding+papa|accessdate=2010-01-30|ref=CITEREFBaym1990|author=Baym, Nina}} * {{cite book |title=The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway |editor-first=Scott |editor-last=Donaldson|chapter =Conclusion: The Critical Reputation|year= 1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location= |isbn=0-521-45479-x |url=http://books.google.com/?id=9qFrwKJGcIIC&pg=PP1&dq=scott+donaldson&cd=4#v=onepage&q|accessdate=2010-01-30|ref=CITEREFBeegel1996 |author=Beegel, Susan F.}} * {{cite journal |last1=Benson |first1=Jackson |year=1989 |title= Ernest Hemingway: The Life as Fiction and the Fiction as Life|journal=American Literature |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=345–358 |doi= 10.2307/2926824|ref = CITEREFBenson1989 |url=http://jstor.org/stable/2926824 |publisher=Duke University Press}} * {{cite book |title=The short stories of Ernest Hemingway: critical essays |last=Benson |first=Jackson J. |year= 1975|publisher=Duke University Press |location= |isbn=0-8223-0320-5 |page= |pages= |url= |accessdate=2010-01-28|ref = CITEREFBenson}} * {{cite book |title=Hemingway: the postwar years and the posthumous novels |last=Burwell |first=Rose Marie |year= |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=0–521–48199–6 |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=wa5yC5CMCGYC&pg=PR9&dq=haemochromatosis+hemingway+beegel&q= |accessdate=2009–12–11|ref = CITEREFBurwell1996 |date=1996-01-26}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Hemingway+Archive/Online+Resources/eh_storyteller.htm |title=Ernest Hemingway: A Storyteller's Legacy |last =Desnoyers|first=Megan Floyd |date= |work= John F. Kennedy Presidential Library Online Resources|publisher=[[John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum]] |accessdate=2009-12-08|ref = CITEREFDesnoyers}} * {{cite book |title=Love and Death in the American Novel |last=Fiedler|first=Leslie|date=1975|publisher=Stein and Day|location=New York|isbn=0-8128-1799-0 |ref=CITEREFFiedler}} * {{Cite web |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/articles/hallengren/index.html |title=A Case of Identity: Ernest Hemingway |author=Hallengren, Anders|date={{Nowrap|28 August}} 2001 |work= |publisher=Nobelprize.org |accessdate=2009-10-22|ref=CITEREFHallengren}} * {{cite book |title=New Critical Approaches to the Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway |editor-first=Jackson |editor-last=Benson |chapter=The Art of the Short Story |author=Hemingway, Ernest|year= 1990|publisher=Duke University Press |isbn= 9780822310679|url=http://books.google.com/?id=9ps69UBMNqcC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q |accessdate=2010-04-25|ref=CITEREFHemingway, The Art of the Short Story}} * {{cite book |title=My brother, Ernest Hemingway |last=Hemingway |first= Leicester|authorlink= |edition=Pineapple Press (1996) |year= 1961|publisher= World Publishing Company|location= |isbn= 9781561640980|page= |pages= |url= http://books.google.com/?id=Xs617o7c_gcC&pg=PA7&dq=leicester+hemingway&q|accessdate=2010-04-19|ref=CITEREFHemingway, Leicester}} * {{cite book |title=Twilight of the Middle Class:Post World War&nbsp;II fiction and White Collar Work |last=Hoberek |first=Andrew |year=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location= |isbn=0-691-12145-1|page= |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=UjNLJT8-E1cC&pg=PA87&dq=hemingwayesque |ref = CITEREFHoberek}} * {{cite book |title=Touched with Fire: Manic-Depressive Illness and the Artistic Temperament |last=Jamison-Redfield |first=Kay |year=1996 |publisher=Free Press Paperbacks |location= |isbn=9780684831831|page= |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=T5jYtG0zDBgC|ref = CITEREFJamison1996}} * {{cite book |title= The Hemingway Women: |last=Kert |first=Bernice |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1983 |publisher=Norton|edition=1999 |location= |isbn=0-393-31835-4 |page= |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=-Cm-77dysSgC&pg=PA9&dq=hemingway%27s+wives&q=hemingway's%20wives |accessdate=2010-04-21|ref=CITEREFKert}} * {{cite book |title=The Breaking Point: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles |last= Koch|first=Stephen|year=2005 |publisher=Counterpoint |location=New York |isbn=1-58243-280-5 |oclc= |page= |pages=87–164 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=Zax4-2pV8gsC&dq=stephen+koch+hemingway+dos+passos |accessdate= 2009-09-18|ref = CITEREFKoch2005}} * {{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/books/99/07/04/specials/hemingway-nick.html?_r=1 |title=More Posthumous Hemingway |last=Lingeman|first=Richard|date=1972-04-25 |work=|publisher=The New York Times |accessdate=2009-10-22|ref = CITEREFLingeman}} * {{cite book |title= Hemingway|last=Lynn |first=Kenneth |year=1987 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=|isbn=0-674-38732-5 |page= |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=W-cAkit-JMcC&pg=PA9&dq=kenneth+lynn+hemingway&q|ref = CITEREFLynn1987}} * {{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=Christopher D. |last2= |first2= |year=2006 |title=Ernest Hemingway: A Psychological Autopsy of a Suicide |journal=Psychiatry |publisher= |volume=69 |issue=4 |pages=351–361 |url= |doi= 10.1521/psyc.2006.69.4.351|issn= 00332747 |ref= CITEREFMartin2006 |pmid=17326729}} * {{cite book |title= American Literature 1919–1932|last=McCormick |first=John |year= 1971|publisher=Routledge and Keegan Paul |location=London |isbn= 9780710070524|page= |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=vJg9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA49&lpg=PA47&dq=Hemingway+Proust |accessdate=2009–12–13|ref = CITEREFMcCormick}} * {{cite book |title= Hemingway: A Biography|last=Meyers |first=Jeffrey |authorlink= |year=1985 |publisher=Macmillan|location=London|isbn=0-333-42126-4 |ref = CITEREFMeyers1985}} * {{cite book |title= Hemingway: A Life Without Consequences|last=Mellow |first=James R. |authorlink= |year=1992 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=New York|isbn=0-395-37777-3 |ref = CITEREFMellow1992}} * {{cite book |title= Charmed Circle: Gertrude Stein and Company|last=Mellow |first=James R. |authorlink= |year=1991 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=New York|isbn=0395479827 |ref = CITEREFMellow1991}} * {{cite journal |author=Miller, Linda Patterson|year=2006 |title=From the African Book to Under Kilimanjaro|journal=The Hemingway Review |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=78–81}|ref=CITEREFMiller2006}} * {{cite journal |last1=Müller |first1=Timo |year=2010 |title= The Uses of Authenticity: Hemingway and the Literary Field, 1926–1936|journal=Journal of Modern Literature |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=28–42 |url= |doi=10.2979/JML.2009.33.1.28|ref=CITEREFMüller }} * {{cite book |title=The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway |editor-first=Scott |editor-last=Donaldson|chapter =Brett and the Other Women in the Sun Also Rises|year= 1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location= |isbn=0-521-45479-x |url=http://books.google.com/?id=9qFrwKJGcIIC&pg=PP1&dq=scott+donaldson&cd=4#v=onepage&q|accessdate=2010-01-30|ref=CITEREFNagel1996 |author=Nagel, James}} * {{cite book |title=Ernest Hemingway A to Z: The Essential Reference to the Life and Work |last=Oliver |first=Charles M. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 1999|publisher=Checkmark |location=New York |isbn=0-8160-3467-2|accessdate=|ref=CITEREFOliver}} * {{cite web |last=Putnam|first= Thomas |title=Hemingway on War and Its Aftermath |url=http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2006/spring/hemingway.html|work=|year = 2006|publisher=The National Archives|accessdate=2010-04-08|ref = CITEREFPutnam}} * {{cite book |title=The Young Hemingway |last=Reynolds|first=Michael S. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1998 |publisher=Norton |location=New York |isbn=0-393-31776-5|oclc= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=yBeqWnz3_JMC&dq=reynolds+hemingway+early+years|accessdate= 2010-01-30|ref = CITEREFReynolds1998}} * {{cite book |title=Hemingway: The 1930s |last=Reynolds|first=Michael S. |year=1997 |publisher=Norton |location=New York |isbn=0-393-31778-1|oclc= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=jjh7_7RHF2IC&dq=michael+reynolds+hemingway|accessdate= 2010-01-21|ref = CITEREFReynolds1997}} * {{cite book |title=Hemingway: The Final Years |last=Reynolds|first=Michael S. |year=2000 |publisher=Norton |location=New York |isbn=9780393320473|oclc= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=K6xRJ0cF1CsC&dq=hemingway+the+final+years|accessdate= 2010-04-25|ref = CITEREFReynolds2000}} * {{cite book |title=A Historical Guide to Ernest Hemingway |editor-first=Linda |editor-last=Wagner-Martin|chapter =Ernest Hemingway: A Brief Biography|year= 2000|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-393-32047-2 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=K6xRJ0cF1CsC&pg=PP1&dq=michael+reynolds+hemingway+final+years&cd=1#v=onepage&q|accessdate=2010-02-03|ref=CITEREFReynolds2000 |author=Michael Reynolds}} * {{cite news |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_6754/is_2_24/ai_n28272825/ |title=My True Occupation is That of a Writer:Hemingway's passport correspondence |author=Robinson, Daniel |year=2005 |work= |publisher=The Hemingway Review |accessdate=2010-02-08|ref=CITEREFRobinson, Daniel}} * {{cite journal |last1=Trogdon |first1=Robert W. |year=1996 |title= Forms of Combat: Hemingway, the Critics and Green Hills of Africa|journal=The Hemingway Review |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=1–14 |url= |doi=|ref = CITEREFTrogdon1996}} * {{cite book |title=The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway |editor-first=Scott |editor-last=Donaldson|chapter =Hemingway and Gender HIstory|year= 1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location= |isbn=0-521-45479-X |url=http://books.google.com/?id=9ps69UBMNqcC&dq=decoding+papa|accessdate=2010-04-17|ref=CITEREFSanderson1996 |author=Sanderson, Rena}} * {{cite book |title=New Critical Approaches to the short stories of Ernest Hemingway |editor-first=Benson |editor-last=Jackson J. |authorlink= |chapter =Decoding Papa: "A Very Short Story" as Work and Text |year= 1990|publisher=Duke University Press |location= |isbn=0-8223-1067-8 |page= |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=9ps69UBMNqcC&dq=decoding+papa|accessdate=2010-01-30|ref=CITEREFScholes|author=Scholes, Robert}} * {{cite book |title=An Artless Art |last=Starrs |first=Roy |year=1998 |publisher=The Japan Library |location= |isbn=1–873410–64–6 |page=77 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=W1lkV-w3FXYC&pg=PA77&dq=Hemingway+haiku |accessdate=2010–02–09|ref=CITEREFStarrs}} * {{cite journal |last1=Stoltzfus |first1=Ben |year=2005 |title= Sartre, "Nada," and Hemingway's African Stories|journal=Comparative Literature Studies|volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=250–228 |doi= |ref=CITEREFStoltzfus}} * {{cite book |title=The Spanish Civil War |last=Thomas |first=Hugh |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2001 |publisher=[[Modern Library]] |location=New York |isbn=0-375-75515-2 |oclc= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=6I126r99NQ4C&pg=RA3-PA302&lpg=RA3-PA302&dq=spanish+civil+war+hugh+thomas+hemingway&q=hemingway |accessdate= 2009-09–18|ref = CITEREFThomas2001}} * {{cite journal |last1=Trodd |first1=Zoe |year=2007 |title= Hemingway's camera eye: The problems of language and an interwar politics of form|journal=The Hemingway Review |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=7–21 |url= |doi=10.1353/hem.2007.0012|ref=CITEREFTrodd }} * {{cite book |title=Ernest Hemingway |last=Young |first=Philip |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 1964|edition = 1973|publisher=University of Minnesota |location= St. Paul MN|isbn=0-8166-0191-7 |page= |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=EfCmWdW6EI8C&pg=PA5&dq=ernest+hemingway++indian+camp+&q=ernest%20hemingway%20%20indian%20camp |accessdate=2010-04-18|ref=CITEREFYoung}} {{refend}} ==External links== {{wikisource author}} {{wikiquote|Ernest Hemingway}} * [http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Hemingway+Archive/ Hemingway Archives: John F. Kennedy Library] * [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/taro/uthrc/00056/hrc-00056.html/ Ernest Hemingway's Collection] at [[The University of Texas at Austin]] * [http://www.lib.udel.edu/ud/spec/exhibits/hemngway/index.htm Ernest Hemingway In His Time] at the [[University of Delaware]] Library. * [http://www.hemingwaysociety.org The Hemingway Society] * {{worldcat id|id=lccn-n78-78534}} {{Hemingway}} {{Nobel Prize in Literature Laureates 1951-1975}} {{Link GA|zh}} [[nan:Ernest Hemingway]] {{featured article}} {{Persondata |NAME= Hemingway, Ernest Miller |ALTERNATIVE NAMES= |SHORT DESCRIPTION= American writer and journalist |DATE OF BIRTH= {{birth date|1899|7|21|mf=y}} |PLACE OF BIRTH= [[Oak Park, Illinois]] |DATE OF DEATH= {{death date|1961|7|2|mf=y}} |PLACE OF DEATH= [[Ketchum, Idaho]] }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Hemingway, Ernest}} [[Category:1899 births]] [[Category:1961 deaths]] [[Category:People from Oak Park, Illinois]] [[Category:American essayists]] [[Category:American expatriates in Canada]] [[Category:American expatriates in Cuba]] [[Category:American expatriates in France]] [[Category:American expatriates in Italy]] [[Category:American expatriates in Spain]] [[Category:American hunters]] [[Category:American journalists]] [[Category:American Nobel laureates]] [[Category:American memoirists]] [[Category:American military personnel of World War I]] [[Category:American novelists]] [[Category:American people of the Spanish Civil War]] [[Category:American short story writers]] [[Category:American socialists]] [[Category:Anti-fascists]] [[Category:American people of English descent]] [[Category:Ernest Hemingway|Ernest Hemingway]] [[Category:Hemingway family]] [[Category:History of Key West, Florida]] [[Category:Nobel laureates in Literature]] [[Category:Operation Overlord people]] [[Category:Pulitzer Prize for Fiction winners]] [[Category:Recipients of the Silver Medal of Military Valor]] [[Category:Suicides by firearm in Idaho]] [[Category:War correspondents]] [[Category:Writers from Chicago, Illinois]] [[Category:Writers who committed suicide]] [[Category:Toronto Star people]] [[af:Ernest Hemingway]] [[am:ኧርነስት ሄሚንጔይ]] [[ar:إرنست همنجواي]] [[an:Ernest Hemingway]] [[ast:Ernest Hemingway]] [[az:Ernest Heminquey]] [[bn:আর্নেস্ট হেমিংওয়ে]] [[zh-min-nan:Ernest Hemingway]] [[be:Эрнест Хемінгуэй]] [[be-x-old:Эрнэст Хэмінгуэй]] [[bcl:Ernest Hemingway]] [[bs:Ernest Hemingway]] [[br:Ernest Hemingway]] [[bg:Ърнест Хемингуей]] [[ca:Ernest Miller Hemingway]] [[cv:Эрнест Хемингуэй]] [[cs:Ernest Hemingway]] [[co:Ernest Hemingway]] [[da:Ernest Hemingway]] [[de:Ernest Hemingway]] [[et:Ernest Hemingway]] [[el:Έρνεστ Χέμινγουεϊ]] [[es:Ernest Hemingway]] [[eo:Ernest Hemingway]] [[eu:Ernest Hemingway]] [[fa:ارنست همینگوی]] [[fr:Ernest Hemingway]] [[fur:Ernest Hemingway]] [[ga:Ernest Hemingway]] [[gd:Ernest Hemingway]] [[gl:Ernest Hemingway]] [[ko:어니스트 헤밍웨이]] [[hy:Էռնեստ Հեմինգուեյ]] [[hi:अर्नेस्ट हेमिंगवे]] [[hr:Ernest Hemingway]] [[io:Ernest Hemingway]] [[id:Ernest Hemingway]] [[ia:Ernest Hemingway]] [[is:Ernest Hemingway]] [[it:Ernest Hemingway]] [[he:ארנסט המינגווי]] [[jv:Ernest Hemingway]] [[ka:ერნესტ ჰემინგუეი]] [[sw:Ernest Hemingway]] [[ku:Ernest Hemingway]] [[la:Ernestus Hemingway]] [[lv:Ernests Hemingvejs]] [[lb:Ernest Hemingway]] [[lt:Ernest Hemingway]] [[hu:Ernest Hemingway]] [[mk:Ернест Хемингвеј]] [[ml:ഏണസ്റ്റ് ഹെമിങ്‌വേ]] [[mr:अर्नेस्ट हेमिंग्वे]] [[arz:ارنست هيمنجواى]] [[ms:Ernest Hemingway]] [[mn:Эрнест Хемингуэй]] [[nah:Ernest Hemingway]] [[nl:Ernest Hemingway]] [[ne:अर्नेस्ट हेमिङ्वे]] [[ja:アーネスト・ヘミングウェイ]] [[nap:Ernest Hemingway]] [[no:Ernest Hemingway]] [[nn:Ernest Hemingway]] [[oc:Ernest Hemingway]] [[pnb:ارنسٹ ہیمنگو ے]] [[pms:Ernest Hemingway]] [[nds:Ernest Hemingway]] [[pl:Ernest Hemingway]] [[pt:Ernest Hemingway]] [[ro:Ernest Hemingway]] [[ru:Хемингуэй, Эрнест]] [[sq:Ernest Hemingway]] [[scn:Ernest Hemingway]] [[simple:Ernest Hemingway]] [[sk:Ernest Hemingway]] [[sl:Ernest Hemingway]] [[sr:Ернест Хемингвеј]] [[sh:Ernest Hemingway]] [[fi:Ernest Hemingway]] [[sv:Ernest Hemingway]] [[tl:Ernest Hemingway]] [[ta:ஏர்னெஸ்ட் ஹெமிங்வே]] [[te:ఎర్నెస్ట్ హెమింగ్‌వే]] [[th:เออร์เนสต์ เฮมิงเวย์]] [[tg:Эрнест Ҳемингуей]] [[tr:Ernest Hemingway]] [[uk:Ернест Хемінгуей]] [[ur:ارنسٹ ہیمنگوئے]] [[ug:ئېرنېست ھېمىڭۋاي]] [[vec:Ernest Hemingway]] [[vi:Ernest Hemingway]] [[war:Ernest Hemingway]] [[yo:Ernest Hemingway]] [[zh-yue:海明威]] [[zh:欧内斯特·海明威]]'
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'{{pp-move-indef}} {{redirect|Hemingway}} {{Infobox Writer <!-- for more information see [[:Template:Infobox Writer/doc]] --> |name = Ernest Hemingway |caption = Ernest Hemingway |image = ErnestHemingway.jpg |caption = Hemingway in 1939 |image_alt = Dark-haired man in light colored short-sleeved shirt working on a typewriter at a table on which is an open book |birthname = Ernest Miller Hemingway |birthdate = {{birth date|1899|7|21|mf=y}} |birthplace = [[Oak Park, Illinois]], United States |nationality = American |deathdate = {{death date and age|1961|7|2|1899|7|21|mf=y}} |deathplace = [[Ketchum, Idaho]], United States |occupation = Author |genre = |movement = |spouse = [[Elizabeth Hadley Richardson]] (1921–1927)<br /> [[Pauline Pfeiffer]] (1927–1940)<br /> [[Martha Gellhorn]] (1940–1945)<br /> [[Mary Welsh Hemingway]] (1946–1961) |children = [[Jack Hemingway]] (1923–2000)<br /> [[Patrick Hemingway]] (1928–)<br /> [[Gregory Hemingway]] (1931–2001) |religion = Roman Catholic |influences = [[Pío Baroja]] |influenced = |awards = {{nowrap|[[Pulitzer Prize for Fiction]] (1953) <br /> [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] (1954)}} |signature = Ernest Hemingway Signature.svg }} '''Ernest Miller Hemingway''' (July 21, 1899 – July 2, 1961) was an American [[American literature|author]] and [[journalist]]. His distinctive writing style, characterized by economy and [[understatement]], influenced 20th-century fiction, as did his life of adventure and public image. He produced most of his work between the mid-1920s and the mid-1950s. He won the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in 1954. Hemingway's fiction was successful because the characters he presented exhibited authenticity that resonated with his audience. Many of his works are classics of [[American literature]]. He published seven novels, six short story collections, and two non-fiction works during his lifetime; a further three novels, four collections of short stories, and three non-fiction works were published [[posthumously]]. Hemingway was born and raised in [[Oak Park, Illinois]]. After leaving high school he worked for a few months as a reporter for the ''[[Kansas City Star]]'', before leaving for the [[Italian Campaign (World War I)|Italian front]] to become an [[List of ambulance drivers during World War I|ambulance driver during World War&nbsp;I]], which became the basis for his novel ''[[A Farewell to Arms]]''. He was seriously wounded and returned home within the year. In 1922 Hemingway married [[Hadley Richardson]], the first of his four wives, and the couple moved to Paris, where he worked as a [[Correspondent|foreign correspondent]]. During his time there he met and was influenced by [[modernism|modernist]] writers and artists of the 1920s expatriate community known as the "[[Lost Generation]]". His first novel, ''[[The Sun Also Rises]]'', was written in 1924. After divorcing Hadley Richardson in 1927 Hemingway married [[Pauline Pfeiffer]]; they divorced following Hemingway's return from covering the [[Spanish Civil War]], after which he wrote ''[[For Whom the Bell Tolls]]''. [[Martha Gellhorn]] became his third wife in 1940, but he left her for [[Mary Welsh Hemingway]] after World War&nbsp;II, during which he was present at [[Normandy Landings|D-Day]] and the [[liberation of Paris]]. Shortly after the publication of ''[[The Old Man and the Sea]]'' in 1952 Hemingway went on safari to Africa, where he was almost killed in a plane crash that left him in pain or ill-health for much of the rest of his life. Hemingway had permanent residences in [[Key West]], Florida, and [[Cuba]] during the 1930s and '40s, but in 1959 he moved from Cuba to [[Ketchum, Idaho]], where he committed suicide in the summer of 1961. ==Biography== ===Early life=== [[File:ErnestHemingwayBabyPicture.gif|thumb|right|Ernest Hemingway was the second child, and first son, born to his parents Clarence and Grace Hemingway.|alt= an infant dressed in light colored clothing propped on a chair faces the camera]] Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21, 1899, in [[Oak Park, Illinois]], a suburb of Chicago.<ref>{{Harvnb|Oliver|p=140}}</ref> His father Clarence Edmonds Hemingway was a physician, and his mother, Grace Hall-Hemingway, was a musician. Both were well-educated and well-respected in the conservative community of Oak Park.<ref>{{Harvnb|Reynolds|2000|p=17}}</ref> [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], a resident of Oak Park, said of the village: "So many churches for so many good people to go to".<ref>{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=4}}</ref> When Clarence and Grace Hemingway married in 1896, they moved in with Grace's father, Ernest Hall,<ref>{{Harvnb|Oliver|p=134}}</ref> after whom they named their first son.<ref group=note>Hemingway had five siblings: Marcelline (1898); Ursula (1902); Madelaine (1904); Carol (1911); and Leicester (1915). See {{Harvnb|Reynolds|2000|pp=17–18}}</ref> Hemingway claimed to dislike his name, which he "associated with the naive, even foolish hero of [[Oscar Wilde]]'s play ''[[The Importance of Being Earnest]]''".<ref name="Meyers p8">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=8}}</ref> The family's seven-bedroom home in a respectable neighborhood contained a music studio for Grace and a medical office for Clarence.<ref name = "Reynolds pp 17-18">{{Harvnb|Reynolds|2000|pp=17–18}}</ref> Hemingway's mother frequently performed in concerts around the village. As an adult Hemingway professed to hate his mother, although biographer Michael Reynolds points out that Hemingway mirrored her energy and enthusiasm.<ref name="Reynolds 2000 19">{{Harvnb|Reynolds|2000|p=19}}</ref> Her insistence that he learn to play the [[cello]] became a "source of conflict", but he later admitted the music lessons were useful in his writing, as in the "[[Counterpoint|contrapunctal]] structure" of ''[[For Whom the Bell Tolls]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=3}}</ref> The family owned a summer home called Windemere on [[Walloon Lake]], near [[Petoskey]], Michigan, where Hemingway learned to hunt, fish and camp in the woods and lakes of Northern Michigan. His early experiences in nature instilled a passion for outdoor adventure, and living in remote or isolated areas.<ref name="Meyers p13">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=13}}</ref> [[File:Hemingway birthplace.jpg|thumb|left|Ernest Hemingway's birthplace in Oak Park, Illinois. Hemingway lived here until he was seven, when the family moved to a house a few blocks away.|alt=gabled two-story house with corner turret and wrap-around porch under a clear sky]] Hemingway attended [[Oak Park and River Forest High School]] from 1913 until 1917. He took part in a number of sports—boxing, track and field, water polo, and football—and had good grades in English classes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|p=21}}</ref> He and his sister Marcelline performed in the school orchestra for two years.<ref name="Reynolds 2000 19"/> Hemingway wrote for and edited the ''Trapeze'' and ''Tabula'' (the school's newspaper and yearbook), for which he imitated the language of sportswriters, and used the [[pen name]] Ring Lardner, Jr.—a nod to [[Ring Lardner]] of the ''[[Chicago Tribune]]'' whose byline was "Line O'Type".<ref name="Meyers p19">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=19}}</ref> Like [[Mark Twain]], [[Stephen Crane]], [[Theodore Dreiser]] and [[Sinclair Lewis]], Hemingway was a journalist before becoming a novelist; after leaving high school he went to work for ''[[The Kansas City Star]]'' as a cub reporter.<ref name="Meyers p23">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=23}}</ref> Although he stayed there for only six months he relied on the ''Star'''s [[style guide]] as a foundation for his writing: "Use short sentences. Use short first paragraphs. Use vigorous English. Be positive, not negative."<ref>{{cite web |title=Star style and rules for writing |url=http://www.kcstar.com/hemingway/ehstarstyle.shtml |date= |work=The Kansas City Star |publisher=KansasCity.com |accessdate=2009–08–29}}</ref> ===World War I=== [[File:Ernest Hemingway in Milan 1918 retouched 3.jpg|thumb|Hemingway photographed in Milan, 1918, dressed in uniform. For two months he drove ambulances until he was wounded.|alt=young man dressed in a uniform sitting on a chair facing the camera]] Early in 1918 Hemingway responded to a [[Red Cross]] recruitment effort and signed on to be an ambulance driver in Italy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|pp=48–49}}</ref> He left New York in May, and arrived in Paris as the city was under bombardment from German artillery.<ref name="Meyers p27">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=27}}</ref> By June he was stationed at the [[Italian Campaign (World War I)|Italian Front]], and on his first day in Milan was sent to the scene of a munitions factory explosion where rescuers retrieved the shredded remains of female workers. He described the incident in his [[non-fiction]] book ''[[Death in the Afternoon]]'': "I remember that after we searched quite thoroughly for the complete dead we collected fragments".<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|p=57}}</ref> A few days later he was stationed at [[Fossalta di Piave]]. On July&nbsp;8 he was seriously wounded by mortar fire, having just returned from the canteen to deliver chocolate and cigarettes to the men at the front line.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|pp=59–60}}</ref> Despite his wounds, Hemingway carried an Italian soldier to safety, for which he received the [[Silver Medal of Military Valor|Italian Silver Medal of Bravery]].<ref name="Meyers pp30-31">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=30–31}}</ref> Still only eighteen, Hemingway said of the incident: "When you go to war as a boy you have a great illusion of immortality. Other people get killed; not you&nbsp;... Then when you are badly wounded the first time you lose that illusion and you know it can happen to you."<ref name = "Putnam">{{Harvnb|Putnam}}</ref> He sustained shrapnel wounds to both legs; underwent an operation at a distribution center; spent five days at a field hospital; and was transferred to the Red Cross hospital in Milan for recuperation.<ref name="Desnoyers p3">{{Harvnb|Desnoyers| p=3}}</ref> Hemingway spent six months in the hospital, where he met and fell in love with [[Agnes von Kurowsky]], a Red Cross nurse seven years his senior.<ref name="Meyers p37">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=37}}</ref> Agnes and Hemingway planned to marry, but she became engaged to an Italian officer in March&nbsp;1919, an incident that provided material for the short and bitter work "[[A Very Short Story]]".<ref>{{Harvnb|Scholes}}</ref> Biographer Jeffrey Meyers claims Hemingway was devastated by Agnes' rejection, and that he followed a pattern of abandoning a wife before she abandoned him in future relationships. During his six months in recuperation Hemingway met and formed a strong friendship with [[Eric Dorman-Smith|"Chink" Dorman-Smith]] that lasted for decades.<ref name="Meyers pp40-42">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=40–42}}</ref> ===Toronto and Chicago=== Hemingway returned home early in 1919 to a time of readjustment. At not yet 20 years old, the war had created in him a maturity at odds with living at home without a job and the need for recuperation.<ref name="Meyers pp45–46">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=45–46}}</ref> As Reynolds explains, "Hemingway could not really tell his parents what he thought when he saw his bloody knee. He could not say how scared he was in another country with surgeons who could not tell him in English if his leg was coming off or not."<ref>{{Harvnb|Reynolds|1998|p=21}}</ref> That summer he spent time in Michigan with high school friends, fishing and camping;<ref name = "Putnam"/> and in September he spent a week in the back-country. The trip became the inspiration for his short story "[[Big Two-Hearted River]]", in which the [[semi-autobiographical]] character [[Nick Adams (character)|Nick Adams]] takes to the country to find solitude after returning from war.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|p=101}}</ref> A family friend offered him a job in Toronto; having nothing else to do he accepted. Late that year he began as a freelancer, staff writer and foreign correspondent for the ''Toronto Star Weekly''.<ref name="Meyers pp51–53"/> However he returned to Michigan the following June,<ref name="Meyers pp51–53">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=51–53}}</ref> and then moved to Chicago in September&nbsp;1920 to live with friends, while still filing stories for the ''Toronto Star''. In Chicago he worked as an associate editor of the monthly journal ''[[Cooperative Commonwealth]]'', where he met [[Sherwood Anderson]].<ref name="Meyers pp56-59">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=56–58}}</ref> When St. Louis native Hadley Richardson came to Chicago to visit Hemingway's roommate's sister, Hemingway, who was infatuated, later claimed "I knew she was the girl I was going to marry". Hadley was red-haired, with a "nurturing instinct", and eight years older than Hemingway.<ref name="Kert pp83-90"/> Despite the difference in age, Hadley, who had an overprotective mother, seemed less mature than usual for a young woman her age.<ref name="Oliver p139">{{Harvnb|Oliver|p=139}}</ref> Bernice Kert, author of ''The Hemingway Women'', claims Hadley was "evocative" of Agnes, but that Hadley had a childishness that Agnes lacked. The two corresponded for a few months, and then decided to marry and travel to Europe.<ref name="Kert pp83-90">{{Harvnb|Kert|1983|pp=83–90}}</ref> They wanted to visit Rome, but Sherwood Anderson convinced them to visit Paris instead.<ref name="Baker 1972 pp7">{{Harvnb|Baker|1972|p=7}}</ref> They were married on September&nbsp;3, 1921; two months later Hemingway was hired as foreign correspondent for the ''Toronto Star''; and the couple left for Paris. Of Hemingway's marriage to Hadley, Meyers claims: "With Hadley, Hemingway achieved everything he had hoped for with Agnes: the love of a beautiful woman, a comfortable income, a life in Europe."<ref name="Meyers pp60–62">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=60–62}}</ref> ===Paris=== [[File:Ernest Hemingway 1923 passport photo.TIF.jpg|thumb|right|Hemingway's 1923 passport photo. At this time he lived in Paris with his wife Hadley, and worked as a journalist.|alt=front face view of dark-haired, dark-eyed young man dressed in shirt, tie and jacket]] Early Hemingway biographer [[Carlos Baker]] believes that, while Anderson suggested Paris because "the monetary exchange rate" made it an inexpensive place to live, more importantly it was where "the most interesting people in the world" resided. There Hemingway would meet writers such as [[Gertrude Stein]], [[James Joyce]] and [[Ezra Pound]] who "could help a young writer up the rungs of a career".<ref name="Baker 1972 pp7"/> The Hemingway of the early Paris years was a "tall, handsome, muscular, broad-shouldered, brown-eyed, rosy-cheeked, square-jawed, soft-voiced young man."<ref name="Meyers pp70–74"/> He and Hadley lived in a small walk-up at 74 Rue du Cardinal Lemoine in the [[Latin Quarter]], and he worked in a rented room in a nearby building.<ref name="Baker 1972 pp7"/> Anderson wrote letters of introduction to Gertrude Stein and other writers in Paris.<ref name="Meyers pp61-63">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=61–63}}</ref> Stein, who was the bastion of [[modernism]] in Paris,<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1991|p=8}}</ref> became Hemingway's mentor for a period, introducing him to the expatriate artists and writers of the [[Montparnasse Quarter]]. She referred to artists as the "[[Lost Generation]]"—a term Hemingway popularized with the publication of ''The Sun Also Rises''.<ref name="Mellow p308">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| p=308}}</ref> A regular at Stein's [[Salon (gathering)|salon]], Hemingway met influential painters such as [[Pablo Picasso]], [[Joan Miro]], and [[Juan Gris]].<ref name="Reynolds 2000 28">{{Harvnb|Reynolds|2000|p=28}}</ref> However, Hemingway eventually withdrew from Stein's influence and their relationship deteriorated into a literary quarrel that spanned decades.<ref name="Meyers pp77–81">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=77–81}}</ref> The American poet Ezra Pound, older than Hemingway by 14 years, met Hemingway by chance at Sylvia Beach's [[Shakespeare and Company (bookshop)|Shakespeare and Company]] in 1922. The two toured Italy in 1923 and lived on the same street in 1924.<ref name="Meyers pp70–74">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=70–74}}</ref> They forged a strong friendship and in Hemingway, Pound recognized and fostered a young talent.<ref name="Reynolds 2000 28"/> Pound—who had recently finished editing [[T. S. Eliot]]'s ''[[The Waste Land]]''—introduced Hemingway to the Irish writer James Joyce,<ref name="Meyers pp70–74"/> with whom Hemingway frequently embarked on "alcoholic sprees".<ref name="Meyers p82">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=82}}</ref> [[File:HemingwayLoeb.jpg|thumb|right|Ernest Hemingway with Lady Duff Twysden, Hadley Hemingway, and three unidentified people at a cafe in Pamplona, Spain, July 1925|alt=three men, dressed in light colored trousers and wearing hats, and two women, wearing light colored dresses, sitting at a sidewalk table]] During his first 20 months in Paris, Hemingway filed 88 stories for the ''Toronto Star''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Reynolds|p=24}}</ref> He covered the [[Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)|Greco-Turkish War]], where he witnessed the burning of [[Smyrna]]; wrote travel pieces such as "Tuna Fishing in Spain" and "Trout Fishing All Across Europe: Spain Has the Best, Then Germany"; and an article dedicated to [[bullfighting]]—"Pamplona in July; World's Series of Bull Fighting a Mad, Whirling Carnival".<ref name="Desnoyers p5">{{Harvnb|Desnoyers| p=5}}</ref> Hemingway was devastated on learning that Hadley had lost a suitcase filled with his manuscripts at the [[Paris-Gare de Lyon|Gare de Lyon]] as she was traveling to [[Geneva]] to meet him in December&nbsp;1922.<ref name="Meyers pp69–70">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=69–70}}</ref> The following September, because Hadley was pregnant, the couple returned to Toronto, where their son [[Jack Hemingway|John Hadley Nicanor]] was born on October 10, 1923. During their absence Hemingway's first book, ''Three Stories and Ten Poems'', was published. Two of the stories it contained were all that remained of his work after the loss of the suitcase, and the third had been written the previous spring in Italy. Within months a second volume, ''in our time'' (without capitals), was published. The small volume included six [[Vignette (literature)|vignettes]] and a dozen stories Hemingway had written the previous summer during his first visit to Spain where he discovered the thrill of the [[bullfighting|''corrida'']]. He missed Paris, considered Toronto boring, and wanted to return to the life of a writer, rather than live the life of a journalist.<ref name="Baker 1972 15–18">{{Harvnb|Baker|1972|pp=15–18}}</ref> Hemingway, Hadley and their son (nicknamed Bumby), returned to Paris in January&nbsp;1924 and moved into a new apartment on the Rue Notre Dame des Champs.<ref name="Baker 1972 15–18"/> Hemingway helped [[Ford Madox Ford]] edit the ''transatlantic review'' in which were published works by Pound, [[John Dos Passos]], and Gertrude Stein as well as some of Hemingway's own early stories such as "[[Indian Camp]]".<ref name="Meyers p126">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=126}}</ref> When ''[[In Our Time (book)|In Our Time]]'' (with capital letters) was published in 1925, the dust jacket had comments from Ford.<ref>{{Harvnb|Baker|1972|p=34}}</ref><ref name="Meyers p127">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=127}}</ref> "Indian Camp" received considerable praise; Ford saw it as an important early story by a young writer,<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow| page= 236}}</ref> and critics in the United States claimed Hemingway reinvigorated the short story with his use of declarative sentences and his crisp style.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow| page= 314}}</ref> Six months earlier, Hemingway met [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]], and the pair formed a friendship of "admiration and hostility".<ref name="Meyers pp159–160">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=159–160}}</ref> Fitzgerald's ''[[The Great Gatsby]]'' had been published that year: Hemingway read it, liked it, and decided his next work had to be a novel.<ref name = "Baker pp 30-34">{{Harvnb|Baker|1972|pp=30–34}}</ref> [[File:Ernest Hadley and Bumby Hemingway.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Ernest, Hadley, and Bumby Hemingway in [[Schruns]], Austria, in 1926, months before they separated|alt=a man, wearing a striped sweater and trousers and a hat, with a woman, wearing a skirt and a cardigan, holding the hand of a boy wearing shorts, on a walking path]] Since his first visit to see the bullfighting at the Festival of [[San Fermín]] in [[Pamplona]] in 1923, Hemingway was fascinated by the sport; he saw in it the brutality of war juxtaposed against a cruel beauty. In June&nbsp;1925, Hemingway and Hadley left Paris for their annual visit to Pamplona accompanied by a group of American and British expatriates.<ref name="Meyers pp117-119">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=117–119}}</ref> The trip inspired Hemingway's first novel, ''The Sun Also Rises'', which he began to write immediately after the fiesta, finishing in September.<ref name = "Baker pp 30-34"/> The novel presents the culture of bullfighting with the concept of ''afición'', depicted as an authentic way of life, contrasted with the Parisian [[bohemians]], depicted as inauthentic.<ref name="Müller 2010">{{Harvnb|Müller|2010}}</ref> Hemingway decided to slow his pace and devoted six months to the novel's rewrite.<ref name = "Baker pp 30-34"/> The manuscript arrived in New York in April,<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|p=328}}</ref> and he corrected the final proof in Paris in August&nbsp;1926.<ref name="Baker p44">{{Harvnb|Baker|1972| p=44}}</ref> [[Charles Scribner's Sons|Scribner's]] published the novel in October.<ref name="Meyers p189">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=189}}</ref> ''The Sun Also Rises'' epitomized the post-war expatriate generation,<ref name="Mellow p302">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| p=302}}</ref> received good reviews and is "recognized as Hemingway's greatest work".<ref name="Meyers p192">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=192}}</ref> However, Hemingway himself later wrote to his editor [[Max Perkins]] that the "point of the book" was not so much about a generation being lost, but that "the earth abideth forever"; he believed the characters in ''The Sun Also Rises'' may have been "battered" but were not lost.<ref name="Baker p82">{{Harvnb|Baker|1972| p=82}}</ref> Hemingway's marriage to Hadley deteriorated as he was working on ''The Sun Also Rises''.<ref name="Baker p44"/> In the spring of 1926, Hadley became aware of his affair with Pauline Pfeiffer,<ref name="Baker p43">{{Harvnb|Baker|1972| p=43}}</ref> although she endured Pauline's presence in Pamplona that July.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|p = 333}}</ref> On their return to Paris, Hadley and Hemingway decided to separate; and in November she formally requested a divorce. They split their possessions while Hadley accepted Hemingway's offer of the proceeds from ''The Sun Also Rises''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|pp = 338–340}}</ref> The couple were divorced in January&nbsp;1927, and Hemingway married Pauline Pfeiffer in May.<ref name="Meyers p172">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=172}}</ref> Pfeiffer was from [[Arkansas]]—her family was wealthy and Catholic—and before the marriage Hemingway converted to Catholicism.<ref name="Mellow p294">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|p = 294}}</ref><ref name="Meyers p174">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=174}}</ref> In Paris she worked for ''[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]''.<ref name="Mellow p294"/> After a honeymoon in [[Le Grau-du-Roi]], where he contracted [[anthrax]], Hemingway planned his next collection of short stories,<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|pp=348–353}}</ref> ''[[Men Without Women (short story collection)|Men Without Women]]'', published in October 1927.<ref name="Meyers p195">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=195}}</ref> By the end of the year Pauline, who was pregnant, wanted to move back to America. John Dos Passos recommended [[Key West]], and they left Paris in March&nbsp;1928. Some time that spring Hemingway suffered a severe injury in their Paris bathroom, when he pulled a skylight down on his head thinking he was pulling on a toilet chain. This left him with a prominent forehead scar, subject of numerous legends, which he carried for the rest of his life. When Hemingway was asked about the scar he was reluctant to answer.<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinson, Daniel}}</ref> After his departure from Paris, Hemingway "never again lived in a big city".<ref name="Meyers p204">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=204}}</ref> ===Key West and the Caribbean=== [[File:Hemingwayhouse.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ernest Hemingway House|Hemingway house]] in Key West where he lived with Pauline. He wrote ''[[To Have and Have Not]]'' in the second story pool house not seen in picture.|alt=two story square house with tall windows and exterior shutters and a second story porch]] In the late spring Hemingway and Pauline traveled to Kansas City where their son [[Patrick Hemingway]] was born on June&nbsp;28, 1928. Pauline had a difficult delivery, which Hemingway fictionalized in ''[[A Farewell to Arms]]''.<ref name="Meyers p208">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=208}}</ref> After Patrick's birth, Pauline and Hemingway traveled to Wyoming, Massachusetts and New York.<ref name="Meyers p208"/> In the fall he was in New York with Bumby, about to board a train to Florida, when he received a cable telling him that his father had committed suicide.<ref group=note>Clarence Hemingway used his father's Civil War pistol to shoot himself. See {{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=2}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|p=367}}</ref> Hemingway was devastated, having earlier sent a letter to his father telling him not to worry about financial difficulties; the letter arrived minutes after the suicide. He realized how Hadley must have felt after her own father's suicide in 1903, and he suggested, "I'll probably go the same way."<ref>qtd. in {{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=210}}</ref> Upon his return to Key West in December, Hemingway worked on the draft of ''A Farewell to Arms'' before leaving for France in January. The draft had been finished in August but he delayed the revision. The serialization in ''[[Scribner's Magazine]]'' was scheduled to begin in May, but by April, Hemingway was still working on the ending, which he may have rewritten as many as seventeen times. ''A Farewell to Arms'' was published on September&nbsp;27.<ref name="Meyers p215">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=215}}</ref> Biographer James Mellow believes Hemingway's stature as an American writer was secured with the publication of ''A Farewell to Arms'', which has a complexity not apparent in ''The Sun Also Rises''.<ref name="Mellow p378">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| p=378}}</ref> While in Spain during the summer of 1929, Hemingway researched his next work, ''Death in the Afternoon''. He wanted to write a comprehensive [[treatise]] of bullfighting, with explanations of the ''toreros'' and ''corridas'', complete with glossaries and appendices, because he believed bullfighting was "of great tragic interest, being literally of life and death."<ref>{{Harvnb|Baker|1972|pp=144–145}}</ref> During the early 1930s Hemingway spent his winters in Key West and summers in Wyoming, where he found "the most beautiful country he had seen in the American West" and hunting that included deer, elk, and grizzly bear.<ref name="Meyers p222">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=222}}</ref> His third son, [[Gloria Hemingway|Gregory Hancock Hemingway]], was born on November&nbsp;12, 1931 in Kansas City.<ref name="Harvnb|Oliver|p=144">{{Harvnb|Oliver|p=144}}</ref><ref group=note>Gregory Hemingway underwent [[sex reassignment surgery]] in the mid-1990s and thereafter was known as [[Gloria Hemingway]]. See [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/arts/3160646.stm Hemingway legacy feud 'resolved']. BBC News. {{Nowrap|3 October}} 2003. Accessed 2010–19–02.</ref> Pauline's uncle bought the couple a [[Ernest Hemingway House|house]] in Key West with the second floor of the carriage house converted to a writing den.<ref name="Meyers pp222-227">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=222–227}}</ref> While in Key West he enticed his friends to join him on fishing expeditions—inviting [[Waldo Peirce]], John Dos Passos, and [[Max Perkins]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| pp=376–377}}</ref>—with one all male trip to the [[Dry Tortugas]], and he frequented the local bar, [[Sloppy Joe's (bar)|Sloppy Joe's]].<ref name="Mellow p402">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1985| p=402}}</ref> He continued to travel to Europe and to [[Cuba]], and although he wrote of Key West in 1933, "We have a fine house here, and kids are all well," Mellow believes he "was plainly restless."<ref name="Mellow p424">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1985| p=424}}</ref> [[File:Hemingway and Marlins.jpg|thumb|220px|right|Ernest, Pauline, Bumby, Patrick, and Gregory Hemingway pose with marlins after a fishing trip to [[Bimini]] in 1935|alt=a man, a woman, and three boys standing on a pier with four large fish suspended from hooks above their heads]] In 1933 Hemingway and Pauline went on safari to East Africa. The 10-week trip provided material for ''[[Green Hills of Africa]]'', as well as the short stories "[[The Snows of Kilimanjaro]]" and "[[The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber]]".<ref name="Desnoyers p9">{{Harvnb|Desnoyers| p=9}}</ref> They visited [[Mombasa]], [[Nairobi]], and [[Machakos]] in [[Kenya]], then on to [[Tanganyika]], where they hunted in the [[Serengeti]], around [[Lake Manyara]] and west and southeast of the present-day [[Tarangire National Park]]. Hemingway contracted [[amoebic dysentery]] that caused a prolapsed intestine, and he was evacuated by plane to Nairobi, an experience reflected in "The Snows of Kilimanjaro". Their guide was the noted "white hunter" Philip Hope Percival, who had guided [[Theodore Roosevelt]] on his 1909 safari. On his return to Key West in early 1934 Hemingway began work on ''Green Hills of Africa'', published in 1935 to mixed reviews.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|pp =337–340}}</ref> Hemingway bought a boat in 1934, named it the ''Pilar'', and began sailing the [[Caribbean]].<ref name="Meyers p280">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=280}}</ref> In 1935 he first arrived at [[Bimini]], where he spent a considerable amount of time.<ref name="Desnoyers p9"/> During this period he also worked on ''[[To Have and Have Not]]'', published in 1937 while he was in Spain, the only novel he wrote during the 1930s.<ref name="Meyers p292">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=292}}</ref> [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-84600-0001, Ivens und Hemingway bei Ludwig Renn, Chef der XI. Internationalen Brigaden.jpg|thumb|left|Hemingway (center) with Dutch filmmaker [[Joris Ivens]], and [[Ludwig Renn]] (German writer as International Brigades officer). Spanish Civil War, 1937. |alt=a man in a uniform and hat, a man with a mustache wearing a cardigan and a hat, a man wearing a uniform and a hat]] ===Spanish Civil War and World War II=== In 1937 Hemingway agreed to report on the [[Spanish Civil War]] for the [[North American Newspaper Alliance]] (NANA).<ref name="Mellow p488">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| p=488}}</ref> In March he arrived in Spain with Dutch filmmaker [[Joris Ivens]].<ref name="Koch p87">{{Harvnb|Koch|2005| p=87}}</ref> Ivens, who was filming ''[[The Spanish Earth]]'', needed Hemingway as a screenwriter to replace John Dos Passos, who left the project when his friend [[José Robles]] was arrested and later executed.<ref name="Meyers p311">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=311}}</ref> The incident changed Dos Passos' opinion of the leftist republicans, which created a rift between him and Hemingway, who spread a rumor that Dos Passos was a coward for leaving Spain.<ref name="Koch p164">{{Harvnb|Koch|2005| p=164}}</ref> Journalist and writer [[Martha Gellhorn]], whom Hemingway had met in Key West the previous Christmas (1936), joined him in Spain. Like Hadley, Martha was a native of St. Louis, and like Pauline, she had worked for ''Vogue'' in Paris. Of Martha, Kert explains, "she never catered to him the way other women did."<ref name="Kert pp287">{{Harvnb|Kert|1983| pp=287–295}}</ref> Late in 1937, while in Madrid with Martha, Hemingway wrote his only play, ''[[The Fifth Column and the First Forty-Nine Stories|The Fifth Column]]'', as the city was being bombarded.<ref name="Koch p134">{{Harvnb|Koch|2005| p=134}}</ref> He returned to Key West for a few months, then back to Spain twice in 1938. He was present at the [[Battle of the Ebro]], the last republican stand, and was among fellow British and American journalists who were some of the last to leave the battle as they crossed the river.<ref name="Meyers p321">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=321}}</ref><ref name = "Thomas p833">{{Harvnb|Thomas|2001| p=833}}</ref> [[File:Hemingwayboyscats cuba.jpg|thumb|right|alt=a dark-haired man wearing a light shirt with two dark-haired boys wearing shorts, sitting on a stone patio playing with three kittens |Hemingway and sons Patrick (left) and Gregory, with three cats at ''[[Finca Vigía]]'' ca. 1942–1943. The Hemingways kept cats in Cuba 1942–1960. The [[polydactyl]] cats at Hemingway's [[Ernest Hemingway House|Key West house]] arrived after the family's departure in 1940.]] In the spring of 1939, Hemingway crossed to Cuba in his boat to live in the [[Hotel Ambos Mundos]] in Havana. This was the separation phase of a slow and painful split from Pauline, which had begun when Hemingway met Martha.<ref name="Meyers p326">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=326}}</ref> Martha soon joined him in Cuba, and they almost immediately rented "[[Finca Vigia]]" ("Lookout Farm"), a 15-acre property 15 miles from Havana. Pauline and the children left Hemingway that summer, after the family was re-united during a visit to Wyoming. After Hemingway's divorce from Pauline was finalized, he and Martha were married November 20, 1940, in Cheyenne, Wyoming.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lynn|1987|479}}</ref> As he had after his divorce from Hadley, he changed locations; moving his primary summer residence to [[Ketchum, Idaho]], just outside the newly built resort of [[Sun Valley, Idaho|Sun Valley]], and his winter residence to Cuba.<ref name="Meyers p342">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=342}}</ref> Hemingway, who had been disgusted when a Parisian friend allowed his cats to eat from the table, "developed a passion for cats" in Cuba, keeping dozens of them on the property.<ref name="Meyers p353">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=353}}</ref> He was at work on ''For Whom the Bell Tolls,'' which he started in March 1939, finished in July 1940, and was published in October 1940.<ref name="Meyers p334">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=334}}</ref> Consistent with his pattern of moving around while working on a manuscript, he wrote ''For Whom the Bell Tolls'' in Cuba, Wyoming, and Sun Valley.<ref name="Meyers p326">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=326}}</ref> ''For Whom the Bell Tolls'' became a book-of-the-month choice, sold half a million copies within months, was nominated for a [[Pulitzer Prize]], and as Meyers describes, "triumphantly re-established Hemingway's literary reputation".<ref name="Meyers pp334–339">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=334–338}}</ref> In January&nbsp;1941 Martha was sent to China on assignment for ''[[Collier's]]'' magazine, and Hemingway accompanied her. Although Hemingway wrote dispatches for ''[[PM (newspaper)|PM]]'', he had little affinity for China.<ref name="Meyers pp=356–361">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=356–361}}</ref> They had returned to Cuba before the [[declaration of war by the United States]] that December, and he convinced the Cuban government to help him refit the Pilar to ambush German submarines.<ref name ="Putnam"/> [[File:Hemlatham-1.jpg|thumb|left|Hemingway with Col. Charles (Buck) T. Lanham in Germany, 1944, during the fighting in Hürtgenwald, after which he became ill with pneumonia.|alt=a dark haired man with mustache dressed in army boots, tucked in muddy pants, shirt and vest, with a light haired man dressed in army clothing standing in front of rubble]] During World War II, he was in Europe from June to December&nbsp;1944. At the [[Normandy Landings|D-Day]] landing, military officials who considered him "precious cargo", kept him to a landing craft,<ref name="Meyers pp398-405">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=398–405}}</ref> although biographer Kenneth Lynn claims Hemingway fabricated accounts that he went ashore during the landings.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lynn|1995|p=510}}</ref> Late in July he attached himself to "the [[22nd Infantry Regiment (United States)|22nd Infantry Regiment]] commanded by [[Charles T. Lanham|Col. Charles 'Buck' Lanaham]], as it drove toward Paris", and he led a small band of village militia in [[Rambouillet]], outside of Paris.<ref name="Meyers pp398-405">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=398–405}}</ref> Of Hemingway's exploits, World War&nbsp;II historian Paul Fussell remarks: "Hemingway got into considerable trouble playing infantry captain to a group of Resistance people that he gathered because a correspondent is not supposed to lead troops, even if he does it well".<ref name ="Putnam"/> This was in fact in contraversion to the [[Geneva Convention]], and Hemingway was brought up on formal charges; he said he "beat the rap" by claiming that his entire participation was to give advice.<ref name="Lynn 1987 518–519">{{Harvnb|Lynn|1987|pp=518–519}}</ref> On August&nbsp;25 he was present at the [[liberation of Paris]], although the assertion that he was first in the city, or that he liberated the Ritz is considered part of the Hemingway legend.<ref name="Meyers p408">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=408}}</ref><ref name="Mellow p535">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| p=535}}</ref> While in Paris he attended a reunion hosted by Sylvia Beach, and "made peace with" Gertrude Stein.<ref name="Mellow p541">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| p=540}}</ref> Hemingway was present at heavy fighting in the [[Battle of Hürtgen Forest|Hürtgenwald]] near the end of 1944.<ref name="Meyers p411">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=411}}</ref> On December&nbsp;17, a feverish and ill Hemingway had himself driven to [[Luxembourg]] to cover what would later be called [[The Battle of the Bulge]]. However, as soon as he arrived, Lanham handed him to the doctors, who hospitalized him with pneumonia, and by the time he recovered a week later, the main fighting was over.<ref name="Lynn 1987 518–519"/> In 1947 Hemingway was awarded a [[Bronze Star]] for his bravery during World War&nbsp;II. He was recognized for his valor in having been "under fire in combat areas in order to obtain an accurate picture of conditions", with the commendation that "through his talent of expression, Mr. Hemingway enabled readers to obtain a vivid picture of the difficulties and triumphs of the front-line soldier and his organization in combat".<ref name ="Putnam"/> When Hemingway initially arrived in England, he met ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine correspondent Mary Welsh in London, and was infatuated. Martha—who had been forced to cross the Atlantic in a ship filled with explosives because he refused to help her get a press pass on a plane—arrived in London to find Hemingway hospitalized with a [[concussion]] from a car accident. Unsympathetic to his plight, she accused him of being a bully, and told him she was "through, absolutely finished."<ref name ="Kert pp393-398">{{Harvnb|Kert|1983|pp=393–398}}</ref> The last time he saw her was in March&nbsp;1945, as he was preparing to return to Cuba.<ref name="Meyers p416">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=416}}</ref> Meanwhile, he had asked Mary Welsh to marry him on their third meeting.<ref name ="Kert pp393-398"/> ===Cuba=== [[File:Hemingway 1953 Kenia.jpg|thumb|Ernest Hemingway on [[safari]] in [[Kenya]] in 1953, shortly before he was injured in two plane accidents|alt=white-bearded man wearing light colored clothing writing at a small table]] Hemingway said he "was out of business as a writer" from 1942 to 1945.<ref name="Mellow p552">qtd in {{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| p=552}}</ref> In 1946 he married Mary, who had an [[ectopic pregnancy]] five months later. Hemingway and Mary had a series of accidents and health problems after the war: in a 1945 car accident he "smashed his knee" and sustained another "deep wound on his forehead"; Mary broke her right ankle and then her left ankle in successive skiing accidents. In 1947 his sons Patrick and Gregory were in a car accident, leaving Patrick with a head wound and severely ill.<ref name="Meyers pp420–421">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=420–421}}</ref> Hemingway became depressed as his literary friends died: in 1939 [[Yeats]] and Ford Madox Ford; in 1940 Scott Fitzgerald; in 1941 Sherwood Anderson and James Joyce; in 1946 Gertrude Stein; and the following year in 1947, Max Perkins, Hemingway's long time Scribner's editor and friend.<ref name="Mellow pp548–550">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| pp=548–550}}</ref> During this period he had severe headaches, high blood pressure, weight problems, and eventually diabetes—much of which was the result of previous accidents and heavy drinking.<ref name="Desnoyers p12">{{Harvnb|Desnoyers| p=12}}</ref> Nonetheless, early in 1946 he began work on ''[[The Garden of Eden]]'', finishing 800 pages by June.<ref>{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=436}}</ref><ref group=note>''The Garden of Eden'' was published posthumously in 1986. See {{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=436}}</ref> During the post–war years he also began work on a trilogy to be called "The Land", "The Sea" and "The Air" which he intended to combine in one novel known as ''The Sea Book''. However, both projects stalled and Mellow considers his inability to continue "a symptom of his troubles" during these years.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| p=552}}</ref><ref group=note>Published posthumously as ''[[Islands in the Stream]]'' in 1970. See {{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| p=552}}</ref> In 1948 Hemingway and Mary traveled to Europe. In Italy he returned to the site of his World War&nbsp;I accident, and shortly afterwards began work on ''[[Across the River and Into the Trees]]'', which he continued through 1949; it was published in 1950 to bad reviews.<ref name="Meyers p453">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=440}}</ref> The next year he wrote the draft of ''Old Man and the Sea'' in eight weeks, considering it "the best I can write ever for all of my life".<ref name="Desnoyers p12"/> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' became a book-of-the month selection, made Hemingway an international celebrity, and won the Pulitzer Prize in May 1952, a month before he left for his second trip to Africa.<ref name = "Desnoyers p13">{{Harvnb|Desnoyers| p= 13}}</ref><ref name="Meyers p489">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=489}}</ref> In Africa he was seriously injured in two successive plane crashes. Hemingway chartered a sightseeing flight of the [[Belgian Congo]] as a Christmas present to Mary. On their way to photograph [[Murchison Falls]] from the air, the plane struck an abandoned utility pole and "crash landed in heavy brush." Hemingway's injuries included a head wound, while Mary broke two ribs.<ref>{{Harvnb|Baker|1972|pp=331–333}}</ref> The next day, attempting to reach medical care in [[Entebbe]], they boarded a second plane that exploded at take-off with Hemingway suffering burns and another concussion, this one serious enough to cause leaking of cerebral fluid.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|p=586}}</ref> They eventually arrived in Entebbe to find reporters covering the story of Hemingway's death. He briefed the reporters, and spent the next few weeks recuperating and reading his obituaries.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|p=587}}</ref> Despite his injuries, Hemingway accompanied Patrick and his wife on a planned fishing expedition in February, but pain caused him to be irascible and difficult to get along with.<ref name="Mellow 1992 588">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|p=588}}</ref> When a [[bushfire]] broke out he was again injured, with second degree burns on his legs, front torso, lips, left hand and right forearm.<ref name="Meyers pp505-507">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=505–507}}</ref> Months later in [[Venice]], "according to Mary they learned the full extent of Hemingway's injuries". She reported to friends that he had two cracked [[Intervertebral disc|discs]], a kidney and liver rupture, a [[dislocated shoulder]] and a broken skull.<ref name="Mellow 1992 588"/> The accidents may have precipitated the physical deterioration that was to follow. After the plane crashes, Hemingway, who had been "a thinly controlled alcoholic throughout much of his life, drank more heavily than usual to combat the pain of his injuries."<ref>{{Harvnb|Beegel|1996|p=273}}</ref> [[File:Ernest Hemingway 1950.jpg|thumb|left|Ernest Hemingway in the cabin of his boat Pilar, off the coast of Cuba|alt=white-haired, white-bearded man with striped shirt]] In October&nbsp;1954 Hemingway received the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]. He modestly told the press that [[Carl Sandburg]], [[Isak Dinesen]] and [[Bernard Berenson]] deserved the prize,<ref>{{Harvnb|Lynn|1987|p=574}}</ref> but the prize money would be welcome.<ref name="Baker p338">{{Harvnb|Baker|1972| p=338}}</ref> Mellow claims Hemingway "had coveted the Nobel Prize", but when he won it, months after his plane accidents and the ensuing world-wide press coverage, "there must have been a lingering suspicion in Hemingway's mind that his obituary notices had played a part in the academy's decision."<ref name="Mellow pp588–589">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| pp=588–589}}</ref> Because he was suffering pain from the African accidents, he decided against traveling to [[Stockholm]].<ref name="Meyers p509">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=509}}</ref> Instead he sent a speech to be read, defining the writer's life: "Writing, at its best, is a lonely life. Organizations for writers palliate the writer's loneliness but I doubt if they improve his writing. He grows in public stature as he sheds his loneliness and often his work deteriorates. For he does his work alone and if he is a good enough writer he must face eternity, or the lack of it, each day."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1954/hemingway-speech.html|title=Ernest Hemingway The Nobel Prize in Literature 1954 Banquet Speech |author= |date= |work= |publisher=The Nobel Foundation|accessdate=2009-12-10}}</ref><ref group = note>The full speech is available at [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1954/hemingway-speech.html The Nobel Foundation]</ref> From the end of the year in 1955 to early 1956, Hemingway was bedridden.<ref name="Meyers p512">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=512}}</ref> He was told to stop drinking to mitigate liver damage, advice he initially followed but then disregarded.<ref>{{Harnvb|Reynolds|2000|pp=291–293}}</ref> In October&nbsp;1956 he returned to Europe and met [[Basque people|Basque]] writer [[Pio Baroja]], who was seriously ill and died weeks later. During the trip Hemingway became ill again, and was treated for "high blood pressure, liver disease, and arteriosclerosis".<ref name="Meyers p512"/> That November he recovered trunks left in the "basement of the Ritz Hotel in Paris when he left for Key West in 1928", filled with notebooks and writing from his Paris years. Back in Cuba in 1957 he started to shape the recovered work into his memoir ''[[A Moveable Feast]]''.<ref name="Meyers p533">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=533}}</ref> By 1959 he culminated a period of intense activity: finished ''A Moveable Feast'' (scheduled to be released the following year); brought ''True at First Light'' to 200,000 words; added chapters to ''The Garden of Eden''; and worked on ''Islands in the Stream''. The latter three were stored in a safe deposit box in Havana, as he focused on the finishing touches for ''A Moveable Feast''. Reynolds claims that it was during this period he slid into depression, from which he was unable to recover.<ref>{{Harvnb|Reynolds|1999|p=321}}</ref> The Finca Vigia became crowded with guests and tourists, as Hemingway, beginning to become unhappy with life there, considered a permanent move to Idaho. In 1959 he bought a home overlooking the [[Big Wood River]], outside of Ketchum, and left Cuba—although he apparently remained on easy terms with the [[Fidel Castro|Castro]] government, telling the ''New York Times'' he was "delighted" with Castro's overthrow of [[Havana]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|pp=494–495}}</ref><ref name="Meyers pp516–519">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=516–519}}</ref> In 1960 the Finca Vigia was expropriated by the Cuban government after the [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]], (two months before Hemingway's death), complete with Hemingway's collection of "four to six thousand books"; the Hemingways were forced to leave art and manuscripts in a bank vault in Havana.<ref name="Mellow p599">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| p=599}}</ref> ===Idaho and suicide=== [[File:Hemingway SunValley.jpg|thumb|Hemingway in Sun Valley, January 1959. With him is [[Gary Cooper]], a friend first met at Sun Valley 20 years before, and who played Robert Jordan in the 1943 film adaptation of ''[[For Whom the Bell Tolls he sucked dicks for money(film)|For Whom the Bell Tolls]]''.|alt=a white-bearded man dressed in a jacket, trousers and a head visor with a woman wearing a jacket and trousers, and a third man wearing jacket, trousers and a hat with water in the background]] He continued to work on ''A Moveable Feast'' through the end of the 1950s,<ref name="Meyers p533"/><ref name=Hotchner>{{cite news |first=A.E. |last=Hotchner |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Don't Touch 'A Movable Feast' |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/20/opinion/20hotchner.html?_r=1 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |publisher= |date=2009–07–19 |accessdate=2009–09–03}}</ref> and in the summer of 1959 he visited Spain to research a series of bullfighting articles for ''[[Life Magazine]]''.<ref name="Meyers p520">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=520}}</ref> Back in Ketchum at Christmas he appeared to be suffering from [[paranoia]]; at a restaurant one night with friends, he claimed the lights were on in the adjacent bank building because the FBI were "checking our accounts". By January he returned to Cuba and continued work on the ''Life'' magazine series. The manuscript grew to 63,000 words—''Life'' wanted only 10,000&nbsp;words—and he asked [[A. E. Hotchner]] to help organize the work that would become ''[[The Dangerous Summer]]''. Hotchner found Hemingway to be "unusually hesitant, disorganized, and confused".<ref name="Meyers p542-544">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=542–544}}</ref><ref name="Mellow pp598–600">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| pp=598–600}}</ref> Although Hemingway's mental deterioration was noticeable in the summer of 1960, he again traveled to Spain to obtain photographs for the manuscript. Without Mary, he was lonely and took to his bed for days, retreating into silence. The first installments of ''The Dangerous Summer'' were published in ''Life'' in September 1960 to good reviews. When he left Spain, he went straight to Idaho,<ref name="Mellow pp598-601">{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| pp=598–601}}</ref> but was worried about money and his safety.<ref name="Meyers p542-544"/> As his paranoia increased, he believed the FBI was actively monitoring his movements.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| pp=597–598}}</ref><ref group=note>In fact, the FBI had opened a file on him during WWII, when he used the Pilar to patrol the waters off Cuba, and [[J. Edgar Hoover]] had an agent in Havana watch Hemingway during the 1950s. See {{Harvnb|Mellow|1992| pp=597–598}}. The FBI knew Hemingway was at the Mayo, as an agent documented in a letter written in January 1961. See {{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=543–544}}</ref> Hemingway suffered from physical problems as well: his health declined and his eyesight was failing.<ref>{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=543–544}}</ref> In November he was admitted to the [[Mayo Clinic]] in Minnesota,<ref name="Mellow pp598-601"/> where he may have believed he was to be treated for [[hypertension]].<ref name="Meyers p545">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=545}}</ref> Meyers writes that "an aura of secrecy surrounds Hemingway's treatment at the Mayo", but confirms that in December 1960 he received [[electroconvulsive therapy]] as many as 15 times, then in January 1961 he was "released in ruins".<ref>{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| pp=547–550}}</ref> [[File:Grave markers of Ernest Hemingway & wife.JPG|thumb|left|200px|Ernest and Mary Hemingway are buried in the town cemetery in Ketchum, Idaho.|alt=gravestones on the grass under three trees]] Three months later, back in Ketchum, Mary "found Hemingway holding a shotgun". His personal physician Dr. Saviers arrived, sedated him, and admitted him to the Sun Valley hospital; from there he was returned to the Mayo for more shock treatments.<ref name="Meyers p551">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=551}}</ref> He was released in late June and arrived home in Ketchum on June&nbsp;30. Two days later, in the early morning hours of July 2, 1961, Hemingway "quite deliberately" shot himself with his favorite shotgun.<ref>{{Harvnb|Reynolds|2000|p=16}}</ref> He unlocked the basement storeroom where his guns were kept, went upstairs to the front entrance foyer of their Ketchum home, and "pushed two shells into the twelve-gauge Boss shotgun&nbsp;...put the end of the barrel into his mouth, pulled the trigger and blew out his brains." Hemingway's chin, mouth, and lower cheeks were left, but the upper half of his head was blown away.<ref name="Meyers p560-1">{{Harvnb|Meyers|1985| p=560}}</ref> Mary called the Sun Valley Hospital, and Dr. Scott Earle arrived at the house within "fifteen minutes". Despite his finding that Hemingway "had died of a self-inflicted wound to the head", the story told to the press was that the death had been "accidental".<ref name="Kertp504">{{Harvnb|Kert|1983|p=504}}</ref> During his final years, Hemingway's behavior was similar to his father's before he himself committed suicide;<ref name="Burwell p234">{{Harvnb|Burwell|1996|p=234}}</ref> his father may have had the genetic disease [[hemochromatosis]], in which the inability to metabolize iron culminates in mental and physical deterioration.<ref name="Burwell p14">{{Harvnb|Burwell|1996|p=14}}</ref> Medical records made available in 1991 confirm that Hemingway's hemochromatosis had been diagnosed in early 1961.<ref name="Burwell p189">{{Harvnb|Burwell|1996|p=189}}</ref> His sister Ursula and his brother Leicester also committed suicide.<ref>{{Harvnb|Oliver|pp=139–149}}</ref> Added to Hemingway's physical ailments was the additional problem that he had been a heavy drinker for most of his life.<ref name="Desnoyers p12"/> Writing In "Ernest Hemingway: A Psychological Autopsy of a Suicide", Christopher Martin evaluates the causes of the suicide: "Careful reading of Hemingway's major biographies and his personal and public writings reveals evidence suggesting the presence of the following conditions during his lifetime: [[bipolar disorder]], [[alcohol dependence]], [[traumatic brain injury]], and probable [[Borderline personality disorder|borderline]] and [[Narcissistic personality disorder|narcissistic]] personality traits".<ref name = "Martin">{{Harvnb|Martin|2006}}</ref> Martin claims suicide was inevitable because Hemingway "suffered from an enormous burden of psychiatric comorbidities and risk factors for suicide", although without a clinical evaluation of the patient, Martin concedes a diagnosis is difficult.<ref name = "Martin"/> Hemingway's family and friends flew to Ketchum for the funeral, which was officiated by the local Catholic priest who believed the death accidental.<ref name="Kertp504"/> Of the funeral (during which an altar boy fainted at the head of the casket), his brother Leicester wrote: "It seemed to me Ernest would have approved of it all."<ref name="HemingwayLeicesterpp14-18">{{Harvnb|Hemingway, Leicester|1996|pp=14–18}}</ref> In a press interview five years later Mary Hemingway admitted her husband had committed suicide.<ref>{{cite news |title=Widow Believes Hemingway Committed Suicide; She Tells of His Depression and His 'Breakdown' Assails Hotchner Book |author=Gilroy, Harry |newspaper=The New York Times |date=August 23, 1966 |url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA061FF83555117B93C1AB1783D85F428685F9|accessdate=2010–05–15 }}</ref> ==Writing style== The ''New York Times'' wrote in 1926 of Hemingway's first novel: "No amount of analysis can convey the quality of ''The Sun Also Rises''. It is a truly gripping story, told in a lean, hard, athletic narrative prose that puts more literary English to shame".<ref>{{cite article |title=Marital Tragedy |date=October 31, 1926|url=http://www.nytimes.com/books/99/07/04/specials/hemingway-rises.htm |publisher=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=2010-01-15}}</ref> ''The Sun Also Rises'' is written in the spare, tightly written prose, for which Hemingway is famous; a style that has influenced countless crime and pulp fiction novels.<ref name="Nagel 1996 87">{{Harvnb|Nagel|1996|p=87}}</ref> In 1954, when Hemingway was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature, it was for "his mastery of the art of narrative, most recently demonstrated in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and for the influence that he has exerted on contemporary style."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1954/index.html|title=The Nobel Prize in Literature 1954 |author= |date= |work= |publisher=The Nobel Foundation|accessdate=2010-03-07}}</ref> [[Henry Louis Gates]] believes Hemingway's style was fundamentally shaped "in reaction to [his] experience of world war". After World War&nbsp;I, he and other modernists "lost faith in the central institutions of Western civilization," by reacting against the "elaborate style" of 19th century writers; and by creating a style "in which meaning is established through dialogue, through action, and silences—a fiction in which nothing crucial—or at least very little—is stated explicitly."<ref name="Putnam"/> {|class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:25em; max-width: 25%;" cellspacing="5" |style="text-align: left;"|If a writer of prose knows enough of what he is writing about he may omit things that he knows and the reader, if the writer is writing truly enough, will have a feeling of those things as strongly as though the writer had stated them. The dignity of movement of an ice-berg is due to only one-eighth of it being above water. A writer who omits things because he does not know them only makes hollow places in his writing. |- |style="text-align: left;"|—Ernest Hemingway in ''[[Death in the Afternoon]]''<ref>qtd. in {{Harvnb|Oliver|1999|p=322}}</ref> |} Because he began as a writer of short stories, Baker believes Hemingway learned to "get the most from the least, how to prune language how to multiply intensities, and how to tell nothing but the truth in a way that allowed for telling more than the truth."<ref name ="Baker p117">{{Harvnb|Baker|1972|p= 117}}</ref> Hemingway referred to his style as the [[Iceberg Theory|iceberg theory]]: in his writing the facts float above water; the supporting structure and symbolism operate out-of-sight.<ref name ="Baker p117"/> Writing in "The Art of the Short Story," he explains: "A few things I have found to be true. If you leave out important things or events that you know about, the story is strengthened. If you leave or skip something because you do not know it, the story will be worthless. The test of any story is how very good the stuff that you, not your editors, omit."<ref>{{Harvnb|Hemingway, The Art of the Short Story}}</ref> Jackson Benson believes Hemingway used autobiographical details as framing devices about life in general—not only about his life. For example, Benson postulates that Hemingway used his experiences and drew them out with "what if" scenarios: "what if I were wounded in such a way that I could not sleep at night? What if I were wounded and made crazy, what would happen if I were sent back to the front?"<ref>{{Harvnb|Benson|1989}}</ref> The concept of the iceberg theory is sometimes referred to as the "theory of omission." Hemingway believed the writer could describe one thing (such as Nick Adams fishing in "The Big Two-Hearted River") though an entirely different thing occurs below the surface (Nick Adams concentrating on fishing to the extent that he does not have to think about anything else).<ref>{{Harvnb|Oliver|1999|pp=321–322}}</ref> The simplicity of the prose is deceptive. Zoe Trodd believes Hemingway crafted skeletal sentences in response to [[Henry James]]'s observation that World War&nbsp;I had "used up words." Hemingway offers a "multi-focal" photographic reality. His iceberg theory of omission is the foundation on which he builds. The syntax, which lacks [[grammatical conjunction|subordinating conjunctions]], creates static sentences. The photographic "[[Snapshot (photography)|snapshot]]" style creates a [[collage]] of images. Many types of internal punctuation (colons, semicolons, dashes, parentheses) are omitted in favor of short declarative sentences. The sentences build on each other, as events build to create a sense of the whole. Multiple strands exist in one story; an "embedded text" bridges to a different angle. He also uses other cinematic techniques of "cutting" quickly from one scene to the next; or of "splicing" a scene into another. Intentional omissions allow the reader to fill the gap, as though responding to instructions from the author, and create three-dimensional prose.<ref>{{Harvnb|Trodd}}</ref> {|class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:25em; max-width: 25%;" cellspacing="5" |style="text-align: left;"|In the late summer that year we lived in a house in a village that looked across the river and the plain to the mountains. In the bed of the river there were pebbles and boulders, dry and white in the sun, and the water was clear and swiftly moving and blue in the channels. Troops went by the house and down the road and the dust they raised powdered the trees. |- |style="text-align: left;"|—Opening passage of ''[[A Farewell to Arms]]'' showing Hemingway's use of the word ''and''<ref>qtd. in {{Harvnb|Mellow|1992|p=379}}</ref> |} In his literature, and in his personal writing, Hemingway habitually used the word "and" in place of commas. This use of [[polysyndeton]] may serve to convey immediacy. Hemingway's polysyndetonic sentence—or in later works his use of subordinate clauses—uses conjunctions to juxtapose startling visions and images; Jackson Benson compares them to [[haiku]]s.<ref name="McCormick p49">{{Harvnb|McCormick|p=49}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Benson|p=309}}</ref> Many of Hemingway's followers misinterpreted his lead and frowned upon all expression of emotion; [[Saul Bellow]] satirized this style as "Do you have emotions? Strangle them."<ref>qtd. in {{Harvnb|Hoberek|p=309}}</ref> However, Hemingway's intent was not to eliminate emotion, but to portray it more scientifically. Hemingway thought it would be easy, and pointless, to describe emotions; he sculpted collages of images in order to grasp "the real thing, the sequence of motion and fact which made the emotion and which would be as valid in a year or in ten years or, with luck and if you stated it purely enough, always."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://books.simonandschuster.com/Death-In-The-Afternoon/Ernest-Hemingway/9780684859224/excerpt_with_id/11296 |title=Death in the Afternoon:Chapter One Excerpt |last =Hemingway|first=Ernest |publisher=Simon & Schuster |accessdate=2009-12-08}}</ref> This use of an image as an [[objective correlative]] is characteristic of Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, James Joyce, and [[Proust]].<ref>{{Harvnb|McCormick|p=47}}</ref> Hemingway's letters refer to Proust's [[In Search of Lost Time|''Remembrance of Things Past'']] several times over the years, and indicate he read the book at least twice.<ref name="Burwell p187">{{Harvnb|Burwell|1996|p=187}}</ref> His writing was likely also influenced by the [[Japanese poetry|Japanese poetic canon]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Starrs|1998|p=77}}</ref><ref group = note>Starrs draws a correlation between the "[[Imagism|Imagist]]" influences of Ezra Pound, who mentored Hemingway in the 1920s. See {{Harvnb|Starrs|1998|p=77}}</ref> ==Themes== Recurring themes in [[American literature]] exist with clarity in Hemingway's work. [[Leslie Fiedler]] sees the theme he defines as "The Sacred Land"—the [[American Old West|American West]]—extended in Hemingway's work, to include mountains in Spain, Switzerland and Africa, and to the streams of Michigan. The American West is given a symbolic nod with the naming of the "Hotel Montana" in ''The Sun Also Rises'' and ''For Whom the Bell Tolls''.<ref name="Fiedler"/> Although Hemingway writes about sports, Carlos Baker believes the emphasis is more on the athlete than the sport.<ref>{{Harvnb|Baker|pp=101–121}}</ref> According to Stoltzfus and Fiedler, Hemingway's nature is a place for rebirth, for therapy, and the hunter or fisherman has a moment of transcendence when the prey is killed.<ref name="Harvnb|Stoltzfus"/> Nature is where men are without women: men fish; men hunt; men find redemption in nature.<ref name="Fiedler"/> Fiedler believes Hemingway inverts the American literary theme of the evil "Dark Woman" versus the good "Light Woman". The dark woman—[[Brett Ashley]] of ''The Sun Also Rises''—is a goddess; the light woman—Margot Macomber of "The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber"—is a murderess.<ref name="Fiedler">{{Harvnb|Fiedler| pp=345–365}}</ref> Robert Sholes admits that early Hemingway stories, such as "A Very Short Story", present "a male character favorably and a female unfavorably."<ref>{{Harvnb|Sholes|1990|p= 42}}</ref> According to Rena Sanderson, early Hemingway critics lauded his male-centric world of masculine pursuits, and the fiction divided women into "castrators or love-slaves." Feminist critics attacked Hemingway as "public enemy number one", although more recent re-evaluations of his work "have given new visibility to Hemingway's female characters (and their strengths) and have revealed his own sensitivity to gender issues, thus casting doubts on the old assumption that his writings were one-sidedly masculine."<ref>{{Harvnb|Sanderson|1996|p= 171}}</ref> Nina Baym believes that Brett Ashley and Margot Macomber "are the two outstanding examples of Hemingway's 'bitch women.'"<ref>{{Harvnb|Baym|1990}}</ref> The theme of women and death is evident in stories as early as "Indian Camp". The theme of death permeates Hemingway's work. Young believes the emphasis in "Indian Camp" was not so much on the woman who gives birth or the father who commits suicide, but on Nick Adams who witnesses these events as a child, and becomes a "badly scarred and nervous young man." Hemingway sets the events in "Indian Camp" that shape the Adams persona. Young believes "Indian Camp" holds the "master key" to "what its author was up to for some thirty-five years of his writing career." <ref>{{Harvnb|Young|1964|p=6}}</ref> Stoltzfus considers Hemingway's work to be more complex with a representation of the truth inherent in [[existentialism]]: if "nothingness" is embraced, then redemption is achieved at the moment of death. Those who face death with dignity and courage live an authentic life. Francis Macomber dies happy because the last hours of his life are authentic; the [[bullfighter]] in the [[Bullfighting|corrida]] represents the pinnacle of a life lived with authenticity.<ref name="Harvnb|Stoltzfus">{{Harvnb|Stoltzfus}}</ref> In his paper ''The Uses of Authenticity: Hemingway and the Literary Field'', Timo Müller writes that Hemingway's fiction is successful because the characters live an "authentic life", and the "soldiers, fishers, boxers and backwoodsmen are among the archetypes of authenticity in modern literature".<ref name="Müller 2010"/> The theme of emasculation is prevalent in Hemingway's work, most notably in ''The Sun Also Rises''. Emasculation, according to Fiedler, is a result of a generation of wounded soldiers; and of a generation in which women such as Brett gained [[Women's suffrage|emancipation]].<ref name="Fiedler"/> Baker believes Hemingway's work emphasizes the "natural" versus the "unnatural". In "Alpine Idyll" the "unnaturalness" of skiing in the high country late spring snow is juxtaposed against the "unnaturalness" of the peasant who allowed his wife's dead body to linger too long in the shed during the winter. The skiers and peasant retreat to the valley to the "natural" spring for redemption.<ref>{{Harvnb|Baker|pp=101–121}}</ref> Hemingway's work has been characterized as misogynistic and homophobic. Susan Beegel analyzed four decades of Hemingway criticism, published in her essay "Critical Reception". She found, particularly in the 1980s, "critics interested in multiculturalism" simply ignored Hemingway; although some "apologetics" have been written. Typical is this analysis of ''The Sun Also Rises'': "Hemingway never lets the reader forget that Cohn is a Jew, not an unattractive character who happens to be a Jew but a character who is unattractive because he is a Jew." During the same decade, according to Beegel, criticism was published that investigated the "horror of homosexuality", and racism in Hemingway's fiction.<ref>{{Harvnb|Beegel|1996}}</ref> ==Influence and legacy== [[File:Floridita.JPG|thumb||Statue of Hemingway by [[José Villa Soberón]], ''[[El Floridita]]'' bar in [[Havana]], with a photo of Hemingway awarding [[Fidel Castro]] a prize in a fishing contest in 1960 (after the Cuban revolution) on the wall.]] Hemingway's legacy to American literature is his style: writers who came after him emulated it or avoided it.<ref>{{Harvnb|Oliver|1999|pp=140–141}}</ref> After his reputation was sealed with the publication of ''The Sun Also Rises'', he became the spokesperson for the post-World War&nbsp;I generation, having established a style to follow.<ref name="Nagel 1996 87"/> His books were [[Nazi book burning|burned]] in Berlin in 1933, "as being a monument of modern decadence", and disavowed by his parents as "filth".<ref name="Harvnb|Hallengren">{{Harvnb|Hallengren}}</ref> Reynolds asserts the legacy is that "he left stories and novels so starkly moving that some have become part of our cultural heritage."<ref>{{Harvnb|Reynolds|2000|p=15}}</ref> In a 2004 speech at the [[John F. Kennedy Library]], [[Russell Banks]] declared that he, like many male writers of his generation, was influenced by Hemingway's writing philosophy, style, and public image.<ref>{{Harvnb|Banks|p=54}}</ref> Conversely, as early as the 1930s Hemingway's style was [[parody|parodied]], and criticized as "lazy" within the context of the "American literary tradition."<ref>{{Harvnb|Trogdon|1996}}</ref> Benson believes the details of Hemingway's life have become a "prime vehicle for exploitation", resulting in a Hemingway industry.<ref>{{Harvnb|Benson|1989|p=347}}</ref> Hemingway scholar Hallengren believes the "hard boiled style" and the machismo must be separated from the author himself.<ref name="Harvnb|Hallengren"/> Benson agrees, describing him as introverted and private as [[J. D. Salinger]], although Hemingway masked his nature with braggadocio.<ref>{{Harvnb|Benson|1989|p=349}}</ref> In fact, during World War&nbsp;II, Salinger met and corresponded with Hemingway, whom he acknowledged as an influence.<ref>{{cite news|last=Lamb|first=Robert Paul|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0403/is_n4_v42/ai_20119140/pg_17|title=Hemingway and the creation of twentieth-century dialogue – American author Ernest Hemingway|publisher=Twentieth Century Literature|date=Winter 1996|accessdate=2007-07-10|format=reprint}}</ref> In a letter to Hemingway, Salinger claimed their talks "had given him his only hopeful minutes of the entire war" and jokingly "named himself national chairman of the Hemingway Fan Clubs."<ref>{{Harvnb|Baker|1969|p=420}}</ref> The extent of Hemingway's influence is seen in the tributes and echoes of his fiction in popular culture. A [[minor planet]], discovered in 1978 by [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] astronomer [[Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh]], was named for him ([[3656 Hemingway]]);<ref>{{cite book|last = Schmadel|first = Lutz D.|coauthors =|title = Dictionary of Minor Planet Names|page = 307|edition = 5th|year = 2003|publisher = Springer Verlag|location = New York|url = http://books.google.com/books?q=3656+Hemingway+1978+QX|isbn = 3-540-00238-3}}</ref> [[Ray Bradbury]] wrote ''The Kilimanjaro Device'', with Hemingway transported to the top of [[Mount Kilimanjaro]];<ref name="Harvnb|Oliver|p=144"/> the 1993 motion picture ''[[Wrestling Ernest Hemingway]]'', about the friendship of two retired men, Irish and Cuban, in a seaside town in Florida, starred [[Robert Duvall]], [[Richard Harris]], [[Shirley MacLaine]], [[Sandra Bullock]], and [[Piper Laurie]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Oliver|p=360}}</ref> The influence is evident with the many restaurants named "Hemingway"; and the proliferation of bars called "Harry's" (a nod to the bar in ''Across the River and Into the Trees'').<ref>{{Harvnb|Oliver|p=142}}</ref> A line of Hemingway furniture, promoted by Hemingway's son Jack (Bumby), has pieces such as the "Kilimanjaro" bedside table, and a "Catherine" slip-covered sofa. [[Montblanc (pens)|Montblanc]] offers a Hemingway fountain pen, and a line of Hemingway safari clothes has been created.<ref>Hoffman, Jan (June 15, 1999). [http://www.nytimes.com/library/books/061599lives-jackhemingway.html A Line of Hemingway Furniture, With a Veneer of Taste]. [[The New York Times]]. Retrieved 2009-09-03.</ref> The [[International Imitation Hemingway Competition]] was created in 1977 to publicly acknowledge his influence and the comically misplaced efforts of lesser authors to imitate his style. Entrants are encouraged to submit one "really good page of really bad Hemingway" and winners are flown to Italy to Harry's Bar.<ref name="LA">Smith, Jack (March 15, 1993). [http://articles.latimes.com/1993-03-15/news/vw-308_1_bad-hemingway Wanted: One Really Good Page of Really Bad Hemingway]. [[Los Angeles Times]]. Retrieved 2010-03-07.</ref> In 1965 Mary Hemingway established the Hemingway Foundation and in the 1970s she donated her husband's papers to the John F. Kennedy Library. In 1980 a group of Hemingway scholars gathered to assess the donated papers, subsequently forming the Hemingway Society, "committed to supporting and fostering Hemingway scholarship."<ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|2006}}</ref> Almost exactly 35 years after Hemingway's death, on July 1, 1996, his granddaughter [[Margaux Hemingway]] died in [[Santa Monica]], California. Margaux was a [[supermodel]] and [[actress]], co-starring with her sister [[Mariel Hemingway|Mariel]] in the 1976 movie ''[[Lipstick (film)|Lipstick]]''.<ref>{{cite news |title=Margaux Hemingway Is Dead; Model and Actress Was 41 |author=Holloway, Lynette |newspaper= The New York Times|date={{Nowrap|3 July}} 1966 |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1996/07/03/arts/margaux-hemingway-is-dead-model-and-actress-was-41.html|accessdate=2010–05–14 }}</ref> Her death was later ruled a suicide, making her "the fifth person in four generations of her family to commit suicide."<ref>{{cite news |title=Coroner Says Death of Actress Was Suicide |author=Holloway, Lynette |newspaper= The New York Times|date={{Nowrap|21 August}} 1996 |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1996/08/21/us/coroner-says-death-of-actress-was-suicide.html|accessdate=2010–05–14 }}</ref> Margaux's sister, [[Mariel Hemingway|Mariel]], is an actress, model, writer and [[film producer]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Mariel Hemingway |newspaper= The New York Times|url=http://movies.nytimes.com/person/93989/Mariel-Hemingway|accessdate=2010–05–14 | first=Caryn | last=James}}</ref> ==Selected list of works== {{Main|Bibliography of Ernest Hemingway}} * "[[Indian Camp]]" (1926) * ''[[The Sun Also Rises]]'' (1927) * ''[[A Farewell to Arms]]'' (1929) * "[[The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber]]" (1935) * ''[[For Whom the Bell Tolls]]'' (1940) * ''[[The Old Man and the Sea]]'' (1951) * ''[[A Moveable Feast]]'' (1964, posthumous) * ''[[True at First Light]]'' (1999) ==See also== * [[:File:Ernest Hemingway family tree.svg|Family tree showing Ernest Hemingway's parents, siblings, wives, children and grandchildren]] * [[Iceberg theory]] * [[American literature]] ==Notes== {{reflist|group=note}} == References == ===Citations=== {{reflist|3}} ===Sources=== {{refbegin|2}} * {{cite book|last=Baker|first=Carlos|coauthors=|title=Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story|year=1969|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|location=New York|isbn=0-02-001690-5|ref=CITEREFBaker1969}} * {{cite book|last=Baker|first=Carlos|title=Hemingway: The Writer as Artist|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1972|edition=4th|note=1st ed. 1952|url=http://books.google.com/?id=yP-cgVNr55wC&printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn=0691013055&cd=1#v=onepage&q=|isbn=0-691-01305-5|ref = CITEREFBaker1972}} * {{cite book |editor1-first= Carlos |editor1-last= Baker|title=Ernest Hemingway Selected Letters 1917–1961 |year=1981 |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|location=New York |isbn=0-684-16765-4}} * {{cite journal |last1=Banks |first1=Russell |year=2004 |title= PEN/Hemingway Prize Speech|journal=The Hemingway Review |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=53–60 |url= |doi=|ref = CITEREFBanks }} * {{cite book |title=New Critical Approaches to the short stories of Ernest Hemingway |editor-first=Benson |editor-last=Jackson J.|chapter ="Actually, I Felt Sorry for the Lion" |year= 1990|publisher=Duke University Press |location= |isbn=0-8223-1067-8 |page= |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=9ps69UBMNqcC&dq=decoding+papa|accessdate=2010-01-30|ref=CITEREFBaym1990|author=Baym, Nina}} * {{cite book |title=The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway |editor-first=Scott |editor-last=Donaldson|chapter =Conclusion: The Critical Reputation|year= 1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location= |isbn=0-521-45479-x |url=http://books.google.com/?id=9qFrwKJGcIIC&pg=PP1&dq=scott+donaldson&cd=4#v=onepage&q|accessdate=2010-01-30|ref=CITEREFBeegel1996 |author=Beegel, Susan F.}} * {{cite journal |last1=Benson |first1=Jackson |year=1989 |title= Ernest Hemingway: The Life as Fiction and the Fiction as Life|journal=American Literature |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=345–358 |doi= 10.2307/2926824|ref = CITEREFBenson1989 |url=http://jstor.org/stable/2926824 |publisher=Duke University Press}} * {{cite book |title=The short stories of Ernest Hemingway: critical essays |last=Benson |first=Jackson J. |year= 1975|publisher=Duke University Press |location= |isbn=0-8223-0320-5 |page= |pages= |url= |accessdate=2010-01-28|ref = CITEREFBenson}} * {{cite book |title=Hemingway: the postwar years and the posthumous novels |last=Burwell |first=Rose Marie |year= |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=0–521–48199–6 |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=wa5yC5CMCGYC&pg=PR9&dq=haemochromatosis+hemingway+beegel&q= |accessdate=2009–12–11|ref = CITEREFBurwell1996 |date=1996-01-26}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Hemingway+Archive/Online+Resources/eh_storyteller.htm |title=Ernest Hemingway: A Storyteller's Legacy |last =Desnoyers|first=Megan Floyd |date= |work= John F. Kennedy Presidential Library Online Resources|publisher=[[John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum]] |accessdate=2009-12-08|ref = CITEREFDesnoyers}} * {{cite book |title=Love and Death in the American Novel |last=Fiedler|first=Leslie|date=1975|publisher=Stein and Day|location=New York|isbn=0-8128-1799-0 |ref=CITEREFFiedler}} * {{Cite web |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/articles/hallengren/index.html |title=A Case of Identity: Ernest Hemingway |author=Hallengren, Anders|date={{Nowrap|28 August}} 2001 |work= |publisher=Nobelprize.org |accessdate=2009-10-22|ref=CITEREFHallengren}} * {{cite book |title=New Critical Approaches to the Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway |editor-first=Jackson |editor-last=Benson |chapter=The Art of the Short Story |author=Hemingway, Ernest|year= 1990|publisher=Duke University Press |isbn= 9780822310679|url=http://books.google.com/?id=9ps69UBMNqcC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q |accessdate=2010-04-25|ref=CITEREFHemingway, The Art of the Short Story}} * {{cite book |title=My brother, Ernest Hemingway |last=Hemingway |first= Leicester|authorlink= |edition=Pineapple Press (1996) |year= 1961|publisher= World Publishing Company|location= |isbn= 9781561640980|page= |pages= |url= http://books.google.com/?id=Xs617o7c_gcC&pg=PA7&dq=leicester+hemingway&q|accessdate=2010-04-19|ref=CITEREFHemingway, Leicester}} * {{cite book |title=Twilight of the Middle Class:Post World War&nbsp;II fiction and White Collar Work |last=Hoberek |first=Andrew |year=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location= |isbn=0-691-12145-1|page= |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=UjNLJT8-E1cC&pg=PA87&dq=hemingwayesque |ref = CITEREFHoberek}} * {{cite book |title=Touched with Fire: Manic-Depressive Illness and the Artistic Temperament |last=Jamison-Redfield |first=Kay |year=1996 |publisher=Free Press Paperbacks |location= |isbn=9780684831831|page= |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=T5jYtG0zDBgC|ref = CITEREFJamison1996}} * {{cite book |title= The Hemingway Women: |last=Kert |first=Bernice |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1983 |publisher=Norton|edition=1999 |location= |isbn=0-393-31835-4 |page= |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=-Cm-77dysSgC&pg=PA9&dq=hemingway%27s+wives&q=hemingway's%20wives |accessdate=2010-04-21|ref=CITEREFKert}} * {{cite book |title=The Breaking Point: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles |last= Koch|first=Stephen|year=2005 |publisher=Counterpoint |location=New York |isbn=1-58243-280-5 |oclc= |page= |pages=87–164 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=Zax4-2pV8gsC&dq=stephen+koch+hemingway+dos+passos |accessdate= 2009-09-18|ref = CITEREFKoch2005}} * {{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/books/99/07/04/specials/hemingway-nick.html?_r=1 |title=More Posthumous Hemingway |last=Lingeman|first=Richard|date=1972-04-25 |work=|publisher=The New York Times |accessdate=2009-10-22|ref = CITEREFLingeman}} * {{cite book |title= Hemingway|last=Lynn |first=Kenneth |year=1987 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=|isbn=0-674-38732-5 |page= |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=W-cAkit-JMcC&pg=PA9&dq=kenneth+lynn+hemingway&q|ref = CITEREFLynn1987}} * {{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=Christopher D. |last2= |first2= |year=2006 |title=Ernest Hemingway: A Psychological Autopsy of a Suicide |journal=Psychiatry |publisher= |volume=69 |issue=4 |pages=351–361 |url= |doi= 10.1521/psyc.2006.69.4.351|issn= 00332747 |ref= CITEREFMartin2006 |pmid=17326729}} * {{cite book |title= American Literature 1919–1932|last=McCormick |first=John |year= 1971|publisher=Routledge and Keegan Paul |location=London |isbn= 9780710070524|page= |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=vJg9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA49&lpg=PA47&dq=Hemingway+Proust |accessdate=2009–12–13|ref = CITEREFMcCormick}} * {{cite book |title= Hemingway: A Biography|last=Meyers |first=Jeffrey |authorlink= |year=1985 |publisher=Macmillan|location=London|isbn=0-333-42126-4 |ref = CITEREFMeyers1985}} * {{cite book |title= Hemingway: A Life Without Consequences|last=Mellow |first=James R. |authorlink= |year=1992 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=New York|isbn=0-395-37777-3 |ref = CITEREFMellow1992}} * {{cite book |title= Charmed Circle: Gertrude Stein and Company|last=Mellow |first=James R. |authorlink= |year=1991 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=New York|isbn=0395479827 |ref = CITEREFMellow1991}} * {{cite journal |author=Miller, Linda Patterson|year=2006 |title=From the African Book to Under Kilimanjaro|journal=The Hemingway Review |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=78–81}|ref=CITEREFMiller2006}} * {{cite journal |last1=Müller |first1=Timo |year=2010 |title= The Uses of Authenticity: Hemingway and the Literary Field, 1926–1936|journal=Journal of Modern Literature |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=28–42 |url= |doi=10.2979/JML.2009.33.1.28|ref=CITEREFMüller }} * {{cite book |title=The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway |editor-first=Scott |editor-last=Donaldson|chapter =Brett and the Other Women in the Sun Also Rises|year= 1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location= |isbn=0-521-45479-x |url=http://books.google.com/?id=9qFrwKJGcIIC&pg=PP1&dq=scott+donaldson&cd=4#v=onepage&q|accessdate=2010-01-30|ref=CITEREFNagel1996 |author=Nagel, James}} * {{cite book |title=Ernest Hemingway A to Z: The Essential Reference to the Life and Work |last=Oliver |first=Charles M. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 1999|publisher=Checkmark |location=New York |isbn=0-8160-3467-2|accessdate=|ref=CITEREFOliver}} * {{cite web |last=Putnam|first= Thomas |title=Hemingway on War and Its Aftermath |url=http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2006/spring/hemingway.html|work=|year = 2006|publisher=The National Archives|accessdate=2010-04-08|ref = CITEREFPutnam}} * {{cite book |title=The Young Hemingway |last=Reynolds|first=Michael S. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1998 |publisher=Norton |location=New York |isbn=0-393-31776-5|oclc= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=yBeqWnz3_JMC&dq=reynolds+hemingway+early+years|accessdate= 2010-01-30|ref = CITEREFReynolds1998}} * {{cite book |title=Hemingway: The 1930s |last=Reynolds|first=Michael S. |year=1997 |publisher=Norton |location=New York |isbn=0-393-31778-1|oclc= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=jjh7_7RHF2IC&dq=michael+reynolds+hemingway|accessdate= 2010-01-21|ref = CITEREFReynolds1997}} * {{cite book |title=Hemingway: The Final Years |last=Reynolds|first=Michael S. |year=2000 |publisher=Norton |location=New York |isbn=9780393320473|oclc= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=K6xRJ0cF1CsC&dq=hemingway+the+final+years|accessdate= 2010-04-25|ref = CITEREFReynolds2000}} * {{cite book |title=A Historical Guide to Ernest Hemingway |editor-first=Linda |editor-last=Wagner-Martin|chapter =Ernest Hemingway: A Brief Biography|year= 2000|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-393-32047-2 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=K6xRJ0cF1CsC&pg=PP1&dq=michael+reynolds+hemingway+final+years&cd=1#v=onepage&q|accessdate=2010-02-03|ref=CITEREFReynolds2000 |author=Michael Reynolds}} * {{cite news |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_6754/is_2_24/ai_n28272825/ |title=My True Occupation is That of a Writer:Hemingway's passport correspondence |author=Robinson, Daniel |year=2005 |work= |publisher=The Hemingway Review |accessdate=2010-02-08|ref=CITEREFRobinson, Daniel}} * {{cite journal |last1=Trogdon |first1=Robert W. |year=1996 |title= Forms of Combat: Hemingway, the Critics and Green Hills of Africa|journal=The Hemingway Review |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=1–14 |url= |doi=|ref = CITEREFTrogdon1996}} * {{cite book |title=The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway |editor-first=Scott |editor-last=Donaldson|chapter =Hemingway and Gender HIstory|year= 1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location= |isbn=0-521-45479-X |url=http://books.google.com/?id=9ps69UBMNqcC&dq=decoding+papa|accessdate=2010-04-17|ref=CITEREFSanderson1996 |author=Sanderson, Rena}} * {{cite book |title=New Critical Approaches to the short stories of Ernest Hemingway |editor-first=Benson |editor-last=Jackson J. |authorlink= |chapter =Decoding Papa: "A Very Short Story" as Work and Text |year= 1990|publisher=Duke University Press |location= |isbn=0-8223-1067-8 |page= |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=9ps69UBMNqcC&dq=decoding+papa|accessdate=2010-01-30|ref=CITEREFScholes|author=Scholes, Robert}} * {{cite book |title=An Artless Art |last=Starrs |first=Roy |year=1998 |publisher=The Japan Library |location= |isbn=1–873410–64–6 |page=77 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=W1lkV-w3FXYC&pg=PA77&dq=Hemingway+haiku |accessdate=2010–02–09|ref=CITEREFStarrs}} * {{cite journal |last1=Stoltzfus |first1=Ben |year=2005 |title= Sartre, "Nada," and Hemingway's African Stories|journal=Comparative Literature Studies|volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=250–228 |doi= |ref=CITEREFStoltzfus}} * {{cite book |title=The Spanish Civil War |last=Thomas |first=Hugh |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2001 |publisher=[[Modern Library]] |location=New York |isbn=0-375-75515-2 |oclc= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=6I126r99NQ4C&pg=RA3-PA302&lpg=RA3-PA302&dq=spanish+civil+war+hugh+thomas+hemingway&q=hemingway |accessdate= 2009-09–18|ref = CITEREFThomas2001}} * {{cite journal |last1=Trodd |first1=Zoe |year=2007 |title= Hemingway's camera eye: The problems of language and an interwar politics of form|journal=The Hemingway Review |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=7–21 |url= |doi=10.1353/hem.2007.0012|ref=CITEREFTrodd }} * {{cite book |title=Ernest Hemingway |last=Young |first=Philip |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 1964|edition = 1973|publisher=University of Minnesota |location= St. Paul MN|isbn=0-8166-0191-7 |page= |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=EfCmWdW6EI8C&pg=PA5&dq=ernest+hemingway++indian+camp+&q=ernest%20hemingway%20%20indian%20camp |accessdate=2010-04-18|ref=CITEREFYoung}} {{refend}} ==External links== {{wikisource author}} {{wikiquote|Ernest Hemingway}} * [http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Hemingway+Archive/ Hemingway Archives: John F. Kennedy Library] * [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/taro/uthrc/00056/hrc-00056.html/ Ernest Hemingway's Collection] at [[The University of Texas at Austin]] * [http://www.lib.udel.edu/ud/spec/exhibits/hemngway/index.htm Ernest Hemingway In His Time] at the [[University of Delaware]] Library. * [http://www.hemingwaysociety.org The Hemingway Society] * {{worldcat id|id=lccn-n78-78534}} {{Hemingway}} {{Nobel Prize in Literature Laureates 1951-1975}} {{Link GA|zh}} [[nan:Ernest Hemingway]] {{featured article}} {{Persondata |NAME= Hemingway, Ernest Miller |ALTERNATIVE NAMES= |SHORT DESCRIPTION= American writer and journalist |DATE OF BIRTH= {{birth date|1899|7|21|mf=y}} |PLACE OF BIRTH= [[Oak Park, Illinois]] |DATE OF DEATH= {{death date|1961|7|2|mf=y}} |PLACE OF DEATH= [[Ketchum, Idaho]] }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Hemingway, Ernest}} [[Category:1899 births]] [[Category:1961 deaths]] [[Category:People from Oak Park, Illinois]] [[Category:American essayists]] [[Category:American expatriates in Canada]] [[Category:American expatriates in Cuba]] [[Category:American expatriates in France]] [[Category:American expatriates in Italy]] [[Category:American expatriates in Spain]] [[Category:American hunters]] [[Category:American journalists]] [[Category:American Nobel laureates]] [[Category:American memoirists]] [[Category:American military personnel of World War I]] [[Category:American novelists]] [[Category:American people of the Spanish Civil War]] [[Category:American short story writers]] [[Category:American socialists]] [[Category:Anti-fascists]] [[Category:American people of English descent]] [[Category:Ernest Hemingway|Ernest Hemingway]] [[Category:Hemingway family]] [[Category:History of Key West, Florida]] [[Category:Nobel laureates in Literature]] [[Category:Operation Overlord people]] [[Category:Pulitzer Prize for Fiction winners]] [[Category:Recipients of the Silver Medal of Military Valor]] [[Category:Suicides by firearm in Idaho]] [[Category:War correspondents]] [[Category:Writers from Chicago, Illinois]] [[Category:Writers who committed suicide]] [[Category:Toronto Star people]] [[af:Ernest Hemingway]] [[am:ኧርነስት ሄሚንጔይ]] [[ar:إرنست همنجواي]] [[an:Ernest Hemingway]] [[ast:Ernest Hemingway]] [[az:Ernest Heminquey]] [[bn:আর্নেস্ট হেমিংওয়ে]] [[zh-min-nan:Ernest Hemingway]] [[be:Эрнест Хемінгуэй]] [[be-x-old:Эрнэст Хэмінгуэй]] [[bcl:Ernest Hemingway]] [[bs:Ernest Hemingway]] [[br:Ernest Hemingway]] [[bg:Ърнест Хемингуей]] [[ca:Ernest Miller Hemingway]] [[cv:Эрнест Хемингуэй]] [[cs:Ernest Hemingway]] [[co:Ernest Hemingway]] [[da:Ernest Hemingway]] [[de:Ernest Hemingway]] [[et:Ernest Hemingway]] [[el:Έρνεστ Χέμινγουεϊ]] [[es:Ernest Hemingway]] [[eo:Ernest Hemingway]] [[eu:Ernest Hemingway]] [[fa:ارنست همینگوی]] [[fr:Ernest Hemingway]] [[fur:Ernest Hemingway]] [[ga:Ernest Hemingway]] [[gd:Ernest Hemingway]] [[gl:Ernest Hemingway]] [[ko:어니스트 헤밍웨이]] [[hy:Էռնեստ Հեմինգուեյ]] [[hi:अर्नेस्ट हेमिंगवे]] [[hr:Ernest Hemingway]] [[io:Ernest Hemingway]] [[id:Ernest Hemingway]] [[ia:Ernest Hemingway]] [[is:Ernest Hemingway]] [[it:Ernest Hemingway]] [[he:ארנסט המינגווי]] [[jv:Ernest Hemingway]] [[ka:ერნესტ ჰემინგუეი]] [[sw:Ernest Hemingway]] [[ku:Ernest Hemingway]] [[la:Ernestus Hemingway]] [[lv:Ernests Hemingvejs]] [[lb:Ernest Hemingway]] [[lt:Ernest Hemingway]] [[hu:Ernest Hemingway]] [[mk:Ернест Хемингвеј]] [[ml:ഏണസ്റ്റ് ഹെമിങ്‌വേ]] [[mr:अर्नेस्ट हेमिंग्वे]] [[arz:ارنست هيمنجواى]] [[ms:Ernest Hemingway]] [[mn:Эрнест Хемингуэй]] [[nah:Ernest Hemingway]] [[nl:Ernest Hemingway]] [[ne:अर्नेस्ट हेमिङ्वे]] [[ja:アーネスト・ヘミングウェイ]] [[nap:Ernest Hemingway]] [[no:Ernest Hemingway]] [[nn:Ernest Hemingway]] [[oc:Ernest Hemingway]] [[pnb:ارنسٹ ہیمنگو ے]] [[pms:Ernest Hemingway]] [[nds:Ernest Hemingway]] [[pl:Ernest Hemingway]] [[pt:Ernest Hemingway]] [[ro:Ernest Hemingway]] [[ru:Хемингуэй, Эрнест]] [[sq:Ernest Hemingway]] [[scn:Ernest Hemingway]] [[simple:Ernest Hemingway]] [[sk:Ernest Hemingway]] [[sl:Ernest Hemingway]] [[sr:Ернест Хемингвеј]] [[sh:Ernest Hemingway]] [[fi:Ernest Hemingway]] [[sv:Ernest Hemingway]] [[tl:Ernest Hemingway]] [[ta:ஏர்னெஸ்ட் ஹெமிங்வே]] [[te:ఎర్నెస్ట్ హెమింగ్‌వే]] [[th:เออร์เนสต์ เฮมิงเวย์]] [[tg:Эрнест Ҳемингуей]] [[tr:Ernest Hemingway]] [[uk:Ернест Хемінгуей]] [[ur:ارنسٹ ہیمنگوئے]] [[ug:ئېرنېست ھېمىڭۋاي]] [[vec:Ernest Hemingway]] [[vi:Ernest Hemingway]] [[war:Ernest Hemingway]] [[yo:Ernest Hemingway]] [[zh-yue:海明威]] [[zh:欧内斯特·海明威]]'
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node)
0
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp)
1284504265