Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext ) | '{{Short description|Successful attempt to liberate France from Nazi occupation}}
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{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Liberation of France
| width =
| partof = [[Western Front (World War II)|Western Front]]
| image = File:De Gaulle speaking from Cherbourg City Hall balcony 20 August 1944.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| alt =
| caption = Resistance leader [[Charles de Gaulle]] speaking from the balcony at [[Cherbourg]] City Hall, 20 August 1944
| date = 6 June 1944 – 8 May 1945<br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=06|day1=06|year1=1944|month2=05|day2=08|year2=1945}})
| place = [[France]]
| coordinates = <!--Use the {{coord}} template -->
| map_type =
| map_relief =
| map_size =
| map_marksize =
| map_caption =
| map_label =
| territory =
| result = Allied Victory
* [[Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine|Germans expelled from France]]
* [[Provisional Government of the French Republic|Provisional Government]] established
* [[Vichy France|Vichy]] regime [[Sigmaringen enclave|fled into exile]]
| combatants_header =
| combatant1 = {{Flagicon|Free France}} [[French Resistance]] {{small|(until 1944)}}
* [[Maquis (World War II)|Maquis]]
* [[Bureau Central de Renseignements et d'Action|BCRA]]
* [[National Council of the Resistance|NCR]]
* [[Francs-Tireurs et Partisans|FTP]]
{{Flagicon|Free France}} [[French Forces of the Interior|FFI]] {{small|(since 1944)}}<br />{{Flagicon|France|1830}} [[Provisional Government of the French Republic|PGFR]] {{small|(since 1944)}}<br />{{Flag|United States|1912}}<br /> {{Flag|United Kingdom}}<br />{{Flag|Canada|1921}} <br />{{Flagicon|Poland|1928}} [[Polish Armed Forces in the West|Poland]]
| combatant2 = {{Flagcountry|Nazi Germany}} <br /> {{flag|Italian Social Republic}}
| commander1 = {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]<br />{{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[George S. Patton]]<br />{{flagicon|Britain}} [[Bernard Montgomery]]<br />{{flagicon|Britain}} [[Miles Dempsey]]<br />{{flagicon|Canada|1921}} [[Harry Crerar]]<br />{{flagicon|Canada|1921}} [[Guy Simonds]]<br>{{flagicon|Provisional Government of the French Republic}} [[Charles de Gaulle]]<br />{{flagicon|Provisional Government of the French Republic}} [[Jean de Lattre de Tassigny]]<br>{{flagicon|Poland|1928}} [[Stanisław Maczek]]<br />{{flagicon|Poland|1928}} [[Kazimierz Sosnkowski]]
| commander2 = {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Adolf Hitler]]<br />{{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Gerd von Rundstedt]]<br />{{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Erwin Rommel]]<br />{{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Joseph Darnand]]
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Free French}}
{{Campaignbox Western Front (World War II)}}
}}
The '''liberation of France''' ({{lang-fr|libération de la France}}) in the [[Second World War]] was accomplished through diplomacy, politics and the combined military efforts of the [[Allied Powers of World War II|Allied Powers]], [[Free French forces]] in London and Africa, as well as the [[French Resistance]].
[[Battle of France|Nazi Germany invaded France]] in May 1940. Their rapid advance through the undefended Ardennes caused a crisis in the French government; the [[French Third Republic]] dissolved itself in July, and handed over [[French Constitutional Law of 1940|absolute power]] to Marshal [[Philippe Pétain]], an elderly hero of World War I. Pétain signed an [[Armistice of 22 June 1940|armistice with Germany]] with the north and west of France under [[German military administration in occupied France during World War II|German military occupation]]. Pétain, charged with calling a Constitutional Authority, instead established an authoritarian government in the spa town of [[Vichy]], in the southern ''[[zone libre]]'' ("free zone"). Though nominally independent, [[Vichy France]] became a [[Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy|collaborationist regime]] and was little more than a Nazi [[client state]] that actively participated in [[Holocaust trains|Jewish deportations]].
Even before France surrendered on 22 June 1940, General [[Charles de Gaulle]] fled to London, from where he [[Appeal of 18 June|called on his fellow citizens]] to resist the Germans. The British recognized and funded {{nowrap|de Gaulle's}} [[Free French]] [[government in exile]] based in London. Efforts to liberate France began in the autumn of 1940 in [[French colonial empire|France's colonial empire]] in Africa, still in the hands of the Vichy regime. General {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} persuaded [[French Chad]] to support Free France, and by 1943 most other French colonies in [[French Equatorial Africa|Equatorial]] and [[North Africa]] had followed suit. {{nowrap|De Gaulle}} announced formation of the [[Empire Defense Council]] in [[Brazzaville]], which became the capital of [[Free France]].
Allied military efforts in north western Europe began in summer 1944 with two seaborne invasions of France. [[Operation Overlord]] in June 1944 landed two million men, including a French armoured division, through the [[Normandy landings|beaches of Normandy]], opening a [[Western Front (World War II)|Western front]] against Germany. [[Operation Dragoon]] in August launched a second offensive force, including [[French Army B]], from the ''[[Departments of France|département]]'' of Algeria into southern France. City after city in France was liberated, and even [[Liberation of Paris|Paris was liberated]] on 25 August 1944. As the liberation progressed, resistance groups were incorporated into the Allied strength. In September, under threat of the Allied advance Pétain and the remains of the Vichy regime [[Sigmaringen enclave|fled into exile in Germany]]. The Allied armies continued to push the Germans back [[Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine|through eastern France]] and in February and March 1945, back across the Rhine into Germany. A few [[Atlantic pockets|pockets of German resistance]] remained in control of the main Atlantic ports until the [[End of World War II in Europe|end of the war]] on 8 May 1945.
Immediately after liberation, France was swept by a [[épuration sauvage|wave of executions, assaults, and degradation]] of suspected collaborators, including shaming of women suspected of [[horizontal collaboration|relationships with Germans]]. Courts set up in June 1944 carried out an ''[[épuration légale]]'' (official purge) of officials tainted by association with Vichy or the military occupation. Some defendants received death sentences, and faced a firing squad. The first elections since 1940 were organized in May 1945 by the [[Provisional Government of the French Republic|Provisional Government]]; these municipal elections were the first in which women could vote. In referendums in October 1946, the voters approved a [[French Constitution of 27 October 1946|new constitution]] and the [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]] was born 27 October 1946.
==Background==
===Fall of France===
{{Main|Battle of France|Vichy France}}
Nazi Germany [[Invasion of France (Nazi Germany)|invaded France and the Low Countries]] beginning on 10 May 1940. German forces split the French from their British allies by striking through the lightly defended [[Ardennes]], whose topography French strategists had considered prohibitively difficult for tanks.{{fact|date=March 2024}}
{{stack|[[File:Vichy France Map.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[German occupation of France during World War II|Occupied France]] during World War II, showing German and [[Italian occupation of France during World War II|Italian occupation zones]], the ''[[zone occupée]]'', the ''[[zone libre]]'', the [[Military Administration in Belgium and Northern France]], annexed [[Alsace-Lorraine#World War II|Alsace-Lorraine]], the ''[[zone interdite]]'', and the [[Atlantic Wall]].]]}}
The invaders forced the [[British Expeditionary Force (World War II)|British Expeditionary Force]] to evacuate, and [[Siege of Lille (1940)|defeated several French divisions]] before they advanced to Paris, and down the strategic Atlantic coast. By June, the dire French military situation had French politics revolving around whether the Third Republic should negotiate an armistice, fight on from North Africa, or just surrender.{{sfn|Jackson|2001|pp=121–126}} Prime Minister [[Paul Reynaud]] wanted to keep fighting, but was outvoted and resigned.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Shlaim|first=Avi| author-link = Avi Shlaim | title=Prelude to Downfall: the British offer of Union to France, June 1940|journal=Journal of Contemporary History|date=1974 |volume=9|issue=3|pages=27–63|doi=10.1177/002200947400900302|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/002200947400900302|jstor = 260024|s2cid=159722519 }}</ref> The government relocated several times ahead of advancing German troops, ending up in Bordeaux. President [[Albert Lebrun]] appointed 84-year-old war hero [[Philippe Pétain]] as his replacement on 16 June 1940.{{sfn|Boissoneault|2017}}
Within six weeks of the initial German assault, an overwhelmed French military faced imminent defeat. The cabinet agreed to seek peace terms and sent the Germans a delegation under General [[Charles Huntziger]], with instructions to break off negotiations if the Germans demanded excessively harsh conditions such as the occupation of all of metropolitan France, the French fleet, or any of the French overseas territories. The Germans did not, however.{{sfn|Singer|2008|p=111}}
[[Pierre Laval]], a strong proponent of collaboration,<!-- and also a cabinet member wasn't he? --> arranged a meeting between Hitler and Pétain. It took place on 24 October 1940 at [[Montoire]] on Hitler's private train. Pétain and Hitler shook hands and agreed to co-operate. The meeting was exploited in [[Nazi propaganda]] for the civilian population. On 30 October 1940, Pétain made a policy of French collaboration official, declaring in a radio statement: "I enter today on the path of collaboration."{{efn |Pétain's 30 October 1940 declaration: "{{lang |fr |J'entre aujourd'hui dans la voie de la collaboration.}}". Likewise, on 22 June 1942, Laval declared that he was "hoping for victory for Germany".<ref name="Kitson-2008">{{cite book |last=Kitson |first=Simon |title=The Hunt for Nazi Spies: Fighting Espionage in Vichy France |translator-last=Tihanhi |translator-first=Katherine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Y0qZuw1OaoC |date=15 November 2008 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |orig-year=1st pub. 2005:Editions Autrement |isbn=978-0-226-43895-5 |oclc=1162488165}}</ref>}}
{{stack|[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-H25217, Henry Philippe Petain und Adolf Hitler.jpg|thumb|[[Philippe Pétain]] meeting [[Hitler]] on 24 October 1940. [[Ribbentrop]] on the right.]]}}
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| width = 180
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| caption = [[Pétain]] meeting [[Hitler]] on 24 October 1940.
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General {{nowrap|De Gaulle}}, sentenced to death ''[[Trial in absentia|in absentia]]'' by the [[Vichy régime]], escaped and created a government in exile for Free France in London. Of the sentence, he said: {{quote|"I consider the death sentence by the men of Vichy entirely void, I shall settle accounts with them after victory. The sentence is that of a court largely under the influence and possibly under the direct orders of an enemy who will one day be driven from the soil of France. Then I will submit myself willingly to the people's judgment."<ref>{{cite web|title=Gen. de Gaulle Sentenced To "Death" |date=1940-08-03 |publisher=The Herald (Melbourne, Vic.)|page=1 |via=Trove |url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/243328630}}</ref>}}
===Armistice===
Pétain signed the [[Armistice of 22 June 1940|Armistice of 22 June]]. Its terms left the [[French Army]] under Vichy France a rump [[Armistice Army]].{{efn|The [[Armistice Army]] was limited in size and materiel, and disbanded in November 1942 after [[Operation Anton]], the German operation that took over the previously unoccupied ''[[zone libre]]''.}} The naval fleet, although disabled, remained under Vichy control. In the colonial empire, the armistice terms permitted defensive use of the naval fleet. In metropolitan France, forces were severely reduced, armored vehicles and tanks prohibited, and motorized transport severely limited.
In July, the [[National Assembly (France)|National Assembly]] of the [[French Third Republic]] dissolved itself and [[French Constitutional Law of 1940|gave absolute power to Pétain]], who was to set up a [[constituent assembly]] and constitutional referendum. The "French State" created by this transfer of power was commonly known after the war as the "Vichy régime". Pétain did nothing about a constitution however, and established a totalitarian government at [[Vichy]] in the southern zone.<ref>{{cite book | page =78 | title=World War II: The Essential Reference Guide |editor=Priscilla Mary Roberts |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2012 |isbn=978-1610691017}}</ref>
The Vichy régime nominally governed all of France, but in practice the ''[[zone occupée]]'' was a Nazi dictatorship and the Vichy government's power was limited and uncertain even in the ''[[zone libre]]''. Vichy France became a [[Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy|collaborationist regime]], little more than a Nazi [[client state]].<ref name=JVL>{{cite web|quote="The French state, (l'État Français) in contrast to the French Republic, willfully collaborated with Nazi Germany to a high degree: raids to capture Jews and other “undesirables” were organized by the French police not only in the northern zone – occupied by the German Wehrmacht but also in the southern “free zone” which was occupied only after the Allies invaded North Africa in November 1942"|publisher=Jewish Virtual Library | title= The Holocaust: The French Vichy Regime |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-french-vichy-regime | author=American Israeli Cooperative Enterprise}}</ref>
France was still nominally independent, with control of the [[French Navy]], the [[French colonial empire]], and the southern half of its metropolitan territory.<ref name=JVL /> France could tell itself that it still retained some shreds of dignity. Despite heavy pressure, Vichy never joined the [[Axis powers|Axis]] alliance and remained formally at war with Germany.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} The Allies took the position that France should refrain from actively helping the Germans, but distrusted its assurances. The British attacked the [[French Navy]] at anchor in [[Attack on Mers-el-Kébir|Mers-el-Kébir]], to keep it out of German hands.
===De Gaulle and Free France===
[[File:De Gaulle - à tous les Français.jpg|thumb|Poster of the [[Appeal of 18 June|18 June appeal]] distributed in [[Occupied France]] through [[Clandestine press of the French Resistance|underground means]] as pamphlets and plastered on walls as posters by supporters of the [[Résistance]].]]
{{Main|Free France}}
{{Further|Charles de Gaulle#Second World War: leader of the Free French in exile}}
Charles {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} had been since 5 June the Under-Secretary of State for National Defence and War and responsible for coordination with Britain. Refusing to accept his government's position on Germany, he escaped back to England on 17 June. In London he established a government in exile and in a series of radio appeals exhorted the French to fight back. Some historians have called the first, his [[appeal of 18 June]] on the BBC, the beginning of the [[French Resistance]]. In fact the audience for that appeal was quite small, but more and more listened as de Gaulle obtained Britain's recognition as the legitimate government of [[Free France]] and obtained their agreement to finance a military efforts against Nazi Germany.
{{nowrap|De Gaulle}} also tried, in vain initially, to gain the support of French forces in the French colonial empire. General [[Charles Noguès]], Resident-General in Morocco and Commander-in-Chief of the [[Army of Africa (France)|Army of Africa]] refused his overtures, and forbade the press in [[French North Africa]] to publish the text of {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}'s appeal.{{sfn|Lacouture|1993|pp=229–230}} The day after the armistice was signed on 21 June 1940, {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} denounced it.{{sfn|Lacouture|1993|p=236}} The French government in Bordeaux declared {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} compulsorily retired from the Army with the rank of colonel, on 23 June 1940.{{sfn|Lacouture|1993|pp=243–244}} Also on 23 June, the British Government denounced the armistice and announced that they no longer regarded the Bordeaux government as a fully independent state. They also noted a plan to establish a [[French National Committee]] in exile, but did not mention {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} by name.{{sfn|Lacouture|1993|pp=236–237}}
The armistice took effect starting at 00:35 on 25 June.{{sfn|Lacouture|1993|p=236}} On 26 June {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} wrote to Churchill about recognition for his French Committee.{{sfn|Lacouture|1993|p=208}} The [[Foreign Office]] had reservations about de Gaulle as a leader, but Churchill's envoys had tried and failed to establish contact with French leaders in North Africa, so on 28 June, the British government recognized {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} as the leader of the [[Free French]], despite the FO's reservations.{{sfn|Lacouture|1993|p=243}}
{{nowrap|De Gaulle}} also initially had little success in attracting the support of major powers.{{sfn|Lacouture|1993|p=239}} While Pétain's government was recognized by the US, the USSR, and the Vatican, and controlled the French fleet and military in all the colonies, {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}'s retinue consisted of a secretary, three colonels, a dozen captains, a law professor, and three battalions of [[French Foreign Legion|legionnaires]] who had agreed to stay in Britain and fight for him. For a time the [[New Hebrides]] were the only French colony to back {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}.{{sfn|Lacouture|1993|p=244}}
{{nowrap|De Gaulle}} and Churchill reached agreement on 7 August 1940 that Britain would also fund the [[Free France|Free French]], with the costs to be settled after the war (the financial agreement was finalized in March 1941). A separate letter guaranteed the territorial integrity of the French colonial empire.{{sfn|Lacouture|1993|p=261}}
===French Resistance===
{{Main|Free France|French Resistance}}
{{Further|Appeal of 18 June|Radio Londres|Clandestine press of the French Resistance}}
[[File:Eisenhower & Bradley with a member of the French Resistance in Normandy.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.0|Generals [[Dwight Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] and [[Omar Bradley|Bradley]] with a young member of the French resistance during the liberation of [[Lower Normandy]] in summer 1944]]
The French Resistance was a decentralized network of small cells of fighters with the tacit or overt support of many French civilians. The various resistance groups by 1944 had an estimated 100,000 members in France.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/world-war-two/resistance-movements/the-french-resistance/|title = The French Resistance}}</ref> Some were former [[Confederal militias|Republican fighters]] from the [[Spanish Civil War]]; others were workers who went into hiding rather than report for the mandatory ''[[Service du travail obligatoire]]'' (STO) to work for German arms factories.{{efn|Dissatisfied with the number of volunteers, the [[German military administration in occupied France during World War II|German military administration]] required the [[Government of Vichy France]] to enact mandatory [[forced labor]] (''service de travail obligatoire'' (STO)), which made the occupation personal to many young French people. Able-bodied French citizens who faced forced labor in Germany began instead to disappear into forests and mountain wildernesses to join the ''[[Maquis (World War II)|maquis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ashdown |first1=Paddy |author-link=Paddy Ashdown |title=The Cruel Victory |date=2014 |publisher=William Collins |location=London |isbn=978-0007520817 |pages=18–19}}</ref>}}<ref>{{ cite web |url= https://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/divers/STO/145262 |title=STO | publisher=Larousse |language=fr }}</ref> In the south of France especially, Resistance fighters took to the mountainous brush ({{lang|fr|[[Maquis (World War II)|maquis]]}}) that gave them their name, and conducted guerilla warfare on the German occupation forces, cutting telephone lines and destroying bridges.
The ''[[Armée Secrète]]'' was a French military organization active during World War II. The collective grouped the paramilitary formations of the three most important Gaullist resistance movements in the southern zone: Combat, Libération-sud and the Franc-Tireurs.
[[File:Les Clayes sous Bois Monument Jean Moulin.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Monument to [[Jean Moulin]], leader of the Resistance]]
Some organizations grew up around one of the many [[Clandestine press of the French Resistance|clandestine presses]] of the time, such as ''Combat'', founded by [[Albert Camus]], to which [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] also contributed. Stalin supported the effort{{clarify|clandestine presses?|date=March 2021}} once Germany invaded the Soviet Union.
[[French prisoners of war in World War II|French prisoners of war]] were held hostage against the French government meeting their quota of workers. When the mass impressment of able-bodied civilians began, French railway workers (''cheminots'') went on strike rather than allow the Germans to use the trains to transport them.<ref>{{cite journal| title=Ordinary Workers, Vichy and the Holocaust: French Railwaymen and the Second World War by Ludivine Broch (review)| author=Philip Nord |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History | year=2020 |publisher=The MIT Press
|volume= 51 | number=1 | pages=144–145 | doi=10.1162/jinh_r_01531 | s2cid=225730856 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/757206/pdf}}</ref> The ''cheminots'' eventually formed their own organization, ''[[Résistance-Fer]]''.
The [[French Forces of the Interior]] (FFI), as {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} came to call Resistance forces inside France, were an uneasy alliance of several ''maquis'' and other organizations, including the Communist-organized [[Francs-Tireurs et Partisans]] (FTP) and the [[Armée secrète]] in southern France. In addition, [[Escape and evasion lines (World War II)|escape networks]] helped Allied airmen who had been shot down get to safety.<ref>{{citation |title=French Resistance Aid to Allied Airmen |via=Jstor |author=Joseph E. Tucker| year=1947|journal=The French Review | volume=21 | number=1|pages=29–34 |publisher= American Association of Teachers of French |jstor=380696 |access-date=February 22, 2021|url=
https://www.jstor.org/stable/380696 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> The ''[[Unione Corse]]'' and the {{lang|fr|[[milieu (organized crime in France)|milieu]]}}, the criminal underground of Marseilles, gleefully provided logistical escape assistance for a price, although some such as [[Paul Carbone]] instead worked with the [[Carlingue]], French auxiliaries to the Gestapo SD and German military police.
===French colonial empire===
{{Further|French colonial empire|Vichy France#Colonial struggle with Free France|Free France#Struggle for control of the French colonies}}
[[File:EmpireFrench.png|thumb|French colonial empire]]
France's colonial empire at the start of World War II stretched from territories and possessions in Africa, the Middle East ([[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon]]), to ports in India, Indochina, the Pacific islands, and territories in North and South America.
France retained control of its colonial empire, and the terms of the armistice shifted the power balance post-armistice of France's reduced military resources away from France and towards the colonies, especially North Africa. By 1943, all French colonies, except for Japanese-controlled Indochina, had joined the Free French cause.<ref>Martin Thomas, ''The French Empire at War, 1940–1945'' (Manchester University Press, 2007)</ref>{{sfn|Jackson|2001|p=}}{{page needed|date=January 2021}}
The colonies in [[North Africa]] and [[French Equatorial Africa]] in particular played a key role<ref>{{cite web|title=Free French Africa in World War II: The African Resistance (Cambridge University Press). | publisher = University of Toronto Faculty of Arts and Sciences | author = Department of History | date = 2 September 2016 |url=https://www.history.utoronto.ca/publications/free-french-africa-world-war-ii-african-resistance|quote="What is perhaps still deeply under-appreciated is how much General de Gaulle's Free France drew its strength from 1940 to the middle of 1943 from fighting men, resources, and operations in French Equatorial Africa rather than London."}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=France commemorates its 'forgotten' African veterans in the liberation of France.|publisher=Radio France Internationale |url=https://www.rfi.fr/en/africa/20190814-france-commemorates-forgotten-African-veterans-wwii-landing-Provence-Operation-Drago |date=August 15, 2019 |language=en}}</ref>
Vichy French colonial forces were reduced under the terms of the armistice. Nevertheless, in the Mediterranean area alone, Vichy had nearly 150,000 men under arms. There were about 55,000 in [[French protectorate of Morocco|French Morocco]], 50,000 in [[French Algeria|Algeria]], and almost 40,000 in the [[Army of the Levant]].
==Diplomacy, politics, and administration==
===Diplomacy and politics===
====Appeal of 18 June====
{{Main|Appeal of 18 June}}
[[File:Charles de Gaulle au micro de la BBC.jpg|thumb|Charles de Gaulle broadcasting from the BBC in London in 1941{{efn|De Gaulle broadcasting from the BBC: There is no photograph of the [[Appeal of June 18|June 18 appeal]]; this image from 1941 is sometimes used as an illustration of the famous radio speech.<ref name="Ragache-2010">{{cite book |last=Ragache |first=Gilles |title=Les appels du 18 juin |trans-title=The Appeals of 18 June |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TpE3AQAAIAAJ |publisher=Larousse |series=À rebours |location=Paris |year=2010 |isbn=978-2035-85054-6 |oclc=705750131 |page=2 |language=fr}}</ref>}}]]
Refusing to accept his government's armistice with Germany, Charles {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} fled to England on 17 June and exhorted the French to resist occupation and to continue the fight.<ref>{{cite web|title=L'Appel du 22 juin 1940 - charles-de-gaulle.org |url=http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/pages/l-homme/dossiers-thematiques/1940-1944-la-seconde-guerre-mondiale/l-appel-du-18-juin/documents/l-appel-du-22-juin-1940.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606021817/http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/pages/l-homme/dossiers-thematiques/1940-1944-la-seconde-guerre-mondiale/l-appel-du-18-juin/documents/l-appel-du-22-juin-1940.php |archive-date=6 June 2017 |access-date=5 May 2017 |website=charles-de-gaulle.org}}</ref>
Reynaud resigned after his proposal for a [[Franco-British Union#World War II (1940)|Franco-British Union]] was rejected by his cabinet and De Gaulle facing imminent arrest, fled France on 17 June. Other leading politicians, including [[Georges Mandel]], [[Léon Blum]], [[Pierre Mendès France]], [[Jean Zay]] and [[Édouard Daladier]] (and separately Reynaud), were arrested while travelling to continue the war from North Africa.<ref name="Lacouture">{{cite book |last=Lacouture |first=Jean |title=De Gaulle: The Rebel 1890–1944 |orig-year=1984 |year=1991 |edition=English |pages=211–216}}</ref>
De Gaulle obtained special permission from [[Winston Churchill]] to broadcast a speech on 18 June via ''[[Radio Londres]]'' (a French language radio station operated by the BBC) to France, despite the Cabinet's objections that such a broadcast could provoke the Pétain government into a closer allegiance with Germany.<ref>{{Citation |first=Antony |last=Beevor |url=https://www.theguardian.com/greatspeeches/story/0,,2059384,00.html |work=The Guardian |title=Rallying call: A Mesmerising Oratory |date=29 April 2007}}</ref> In his speech, de Gaulle reminded the French people that the [[British Empire]] and the [[United States|United States of America]] would support them militarily and economically in an effort to retake France from the Germans.
Few actually heard the speech but another speech, heard by more people, was given by de Gaulle four days later.<ref>{{cite web|work=History of the BBC| publisher= BBC |title=De Gaulle's first broadcast to France | url=https://www.bbc.com/historyofthebbc/anniversaries/june/de-gaulles-first-broadcast-to-france}}</ref>
After the war, de Gaulle's radio appeal was often identified as the beginning of the French Resistance, and the process of liberating France from the yoke of German occupation.<ref name="Evans-2018">{{cite magazine |last=Evans |first=Martin |title=Review: A History of the French Resistance |url=https://www.historytoday.com/reviews/history-french-resistance |date=8 August 2018 |magazine=History Today |volume=68 |issue=8 |issn=0018-2753 |publisher=Andy Patterson |location=London |quote= However, after the Second World War, de Gaulle's speech of 18 June 1940 became enshrined in French history as the starting point of the French Resistance, which led directly to the Liberation four years later. This founding narrative allowed French people to forget the humiliation of Nazi Occupation and rebuild national self-esteem.}}</ref>
====Northern Africa====
[[File:Félix Éboué and Charles DeGaulle.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|[[Félix Éboué]] welcoming de Gaulle to Chad in October 1940]]
{{Annotated image
| image = De Gaulle arrivant dans la capitale de la France libre (restored).jpg
| image-width =250
| image-left = -5
| image-top = -150
| width = 235
| height = 195
| caption = De Gaulle arriving in Brazzaville, 24 October 1940
}}
De Gaulle's support grew out of a base in colonial Africa. In the summer of 1940, the colonial empire largely supported the Vichy regime. [[Félix Éboué]], governor of Chad, switched his support to General de Gaulle in September. Encouraged, de Gaulle traveled to Brazzaville in October, where he announced the formation of an [[Empire Defense Council]]<ref name="Shillington-2013" /> in his "[[Brazzaville Manifesto]]",<ref name="Brazzaville-1940">{{cite book |author=France libre |title=Documents officiels. [Manifeste du 27 octobre 1940, à Brazzaville. Ordonnances n ° 1 et 2, du 27 octobre 1940, instituant un Conseil de défense de l'Empire. Déclaration organique complétant le manifeste du 27 octobre 1940, du 16 novembre 1940, à Brazzaville. Signé: De Gaulle.]. |trans-title=Official documents. Manifesto of 27 October 1940, in Brazzaville. Orders No. 1 and 2, of 27 October 1940, establishing an Empire Defense Council. Organic Declaration supplementing the Manifesto of 27 October 1940, of 16 November 1940, in Brazzaville. Signed: De Gaulle. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cQjwSAAACAAJ |year=1940 |publisher=Impr. officielle |place=Brazzaville |oclc=460992617}}</ref> and invited all colonies still supporting Vichy to join him and the Free French forces in the fight against Germany, which most of them did by 1943.<ref name="Shillington-2013">{{cite book |last=Shillington |first=Kevin |title=Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WixiTjxYdkYC&pg=PA448 |access-date=2 June 2020 |volume=1 A–G |date=4 July 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-45669-6 |page=448 |oclc=254075497 |quote=<!-- There was much support for the Vichy regime among French colonial personnel, with the exception of Guianese-born governor of Chad, Félix Éboué, who in September 1940 announced his switch of allegiance from Vichy to the Gaullist Free French movement based in London. Encouraged by this support for his fledgling movement, Charles de Gaulle traveled to Brazzaville in October 1940 to announce the formation of an Empire Defense Council and to invite all French possessions loyal to Vichy to join it and continue the war against Germany; within two years, most did.-->}}</ref><ref name="Wieviorka-2019">{{cite book |last=Wieviorka |first=Olivier |title=The Resistance in Western Europe, 1940–1945 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=btGQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT67 |access-date=2 June 2020 |date=3 September 2019 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-231-54864-9 |pages=67– |translator-last=Todd |translator-first=Jane Marie |quote=<!-- At the same time, de Gaulle was only one man, and had no eminent political supporters. He therefore had to broaden his base. An order of October 27, 1940, created the Conseil de défense de l'Empire (Empire Defense Council), which included, in addition to de Gaulle, the governors of the territories who had rallied to the cause (Edgard de Larminat, Félix Éboué, Leclerc, Henri Sautot) military leaders (Georges Catroux and Émile Muselier), and three personalities from varied backgrounds: Father Georges Thierry Argenlieu, a friar and alumnus of the E'cole Navale; Rene' Cassin, a distinguished jurist and prominent representative of the veterans movement; and the military doctor Adolph Sice'.-->}}</ref>
On 26 August, the governor and military commanders in the colony of [[French Chad]] announced that they were rallying to De Gaulle's [[Free French Forces]]. A small group of Gaullists seized control of [[French Cameroon]] the following morning,<ref name="Mokake-2006">{{cite book |last=Mokake |first=John N. |title=Basic Facts on Cameroon History Since 1884 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1GAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA76 |year=2006 |publisher=Cure Series |location=Limbe, Cameroon |isbn=978-9956-402-67-0 |pages=76–77 |oclc=742316797}}</ref> and on 28 August a Free French official ousted the pro-Vichy governor of [[French Congo]].{{sfn|Gildea|2019|p=52}} The next day the governor of [[Ubangi-Shari]] declared that his territory would support De Gaulle. His declaration prompted a brief struggle for power with a pro-Vichy army officer, but by the end of the day all of the colonies that formed [[French Equatorial Africa]] had rallied to Free France, except for [[French Gabon]].{{sfn|Reeves|2016|p=92}}
===Free French Administration===
A series of organizing bodies was created during the war, to guide and coordinate the diplomatic and war effort of Free France, with General Charles {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} playing a central role in the creation or operation of them all.
====Empire Defense Council====
{{Main|Empire Defense Council}}
[[File:Charles De Gaulle, Philippe de Scitivaux, René Mouchotte, Martial Valin.png|thumb|{{nowrap|De Gaulle}} with Admiral {{ill|Philippe de Scitivaux|fr|vertical-align=sup}}, pilot [[René Mouchotte]], and Air Force general [[Martial Henri Valin]]]]
On 26 June 1940, four days after the [[Pétain government]] requested the armistice, General {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} submitted a memorandum to the British government notifying Churchill of his decision to set up a Council of Defense of the Empire{{sfn|White|1964|p=161}} and formalizing the agreement reached with Churchill on 28 June. The formal recognition of the Empire Defense Council as a [[government in exile]] by the United Kingdom took place on 6 January 1941; recognition by the Soviet Union was published in December 1941, by exchange of letters.{{sfn|Danan|1972}}
====French National Committee====
[[File:Comité national français.jpg|thumb|At a committee meeting in London:{{br}} left to right [[André Diethelm|Diethelm]], [[Émile Muselier|Muselier]], [[Charles de Gaulle|de Gaulle]], [[René Cassin|Cassin]], [[René Pleven|Pleven]] and [[Philippe Auboyneau|Auboyneau]] (1942)]]
{{Main|French National Committee}}
Winston Churchill suggested that {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} create a committee, to lend an appearance of a more constitutionally based and less dictatorial authority and on 24 September 1941 {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} created by edict the [[French National Committee]]{{sfn|Bernard|1984|pp=374–378}} as the successor organization to the smaller Empire Defense Council. According to historian {{ill|Henri Bernard (historian)|lt=Henri Bernard,|fr|Henri Bernard|v=sup}} {{nowrap|De Gaulle}} went on to accept his proposal, but took care to exclude all his adversaries within the Free France movement, such as [[Émile Muselier]], [[André Labarthe]] and others, retaining only "yes men" in the group.{{sfn|Bernard|1984|pp=374–378}}
The committee was the coordinating body which acted as the government-in-exile of Free France from 1941 to 1943.{{sfn|JOFF}}{{Full citation needed|reason=The Journal Officiel is like the "Congressional Record" and is voluminous; need details of what is being cited here.|date=July 2020}} On 3 June 1943 it merged with the [[French Civil and Military High Command]] headed by [[Henri Giraud]], becoming the new "[[French Committee of National Liberation]]".<ref>{{cite journal|title=Introduction – Beyond De Gaulle and Beyond London The French External Resistance and its international networks |volume=25 | issue=2 |publisher=Taylor and Francis |journal=European Review of History |author1=Charlotte Gaucher
| author2=Laure Humbert |year=2018 |pages=195–221 |doi=10.1080/13507486.2017.1411336 |s2cid=149757902 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
====National Resistance Council====
{{Main|National Resistance Council}}
De Gaulle, began seeking the formation of a committee to unify the resistance movements. On January 1, 1942, he delegated this task to [[Jean Moulin]]. Moulin achieved this on May 27, 1943, with the first meeting of the ''Conseil National de la Résistance'' in the 6th-arrondissement apartment of René Corbin<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://museedelaresistanceenligne.org/media2965-RenA|title = Musée de la résistance en ligne}}</ref> on the second floor of 48, Rue du Four, in Paris.
====French Civil and Military High Command====
{{Main|French Civil and Military High Command}}
[[File:Eisenhower giraud salute flag.jpg|thumb|General Giraud with General Dwight D. Eisenhower at Allied headquarters in Algiers, 1943]]
The [[French Civil and Military High Command]]{{sfn|Maury|2006}}{{sfn|Maury|2010}} was the governmental body in [[Algiers]] headed by Henri Giraud following the liberation of a portion of French North Africa following the Allied [[Operation Torch]] landings on 7 and 8 November 1942.
[[François Darlan]] had been named by Pétain to oppose the Allied landings in North Africa in November 1942. Following the landings, Darlan supported the Allies.{{sfn|Nyrop|1965|p=28}} On 13 November, Eisenhower recognized him and named Darlan "High Commissioner of France residing in North Africa".{{sfn|Nyrop|1965|p=28}} [[Henri Giraud]], a French patriot loyal to Vichy but opposed to Germany and who had been the Allies choice, became commander of the military forces in North Africa. First called the "High Commission of France in Africa", the French authority was rocked when on 24 December 1942, Darlan was assassinated by a Monarchist.{{sfn|Cantier|2002|pp=374–375}} Giraud took over and the name "Civil and Military High Command" was adopted by 1943. Giraud exercised authority over [[French Algeria]] and the [[French Protectorate of Morocco]], while the [[Tunisian campaign]] against the Germans and Italians continued in the [[French Protectorate of Tunisia]]. Darlan having previously won the support of French West Africa, the latter was also in Giraud's camp, while French Equatorial Africa was in de Gaulle's camp.{{sfn|Montagnon|1990|pp=60–63}}
By March 1943, North Africa began to distance itself from Vichy. On 14 March, Giraud delivered a speech that he later described as "the first democratic speech of [his] life", in which he broke with Vichy. [[Jean Monnet]] pushed Giraud to negotiate with de Gaulle, who arrived in Algiers on 30 May 1943. On 3 June, the Civil and Military High Command in Algiers merged with the French National Committee in London to form the French National Liberation Committee.
====French Committee of National Liberation====
{{Main|French Committee of National Liberation}}
[[File:De Gaulle-Giraud shot0092.png|thumb|left|[[Henri Giraud]] and de Gaulle]]
The French Committee of National Liberation was a [[provisional government]] of Free France formed by generals Henri Giraud and Charles de Gaulle to provide united leadership, and organize and coordinate the campaign to liberate France. The committee was formed on 3 June 1943 and after a period of joint leadership came under the chairmanship of {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} on 9 November.<ref name="Emb-FR">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ambafrance-us.org/atoz/presidentsgallery.asp |title=French embassy |access-date=7 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210230259/http://www.ambafrance-us.org/atoz/presidentsgallery.asp |archive-date=10 December 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The committee directly challenged the legitimacy of the Vichy régime and unified the French forces that fought against the Nazis and their [[Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy|collaborators]]. The committee functioned as a provisional government for French Algeria (then a part of [[metropolitan France]]) and the liberated parts of the colonial empire.<ref name="Army-1965">{{cite book |author1=American University (Washington, D.C.). Foreign Areas Studies Division |author2=United States. Army |title=U.S. Army Area Handbook for Algeria |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bgq8xwHlCpoC&pg=PA28 |year=1965 |publisher=Division, Special Operations Research Office, American University |page=28 |oclc=1085291500 |access-date=23 July 2020 |quote=<!-- Most of the European colonial population of Algeria wholeheartedly supported the Vichy government. ... Even after the Allies under General Dwight D. Eisenhower liberated Algeria in November 1942, General Henri Giraud, appointed by Eisenhower as civil and military commander in chief, only slowly rescinded the Vichy legislation. It was almost a year before the Crémieux decrees were reactivated, against the virulent opposition of the European colonialists.-->}}</ref><ref name="Davis-2018">{{cite book |language=en |last=Brunet |first=Luc-Andre |editor-last1=Davis |editor-first1=Muriam Haleh |editor-last2=Serres |editor-first2=Thomas |title=North Africa and the Making of Europe: Governance, Institutions and Culture |chapter=1. The Role of Algeria in Debates over Post-War Europe within the French Resistance |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tP5DDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT35 |date=22 February 2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1-350-02184-6 |oclc=1037916970 |pages=35–36<!--electronic file, page number may be different for different providers--> |access-date=23 July 2020}}</ref><ref name="Encarta-CDG">{{cite web |title=Charles {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} biography |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/RefArticle.aspx?refid=761563271 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071123164056/http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/refarticle.aspx?refid=761563271 |archive-date=23 November 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
[[File:La Dépêche algérienne 04-06-1943.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|First page of ''La Dépêche algérienne'' headlining the creation of the French Committee of National Liberation 4 June 1943]]
The committee was formed on 3 June 1943 in Algiers, the capital of French Algeria.<ref name="Encarta-CDG"/> Giraud and de Gaulle served jointly as co-presidents of the committee. The charter of the body affirmed its commitment to "re-establish all French liberties, the laws of the Republic and the Republican régime."<ref name="Roundtable" /> The committee saw itself as a source of unity and representation for the French nation. The Vichy regime was decried as illegitimate over its collaboration with Nazi Germany. The committee received mixed responses from the Allies; the U.S. and Britain considered it a war-time body with restricted functions, different from a future government of liberated France.<ref name="Roundtable" /> The Committee soon expanded its membership, developed a distinctive administrative body and incorporated as the Provisional Consultative Assembly, creating an organized, representative government within itself. With Allied recognition, the committee and its leaders Giraud and de Gaulle enjoyed considerable popular support within France and the French resistance, thus becoming the forerunners in the process to form a provisional government for France as liberation approached.<ref name="Roundtable" /> However, Charles de Gaulle politically outmaneuvered Gen. Giraud, and asserted complete control and leadership over the committee.<ref name="Encarta-CDG" />
In August 1944 the Committee moved to Paris following the liberation of France by Allied forces.<ref name="Roundtable">{{Citation |url=http://www.historians.org/Projects/GIRoundtable/French/French10.htm |title=Will the French Republic Live Again? Unscrambling the Economic Eggs |series=GI Roundtable Series |first=John B. |last=Wolf |website=historians.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605220821/http://www.historians.org/Projects/GIRoundtable/French/French10.htm |archive-date=2013-06-05 |access-date=2020-01-30 |publisher=American Historical Association }}</ref>
In September, Allied forces recognized the committee as the legitimate provisional government of France, whereupon the Committee reorganized itself as the Provisional Government of the French Republic under the presidency of Charles {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}<ref name="Roundtable" /> and began the process of writing a new Constitution which would become the basis of the French Fourth Republic.<ref name="Encarta-CDG" />
====Provisional Consultative Assembly====
{{main|Provisional Consultative Assembly}}
[[File:Assemblée consultative provisoire d’Alger.jpg|thumb|Inaugural session of the Provisional Consultative Assembly in the presence of General de Gaulle. Palais Carnot, Algiers, November 3, 1943]]
The [[Provisional Consultative Assembly]] was set up in September 1943 in Algiers to advise the committee and to help provide a legal basis to the institutions being set up to represent the French people, at a time when the country itself and its laws represented the enemy. After the liberation of Paris in August 1944, the Committee moved to Paris and was reorganized as the [[Provisional Government of the French Republic]] under the presidency of Charles {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}. The Provisional Government guided the French war and diplomatic efforts through liberation and the end of the war, until a new Constitution was written and approved in a referendum, establishing of the [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]] in October 1946.
The Provisional Consultative Assembly was a governmental organ of Free France that was created by and operated under the aegis of the French Committee of National Liberation (CFLN). It began in north Africa and held meetings in Algiers until it moved to Paris in July 1944.<ref>{{cite web|title=Les Assemblées consultatives provisoires 3 novembre 1943 – 3 août 1945 |publisher=Assemblée Nationale |url=https://www2.assemblee-nationale.fr/decouvrir-l-assemblee/histoire/histoire-de-l-assemblee-nationale/la-republique-dans-la-tourmente-1939-1945/les-assemblees-consultatives-provisoires |language=fr }}</ref> Led by Charles de Gaulle, it was an attempt to provide some sort of representative, democratic accountability to the institutions being set up to represent the French people, at a time when the country itself and its laws were dissolved and its territory occupied or coopted by a puppet state.
The members of the Assembly represented the French resistance movements, political parties, and territories that were engaged against Germany in the Second World War alongside the Allies.
Established by ordinance on 17 September 1943 by the CFLN, it held its first meetings in Algiers, at the Palais Carnot (the former headquarters of the Financial Delegations), between 3 November 1943 and 25 July 1944. On 3 June 1944 it was placed under the authority of the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF), which succeeded the CFLN.
In his inaugural speech, de Gaulle gave the body his imprimatur, as providing a means of representing the people of France as democratically and legally as possible under difficult and unparalleled circumstances, until such time as democracy could once again be restored.<ref name="LeMonde-1993">{{cite news |last=de Gaulle |first=Charles |language=fr |title=DATES IL Y A CINQUANTE ANS L'Assemblée consultative provisoire se réunissait à Alger |trans-title=Fifty Years Ago: The Provisional Consultative Assembly meets in Algiers |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1993/11/07/dates-il-y-a-cinquante-ans-l-assemblee-consultative-provisoire-se-reunissait-a-alger_3939245_1819218.html |date=7 November 1993 |newspaper=Le Monde |publisher= |location=Paris |access-date=5 February 2021}}</ref>{{sfn|Choisnel|2007|pp=100–102}} As an indication of the importance he attached to the body, de Gaulle participated in about twenty sessions of the Consultative Assembly in Algiers. On 26 June 1944, he came to report on the military situation after the D-Day landings, and on 25 July, he was present at its last session on African soil before its move to Paris.{{sfn|Choisnel|2007|pp=100–102}}
Restructured and expanded after the liberation of France, it held sessions in Paris at the [[Palais du Luxembourg]] between 7 November 1944 and 3 August 1945.
====Provisional Government====
{{hatnote|Covered in more detail in section [[#Provisional Government of the French Republic|Provisional Government of the French Republic]] below.}}
The GPFR served as an [[interim government]] of Free France from June 1944 through liberation and lasted till 1946.
The PGFR was created by the Committee of National Liberation on 3 June 1944, three days before [[D-day]]. It moved back to Paris after the [[liberation of Paris|liberation of the capital]] in August 1944.
Most of the goals and activity of the GPFR are related to the post-Liberation period, so this subtopic is covered in more detail in the Aftermath section below, in section [[#Provisional Government of the French Republic|Provisional Government of the French Republic]].
==Military forces==
===Introduction===
The first military forces brought to bear in the liberation of France were the forces of [[Free France]], made up of colonial regiments from [[French Africa]]. The Free French forces included 300,000 North African Arabs.<ref>Robert Gildea, ''France since 1945'' (1996) p 17</ref> Two of the [[Big Three (World War II)|Big Three Allies]], the United States and the United Kingdom, were next with [[Operation Overlord]], with Australian air support and Canadian infantry in the Normandy beach landings.
Individual civilian efforts such as the [[Maquis de Saint-Marcel]] helped to harass the Germans. An OSE operation hid Allied servicemen. The many scattered cells of the [[French Resistance]] gradually consolidated into a fighting force after the Normandy landings and became known as the [[French Forces of the Interior]] (FFI). The FFI made major contributions, assisting Allied armies pushing the Germans east out of France and past the Rhine.
The military forces involved in the liberation of France were under the command of General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], commander of the [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force]] (SHAEF).{{sfn|Gilbert|1989|p=491}} General [[Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein|Bernard Montgomery]] was named commander of the [[21st Army Group]], which comprised all of the land forces involved in the initial invasion.{{sfn|Whitmarsh|2009|pp=12–13}} On 31 December 1943, Eisenhower and Montgomery first saw the outline plan the Chief of Staff to the [[Supreme Allied Commander]] (COSSAC) had prepared for an invasion, which proposed amphibious landings by three [[Division (military)|divisions]], with two more divisions in support. The two generals immediately insisted on expanding the scale of the initial invasion to five divisions, with airborne descents by three additional divisions, to allow operations on a wider front and to speed up the capture of the port at [[Cherbourg-Octeville|Cherbourg]]. The need to acquire or produce extra [[landing craft]] for the expanded operation meant delaying the invasion until June 1944.{{sfn|Whitmarsh|2009|pp=12–13}} Eventually the Allies committed 39 divisions to the [[Battle of Normandy]]: 22 American, 12 British, three Canadian, one Polish, and one French, totalling over a million troops,{{sfn|Weinberg|1995|p=684}} all under overall British command.{{sfn|Ellis|Allen|Warhurst|2004|pp=521–533}}{{efn|name=British command}}
===Free French Forces===
{{Main|Free France}}
Despite {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}'s call to continue the struggle, few French forces initially pledged their support. By the end of July 1940, only about 7,000 soldiers had joined the [[Free France|Free French Forces]] in England.<ref name="Goubert1991">{{cite book|author=Pierre Goubert|title=The Course of French History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1VbZMbFw89YC&pg=PA298|access-date=6 March 2011|date=20 November 1991|publisher=[[Psychology Press]]|isbn=978-0-415-06671-6|pages=298|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130527210545/http://books.google.com/books?id=1VbZMbFw89YC&pg=PA298|archive-date=27 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Axelrod362>{{Cite book |last1=Axelrod |first1=Alan |last2=Kingston |first2=Jack A. |year=2007 |title=Encyclopedia of World War II |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LbWFgjW6KX8C |publisher=[[Facts on File]] |isbn=9780816060221 |page = 362}}</ref> Three-quarters of French servicemen in Britain requested repatriation.<ref name="Hastings 2011">{{cite book|last=Hastings|first=Max|author-link=Max Hastings|title=All Hell Let Loose, The World at War 1939–45|year=2011|publisher=Harper Press|location=London}}</ref>{{rp|80}}
France was bitterly divided by the conflict. Frenchmen everywhere were forced to choose sides, and often deeply resented those who had made a different choice.<ref name="Hastings 2011"/>{{rp|126}} One French admiral, [[René-Émile Godfroy]], voiced the opinion of many of those who decided not to join the [[Free France#Beginningd of the Free French Forces|Free French forces]], when in June 1940 he explained to the exasperated British why he would not order his ships from their [[Alexandria]] harbour to join {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}:
:"For us Frenchmen, the fact is that a government still exists in France, a government supported by a Parliament established in non-occupied territory and which in consequence cannot be considered irregular or deposed. The establishment elsewhere of another government, and all support for this other government would clearly be rebellion."<ref name="Hastings 2011"/>{{rp|126}}
Equally, few Frenchmen believed that Britain could stand alone. In June 1940, Pétain and his generals told Churchill that "in three weeks, England will have her neck wrung like a chicken".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=vXsOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA235 Yapp, Peter, p. 235. ''The Travellers' Dictionary of Quotation'']. Retrieved October 2012</ref> Of France's far-flung empire, only the [[French domains of St Helena|43 acres of French territory of the British island of St Helena]] (on 23 June at the initiative of Georges Colin, honorary consul of the domains<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.france-libre.net/saint-helene/|title=Le Domaine français de Sainte-Hélène|date=13 November 2009 |language=fr-FR|access-date=6 July 2019}}</ref>) and the Franco-British ruled [[New Hebrides]] in the Pacific (on 20 July) answered {{nowrap|De Gaulle}}'s call to arms. It was not until late August that Free France would gain significant support in [[French Equatorial Africa]].<ref>Jennings, Eric T. ''Free French Africa in World War II''. p. 66.</ref>
Unlike the troops at [[Dunkirk]] or naval forces at sea, relatively few members of the [[French Air Force]] had the means or opportunity to escape. Like all military personnel trapped on the mainland, they were functionally subject to the Pétain government: "French authorities made it clear that those who acted on their own initiative would be classed as deserters, and guards were placed to thwart efforts to get on board ships."<ref name = "Bennett 2011">{{Cite book |last=Bennett |first=G. H. |year=2011 |title=The RAF's French Foreign Legion: De Gaulle, the British and the Re-emergence of French Airpower 1940-45 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rlhOD1V1jVsC |location=London; New York |publisher=Continuum |isbn=9781441189783 }}{{rp|16}}</ref> In the summer of 1940, around a dozen pilots made it to England and volunteered for the [[RAF]] to help fight the [[Luftwaffe]].<ref name="learningsite">[http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/france_pilots_battle_britain.htm History Learning Site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121003014827/http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/france_pilots_battle_britain.htm |date=3 October 2012 }}. Retrieved October 2012</ref><ref name = "Bennett 2011"/>{{rp|13}} Many more, however, made their way through long and circuitous routes to Spain or to French territories overseas, eventually regrouping as the [[Free French Air Force]].<ref name = "Bennett 2011"/>{{rp|13–18}}
The [[French Navy]] was better able to immediately respond to {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}'s call to arms. Most units initially stayed loyal to Vichy, but about 3,600 sailors operating 50 ships around the world joined with the [[Royal Navy]] and formed the nucleus of the [[Free French Naval Forces]] (FFNF; in French ''Forces Navales Françaises Libres'': FNFL).<ref name=Axelrod362/> France's surrender found her only [[aircraft carrier]], {{ship|French aircraft carrier|Béarn||2}}, en route from the United States loaded with American fighter and bomber aircraft. Unwilling to return to occupied France, but likewise reluctant to join {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}, ''Béarn'' instead sought harbour in [[Martinique]], her crew showing little inclination to side with the British in their continued fight against the Nazis. Already obsolete at the start of the war, she remained in Martinique for the next four years, her aircraft rusting in the tropical climate.<ref>Hastings, Max, p. 74</ref>
Many men in the French colonies felt a special need to defend France,{{citation needed|date=March 2021}} and eventually made up two-thirds of {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}’s [[Free French Forces]]. Among these volunteers, influential psychiatrist and decolonial philosopher [[Frantz Fanon]] from [[Martinique]] joined {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}’s troops at the age of 18, despite being deemed a ‘dissenter’ by Martinique's Vichy-controlled colonial government for doing so.<ref name="Pitts Afropean">{{cite book |last1=Pitts |first1=Johny |title=Afropean: Notes from Black Europe |date=June 6, 2019 |publisher=Penguin Books |page=307}}</ref>
===Colonial African forces===
[[File:Chadian soldier of WWII.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|A [[Free French]] soldier from [[French Chad]], recipient of the [[Croix de Guerre]]]]
The contribution to France's liberation made by African [[Troupes coloniales|colonial soldiers]], who comprised 9% of the French army, was long overlooked. The North African units, dating from 1830 and grouped into the [[19th Army Corps (France)|XIX Army Corps]] in 1873, formed part of the French Metropolitan Army.{{sfn|Clayton|1994|p=21}} De Gaulle made a base in African territory, from which he launched the military liberation. African troops who made the largest contribution by colonial troops to the liberation.<ref>Tony Chafer, "Forgotten Soldiers: Tony Chafer examines the paradoxes and complexities that underlie belated recognition of the contribution of African soldiers to the liberation of France in 1944" ''History Today'' 58#11 (November 2008): 35–37.</ref><ref>Panivong Norindr, "Incorporating Indigenous Soldiers in the Space of the French Nation: Rachid Bouchareb's Indigènes." ''Yale French Studies'' 115 (2009): 126–140 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25679759 online].</ref>
On the eve of the Second World War, five regiments of [[Tirailleurs Sénégalais]] were stationed in France in addition to a brigade based in Algeria. The ''2e division colonial senegalaise'' was permanently deployed in the south of France due to the potential threat of invasion from Italy.
The ''[[Army of Africa (France)|Armée d’Afrique]]'' (Army of Africa) was formally a separate army corps of the French metropolitan army, the [[19th Army Corps (France)|19th Army Corps]] (''19e Corps d'Armée'') so named in 1873. The [[Troupes coloniales|French Colonial Forces]] on the other hand came under the [[Ministry of the Navy (France)|Ministry of the Navy]] and comprised both French and indigenous units serving in Sub-Saharan Africa and elsewhere in the French colonial empire.
===Intelligence===
{{nowrap|De Gaulle}} set up his Free French intelligence system to combine both military and political roles, including covert operations. He selected journalist [[Pierre Brossolette]] (1903–44) to head the [[Bureau Central de Renseignements et d'Action]] (BCRA). The policy was reversed in 1943 by [[Emmanuel d'Astier de La Vigerie|Emmanuel d'Astrier]], the interior minister of the [[Government in exile|exile government]], who insisted on civilian control of political intelligence.<ref>Sébastien Laurent, "The free French secret services: Intelligence and the politics of republican legitimacy." ''Intelligence and National Security'' 15.4 (2000): 19–41.</ref>
===Allied forces===
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{{color box|#63B74E}} <small>Allies since the [[European theatre of World War II|start of the war]] on 1 September 1939</small>{{br}}
{{color box|#66FF00}} <small>Allies after the [[bombing of Pearl Harbor]] in December 1941]]</small>
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{{Main|Allies of World War II}}
{{Further|Western front of World War II|United States Third Army }}
The "Big Three" [[Allies of World War II]], the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States, all fought Germany in World War II, but Soviet Union fighting on the [[Eastern Front of World War II|Eastern Front]] played no direct role in the liberation of France, but the second front contributed to Nazi defeat.
The United Kingdom and the United States fought on the [[Western Front of World War II|Western Front]], with contributions from Canadian and [[Australian contribution to the Battle of Normandy|Australian]] soldiers who [[Normandy landings|landed in Normandy]] on D-Day, as well as Australian air support.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Grant |first1=Lachlan |title=The Australian contribution to D–Day |url=https://www.aspistrategist.org.au/the-australian-contribution-to-d-day/ |website=The Strategist |publisher=Australian Security Policy Institute |access-date=8 June 2019|date=6 June 2019}}</ref>
===French Forces of the Interior===
{{Main|French Forces of the Interior}}
French Forces of the Interior was the formal name given by General de Gaulle to French resistance fighters in the later stages of the war; the change occurred as France, the occupied nation, became France, being liberated by the Allied armies. Regional ''maquis'' became more formally organized into FFI [[light infantry]] and served as a valuable additional manpower for the regular [[Free French forces]].
After the [[invasion of Normandy]] in June 1944, at the request of the French Committee of National Liberation, [[SHAEF]] placed about 200,000 resistance fighters under the command of General [[Marie Pierre Kœnig]] on 23 June 1944<ref>Harrison, Gordon A., ''Cross-Channel Attack'', pages 206–207. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1989, and Pogue, Forrest C., ''The Supreme Command'', page 236. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1996.</ref> who attempted to unify resistance efforts against the Germans. General Eisenhower confirmed Koenig's command of the FFI .
[[File:Members of the Maquis in La Tresorerie.jpg|thumb|right|Members of the [[Maquis (World War II)|Maquis]], 14 September 1944]]
The FFI were mostly composed of resistance fighters who used their own weapons, although many FFI units included former French soldiers. They used civilian clothing and wore an armband with the letters "F.F.I."
According to General [[George S. Patton|Patton]], the rapid advance of his army through France would have been impossible without the fighting aid of the FFI. General [[Alexander M. Patch|Patch]] estimated that from the time of the [[Operation Dragoon|Mediterranean landings]] to the arrival of U.S. troops at [[Dijon]], the help given to the operations by the FFI was equivalent to four full divisions.<ref>[http://www.112gripes.com/17.html "Gripe 17" from the 1945 U.S. forces booklet "112 Gripes about the French"]</ref>
FFI units seized bridges, began the liberation of villages and towns as Allied units neared, and collected intelligence on German units in the areas entered by the Allied forces, easing the Allied advance through France in August 1944.<ref>[[Martin Blumenson|Blumenson, Martin]]. ''Breakout and Pursuit'', pages 363–364 and 674. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1989.</ref> According to a volume of the U.S. official history of the war, <blockquote>In Brittany, southern France, and the area of the [[Loire]] and [[Paris]], French Resistance forces greatly aided the pursuit to the Seine in August. Specifically, they supported the [[United States Army Central#World War II|U.S. Third Army]] in Brittany and the [[United States Army Europe|Seventh U.S.]] and [[1st Army (France)|First French Armies]] in the southern beachhead and the Rhône valley. In the advance to the Seine, the French Forces of the Interior helped protect the southern flank of the Third Army by interfering with enemy railroad and highway movements and enemy telecommunications, by developing open resistance on as wide a scale as possible, by providing tactical intelligence, by preserving installations of value to the Allied forces, and by mopping up bypassed enemy positions.<ref>Pogue, Forrest C., ''The Supreme Command'', page 238. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1996.</ref></blockquote>
As regions of France were liberated, the FFI provided a ready pool of semi-trained manpower with which France could rebuild the French Army. Estimated to have a strength of 100,000 in June 1944, the strength of the FFI grew rapidly, doubling by July 1944, and reaching 400,000 by October 1944.<ref>Sumner, Ian. ''The French Army 1939–45 (2)'', Osprey Publishing, London, 1998. {{ISBN|1-85532-707-4}}. page 37. <!-- 200,000 FFI members in October 1944 were believed to be armed.--></ref> Although the amalgamation of the FFI was in some cases fraught with political difficulty, it was ultimately successful and allowed France to re-establish a reasonably large army of 1.3 million men by [[VE Day]].<ref>Vernet, J. ''Le réarmement et la réorganisation de l'armée de terre Française (1943–1946)'', pages 86 and 89. Ministere de la Defense, Château de Vincennes, 1980. Vernet lists 10 divisions that were formed with FFI manpower. Ultimately, some 103 light infantry battalions and six labor battalions were formed with FFI personnel prior to VE Day.</ref>
====Escape lines====
{{Main|Escape and evasion lines (World War II)}}
Approximately 2,000 British and 3,000 American airmen downed in western Europe evaded German capture during the war. Airmen were assisted by many different escape lines, some of them large and organized, others informal and ephemeral. The [[Royal Air Forces Escaping Society]] estimated that 14,000 volunteers worked with the many escape and evasion lines during the war. Many others helped on an occasional basis, and the total number of people who, on one or more occasions helped downed airmen during the war, may have reached 100,000. One-half of the volunteer helpers were women, often young women, even teenagers.<ref>Olson, Lynn (2017), Last Hope Island, New York: Random House, p. 289.</ref>
Escape and evasion lines created by the Allies specifically to assist their men, such as the [[Shelburne Escape Line|Shelbourne]] or the Burgundy lines or those created by servicemen at large in occupied territory, such as the [[Pat O'Leary Line]], usually focused on helping Allied servicemen. Other escape lines, grass-roots efforts by civilians to help those fleeing the Nazis, such as the [[Comet Line|Comet]], [[Dutch-Paris]], Service EVA or the Smit-van der Heijden lines, also helped servicemen but also compromised spies, resisters, men evading the [[Service du travail obligatoire|forced labor impressments]], civilians who wanted to join the [[government in exile|governments-in-exile]] in London, and fleeing [[Jews]].<ref>Koreman, Megan (2018), ''The Escape Line: How the Ordinary Heroes of Dutch-Paris Resisted the Nazi Occupation of Western Europe'', New York: Oxford University Press</ref><ref>Gildea, Robert and Ismee Tames, eds. (2020), Fighters Across Frontiers: Transnational Resistance in Europe, 1936–1948, Manchester: Manchester University Press, pp. 90–108</ref>
====Premature activation====
In the uplands and forests, considerable numbers of resistance fighters gathered, known as [[Maquis (World War II)|maquisards]] because of the [[maquis shrubland]] that sheltered them. These "redoubts" of FFI fighters initially kept a low profile, since overt acts of sabotage resulted in savage reprisals by German forces, or direct military action on a large scale. On 26 March 1944, the [[Maquis des Glières]] in [[Haute-Savoie]] were defeated by more than 3,000 troops followed by shootings and burnings of farms amongst the local population.{{sfn|Ashdown|2015|p=113}}
Excluded from the planning for the Normandy Landings, {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} and his staff devised an operation called ''Plan Caïman'' in which French paratroopers would join the maquisards of the [[Massif Central]] to liberate the surrounding area and from there establish contact with the invading British and US forces. The Allied planners rejected the plan on the grounds that they would not have the resources to support it. On 20 May 1944, the [[Maquis du Mont Mouchet]] in the Massif Central staged an open uprising on its own initiative and was crushed within three weeks with the usual reprisals.{{sfn|Ashdown|2015|pp=152–153}} Despite this, on 6 June, {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} broadcast an impassioned call to arms to the French people on the BBC, which the maquisards interpreted as a signal for overt action; a lower-key message from Eisenhower to avoid a "premature uprising" was widely ignored.{{sfn|Ashdown|2015|pp=176–178}} As a direct consequence, in July the 4,000 FFI on the [[Vercors Plateau]] near [[Grenoble]] were attacked by a German force of 10,000 including paratroopers and troops in gliders. In the [[Battle of Vercors]], the lightly armed French defences were overwhelmed, despite assistance from Allied agents, air-drops and special forces.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.vercors-resistance.fr/le-vercors-resistant/ |title=Le Vercors résistant |last=Fillet |first=Pierre-Louis |date=May 2017 |website=vercors-resistance.fr |publisher=Association nationale des pionniers et combattants volontaires du Vercors |access-date=2 March 2021 |language=fr}}</ref>
==Allied military policy==
{{Main|Military strategy of World War II}}
Military strategy for the war as a whole was discussed among the Big Three powers, and especially among the United Kingdom and the United States, who were especially close, with numerous calls and meetings held between U.S. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and British Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]]. In addition, the leaders of the Big Three met at conferences during the war to decide on overall military strategy.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/war-time-conferences|title=Wartime Conferences, 1941–1945|author=Office of the Historian |publisher=United States Department of State }}</ref>
The [[Arcadia Conference]] held in Washington, D.C. from December 22, 1941, to January 14, 1942, followed the [[United States declaration of war on Japan|American]] and the [[United Kingdom declaration of war on Japan|British]] declarations of war on Japan; Japan's allies, Germany and Italy, [[Axis powers#Germany's and Italy's declaration of war against the United States|had just declared war on the United States]]. The main policy decisions of Arcadia included the "Germany First" (also known as "[[Europe first]]") policy that the defeat of Germany had higher priority than the war with Japan.<ref>William Hardy McNeill, ''America, Britain and Russia: Their Cooperation and Conflict 1941–1946'' (1953) pp 90–118</ref><ref>Andrew Roberts, ''Masters and Commanders: How Four Titans Won the War in the West, 1941–1945'' (2010) pp 86–87.</ref>
The [[Second Washington Conference]] in June 1942 confirmed a decision not to open a second front in France but to first invade [[French North Africa]] as part of a joint Mediterranean strategy for an attack on Italy (described as the "soft under-belly" of the Axis).<ref>{{Cite web |title=HyperWar: FRUS--The Conferences at Washington and Casablanca [Introduction] |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/Dip/FRUS41/FRUS41-Intro.html |access-date=2023-03-29 |website=www.ibiblio.org}}</ref>
The decision to undertake a cross-channel invasion in 1944 was taken at the [[Trident Conference]] in Washington in May 1943. General Eisenhower was appointed commander of SHAEF and General [[Bernard Montgomery]] was named as commander of the [[21st Army Group]], which comprised all the land forces involved in the invasion. The coast of [[Normandy]] in northwestern France was chosen as the site of the invasion.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dod.defense.gov/Portals/1/features/2016/0516_dday/docs/d-day-fact-sheet-the-beaches.pdf | title=D-Day: The Beaches}}</ref>
[[File:Teheran conference-1943.jpg|thumb|The "[[Grand Alliance (World War II)|Big Three]]" ([[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] and [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]]) at the [[Tehran Conference]]]]
The [[Tehran Conference]] (28 November to 1 December 1943) a strategy meeting of the Big Three leaders [[Joseph Stalin]], Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill held at the Soviet Union's embassy in Tehran had numerous objectives, and led to the commitment of the western Allies to open a second front in the war in the west.<ref name="WSC_Closing the Ring">{{cite book| last = Churchill| first = Winston Spencer| year = 1951| title = The Second World War: Closing the Ring| publisher = Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston| page = 642}}</ref>
==Campaigns==
{{Further|Free France|Military history of France during World War II}}
After the Fall of France, the battle to retake France began in Africa in November 1940. By September 1944, after the [[#Paris – August 1944|liberation of Paris]] and the [[#Southern France – August 1944|southern France campaign]] and taking of Mediterranean ports in Marseille and Toulon, the country was largely liberated. The Allied Forces were driving into Germany from the west and the south. The liberation of France didn't finally end till the elimination of [[#Pockets of German resistance – to May 1945|some pockets of German resistance]] along the Atlantic coast at the end of the war in May 1945.
[[File:Vichy france map.png|upright=1.2|thumb|right|The gradual loss of all Vichy territory to Free France and the Allies by 1943.<sup>[[[:File:Vichy france map.png|legend]]]</sup>]]
Militarily, the liberation of France was part of the Western Front of World War II. Other than scattered raids in 1942 and 1943, the reconquest began in earnest in the summer of 1944 in parallel campaigns in the north and south of France. On 6 June 1944, the Allies began [[Operation Overlord]], the largest seaborne invasion in history, [[Normandy landings|establishing a beachhead in Normandy]], landing two million men in northern France and opening another front in western Europe against Germany. [[Operation Cobra|American forces broke out from Normandy]] at the end of July. At the [[Falaise Pocket]] the Allied armies destroyed German forces, opening the route to Paris. In the south, the Allies launched [[Operation Dragoon]] on 15 August, opening a new military front on the Mediterranean. In four weeks, the Germans retreated from southern France to Germany. This left French ports in Allied hands, resolving earlier supply problems in the south. Under the onslaught from both directions, the French Resistance organized a [[FFI uprising|general uprising in Paris on 19 August]]. On 25 August 1944 Paris was liberated. The Allied forces began to [[Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine|push towards the Rhine]]. Initial rapid advances in the North stretched lines of supply in the autumn, and the advance slowed. German counteroffensives in the winter of 1944–45 such as the [[Battle of the Bulge]] slowed but did not stop the Allied armies, some crossing the Rhine in February, with heavy German losses. By late March several Allied armies had crossed and began [[Western Allied invasion of Germany|advancing rapidly into Germany]], with the end of the war not far away. With France mostly liberated, a few [[Atlantic pockets|pockets of German resistance]] remained until the [[End of World War II in Europe|end of the war]] in May 1945.
===Gabon – November 1940===
The [[Battle of Gabon]] resulted in the Free French Forces taking the colony of French Gabon and its capital, [[Libreville]], from Vichy French forces. It was the only significant engagement in [[Central Africa]] during the war.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}
===North Africa – November 1942=== <!-- Not, "Liberation of ...", per [[MOS:NOBACKREF]] -->
====Torch====
[[File:Near Algiers, "Torch" troops hit the beaches behind a large American flag "Left" hoping for the French Army not fire... - NARA - 195516.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|American soldiers land near [[Algiers]]. The soldier at the dune line is carrying a flag because it was hoped the French would be less likely to fire on Americans.]]
{{Main|Operation Torch}}
[[Operation Torch]], the invasion of [[French North Africa]], was carried out to trap Axis forces in North Africa between two Allied armies – an Anglo-American one in the west and a British and Commonwealth one in the east; this would also permit an invasion of Italy and free the Mediterranean for shipping. It would be the first ground combat operations for American troops in the west. In a three-pronged Allied assault against Vichy régime targets in French North Africa, the landing forces of Operation Torch came in at [[Casablanca]], [[Oran]] and [[Algiers]]. Following [[Case Anton]], French colonial governors had found themselves taking orders from the German military administration, and did so with varying degrees of enthusiasm. <!-- A few colonies such as [[French India]] pragmatically agreed that they did not wish to tangle with neighboring British colonies, which were larger and better-armed. Others had Axis neighbors, such as Tunisia or Somaliland. --> The American consul in Algiers believed that Vichy forces would welcome American soldiers.
[[File:Troops making their way inland.jpg|thumb|right|British troops after landing at Algiers in November 1942]]
A Western Task Force (aimed at Casablanca) was composed of American units, with Major General George S. Patton in command and Rear Admiral [[Henry Kent Hewitt]] heading naval operations. This Western Task Force consisted of the U.S. [[3rd Infantry Division (United States)|3rd]] and [[9th Infantry Division (United States)|9th Infantry]] Divisions, and two battalions from the U.S. [[2nd Armored Division (United States)|2nd Armored Division]] — 35,000 troops in a convoy of over 100 ships. They were transported directly from the United States in the first of a new series of [[UG convoys]] providing logistical support for the North African campaign.
The Center Task Force, aimed at Oran, included the U.S. 2nd Battalion, [[509th Infantry Regiment (United States)|509th Parachute Infantry Regiment]], the U.S. [[1st Armored Division (United States)|1st Infantry Division]] and the U.S. 1st Armored Division—a total of 18,500 troops.
The Eastern Task Force—aimed at Algiers—was commanded by Lieutenant-General [[Kenneth Anderson (British Army officer)|Kenneth Anderson]] and consisted of a brigade from the British [[78th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|78th]] and the U.S. [[34th Infantry Division (United States)|34th Infantry Divisions]], along with two British commando units ([[No. 1 Commando|No. 1]] and [[No. 6 Commando]]s), together with the [[RAF Regiment]] providing five squadrons of infantry and five Light anti-aircraft flights, totalling 20,000 troops. During the landing, ground forces were commanded by U.S. Major General [[Charles W. Ryder]], of the 34th Division and naval forces were commanded by Royal Navy Vice-Admiral Sir [[Harold Burrough]].
The plan to install [[Henri Giraud]] as governor of the freed territories did not get local support but the Vichy commander in chief of French armed forces [[François Darlan]] had been captured during the operation and was installed as High Commissioner, in return for which he ordered French forces in North Africa to cooperate with the Allies. Darlan was assassinated by an anti-Vichy monarchist and Giraud then took over. The Darlan deal triggered the invasion of Vichy France by Germany.
====Tunisian campaign====
{{Main|Tunisian campaign}}
[[French Tunisia]] had been a protectorate of France since 1881, when it became part of France's colonial empire.
After the [[Operation Torch]] landings in Morocco and Algiers the Allied forces moved eastwards into Tunisia as British forces moved west following the [[Second Battle of El Alamein]]. The Axis forces in North Africa were reinforced but subsequently cut off from resupply and caught between the two armies. The Allies took [[Bizerte]] and [[Tunis]] in May 1943 and the remaining Italian and German forces in North Africa surrendered. The Allies now had all of North Africa as a base of operations against southern Europe.
===Corsica – 1943===
[[File:B-25J-10- 43-27425 447th Bomb Squadron - 111 - 1944.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|US [[B-25]] bomber at [[Solenzara Air Base]] in Corsica in late 1944.]]
{{Main|Liberation of Corsica}}
Except for a brief period, Corsica had been under the control of France since the [[Treaty of Versailles (1768)]]. In World War II, Corsica was occupied by the [[Kingdom of Italy]] from November 1942, through September 1943.<ref>Rodogno, Davide. ''Il nuovo ordine mediterraneo – Le politiche di occupazione dell'Italia fascista in Europa (1940–1943)'' Chapter: France</ref> Italy initially occupied the island (as well as parts of France) as part of Nazi Germany's Case Anton on 11 November 1942. At its peak, Italy had 85,000 troops on the island.<ref>{{cite book|title=Gr20 – Corsica: The High-level Route|first=Paddy|last=Dillon|pages = 14|year=2006|publisher=Cicerone Press Limited|isbn=1852844779}}</ref> There was some native support among [[Italian irredentism in Corsica|Corsican irredentists]] for the occupation.{{citation needed|reason=An edit filter trapped a ref with url=lu1960.blogspot.com/2019/05/research-on-italian-corsica.html imported from Italian occupation of Corsica; this reference has been removed, leaving this portion in need of a source.|date=September 2020}} [[Benito Mussolini]] postponed the annexation of Corsica by Italy until after an assumed Axis victory in World War II, mainly because of German opposition to the irredentist claims.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cg06.fr/cms/cg06/upload/decouvrir-les-am/fr/files/recherchesregionales187.pdf |title=Marco Cuzzi: ''La rivendicazione fascista della Corsica (1938–1943)'' p. 57 (in Italian) |access-date=6 September 2020 |archive-date=28 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728100311/http://www.cg06.fr/cms/cg06/upload/decouvrir-les-am/fr/files/recherchesregionales187.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Although there was mild support for the occupation among collaborationists{{cn|date=April 2022}} and resistance was initially limited, it grew after the Italian invasion and by April 1943 became united, and was armed by airdrop and shipments by the Free French submarine [[Casabianca (Q183)|Casabianca]] and establish some territorial control.<ref name="Chaubin-2003">{{Cite video |author1=Hélène Chaubin |author2=Sylvain Gregory |author3=Antoine Poletti | title=La résistance en Corse | medium=CD-ROM |publisher=Association pour des Études sur la Résistance Intérieure |series=Histoire en mémoire, 1939–1945 |location=Paris |year=2003 |oclc=492457259}}</ref>
After Mussolini's imprisonment in July 1943, German troops took over the occupation of Corsica. The [[Allied invasion of Italy]] began 3 September 1943, leading to [[Armistice of Cassibile|Italy's surrender to the Allies]], with the main invasion force landing in Italy on 9 September.{{citation needed|date=September 2020}} The local resistance signaled an uprising for the same day, beginning the liberation of Corsica ([[Operation Vesuvius]]).
The Allies did not initially want such a movement, preferring to focus their forces on the invasion of Italy. However, in light of the insurrection, the Allies acquiesced to [[Free French]] troops landing on Corsica, starting with an elite detachment of the reconstituted [[French I Corps]] landing (again by the submarine ''[[French submarine Casabianca (1935)|Casabianca]]'') at Arone near the village of Piana in northwest Corsica. This prompted the German troops to attack Italian troops in Corsica as well as the Resistance. The Resistance, and the Italian [[44 Infantry Division Cremona|44 Infantry Division ''Cremona'']] and [[20 Infantry Division Friuli|20 Infantry Division ''Friuli'']] engaged in heavy combat with the German ''[[Sturmbrigade Reichsführer SS]]''. The ''Sturmbrigade'' was joined by the [[90th Light Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)|90th Panzergrenadier Division]] and the Italian XII Paratroopers Battalion/ 184th Paratroopers Regiment [[184th Paratroopers Division "Nembo"]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Esercito Italiano: Divisione "Nembo" (184) |url=http://www.esercito.difesa.it/root/storia/CIL_nembo.asp |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207024405/http://www.esercito.difesa.it/root/storia/CIL_nembo.asp |archive-date=2008-12-07 }}</ref> which were retreating from [[Sardinia]] through Corsica, from [[Bonifacio, Corse-du-Sud|Bonifacio]] to the northern port of Bastia. There were now 30,000 German troops in Corsica withdrawing via Bastia. On 13 September elements of the [[4th Moroccan Mountain Division]] landed in [[Ajaccio]] to try to stop the Germans. During the night of 3 to 4 October, the last German units evacuated Bastia, leaving behind 700 dead and 350 [[Prisoner of war|POWs]].{{citation needed|date=September 2020}}
===Battle of Normandy – June 1944===
{{Main|Operation Overlord|Normandy landings}}
{{Further|Battle for Caen|Battle of Cherbourg|Operation Cobra|Falaise Pocket|Operation Marathon (World War II)}}
[[File:British commandos of 1st Special Service Brigade, led by Lord Lovat, landing on 'Queen Red' sector of Sword Beach, at La Breche, on the morning of 6 June 1944. B5103.jpg|thumb|left|British troops wading ashore at La Breche, [[Normandy]], France 6 June 1944]]
[[Operation Overlord]] was launched on 6 June 1944 with troops landing in Normandy. Attacks by 1,200 planes preceded an amphibious assault by more than 5,000 vessels. Nearly 160,000 troops crossed the English Channel on 6 June.
The [[Battle of Normandy]] was won due to what is still today the largest ever military landing logistical operation; it brought three million soldiers, mostly American, British, and French, over the Channel from Britain.
Some of the German Army units they met in this operation were ''[[Ostlegionen]]'', part of the German [[German 243rd Static Infantry Division|243]]rd and [[German 709th Static Infantry Division|709]]th Static Infantry Divisions, near the [[Utah beach|Utah]], [[Juno beach|Juno]] and [[Sword beach|Sword]] invasion beaches.<ref>{{Cite book|title=D-Day, June 6, 1944: the Battle for the Normandy Beaches |last=Ambrose |first=Stephen |publisher=Simon & Schuster|year=1997|isbn=0-7434-4974-6|location=London|pages=34}}</ref>{{clarify|the 243rd and 709th are defending Cotentin so only near Utah beach?|date=February 2021}}
[[File:NormandySupply edit.jpg|thumb|Vast amounts of men and equipment were landed on the Normandy beaches]]
The British intelligence organization, [[MI9]], created [[Operation Marathon (World War II)|Operation Marathon]] to gather downed airmen into isolated forest camps where they would await their rescue by allied military forces advancing after the Normandy Invasion of June 6, 1944. The [[Comet Line]], a Belgian/French escape line, operated the forest camps with financial and logistical help from [[MI9]], which also provided support for Operation Bonaparte, another escape and evasion line for downed airmen in Normandy.<ref>[Behind Enemy Lines
French-Canadian spies outfox the Nazis to save Allied airmen in preparation for D-Day https://www.canadashistory.ca/explore/military-war/behind-enemy-lines]. Tom Douglas. Canada's History Society, May 14, 2014</ref>
===Paris – August 1944===
[[File:Crowds of French patriots line the Champs Elysees-edit2.jpg|thumb|left|Parade on the [[Champs Elysees]], 26 August 1944 after Liberation]]<!-- Images: [[c:Category:Liberation of Paris]] -->
{{Main|Liberation of Paris}}
{{Further|Paris in World War II}}
The Liberation of Paris was an urban military battle that took place over the period of a week from 19 August 1944 until the German garrison surrendered the French capital on 25 August 1944. Paris had been ruled by Nazi Germany since the signing of the [[Armistice with France (Second Compiègne)|Armistice]] on 22 June 1940, after which the ''[[Wehrmacht]]'' [[Nazi occupation of France|occupied northern and western France]].
As the final phase of Operation Overlord was still going on in August 1944, Eisenhower was not considering the liberation of Paris to be a primary objective. The goal of the U.S. and Anglo-Canadian armed forces was to destroy the German forces, and end World War II in Europe, to allow the Allies to concentrate their efforts on the Pacific war.<ref>[http://www.radiofrance.fr/reportage/cahiers/cahiers.php?rid=235000257 "''Les Cahiers Multimédias: Il y a 60 ans : la Libération de Paris''"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014173359/http://www.radiofrance.fr/reportage/cahiers/cahiers.php?rid=235000257|date=14 October 2007}} (in French). Gérard Conreur/Mémorial du Maréchal Leclerc et de la Libération de Paris. [[Radio France]]. 6 July 2004.</ref>
====Uprising – 15 August====
[[File:Lot 4568-2 (19583145252).jpg|thumb|Armored vehicles of the 2nd Armored Division fighting at the {{lang|fr|[[Palais Garnier]]|italic=no}}, a German tank in flames (Aug 25)]]
As the French Resistance began to rise in Paris against the Germans on 15 August, Eisenhower stated that it was too early for an assault on Paris. He was also aware that [[Hitler]] had ordered the German military to completely destroy the city in the event of an Allied attack, and Paris was considered to have too great a value, culturally and historically, to risk its destruction.
On 15 August employees of the [[Paris Métro]], the [[French Gendarmerie|Gendarmerie]], and [[National Police (France)|National Police]] went on strike; postal workers followed the next day. They were soon joined by workers across the city, causing a [[general strike]] to break out on 18 August. Barricades began to appear on 20 August, with Resistance fighters organizing themselves to sustain a siege. Trucks were positioned, trees cut down, and trenches were dug in the pavement to free paving stones for consolidating the barricades.
Skirmishes reached their peak on 22 August, when some German units tried to leave their fortifications. At 09:00 on 23 August, under the orders of [[Dietrich von Choltitz]], commander of the German garrison and military governor of Paris, the Germans opened fire on the [[Grand Palais]], an FFI stronghold, and German tanks fired at the barricades in the streets. Adolf Hitler gave the order to inflict maximum damage on the city.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070816141409/http://www.humanite.fr/2004-08-23_Politique_Balises-1944 ''Libération de Paris: Balises 1944''], L'Humanité, 23 August 2004.</ref>
====Allied arrival – 24–25 August====
The liberation began when the FFI staged an uprising against the German garrison upon the approach of General Patton's [[US Third Army]]. On the night of 24 August, elements of General [[Philippe Leclerc]]'s [[2nd Armored Division (France)|2nd Armored Division]] made their way into Paris and arrived at the [[Hôtel de Ville, Paris|Hôtel de Ville]] shortly before midnight. The next morning, 25 August, the bulk of the 2nd Armored Division and the [[4th Infantry Division (United States)|US 4th Infantry Division]] and other allied units entered the city. von Choltitz surrendered to the French at the [[Hôtel Meurice]], the newly established French headquarters. de Gaulle arrived to assume control of the city.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}
It is estimated that between 800 and 1,000 Resistance fighters were killed during the Battle for Paris, and another 1,500 were wounded.<ref>{{cite book|last = Thorton |first= Willis | year = 1962 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Wld0AAAAIAAJ&q=800+and+1000+killed+|title =The Liberation of Paris |via= Google Books|access-date=30 August 2011}}</ref>
====German surrender – 25 August====
[[File:American troops march down the Champs Elysees crop.jpg|thumb|left|U.S. 28th Infantry Division in the "Victory Day" parade on 29 August]]
Despite repeated orders from Adolf Hitler that the French capital be destroyed before being given up, Choltitz surrendered on 25 August at the Hôtel Meurice. He then signed the official surrender at the [[Paris Police Prefecture]]. Choltitz later described himself in ''Is Paris Burning?'' (''Brennt Paris?'') as the saviour of Paris, for not blowing it up before surrendering.<ref>{{cite book |language=de |last=Choltitz, von |first=Dietrich |title=Brennt Paris? Adolf Hitler ... Tatsachenbericht d. letzten deutschen Befehlshabers in Paris |trans-title=Factual report of the last German commander in Paris |publisher=UNA Weltbücherei |location=Mannheim |date=1950 |oclc=1183798630}}</ref>
[[File:The Liberation of Paris, 25 - 26 August 1944 HU66477.jpg|thumb|De Gaulle and his entourage stroll down the Champs Élysées on August 26]]
The same day, Charles {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}, President of the Provisional Government of the French Republic moved back into the War Ministry and made a rousing speech to the crowd from the Hôtel de Ville. The day after {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}'s speech, General Leclerc's 2nd Armored Division paraded down the [[Champs-Élysées]], while {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} marched down the boulevard and entered the [[Place de la Concorde]].<ref>{{cite magazine |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Paris is Free Again |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Uk8EAAAAMBAJ&dq=while+de+Gaulle+marched+down+the+boulevard+and+entered+the+Place+de+la+Concorde&pg=PA25 |magazine=Life |location= |publisher=Time Life |date=11 September 1944 |access-date=4 December 2021}}</ref> On 29 August, the U.S. Army's [[U.S. 28th Infantry Division|28th Infantry Division]] paraded 24-abreast up the ''[[Avenue Hoche]]'' to the [[Arc de Triomphe]], then down the Champs Élysées, greeted by joyous crowds.<ref>Stanton, Shelby L. (Captain U.S. Army, Retired), ''World War II Order of Battle'', The encyclopedic reference to all U.S. Army ground force units from battalion through division, 1939–1945, Galahad Books, New York, 1991, p. 105. {{ISBN|0-88365-775-9}}.</ref>
The uprising in Paris gave the newly established Free French government and {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}, enough prestige and authority to establish a provisional French Republic, replacing the fallen Vichy regime,<ref name="charles1">{{cite web|url=http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/article.php3?id_article=23&var_recherche=lib%E9ration|title=1944–1946: La Libération|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070615090446/http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/article.php3?id_article=23 |archive-date=15 June 2007|date=15 June 2007|language=French|publisher=Charles {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} foundation official website}}</ref> which had [[#End of Vichy|fled into exile]].
===Southern France – August 1944===
[[File:Operation Dragoon invasion fleet 1944.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|The Operation Dragoon invasion fleet on the [[French Riviera]]]]
{{Main|Operation Dragoon}}
{{Further|Mediterranean and Middle East Theatre}}
====Planning and goals====
When first planned, the [[Southern France Campaign (1944)|campaign in southern France]] and the landings in Normandy were to take place simultaneously—Operation Overlord in Normandy, and "Anvil" (as the southern campaign was originally called) in the south of France. A dual landing was soon recognized to be impossible; the southern campaign was postponed. The ports in Normandy had insufficient capacity to handle Allied military supply needs and French generals under {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} pressed for a direct attack on southern France with the participation of French troops. Despite objections by Churchill, the operation was authorized by the Allied [[Combined Chiefs of Staff]] on 14{{nbsp}}July and scheduled for 15{{nbsp}}August.{{sfnp|Yeide|2007|p=13}}{{sfnp|Zaloga|2009|pp=6–8}}{{sfnp|Tucker-Jones|2010|p=69}}
The goal of the southern France campaign, now known as Operation Dragoon was to secure the vital ports on the French Mediterranean coast (of Marseille and Toulon.) and pressure German forces with another front. The US [[VI Corps (United States)|VI Corps]] landed on the beaches of the [[French Riviera]] ({{lang|fr|Côte d'Azur}}) on 15 August 1944 shielded by a large naval task force, followed by several divisions of French Army B (commanded by [[Jean de Lattre de Tassigny]].{{sfnp|Pogue|1986|p=227}}).
They were opposed by the scattered forces of the German [[Army Group G]], (''Heeresgruppe{{nbsp}}G'') which had been weakened by the relocation of its divisions to other fronts and the replacement of its soldiers with third-rate men outfitted with obsolete equipment. The Army was understrength, most of the units having been sent north earlier.{{sfn|Vogel|1983|pp=588–598}}{{sfn|Clarke|Smith|1993|p=63}} The units that were present were spread thinly, made up of second rate units from eastern Europe (''[[Ostlegionen]]'') with low morale and poor equipment.{{sfn|Vogel|1983|pp=588–598}}{{sfn|Zaloga|2009|pp=16–19}} The coastal defenses had been improved by the Vichy regime and later improved by the Germans after they took over in November 1942.{{sfn|Tucker-Jones|2010|p=78}}
[[File:Anvildragoon.png|thumb|left|upright=1.0|Allied invasion of southern France in [[Operation Dragoon]]]]
<!-- Alternative: File:80-G-46491_(27457631371).jpg -->
The FFI played a major role in the fighting.{{sfnp|Zaloga|2009|pp=8, 29}} The Allied ground and naval forces were supported by a fleet of 3470 planes, mostly stationed on Corsica and Sardinia.{{sfnp|Vogel|1983|pp=584–586}}
On 14 August, preliminary landings took place in the [[Hyères Islands]] by the [[First Special Service Force]], a joint U.S.-Canadian special-forces unit, to secure a staging area and for amphibious landing training. After sporadic resistance, driving the German garrison to the western part of the island, the Germans surrendered on 17 August. The Force transferred to the mainland, becoming part of the [[1st Airborne Task Force (Allied)|First Airborne Task Force]]. Meanwhile, French commandos were active to the west in [[Operation Romeo]] and [[Operation Span]].{{sfn|Zaloga|2009|pp=36–41}}{{sfn|Vogel|1983|p=597}}
[[File:Liberation of Marseille, August 1944.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.0|[[Jean de Lattre de Tassigny]] walking through the liberated city of Marseille]]
Hindered by Allied [[air supremacy]] and a large-scale uprising by the FFI, the weak German forces were swiftly defeated. The Germans withdrew to the north through the [[Rhône]] valley, to establish a stable defense line at Dijon. Allied mobile units were able to overtake the Germans and partially block their route at the town of [[Montélimar]]. The ensuing battle led to a stalemate, with neither side able to achieve a decisive breakthrough, until the Germans were finally able to complete their withdrawal and retreat from the town. While the Germans were retreating, the French managed to capture the important ports of [[Marseille]] and [[Toulon]], putting them into operation soon after.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}
The Germans were not able to hold Dijon and ordered a complete withdrawal from Southern France. Army Group{{nbsp}}G retreated further north, pursued by Allied forces. The fighting ultimately came to a stop at the [[Vosges mountains]], where Army Group{{nbsp}}G was finally able to establish a stable defense line. After meeting with the Allied units from Operation Overlord, the Allied forces were in need of reorganizing and, facing stiffened German resistance, the offensive was halted on 14{{nbsp}}September. Operation Dragoon was considered a success by the Allies. It enabled them to liberate most of Southern France in just four weeks while inflicting heavy casualties on the German forces, although a substantial part of the best German units were able to escape. The captured French ports were put into operation, allowing the Allies to solve their supply problems soon after.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}
===Eastern France – Autumn 1944===
{{unreferenced section|date=October 2020}}
{{Main|Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine|Clearing the Channel Coast|Lorraine campaign|Battle of Alsace}}
[[File:The British Army in Normandy 1944 B9743.jpg|thumb|left|British infantry of the 1st Battalion, [[Royal Hampshire Regiment|Hampshire Regiment]] crossing the Seine at [[Vernon, Eure|Vernon]], 28 August 1944.]]
The [[First Canadian Army]] [[Clearing the Channel Coast|liberated the French coast]] from Normandy to the Low Countries. Hitler had ordered the troops occupying them to [[German World War II strongholds|hold them at all costs]] but using isolation and coordinated bombardment, the ports were reduced.
Fighting on the Western front seemed to stabilize, and the Allied advance stalled in front of the [[Siegfried Line#Clashes on the Siegfried Line|Siegfried Line]] (''Westwall'') and the southern reaches of the Rhine. Starting in early September, the Americans began slow and bloody fighting through the [[Battle of Hurtgen Forest|Hurtgen Forest]] (described by [[Ernest Hemingway]] as "[[Battle of Passchendaele|Passchendaele]] with tree bursts"—) to breach the Line.
American forces fought from September until mid-December to push the Germans out of Lorraine and from behind the Siegfried Line. The crossing of the [[Moselle River]] and the capture of the fortress of [[Metz]] proved difficult for the American troops in the face of German reinforcements, supply shortages, and unfavorable weather. During September and October, the Allied [[6th Army Group]] ([[Seventh United States Army|U.S. Seventh Army]] and [[First Army (France)|French First Army]]) fought a difficult campaign through the [[Vosges Mountains]] that was marked by dogged German resistance and slow advances. In November, however, the German front snapped under the pressure, resulting in sudden Allied advances that liberated [[Belfort]], [[Mulhouse]], and [[Strasbourg]], and placed Allied forces along the [[Rhine|Rhine River]]. The Germans managed to hold a large bridgehead (the [[Colmar Pocket]]), on the western bank of the Rhine and centered around the city of [[Colmar]]. On 16 November the Allies started a large scale autumn offensive called [[Operation Queen]]. With its main thrust again through the [[Hurtgen Forest|Hürtgen Forest]], the offensive drove the Allies to the [[Rur River]], but failed in its core objectives to capture the Rur dams and pave the way towards the Rhine. The Allied operations were then succeeded by the German Ardennes offensive.
===Pockets of German resistance – to May 1945===
{{Main|Atlantic pockets}}
{{Further|Allied siege of La Rochelle|Battle of the Atlantic}}
[[File:Free French armoured car which participated to the liberation of La Rochelle in 1945.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|[[French Army]] armored car which participated in the liberation of [[La Rochelle]] in 1945. [[Musée d'Orbigny-Bernon]] ]]
The pocket of La Rochelle was a zone of German resistance at the end of the Second World War. It was made up of the city of La Rochelle, the submarine base at [[La Pallice]], of the [[Île de Ré]] and of most of the [[Oléron|Ile d'Oléron]] (the southern part of the island was part of the [[Royan pocket]]).
==Victory – 7 May 1945==
{{Further|Western Front (World War II)#End of the Third Reich|European theatre of World War II#End of the war in Europe|End of World War II in Europe}}
[[File:Journal American 5659.JPG|thumb|upright|left|Journal American of 7 May 1945 announcing Victory in Europe ({{ILL|Musée de la Reddition|fr|v=sup}})]]
Victory in Europe was achieved on 7 May 1945. [[Death of Adolf Hitler|Hitler committed suicide]] on 30 April during the [[Battle of Berlin]] and Germany's surrender was authorised by his successor, ''[[Reichspräsident]]'' [[Karl Dönitz]] leader of the rump administration [[Flensburg Government]]. The act of military surrender was first signed at 02:41 on 7 May in [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force|SHAEF]] HQ at [[Reims]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Hamilton|first=Charles|title=Leaders & Personalities of the Third Reich, Vol. 2|publisher=R. James Bender Publishing|year=1996|isbn=978-0-912138-66-4|location=San Jose, CA|pages=285, 286}}</ref> and a slightly modified document, considered the definitive [[German Instrument of Surrender]], was signed on 8 May 1945 in [[Karlshorst]], [[Berlin]] at 21:20 local time.
{{Blockquote|text=The German High Command will at once issue orders to all German military, naval and air authorities and to all forces under German control to cease active operations at 23.01 hours Central European time on 8 May 1945...|author=[[German Instrument of Surrender]]|title=Article 2|source=}}
==Aftermath==
By the autumn of 1944, Paris and the northern part of France were in Allied hands following Normandy campaign, and the southern part of France was free in the wake of the success of [[Operation Dragoon]]. Except for a few Atlantic pockets, the Allies were in full control of France, freeing their military forces to push eastward across the Rhine into Germany and towards Berlin.
Meanwhile, liberation of most of metropolitan France unleashed several other overlapping events. The [[Provisional Government of the French Republic|Provisional Government]], already in existence since June 1944, moved back to the capital after Paris was liberated in late August, where it piloted an orderly transition back to [[republican government]]. The Vichy regime held its last meeting on 17 August 1944, before fleeing into exile in Sigmaringen, Germany.
Within France, a wave of assaults, [[extra-judicial execution]]s, and public humiliations followed of suspected collaborators, particularly of women who had consorted with German men.<ref>{{cite magazine| title=This Picture Tells a Tragic Story of What Happened to Women After D-Day |author= Ann Mah | date=June 6, 2018 | magazine=Time | url=https://time.com/5303229/women-after-d-day/}}</ref> This was known as the {{lang|fr|épuration sauvage}} ("wild purge"). At least 20,000 French women had their heads shorn. Many women in Normandy reported [[Rape during the liberation of France|rapes by American soldiers]]; several were subsequently executed.<ref>{{cite news|first=Fabienne |last=Faur |title=GIs were liberators yes, but also trouble in Normandy |date=2013-05-26 |publisher=[[Agence France-Presse]] |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hY3cUraWo4fVJqWbA34Fd2IeTFOQ?docId=CNG.26cca045d911d64d66269c72328f270e.b11 |access-date=2014-06-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303160004/https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hY3cUraWo4fVJqWbA34Fd2IeTFOQ?docId=CNG.26cca045d911d64d66269c72328f270e.b11 |archive-date=March 3, 2014 }}</ref>
A series of [[Épuration légale|legal purges]] followed, ordered by courts set up for the purpose. The first free municipal elections since before the war were organized by the Provisional Government in May 1945, and women voted for the first time. The new [[French Constitution of 27 October 1946|Constitution]] of the [[Fourth French Republic]] was accepted in October 1946.
===End of Vichy===
[[File:Sigmaringen schloss.jpg|thumb|The Vichy government moved to the castle in [[Sigmaringen]], Germany]]
{{Main|Vichy France#Decline of the regime}}
{{Further|Sigmaringen enclave}}
Under pressure from the advancing Allied forces, Pierre Laval held the last government council on 17 August 1944, with five ministers.{{sfn|Brissaud|1965|pp=504–505}} With permission from the Germans, he attempted to call back the prior [[National Assembly]] with the goal of giving it power{{sfn|Paxton-fr|1997|pp=382–383}} and thus impeding the communists and {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}.{{sfn|Kupferman|2006|pp=520–525}} He obtained the agreement of German ambassador [[Otto Abetz]] to bring [[Édouard Herriot]], (President of the [[Chamber of Deputies (France)|Chamber of Deputies]]) back to Paris.{{sfn|Kupferman|2006|pp=520–525}} But ultra-[[collaborationists]] [[Marcel Déat]] and [[Fernand de Brinon]] protested to the Germans, who changed their minds{{sfn|Brissaud|1965|pp=491–492}} and took Laval to [[Belfort]] on 20 August 1944{{sfn|Jäckel-fr|1968|p=495}} along with the remains of his government, "to assure its legitimate security", along with Petain, and arrested Herriot.{{sfn|Kupferman|2006|pp=527–529}}
A governmental commission directed by Fernand de Brinon was proclaimed on 6 September.{{sfn|Aron|1962|pp=40, 45}} On 7 September, they were taken ahead of the advancing Allied Forces out of France to the town of Sigmaringen, where other Vichy officials were already present, arriving on the 8th.{{sfn|Aron|1962|pp=41–45}}
[[Sigmaringen Castle]] was occupied and used by the Vichy government-in-exile from September 1944 to April 1945. Pétain resided at the Castle, but refused to cooperate and kept mostly to himself,{{sfn|Aron|1962|pp=40, 45}} and ex-Prime Minister Laval also refused.{{sfn|Aron|1962|pp=81–82}} Despite the efforts of the collaborationists and the Germans, Pétain never recognized the Sigmaringen Commission.{{sfn|Sautermeister|2013|p=13}} The Germans, wanting to present a facade of legality, enlisted other Vichy officials such as [[Fernand de Brinon]] as president, along with [[Joseph Darnand]], [[Jean Luchaire]], [[Eugène Bridoux]] and [[Marcel Déat]].{{sfn|Rousso|1999|pp=51–59}}
On 7 September 1944,{{sfn|Béglé|2014}} fleeing the advance of Allied troops into France, a thousand French collaborators (including a hundred officials of the Vichy regime, a few hundred members of the [[French Militia]], collaborationist party militants, and the editorial staff of the newspaper ''[[Je suis partout]]'') but also waiting-game opportunists{{efn|"waiting-game opportunists": ''[[Attentisme|Attentistes]]'' in the original.}} also went into exile in Sigmaringen.
The commission had its own radio station ({{lang|fr|Radio-patrie, Ici la France}}) and an official press ({{lang|fr|La France}}, ''[[Le Petit Parisien]]''), and hosted the embassies of the Axis powers: Germany, Italy and Japan. The population of the enclave was about 6,000, including known collaborationist journalists, the writers [[Louis-Ferdinand Céline]] and [[Lucien Rebatet]], the actor [[Robert Le Vigan]] and their families, as well as 500 soldiers, 700 French SS, prisoners of war and STO workers.{{sfn|Jackson|2001|pp=567–568}} Inadequate housing, insufficient food, promiscuity among the paramilitaries, and lack of hygiene facilitated the spread of numerous illnesses including [[flu]] and [[tuberculosis]], and a high mortality rate among children. The only two French doctors, Doctor Destouches, alias ([[Louis-Ferdinand Céline]]) and [[Bernard Ménétrel]].{{sfn|Béglé|2014}} treated these ailments as best they could.
On 21 April 1945 [[General de Lattre]] ordered his forces to take Sigmaringen. The end came within days. By the 26th, Pétain was in the hands of French authorities in Switzerland,{{sfn|Aron|1962|pp=48–49}} and Laval had fled to Spain.{{sfn|Aron|1962|pp=81–82}} Brinon,{{sfn|Cointet|2014|p=426}} Luchaire, and Darnand were captured, tried, and executed by 1947. Other members escaped to Italy or Spain.
===Justice and retribution===
{{Further|Vichy France#Purges|Collaborationism#France}}
<!-- Images: [[c:Category:Femmes tondues]] -->
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1971-041-10, Paris, der Kollaboration beschuldigte Französinnen.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|French women accused of [[Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy#France|collaboration with the enemy]] during the [[Occupied France|occupation]] are led through the streets of Paris barefoot, faces burnt, and with their heads shaved.]]
====Extrajudicial purges====
{{Main|Épuration sauvage}}
{{Further|Horizontal collaboration}}
Immediately following the liberation, France was swept by a wave of executions, public humiliations, assaults and detentions of suspected collaborators, known as the ''[[épuration sauvage]]'' (wild purge).{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=577}} This period succeeded the German occupational administration but preceded the authority of the French Provisional Government and consequently lacked any form of institutional justice.{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=577}} Approximately 9,000 were executed, mostly without trial in [[summary execution]]s,{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=577}} notably including members and leaders of the pro-Nazi ''milices''. In one case, as many as 77 milice members were summarily executed at once.<ref>{{in lang|fr}} [[Henri Amouroux]], [http://www.asmp.fr/travaux/communications/2006/amouroux.htm 'La justice du Peuple en 1944'] (Justice of the People in 1944) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070423205311/http://www.asmp.fr/travaux/communications/2006/amouroux.htm |date=2007-04-23 }}, [[Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques]], 9 Jan 2006.</ref> An inquest into the issue of summary executions launched by [[Jules Moch]], then Minister of the Interior, came to the conclusion that there had been 9,673 summary executions. A second inquiry in 1952 separated out 8,867 executions of suspected collaborators and 1,955 summary executions for which the motive of killing was not known, giving a total of 10,822 executions.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}} Shaving the heads of women as a form of humiliation and [[shaming]] was a common feature of the purges,{{sfn|Jackson|2001|p=580}} and between 10,000 and 30,000 women accused of having collaborated with the Germans or having had [[horizontal collaboration|relationships with German soldiers]] or officers were subjected to the practice,{{sfn|Jackson|2001|p=581}} becoming known as {{ill|tonsured women|fr|Femmes tondues|v=sup}} ({{lang|fr|femmes tondues}}).{{sfn|Weitz|1995|pp=276–277}}
====Legal purge====
{{Main|Épuration légale}}
The official ''[[épuration légale]]'' ("legal purge") began following a June 1944 decree that established a three-tier system of judicial courts:{{sfn|Gildea|2002|p=69}} a High Court of Justice which dealt with Vichy ministers and officials; Courts of Justice for other serious cases of alleged collaboration; and regular Civic Courts for lesser cases of alleged collaboration.{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=577}}{{sfn|Williams|1992|pp=272–273}} Over 700 collaborators were executed following legal trials.<ref>Conan, Eric; Rousso, Henry (1998). Vichy: An Ever-Present Past. Sudbury, Massachusetts: Dartmouth. ISBN 978-0-87451-795-8.</ref> The initial phase of purge trials ended with a series of amnesty laws passed between 1951 and 1953{{sfn|Conan|Rousso|1998|p=9}} which reduced the number of imprisoned collaborators from 40,000 to 62,{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=608}} and was followed by a period of official "repression" that lasted between 1954 and 1971.{{sfn|Conan|Rousso|1998|p=9}}
Reliable statistics of the death toll do not exist. At the low end, one estimate is that approximately 10,500 were executed, before and after liberation. "The courts of Justice pronounced about 6,760 death sentences, 3,910 in absentia and 2,853 in the presence of the accused. Of these 2,853, 73 percent were commuted by {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}, and 767 carried out. In addition, about 770 executions were ordered by the military tribunals. Thus the total number of people executed before and after the Liberation was approximately 10,500, including those killed in the épuration sauvage",{{Sfn|Jackson|2003|p=577}} notably including members and leaders of the [[milice]]s. US forces put the number of summary executions following liberation at 80,000. The French Minister of the Interior in March 1945 claimed that the number executed was 105,000.{{sfn|Huddleston|1955|p=299}}
===Elections of May 1945===
{{more citations needed section|find=Élections municipales de 1945|date=February 2021}}
The [[French municipal elections of 1945]]<!--permitted circular link per MOS:CIRCULAR--> were held in two rounds on 29 April and 13 May 1945. These were the first elections since the liberation of France and the first in which women could vote.{{efn|name="women vote"}} Elections did not take place in four departments ([[Bas-Rhin]], [[Haut-Rhin]], Moselle and [[Territory of Belfort]]) with recent fighting that had {{clarify span|prevented the creation of electoral lists|reason=Lists of candidates, or lists of voters?|date=February 2021}}. In Moselle, they were postponed to 23 and 30 September, at the same time as the cantonal elections, because the end of the fighting was too {{clarify span|close.|reason=Close in time, or space?date=February 2021|date=February 2021}} These difficulties made it very difficult to compile electoral lists that included women, and there were very few by-elections before these historic dates.
====Election context====
While the war was not yet officially over (the German surrender of May 8, 1945 was signed between the two rounds of voting), the elections took place in a difficult political and social context: the economic situation remained very precarious, not all prisoners of war had returned, and many scores were being settled in local political life.
These elections were the first test for the validity of the provisional institutions that had emerged from the Resistance.
The electoral system in force was the [[Two-round system|two-round majority system]], except in Paris, where elections were held under the [[Proportional representation|proportional system]]. This election was also marked by the participation of women for the first time in France. On April 21, 1944, the right to vote had been granted to women by the French Committee of National Liberation,{{efn|name="women vote"}} and confirmed by the ordinance of October 5 under the Provisional Government of the French Republic. Given the absence of 2 1/2 million prisoners of war, deportees, STO workers, and the ban on voting by career soldiers, the electorate in this election was composed of up to 62% women (although the figure of 53% is also cited).{{where|date=February 2021}} Despite the novelty of women voters, there was no particular media reaction, partly because of the difficulties related to the immediate post-war period which were of greater concern, such as returned deportees, prisoner camps, food rationing, and so on.
The referendum proposed to the French by the Provisional Government (GPRF) contained two questions. The first one proposed the drafting of a new Constitution and, consequently, the abandonment of the institutions of the Third Republic. Charles de Gaulle advocated for its support, as did all political parties, excepting the [[Radical Party (France)|radicals]], who remained faithful to the Third Republic. On 21 October 1945, 96 per cent of the French voted "yes" on the first question of the referendum in favor of changing the institutions: the Assembly elected that day would thus be [[Constituent assembly|constituent]].<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/286279 | jstor=286279 | title=French Public Opinion and the Founding of the Fourth Republic | last1=Cowans | first1=Jon | journal=French Historical Studies | date=1991 | volume=17 | issue=1 | pages=62–95 | doi=10.2307/286279 }}</ref>
The second referendum question concerned the powers of this Constituent Assembly. Fearing a preponderance of communists in control over it, which would allow them to legally install a power of their own choice, General de Gaulle provided a text strictly limiting its prerogatives: its duration was limited to seven months, the constitutional plans it would draft would be submitted to popular referendum, and finally it could only bring down the government by a motion of censure voted by an absolute majority of its members. Most parties supported de Gaulle in advocating a "yes" vote, including the [[Popular Republican Movement]] (MRP), the [[French Section of the Workers' International|socialists]] and the [[Republican Party of Liberty|moderates]], while the [[French Communist Party|communists]] and radicals pushed for "no". Nevertheless, 66 per cent of the electorate approved of limiting the powers of the Assembly by voting "yes" in the referendum.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Berstein |first1=Serge |last2=Milza |first2=Pierre |author-link2=Pierre Milza |title=Histoire de la France au XXe siècle |trans-title=History of 20th Century France |pages=662–663 |location=Brussels |publisher=Editions Complexe}}.</ref>{{better source|reason=No year or ISBN, and none of the versions seen at worldcat seem to correspond to one with 663 pages.|date=July 2022}}
===Provisional Government of the French Republic===
[[File:Emblem of the Provisional Government of the French Republic.svg|thumb|Emblem of the [[Provisional Government of the French Republic]] (1944)]]
{{unreferenced section|reason=The main article has very few references and none of them to support this content.|date=January 2021 |find=Provisional Government of the French Republic}}
{{Main|Provisional Government of the French Republic}}
{{Further|Charles de Gaulle#Provisional Government of the French Republic}}
The Provisional Government of the French Republic was the successor organization to the French Committee of National Liberation. It served as an interim government of Free France between 1944 and 1946, and lasted until the establishment of the Fourth Republic. Its founding marked the official restoration and re-establishment of a provisional French Republic, assuring continuity with the defunct Third Republic which dissolved itself in 1940 with the advent of the Vichy regime.
[[File:Gouvernement provisoire de la République française.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Council of Ministers of the Provisional Government meeting in Paris, 2 November 1945]]
The PGFR was created by the Committee of National Liberation on 3 June 1944, the day before {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} arrived in London from Algiers on Winston Churchill's invitation, and three days before D-day. It moved back to Paris after the liberation of the capital, where its war and foreign policy goals were to secure a [[Allied-occupied Germany|French occupation zone in Germany]] and a [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council]]. This was assured through a large military contribution on the [[Western Front (World War II)#1944–1945: The Second Front|western front]].
Besides war and foreign policy goals, its principal mission was to prepare the transition to a new constitutional order, that ultimately resulted in the Fourth Republic. It also made several important reforms and political decisions, such as granting [[women's suffrage in France|women the right to vote]],{{efn|name="women vote"|The right to vote was granted to women in the {{ill|Ordinance of 21 April 1944|fr|Ordonnance portant organisation des pouvoirs publics en France après la Libération|lt=Ordinance of 21 April 1944.|vertical-align=sup}}}} founding the ''[[École nationale d'administration]]'', and laying the groundwork of [[social security in France]].
With regard to transition to a new Republic, the GPRF organized the [[1945 French legislative election]] for 21 October 1945, drew up a Constitution to present to the public for approval, and organized the [[October 1946 French constitutional referendum|Constitutional referendum]] on 13 October 1946 in which it was adopted by the voters, thus bringing into existence the Fourth Republic.
===Fourth Republic===
[[File:Affiche Charles de Gaulle - RPF - 1947.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|Campaign poster for [[Charles de Gaulle]]'s RPF party: "We can overcome this; My fellow French citizens, vote for the ''[[Rassemblement du Peuple Français]]'' [[Slate (elections)|slate]]". Lithograph, Paris, 1944–1947]]
{{Main|French Fourth Republic}}
{{Further|Tripartisme}}
With most of the political class discredited and containing many members who had more or less collaborated with Nazi Germany, [[Gaullism]] and [[communism]] became the most popular political forces in France.<ref>{{cite journal|title=De Gaulle and the R.P.F. |author=Geoffrey C. Cook | journal=Political Science Quarterly |volume=65 | number=3| date= September 1950 |pages=335–352 | publisher=The Academy of Political Science |doi=10.2307/2145251 |jstor=2145251 |url=
https://www.jstor.org/stable/2145251 }}</ref>
The Provisional Government (GPRF) ruled from 1944 to 1946, with de Gaulle in charge. Meanwhile, negotiations took place over the proposed new constitution, which was to be put to a referendum. De{{nbsp}}Gaulle advocated a presidential system of government, and criticized the reinstatement of what he pejoratively called "the parties system". He resigned in January 1946 and was replaced by [[Felix Gouin]] of the French Section of the Workers' International (socialists; SFIO). Ultimately, only the French Communist Party (PCF) and the socialist SFIO supported the draft constitution, which envisaged a form of government based on [[unicameralism]]; but this was rejected in the [[May 1946 French constitutional referendum|referendum of 5 May 1946]].
For the [[June 1946 French legislative election|1946 elections]], the [[Rally of Left Republicans]] (RGR), which encompassed the Radical Party, the [[Democratic and Socialist Union of the Resistance]] and other conservative parties, unsuccessfully attempted to oppose the [[Christian democracy|Christian democrat]] and socialist MRP–SFIO–PCF alliance. The new constituent assembly included 166 MRP deputies, 153 PCF deputies and 128 SFIO deputies, giving the [[tripartite alliance (France)|tripartite alliance]] an absolute majority. [[Georges Bidault]] of the MRP replaced Felix Gouin as the head of government.
A new draft of the Constitution was written, which this time proposed the establishment of a [[bicameralism|bicameral]] form of government. [[Leon Blum]] of the SFIO headed the GPRF from 1946 to 1947. After a new legislative election in June 1946, the Christian democrat Georges Bidault assumed leadership of the [[Government of France|Cabinet]]. Despite De{{nbsp}}Gaulle's so-called [[The Bayeux speeches|discourse of Bayeux]] of 16 June 1946 in which he denounced the new institutions, the new draft was approved by 53% of voters voting in favor (with an abstention rate of 31%) in the [[October 1946 French constitutional referendum|referendum of 13 October 1946]]. This culminated in the establishment of the Fourth Republic two weeks later, an arrangement in which executive power essentially resided in the hands of the [[Prime Minister of France|President of the Council]] (the prime minister). The [[President of France|President of the Republic]] was given a largely symbolic role, although he remained chief of the French Army and as a last resort could be called upon to resolve conflicts.
==Impact==
===Demographic===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-027-1477-07, Marseille, Gare d'Arenc. Deportation von Juden.png|thumb|upright=0.8|Deportation of Jews during the [[Marseille roundup]], 23 January 1943]]
{{Further|World War II casualties|Holocaust in France}}
[[World War II casualties#Human losses by country|France's losses during World War II]] totaled 600,000 people (1.44% of the population), including 210,000 military deaths from all causes, and 390,000 civilian deaths due to military activity and crimes against humanity.<ref name="Frumkin-1939">{{cite book |last=Frumkin |first=Gregory |title=Population Changes in Europe Since 1939 |location=Geneva |date=1951 |pages=44–45 |oclc=83196162}}</ref> In addition they suffered 390,000 wounded military.<ref name="Clodfelter 582">{{cite book |last1=Clodfelter |first1=Micheal |title=Warfare and Armed Conflicts – A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–2000 |edition=2nd |year=2002 |isbn=0-7864-1204-6 |oclc=48003215 |publisher=McFarland & Co. |location=Jefferson, N.C. |page=582}}</ref>
Jewish life and society at large had to adjust to a reduced population of French Jews.
Of the 340,000 Jews living in metropolitan/continental France in 1940, more than 75,000 were deported to death camps by the Vichy regime, where about 72,500 were killed.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marrus |first1=Michael Robert in 1995 |title=Vichy France and the Jews |year=1995 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=9780804724999 |pages=XV, 243–5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q7ORlIpHKLEC&pg=PA243 }}</ref><ref name="bseditions.fr">{{cite web |url=http://www.encyclopedie.bseditions.fr/article.php?pArticleId=158&pChapitreId=23982&pArticleLib=Le+Bilan+de+la+Shoah+en+France+%5BLe+r%E9gime+de+Vichy%5D |title=Le Bilan de la Shoah en France [Le régime de Vichy] |trans-title=The Toll of the Holocaust in France [Vichy Regime] |work=bseditions.fr}}</ref><ref name="YV">[[Yad Vashem]] [http://www.yad-vashem.org.il/yv/en/education/languages/dutch/pdf/article_croes.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011041206/http://www.yad-vashem.org.il/yv/en/education/languages/dutch/pdf/article_croes.pdf|date=11 October 2017}}</ref>
{{clear}}<!-- temp, to unblock the See also to expand to full browser width and fold accordingly-->
===Economic===
{{Main|Trente Glorieuses}}
{{Further|Marshall Plan}}
France emerged from World War II severely weakened economically. It had been in a period of economic stagnation even when the war broke out.<ref name="Milward" />{{rp|39}} By 1945 national income, in real terms, was little more than half what it had been in 1929.<ref name="Monnet">{{cite book | last=Monnet | first=Jean | title=Memoirs | publisher=Doubleday & Company, Inc. | year=1978|isbn=0-385-12505-4|location=Garden City, New York| translator-last=Mayne|translator-first=Richard}}</ref>{{rp|233}}
To aid economic recovery, the Chairman of the French Provisional Government, [[Charles de Gaulle]], established the [[Plan Commission|General Planning Commission]] ([[:fr:Commissariat général du Plan|Le Commissariat général du Plan]]) on 3 January 1946.<ref name="Duchene">{{Cite book |last=Duchêne |first=François |title=Jean Monnet: The First Statesman of Interdependence |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |year=1994 |isbn=0-393-03497-6 |location=New York }}</ref>{{rp|152}} The Commission implemented the Modernization and Re-equipment Plan, commonly known as the [[Monnet Plan]] after [[Jean Monnet]], the chief advocate and the first head of the commission.<ref name="Milward">{{cite book | first=Alan | last=Milward | title=The Reconstruction of Western Europe: 1945–1951 | publisher=Taylor and Francis Group | date=1987}}</ref>{{rp|38,98}}
To help finance imports of capital equipment and raw materials needed for France's recovery and modernization program, the country negotiated loans from the U.S. and the World Bank in 1946.<ref name="Duchene" />{{rp|159}} <ref name="Monnet" />{{rp|254}} Also, from 1948 to 1952, France received just under $3 billion in [[Marshall Plan]] aid.<ref name="Monnet" />{{rp|269}}
Yergin and Stanislaw argue France's post-war Modernization and Re-equipment Plan set it on the road to an "economic miracle" in the 1950s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/shared/minitext/prof_jeanmonnet.html|last1=Yergin|first1=Daniel|last2=Stanislaw|first2=Joseph|title=Commanding Heights: Jean Monnet|website=[[PBS]]|date=1998|pages=29–32}}</ref>{{rp|29–32}}
===Judicial===
{{See also|Biens mal acquis}}
Many [[Government of Vichy France|leaders]] and [[French collaboration with Nazi Germany|collaborators of the Vichy regime]] were arrested, and some were imprisoned or sentenced to death. Marshall Petain's death sentence was commuted to life due to his status as a World War I hero.<ref>{{cite web|quote="...he was found guilty of treason and conspiracy to overthrow the Republic"|title=Death of Marshal Pétain: Philippe Pétain died on 23 July 1951, aged 95.| author=Richard Cavendish| publisher=History Today |volume=51 | issue=7 |date=July 2001 |url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/months-past/death-marshal-pétain}}</ref> Pierre Laval was tried, and executed by firing squad in October 1945.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/oct/16/fromthearchives|date=15 Oct 2008|publisher=The Guardian|work=From the archives| title=The execution of Pierre Laval}}</ref>
Some former collaborators escaped immediate penalties or even continued conventional lives, such as [[Maurice Papon]], who was arrested and convicted in 1998 of [[crimes against humanity]] for his role in the deportation of Jews from Bordeaux.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/world/u-s-deports-former-nazi-concentration-camp-guard-to-germany-1.5317233 |title=US deports former Nazi concentration camp guard to Germany |date=February 20, 2021 |author = Dakin Andone| publisher=CTV }}</ref> German war criminal [[Klaus Barbie]], known as the "butcher of Lyon", was extradited from Bolivia in 1983. He was put on trial and sentenced in 1987 to life imprisonment in Lyon.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/09/26/world/klaus-barbie-77-lyons-gestapo-chief.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm |work=The New York Times |last=Saxon |first=Wolfgang |title=Klaus Barbie, 77, Lyons Gestapo Chief |date=26 September 1991}}</ref><!-- sentenced in Lyon, or prison in Lyon? -->
===Historiographical===
For decades prior to the 1970s modern period, French historiography was dominated by conservative or pro-Communist thinking, neither of them very inclined to consider the grass-roots pro-democracy developments at liberation.<ref name="Horn-2020">{{cite book |author=Gerd-Rainer Horn |title=The Moment of Liberation in Western Europe: Power Struggles and Rebellions, 1943–1948 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2EfWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA256 |date=19 March 2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-958791-9 |pages=255–256 |oclc=1160072047}}</ref>
There was little recognition in French scholarship on the active participation of the Vichy regime in the deportation of French Jews, until American political scientist [[Robert Paxton]]'s 1972 book, ''Vichy France: Old Guard and New Order, 1940–1944''. The book received a French translation within a year and sold thousands of copies in France. In the words of French historian [[Gérard Noiriel]], the book "had the effect of a bombshell, because it showed, with supporting evidence, that the French state had participated in the deportation of Jews to the Nazi concentration camps, a fact that had been concealed by historians until then."<ref>{{cite book |language=fr |last1=Noiriel |first1=Gérard |author-link1=:fr:Gérard Noiriel |title=Une histoire populaire de la France : De la guerre de Cent Ans à nos jours |trans-title=A Popular History of France: from the 100 Years War to the Present Day |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xXJvDwAAQBAJ |publisher=Agone |series=Mémoires sociales |date=19 November 2019 |orig-year=1st pub. 2018:Agone |page=547 <!--|total pages=832--> |isbn=978-2-7489-0301-0 <!--|isbn2=2-7489-0301-3--> |oclc=1057326362 |quote=[Le livre] fit l'effet d'une bombe, car il montrait, preuves à l'appui, que l'État français avait participé à la déportation des Juifs dans les camps de concentration nazis, ce qui avait été occulté par les historiens jusque-là.}}</ref>
The "[[Paxtonian revolution]]", as the French called it, had a profound effect on French historiography. In 1997, Paxton was called as an expert witness to testify about collaboration during the Vichy period, at the trial in France of [[Maurice Papon]].<ref name="Lagarde-2018">{{cite web |language=fr |last1=Lagarde |first1=Yann |title=Quand l'histoire fait scandale : La France de Vichy |trans-title=When History Becomes Scandal : Vichy France |url=https://www.franceculture.fr/histoire/comment-la-revolution-paxtonienne-a-bouleverse-notre-regard-sur-loccupation |publisher=[[France Culture]] |series=La Fabrique de l'histoire [Making History] |date=2018-07-02}}</ref>
===Social and cultural===
Many were concerned with getting life back to the way it was, "a l'identique", as it was described, but leaders said that modernization was needed.{{sfn|Chapman|2018|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=a2VEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT7 Intro. PT7]}} As [[Jean Monnet]] said, "We have no choice.{{sfn|Chapman|2018|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=a2VEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT7 Intro. PT7]}} The only alternative to modernization is decadence." The question of what this would look like was not obvious, and was one of the core political issues, from liberation to Algerian independence.{{sfn|Chapman|2018|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=a2VEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT7 Intro. PT7]}}
The Second World War had devastated the glittering art and literary effervescence of the
''[[Années folles]]'' in 1920s Paris, as well as the many Jewish, émigré and refugee artists and writers who had formed the [[School of Paris]] between the two world wars. [[Marc Chagall]] escaped to safety in the US with the help of American journalist [[Varian Fry]],<ref>{{Cite book|title=Chagall and His Times: A Documentary Narrative|last=Harshav|first=Benjamin|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=2004|pages=497}}</ref> but he was one of the lucky, and while he eventually returned to France, he never went back to Paris. The poet [[Max Jacob]] on the other hand had died of pneumonia in the camp at Drancy,<ref>[https://www.theparisreview.org/blog/2020/10/14/the-death-of-max-jacob/ The Death of Max Jacob], Rosanna Warren, Paris Review October 14, 2020</ref> and [[Chaïm Soutine]] died of a bleeding ulcer died while hiding from the Nazis in Paris.<ref>[https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2018/05/14/the-vulnerable-ferocity-of-chaim-soutine The Vulnerable Ferocity of Chaim Soutine: His painting process could seem like something between a mud-wrestling match and a fight to the death.] Peter Schjeldahl, The New Yorker, May 07, 2018</ref>
After the liberation of France, artists and writers returned, but for the most part they were other artists who made another kind of art. Their themes were no longer color, [[surrealism]] and [[Dada]], but mirrored the industrialization of France in their exploration of abstract geometry and the influence of Rothko. [[existentialism|Existentialist]] writers expressed absurdity not as a riot of surrealism but instead as an [[epistemology]] of ambiguous moral choices and rejection of outside moral authority.
But [[Ernest Hemingway]] returned with the Allied army{{cn|date=March 2022}} and left as a calling card a bucket of hand grenades at the door of [[Pablo Picasso]],<ref name=eh>[https://www.theguardian.com/books/2018/jul/11/left-bank-agnes-poirier-review-existentialism-jazz-paris-1940s Left Bank by Agnès Poirier – existentialism, jazz and the miracle of Paris in the 1940s: A gushing love letter to the French capital features De Beauvoir, Sartre, Samuel Beckett and wave after and wave of oversexed, overpaid Americans], Stuart Jeffries. The Guardian, Wed 11 Jul 2018</ref> who had returned to Paris after the Germans overran his rural refuge;<ref>[https://www.ngv.vic.gov.au/picasso/education/ed_JTE_TWY.html Picasso Love & War 1935-1945: A Journey Through the Exhibition: The War Years]</ref> [[Guernica (Picasso)|Guernica]]<ref>[https://www.pbs.org/treasuresoftheworld/guernica/glevel_1/4_exile.html Guernica] PBS</ref> had made it impossible for him to consider a return to [[Francisco Franco|Franco]]'s Spain. [[Miles Davis]] lived in Paris after the war, and so did [[Norman Mailer]] and [[Samuel Beckett]], [[Simone Signoret]] and [[Jean Cocteau]].<ref name=eh /> Charles de Gaulle appointed [[André Malraux]] as Minister of Information and then of Cultural Affairs.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andre-Malraux André Malvaux], Encyclopædia Britannica</ref>
<!-- in art we do also need to mention tachisme -->
===Political===
{{See also|French Third Republic#Historiography of decadence}}
The liberation of France had profound effect on the future of French and world politics.
'''Fourth Republic'''
The [[Provisional Government of the French Republic|provisional government]] maintained its position that the Vichy régime had been illegitimate, and therefore considered it a priority to put a Constitutional framework into place. The resulting document full-throatedly reaffirmed the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man]], and affirmed several additional rights, including the [[right of asylum]], of unionization and of freedom of association. As of the very first municipal elections following the liberation of France, women had the right to vote, and from then forward under the [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]].
The [[French Fifth Republic]] today is built upon the rights expressed in the preface to this document, which it incorporated into its 1958 constitution,<!-- check this wording --> and which is still in force today.
'''Communist Party'''
The trained and disciplined [[Francs-Tireurs et Partisans]] brought into play by the [[Communist International]]<!-- or Communist Party of France? Nail down --> after Hitler invaded Russia<!-- should this be Soviet Union? --> both helped to sway the fight and to dispel the previous perception of under the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]] of left-wing {{citation needed|date=March 2021}} politicians as decadent and ineffectual, a disdain that to some extent had underlain the willingness of that government to seek the assistance of the paternalist and traditionalist Pétain, who had gained the heart of the French by prioritizing the conservation of French forces, following bloodying and bruising casualties in World War 1 on the Eastern front against Germany.
'''Geopolitics'''
Given the important role played by the [[Big Three (World War II)|Big Three]] in the eventual victory of the Allies, the liberation of France and of Europe led to the [[geopolitics]] of the [[Cold War]], and to the [[decolonization]] of French and other European former colonies in Africa and elsewhere.
The creation of the [[United Nations]] closely followed the end of World War II. As a successor to the [[League of Nations]] whose demise foreshadowed World War II, it did however share some of its flaws, in particular the lack of an army and therefore the means to enforce its charter.
'''Decolonization'''
While [[Félix Éboué]] believed that his support of [[Free France]] would lead to a new relationship between France and [[French Africa]],<ref>{{cite web |last1=ÉBOUÉ |first1=Félix |title=La nouvelle politique indigène pour l'Afrique équatoriale française |url=https://www.cvce.eu/s/ow. |website=cvce.eu by uni.lu |publisher=Toulon: Office Français d'Édition. 08-11-1941 |access-date=9 July 2020 }}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> the French were initially inclined to dismiss the considerable contribution of African units to the war effort. In fact, on 1 December 1944, [[gendarmes]] mowed down a regiment of [[Tirailleurs Senegalais]] at the [[Thiaroye massacre|Thiaroye camp]] for complaining of poor conditions and demanding their back pay.
[[French Protectorate in Morocco|Morocco]] and [[French Protectorate of Tunisia|Tunisia]], which were French protectorates in World War II, and with the exception of Casablanca, played a more limited role in the war, primarily in the [[Western Desert campaign]], were able to negotiate their independence from France relatively quickly. Algeria, however, which had since 1848 been considered an integral part of France,<ref>{{cite web|title=French Resistance and the Algerian War| url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/french-resistance-and-algerian-war| author=Martin Evans | publisher=History Today |volume= 41 |issue=7 |date=July 1991}}</ref> and had a sizeable population of French settlers, suffered through an extensive and bloody [[Algerian War|war of independence]].
A series of events beginning 8 May 1945, [[Victory in Europe Day|the same day]] that [[Nazi Germany]] surrendered, triggered growing demand for independence. About 5,000 Muslims paraded in [[Sétif]], a market town west of [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]], to celebrate the victory. The local French [[gendarmerie]] tried to seize banners attacking colonial rule and rioting broke out. The ensuing [[Setif and Guelma massacre|indiscriminate French reprisals]] sparked further denunciations of colonial rule.<ref name="TedMorgan">{{cite book |last=Morgan |first=Ted |author-link=Ted Morgan (writer) |title=My Battle of Algiers |page=[https://archive.org/details/mybattleofalgier00morg/page/26 26] |isbn=978-0-06-085224-5 |date=2006-01-31 |publisher=HarperCollins |url=https://archive.org/details/mybattleofalgier00morg/page/26 }}</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|France}}
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[1940 in France]]
* [[1941 in France]]
* [[1942 in France]]
* [[1943 in France]]
* [[1944 in France]]
* [[1945 in France]]
* [[Foreign policy of Charles de Gaulle]]
* [[France–Germany border]]
* [[French Liberation Army]]
* [[Liberation of Europe]]
* [[Military history of France during World War II]]
* [[Post–World War II economic expansion]]
* [[Rene Bousquet]]
* [[Royal Air Forces Escaping Society]]
* [[SOE F Section networks]]
* [[Timeline of the Battle of France]]
* [[Timeline of the liberation of France]]
* [[20th-century French art]]
{{div col end}}
==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=nb}}
{{notelist |notes=
{{efn |name=British command |The British [[79th Armoured Division]] never operated as a single formation ({{harvnb|Buckley|2006|p=13}}) but was an operational grouping of all the [[Hobart's Funnies|specialised armoured vehicles]] committed to solve the particular problems of the German defences of the [[Atlantic Wall]] and thus has been excluded from the total. In addition, a combined total of 16 (three from the 79th Armoured Division) British, Belgian, Canadian, and Dutch independent brigades were committed to the operation, along with four battalions of the [[Special Air Service]] ({{harvnb|Ellis|Allen|Warhurst|2004|pp=521–523, 524}}).}}
}}
{{Notelist|30em}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
===Works cited===
* <!--{{sfn|Aron|1962|p=}}-->{{cite book |language=fr |last1=Aron |first1=Robert |author1-link=Robert Aron |title=Grands dossiers de l'histoire contemporaine |trans-title=Major issues in contemporary history |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L88fAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Librairie Académique Perrin |year=1962 |location=Paris |chapter=Pétain : sa carrière, son procès |trans-chapter=Pétain: his career, his trial |isbn= |oclc=1356008}}
* <!--{{sfn|Béglé|2014}}-->{{cite magazine |lang=fr |magazine=[[Le Point]] |url=http://www.lepoint.fr/livres/rentree-litteraire-avec-pierre-assouline-sigmaringen-c-est-la-vie-de-chateau-20-01-2014-1782076_37.php |first=Jérôme |last=Béglé |title=Rentrée littéraire – Avec Pierre Assouline, Sigmaringen, c'est la vie de château ! |trans-title=Autumn publishing season launch – With Pierre Assouline, Sigmaringen, That's life in the castle |date=20 January 2014 |publisher=Le Point Communications}}
* <!--{{sfn|Ashdown|2015|p=}}-->{{cite book |last=Ashdown |first=Paddy |author-link=Paddy Ashdown |date=2015 |title=The Cruel Victory: The French Resistance, D-Day and the Battle for the Vercors 1944 |location=London |publisher=William Collins |page=97 |isbn=978-0007520817}}
* <!--{{sfn|Bernard|1984|p=}}--> {{Cite journal |journal=Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire |title=Kersaudy (François). Churchill and {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} [compte-rendu] |language=fr |first=Henri |last=Bernard |author-link=:fr:Henri Bernard |date=1984 |volume=62 |number=2 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/rbph_0035-0818_1984_num_62_2_3467_t1_0374_0000_1 |type=book review |orig-year=1st pub: [[HarperCollins|Collins]] (1981) |access-date=23 July 2020 }} <!-- book review of: {{cite book |lang=en |title=Churchill and {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} |author=François Kersaudy |date=1981 |publisher=Collins |location=London |isbn=9782259008846 |oclc=875685503}}-->
* <!--{{sfn|Boissoneault|2017}}--> {{cite web|title=Was Vichy France a Puppet Government or a Willing Nazi Collaborator? |first=Lorraine |last=Boissoneault |work=Smithsonian Magazine |date=November 9, 2017 |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/vichy-government-france-world-war-ii-willingly-collaborated-nazis-180967160/ }}
* <!-- {{sfn|Brissaud|1965|p=}}--> {{citation |language=fr |last=Brissaud |first=André |title=La Dernière année de Vichy (1943–1944) |trans-title=The Last Year of Vichy |location=Paris |publisher=Librairie Académique Perrin |year=1965 |oclc=406974043}}
* <!--{{sfn|Buckley|2006|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Buckley |first=John |author-link=John Buckley (historian) |title=British Armour in the Normandy Campaign 1944 |year=2006 |orig-year=1st pub. 2004 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=Abingdon, Oxfordshire |isbn=0-415-40773-7 }}
* {{cite book |language=fr |last1=Cantier |first1=Jacques |title=L'Algérie sous le régime de Vichy |trans-title=Algeria Under the Vichy Regime |date=2002 |publisher=Odile Jacob |isbn=978-2738-11057-2}}
* <!--{{sfn|Chapman|2018|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Chapman |first=Herrick |title=France's Long Reconstruction : in search of the modern republic |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a2VEDwAAQBAJ |access-date=3 February 2021 |date=8 January 2018 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Boston |isbn=978-0674-97641-2 |chapter=Introduction |oclc=984973630 |quote=Many an ordinary citizen was more concerned with getting life back to a stable routine and rebuilding a home or a local school exactly as it had been—"a l'identique", as people put it. But French leaders agreed that France had to modernize. ... 'We will remake France,' the Resistance exhorted in its underground press. Just what this new France should be, however, was hardly self-evident, and as a consequence the question of reconstruction—what it should be and how to do it—remained at the heart of French political combat for more than a decade after the war, and as I will argue, until the end of the Algerian war in 1962. |quote-page=<!--Introduction, first page-->PT7}}
* <!--{{sfn|Choisnel-2007|p=}}--> {{cite book |language=fr |first=Emmanuel |last=Choisnel |title=L'Assemblée consultative provisoire (1943-1945) Le sursaut républicain |trans-title=The Provisional Consultative Assembly (1943-1945) The Republican Leap |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9fZnAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Harmattan |date=2007|isbn=978-2-296-03898-1 |oclc=301791978 |quote=En fait les 49 sièges dévolus à la résistance intérieure ne furent jamais intégralement pourvus |trans-quote="In fact, the 49 seats allocated to the internal resistance were never fully filled"}} -->
* <!--{{sfn|Clarke|Smith|1993|p=}}--> {{cite book |last1=Clarke |first1=Jeffrey J. |last2=Smith |first2=Robert Ross |name-list-style=amp |series= United States Army in World War II: European Theater of Operations |title=Riviera To The Rhine. |url=https://archive.org/details/CMHPub7101RivieraToTheRhine-nsia |publisher=Center of Military History, United States Army |place=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-16-025966-1 |year=1993}}
* {{cite book |last=Clayton |first=Anthony |title=Histoire de l'Armée française en Afrique 1830-1962 |year=1994 |publisher=Albin Michel |location=Paris | language=fr |isbn=978-2-28-600869-7}}
* <!--{{sfn|Cointet|2014|p=}}--> {{cite book |language=fr |first1=Jean-Paul |last1=Cointet |author1-link=Jean-Paul Cointet |title=Sigmaringen |publisher=Perrin |series=Tempus |location=Paris |year=2014 <!--total pages=462--> |isbn=978-2-262-03300-2}}
* <!--{{sfn|Conan|Rousso|1998|p=}}--> {{Cite book |last1=Conan |first1=Eric |last2=Rousso |first2=Henry |title=Vichy: An Ever-Present Past |year=1998 |publisher=Dartmouth |location=Sudbury, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0-87451-795-8}}
* <!--{{sfn|Danan|1972|p=}}--> {{cite journal |journal=Publications de la faculté de droit et des sciences politiques et sociales d'Amiens |last=Danan |first=Yves-Maxime |year=1972 |title=La nature juridique du Conseil de défense de l'empire (Brazzaville, October 1940) Contribution à la Théorie des Gouvernements Insurrectionnels |trans-title=The legal nature of the Empire Defense (October 1940) Contribution to the Theory of Insurrectionnal Governments |url=https://www.u-picardie.fr/curapp-revues/root/3/danan.pdf |issue=4 |pages=145–149 }}
* <!--{{sfn|Ellis|Allen|Warhurst|2004|p=}}-->{{cite book |last1=Ellis |first1=L.F. |last2=Allen |first2=G.R.G. |last3=Warhurst |first3=A.E. |editor-last=Butler |editor-first=J.R.M |editor-link=James Ramsay Montagu Butler |title=Victory in the West, Volume I: The Battle of Normandy |year=2004 |orig-year=1st pub. 1962 |series=History of the Second World War United Kingdom Military Series |publisher=Naval & Military Press |location=London |isbn=1-84574-058-0}}
* <!--{{sfn|Gilbert|1989|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Gilbert |first=Martin |author-link=Martin Gilbert |title=The Second World War: A Complete History |year=1989 |publisher=H. Holt |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8050-1788-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/secondworldwar00gilb }}
* <!--{{sfn|Gildea|2002|p=}}--> {{Cite book |last=Gildea |first=Robert |title=France since 1945 |year=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=USA |isbn=978-0-19-280131-9 }}
* <!--{{sfn|Gildea|2019|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Gildea |first=Robert |title=Empires of the Mind: The Colonial Past and the Politics of the Present |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KB2GDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA52 |date=28 February 2019 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-62940-9 |oclc=1089913483 |pages=52– |chapter=2 Empires in Crisis: Two World Wars}}
* <!--{{sfn|Huddleston|1955|p=}}--> {{cite book |last1=Huddleston |first1=Sisley |author-link=Sisley Huddleston |title=France; The Tragic Years 1939-1947 |date=1955 |publisher=The Devin-Adair Company |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/stream/francethetragicy006833mbp#page/n13/mode/2up }}
* <!--{{sfn|Jäckel-fr|1968|p=495}}--> {{cite book |language=fr |first=Eberhard |last=Jäckel |title=La France dans l'Europe de Hitler |trans-title=France in Hitler's Europe – Germany's France foreign policy in the Second World War |location=Paris |publisher=Fayard |series=Les grandes études contemporaines |date=1968 |orig-year=1st pub. 1966: Deutsche Verlag-Anstalg GmbH (in German) as "Frankreich in Hitlers Europa – Die deutsche Frankreichpolitik im Zweiten Weltkrieg" |ref={{harvid|Jäckel-fr|1968}} }}
* <!--{{sfn|Jackson|2001|p=}}--> {{cite book |title=France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944 |publisher=Oxford University Press |last1=Jackson |first1=Julian |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-820706-1 |url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/france00juli }}
* {{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Julian |title=France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944 |year=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=US |isbn=978-0199254576 |url=https://archive.org/details/france00juli }}
* <!--{{sfn|JOFF|p=}}--> {{cite book |title=Journal officiel de la France libre |trans-title=Official Journal of Free France |ref={{harvid|JOFF}}}}
* <!--{{sfn|Kupferman|2006|p=}}--> {{cite book |language=fr |first1=Fred |last1=Kupferman |author-link1=Fred Kupferman |title=Laval |publisher=Tallandier |location=Paris |year=2006 |edition=2 |orig-year=1st pub: Balland (1987) |isbn=978-2-84734-254-3 |url=http://www.persee.fr/doc/polit_0032-342x_1988_num_53_2_3786_t1_0526_0000_4}}
* <!--{{sfn|Lacouture|1993|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Lacouture |first=Jean |author-link=Jean Lacouture |title=De Gaulle: The Rebel, 1890-1944 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o-0gPwAACAAJ |year=1993 |publisher=Harvill |location=London |isbn=978-0-00-271288-0 |oclc=27942042 |translator-last=O'Brian |translator-first=Patrick |orig-year=1st pub. [[Seuil]]:1984}}
* <!--{{sfn|Maury|2006}}--> {{cite web |language=fr |last=Maury |first=Jean-Pierre |title=Gouvernement de la Libération |url=https://mjp.univ-perp.fr/france/co1944-1.htm |year=2006 |publisher= Digithèque MJP, University of Perpignan |location=Perpignan}}
* <!--{{sfn|Maury|2010}}--> {{cite web |language=fr |last=Maury |first=Jean-Pierre |title=Le Commandement en chef civil et militaire |url=https://mjp.univ-perp.fr/france/co1944-1.htm |year=2010 |publisher= Digithèque MJP, University of Perpignan |location=Perpignan}}
* {{cite book |language=fr |last=Montagnon |first=Pierre |date=1990 |title=La France coloniale : Retour à l'Hexagone |volume=2 |trans-title=Colonial France: Return to the Hexagon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3732Y--CKI4C |location= |publisher=Pygmalion |isbn=978-2-7564-0938-2 |oclc= }}
* {{cite book |last1=Nyrop |first1=Richard |author2=American University (Washington, D.C.). Foreign Areas Studies Division United States. Army |title=U.S. Army Area Handbook for Algeria |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bgq8xwHlCpoC&pg=PA28 |year=1965 |publisher=Division, Special Operations Research Office, American University |oclc=1085291500 |accessdate=23 July 2020 |ref={{harvid|Nyrop|1965}} |quote=Most of the European colonial population of Algeria wholeheartedly supported the Vichy government. ... Even after the Allies under General Dwight D. Eisenhower liberated Algeria in November 1942, General Henri Giraud, appointed by Eisenhower as civil and military commander in chief, only slowly rescinded the Vichy legislation. It was almost a year before the Crémieux decrees were reactivated, against the virulent opposition of the European colonialists.}}
* <!--{{sfn|Paxton-fr|1997|p=382-383}}--> {{citation |language=fr |first=Robert O. |last=Paxton |translator-first=Claude |translator-last=Bertrand |title=La France de Vichy – 1940–1944 |location=Paris |publisher=Éditions du Seuil |series=Points-Histoire |date=1997 <!--(reprint November 1999)--> |orig-year=1st pub: 1972: [[Knopf]] (in English) as "Vichy France: old guard and new order, 1940–1944" (978-0394-47360-4) |isbn=978-2-02-039210-5 |ref={{harvid|Paxton-fr|1997}} }}
* <!--{{sfn|Pogue|1986|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Pogue |first=Forrest C. |series=United States Army in World War II: European Theater of Operations |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-E-Supreme/index.html |title=The Supreme Command |publisher=Center of Military History, United States Army |location=Washington, D.C. |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-16-001916-6 |via=Hyperwar Foundation |orig-year=1st pub. 1954}}
* <!--{{sfn|Reeves|2016|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Reeves |first=Mark |title=Dissent, Protest and Dispute in Africa |chapter=M'Fam goes home : African soldiers in the Gabon Campaign of 1940 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |date=2016 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BCklDwAAQBAJ |isbn=978-1315-41308-2}}
* <!--{{sfn|Rousso|1999|p= }}--> {{cite book|language=fr |first1=Henry |last1=Rousso |author1-link=Henry Rousso |title=Pétain et la fin de la collaboration : Sigmaringen, 1944-1945 |trans-title=Pétain and the end of collaboration: Sigmaringen, 1944–1945 |publisher=Éditions Complexe |location=Paris |year=1999 <!--total pages=441--> |isbn=2-87027-138-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nCE_2I4vyZkC |access-date= }}
* <!--{{sfn|Sautermeister|2013|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Sautermeister |first=Christine |title=Louis-Ferdinand Céline à Sigmaringen : réalité et fiction dans "D'un château l'autre |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RQPZBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT15 |access-date=13 August 2020 |date=6 February 2013 |publisher=Ecriture |isbn=978-2-35905-098-1 |oclc=944523109 |quote=''De septembre 1944 jusque fin avril 1945, Sigmaringen constitue donc une enclave française. Le drapeau français est hissé devant le château. Deux ambassades et un consulat en cautionnent la légitimité : l'Allemagne, le Japon et l'Italie.''}}
* <!--{{sfn|Singer|2008|p=111}}--> {{cite book |first=Barnett |last=Singer |title=Maxime Weygand: A Biography of the French General in Two World Wars |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0VZeIHEv3FkC&pg=PA111 |year=2008 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-3571-5 |access-date=1 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151101104418/https://books.google.com/books?id=0VZeIHEv3FkC&pg=PA111 |archive-date=1 November 2015 |url-status=live}}
* <!--{{sfn|Tucker-Jones|2010|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Tucker-Jones |first=Anthony |title=Operation Dragoon: The Liberation of Southern France 1944 |publisher=Pen and Sword |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-84884-140-6}}
* <!--{{sfn|Vogel|1983|p=}}--> {{cite book |editor-last1=Boog |editor-first1=Horst |editor-last2=Krebs |editor-first2=Gerhard |editor-last3=Vogel |editor-first3=Detlef |last=Vogel |first=Detlef |others=[[Military History Research Office (Germany)|''Militärgeschichtliches Forschungsamt'']] |chapter=Deutsche und Alliierte Kriegsführung im Westen [German and Allied warfare in the West] |language=German |series=[[Germany and the Second World War]] |title= Das Deutsche Reich in der Defensive |trans-title= The German Reich on the Defense: The Strategic Air War in Europe and the War in the West and East Asia 1943–1944/5 |volume=VII |pages=419–642 |publisher=Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt |year=1983 |isbn=978-3-421-05507-1}}
* <!--{{sfn|Weinberg|1995|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Weinberg |first=Gerhard |author-link=Gerhard Weinberg |year=1995 |orig-year=1st pub. 1993 |title=A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AJj1glSfifgC |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-55879-2 }}
* <!--{{sfn|Weitz|1995|p=}}--> {{Cite book |last=Weitz |first=Margaret Collins |title=Sisters in the Resistance – How Women Fought to Free France 1940–1945 |year=1995 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=New York |isbn=978-0-471-19698-3}}
* <!--{{sfn|White|1964|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=White |first=Dorothy Shipley |title=Seeds of Discord: De Gaulle, Free France and the Allies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PowduQEACAAJ |year=1964 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |location=Syracuse, NY |chapter=XI The French Empire Rises <!--p.161-177--> |oclc=876345256 |access-date=3 June 2020}}
* <!--{{sfn|Whitmarsh|2009|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Whitmarsh |first=Andrew |title=D-Day in Photographs |year=2009 |publisher=History Press |location=Stroud |isbn=978-0-7524-5095-7 }}
* <!--{{sfn|Williams|1992|p=}}--> {{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Alan |title=Republic of Images: A History of French Filmmaking |year=1992 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0-674-76268-8 }}
* <!--{{sfn|Yeide|2007|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Yeide |first=Harry |title=First to the Rhine: The 6th Army Group In World War II |publisher=Zenith Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7603-3146-0}}
* <!--{{sfn|Zaloga|2009|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Zaloga |first=Steven J. |author-link=Steven Zaloga |series = Campaign No. 210 |title=Operation Dragoon 1944: France's other D-Day |publisher=Osprey Publishing |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-84603-367-4 }}
==Further reading==
* Aron, Robert. ''France reborn; the history of the liberation, June 1944 – May 1945'' (1964) [https://archive.org/details/francerebornhist00aron_0 online]
* Diamond, Hanna, and Simon Kitson, eds. ''Vichy, resistance, liberation: new perspectives on wartime France'' (Bloomsbury, 2005).
* <!--{{sfn|Doughty|2014|p=}}--> {{cite book|author1-link=Robert A. Doughty |last=Doughty |first=Robert A. |title=The Breaking Point: Sedan and the Fall of France, 1940 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MpXEBAAAQBAJ |series=Stackpole military history series. |date=15 September 2014 |publisher=Stackpole Books |location=Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania |isbn=978-0-8117-1459-4 |oclc=869908029}}
* Gordon, Bertram M. ''Historical Dictionary of World War II France: The Occupation, Vichy, and the Resistance, 1938–1946 '' (1998).
* <!--{{sfn|Annex-Alger}}--> {{cite web |language=fr |first1=Anne-Marie | last1 = Gouriou |first2=Roseline | last2=Salmon |title=Annexe du répertoire, Assemblée consultative provisoire (Alger) |trans-title=Appendix to the Directory, Provisional Consultative Assembly (Algiers) |url=http://www.archivesnationales.culture.gouv.fr/chan/chan/pdf/sm/C_15247_15281_annexe_Alger.pdf |year = 2008|ref={{harvid|Annex-Alger}} }}
* <!--{{sfn|Annex-Paris|2008}}--> {{cite web |language=fr |first1=Anne-Marie | last1 = Gouriou |first2=Roseline | last2=Salmon |title=Annexe du répertoire, Assemblée consultative provisoire (Paris) |trans-title=Appendix to the Directory, Provisional Consultative Assembly (Paris) |url=http://www.archivesnationales.culture.gouv.fr/chan/chan/pdf/sm/C_15247_15281_annexe_Paris.pdf |publisher=Archives nationales [National Archives] |location=Paris |year=2008 |ref={{harvid|Annex-Paris|2008}} }}
* <!--{{sfn|Hermiston|2016|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Hermiston |first=Roger |title=All Behind You, Winston – Churchill's Great Coalition, 1940–45 |year=2016 |publisher=Aurum Press |location=London |isbn=978-17-81316-64-1 }}
* Jackson, Julian''. France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944'' (Oxford UP, 2004).
* <!--{{sfn|Lloyd|2003|p=ix}}--> {{cite book |last=Lloyd |first=Christopher |title=Collaboration and Resistance in Occupied France: Representing Treason and Sacrifice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CoyDDAAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 |date=16 September 2003 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |location=Basingstoke, Hants. |isbn=978-0-230-50392-2 |oclc=69330013}}
* Paxton, Robert. ''Vichy France: Old Guard, New Order, 1940–1944'' (Knopf, 1972). [https://archive.org/details/vichyfranceoldgu00paxt_0 online]
* <!--{{sfn|Pogue|1989|p=}}-->{{cite book |last1=Pogue |first1=Forrest C. |title=The Supreme Command |date=1989 |orig-year=1954 |url=http://history.army.mil/html/books/007/7-1/CMH_Pub_7-1.pdf |series=United States Army in World War II., European Theater of Operations |id= CMH pub. 7-1 |chapter=II The Coalition Command |publisher=Center of Military History United States Army |location=Washington, D. C.|lccn=53-61717 |oclc=1013540453}}
* <!--{{sfn|Potter|Nimitz|1960|p=}}--> {{cite book |last1=Potter |first1=E.B. |last2=Nimitz |first2=Chester W. |name-list-style=amp |title=Sea Power |publisher=Prentice-Hall |year=1960 |location=Englewood Cliffs, NJ |isbn=978-0-13-796870-1}}
* <!--{{sfn|Telfer|2015|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Telfer |first=Kevin |title=The Summer of '45 |year=2015 |publisher=Aurum Press Ltd |location=Islington |isbn=978-17-81314-35-7 }}
'''Allies'''
* Berthon, Simon. ''Allies at War: The Bitter Rivalry among Churchill, Roosevelt, and {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}''. (2001). [https://archive.org/details/alliesatwarbitte0000bert online]
* Bourque, Stephen Alan. ''Beyond the Beach: The Allied War Against France'' (Naval Institute Press, 2018).
* Dodd, Lindsey, and Andrew Knapp. "'How many Frenchmen did you kill?' British bombing policy towards France (1940–1945)" ''French History'' (2008) 22#4 pp 469–492.
* Dougherty, James. ''The Politics of Wartime Aid: American Economic Assistance to France and French Northwest Africa, 1940–1946'' (Greenwood, 1978).
* Funk, Arthur L. "Churchill, Eisenhower, and the French Resistance." ''Journal of Military History'' 45.1 (1981): 29+.
* Hurstfield, Julian G. ''America and the French Nation 1939–1945'' (U North Carolina Press, 1986). [https://archive.org/details/americafrenchna00hurs online]
* [[François Kersaudy|Kersaudy, Francois]]. ''Churchill and De Gaulle'' (2nd ed 1990) [https://archive.org/details/churchilldegaull00fran online]
* Pratt, Julius W. "De Gaulle and the United States: How the Rift Began," ''History Teacher'' (1968) 1#4 pp. 5–15 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3054237 in JSTOR]
* Rossi, Mario. ''Roosevelt and the French'' (Praeger, 1994).
* Rossi, Mario. "United States Military Authorities and Free France, 1942–1944," ''Journal of Military History'' (1997) 61#1 pp. 49–64 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2953914 in JSTOR]
'''Biographical'''
* Clayton, Anthony. ''Three Marshals of France: Leadership After Trauma'' (Brassey's, 1992) on Alphonse Juin, Jean de Lattre de Tassigny and Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque.
* [[Jonathan Fenby|Fenby, Jonathan]]. ''The General: Charles {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} and the France He Saved.'' (Simon and Schuster. 2011), popular history; [https://archive.org/details/generalcharlesde0000fenb online]
* Funk, Arthur Layton. ''Charles {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}: The Crucial Years, 1943–1944'' (1959) [https://web.archive.org/web/20110628215323/http://www.questia.com/read/58600747 online edition]
* [[Julian T. Jackson|Jackson, Julian]], ''A Certain Idea of France: The Life of Charles {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}'' (2018) 887pp; the latest biography
* Weinberg, Gerhard L. ''Visions of Victory: The Hopes of Eight World War II Leaders.'' (2005). 292 pp. chapter on {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}
'''Collaboration'''
* Hirschfeld, Gerhard, and Patrick Marsh, eds. ''Collaboration in France: Politics and Culture during the Nazi Occupation, 1940–1944'' (Berg, 1989).
* Novick, Peter. ''The Resistance versus Vichy: the Purge of Collaborators in Liberated France.'' (Columbia UP, 1968).
'''Colonial military units'''
* Jennings, Eric C. ''Free French Africa in World War II: The African Resistance.'' (Cambridge University Press, 2015) (9781107696976)
* Driss Maghraoui (2014) [The goumiers in the Second World War: history and colonial representation https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13629387.2014.948309?journalCode=fnas20], The Journal of North African Studies, 19:4, 571–586, DOI: 10.1080/13629387.2014.948309
'''Daily Life'''
* Gildea, Robert. ''Marianne in Chains: Daily Life in the Heart of France During the German Occupation'' (Metropolitan Books, 2002).
* Vinen, Richard. ''The Unfree French: Life Under the Occupation'' (Yale UP, 2006).
'''Economy'''
* Broch, Ludivine. ''Ordinary workers, Vichy and the Holocaust: French railwaymen and the Second World War'' (Cambridge UP, 2016).
* Broch, Ludivine. “Professionalism in the Final Solution: French Railway Workers and the Jewish Deportations, 1942–1944” ''Contemporary European History'' (2014) 23:3.
* Brunet, Luc-André. "The new industrial order: Vichy, steel, and the origins of the Monnet Plan, 1940–1946" (PhD. Diss. The London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE), 2014) [http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/1028/1/Brunet_The_New_Industrial_Order.pdf online].
* Imlay, Talbot C., Martin Horn, and Talbot Imlay. ''The Politics of Industrial Collaboration During World War II: Ford France, Vichy and Nazi Germany'' (Cambridge UP, 2014).
'''Germans'''
* Imlay, Talbot. "The German Side of Things: Recent Scholarship on the German Occupation of France." ''French Historical Studies'' 39.1 (2016): 183–215.
* U Laub, Thomas J. ''After the fall: German policy in occupied France, 1940–1944'' (Oxford UP, 2010).
'''Invasions'''
* [[Peter Caddick-Adams|Caddick-Adams, Peter]]. ''Sand and Steel: The D-Day Invasion and the Liberation of France'' (Oxford UP, 2019).
* Cross, Robin. ''Operation Dragoon: The Allied Liberation of the South of France: 1944'' (Pegasus Books, 2019).
* [[James Holland (author)|Holland, James]]. ''Normandy ’44: D-Day and the Epic 77-Day Battle for France. A New History'' (2019)
* Keegan, John ''Six Armies in Normandy: From D-Day to the Liberation of Paris'' (1994) [https://archive.org/details/sixarmiesinnorma00keeg online]
* Tucker-Jones, Anthony. ''Operation Dragoon: The Liberation of Southern France 1944'' (Casemate, 2010).
* Wilkins, Thomas Stow. "Analysing coalition warfare from an intra-alliance politics perspective: the Normandy campaign 1944." ''Journal of Strategic Studies'' 29#6 (2006): 1121–1150.
* Wilt, Alan F. "The Summer of 1944: A comparison of Overlord and Anvil/Dragoon." ''Journal of Strategic Studies'' 4.2 (1981): 187–195.
'''Jews and minorities'''
* Echenberg, Myron. "'Morts Pour la France'; The African Soldier in France During the Second World War." ''Journal of African History'' (1985): 363–380 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/181655 online].
* Marrus, Michael R. and Robert O. Paxton. ''Vichy France and the Jews'' (1981) [https://archive.org/details/vichyfrancejews00marr/page/n9/mode/2up online]
* Woodfork, Jacqueline. "'It Is a Crime To Be a Tirailleur in the Army': The Impact of Senegalese Civilian Status in the French Colonial Army during the Second World War." ''Journal of Military History'' 77.1 (2013).
* Zuccotti, Susan. ''The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews'' (Basic Books. 1993).
'''Regions and localities'''
* Cipko, Serge. "Sacred Ground: The Liberation of Alsace-Lorraine, 1944–1946." ''Past Imperfect'' (1994), Vol. 3, pp 159–184. [https://ejournals.library.ualberta.ca/index.php/pi/article/view/1378/923 online]
* Diamond, Hanna. "The Return of the Republic: Crowd Photography and the Liberation in Toulouse, 1944–1945." ''French Politics, Culture & Society'' 37.1 (2019): 90–116.
* Kedward, Harry Roderick. ''In Search of the Maquis: Rural Resistance in Southern France 1942–1944'' (Clarendon Press, 1993).
* Knutson, Elizabeth, and Michael MacQueen. "Regional Identity and German Policy in Alsace 1940–1944." ''Contemporary French Civilization'' 18.2 (1994): 151–166.
* Moorehead, Caroline. ''Village of secrets: defying the Nazis in Vichy France'' (Random House, 2014), a village in eastern France
* Reid, Donald. "Un village français: Imagining lives in occupied France." ''French Cultural Studies'' 30.3 (2019): 220–231.
* Sica, Emanuele. ''Mussolini's Army in the French Riviera: Italy's Occupation of France'' (U of Illinois Press, 2015). [https://www.h-france.net/vol16reviews/vol16no241varley.pdf online review]
* Smith, Jean Edward. ''The Liberation of Paris: How Eisenhower, De Gaulle, and Von Choltitz Saved the City of Light'' (Simon & Schuster), 2020.
* Zaretsky, Robert. ''Nîmes at war: religion, politics, and public opinion in the Gard, 1938–1944'' (1995) [https://archive.org/details/nimesatwarreligi0000zare online]
'''The Resistance'''
* Ehrlich, Blake. ''Resistance; France 1940–1945'' (1965) [https://archive.org/details/resistancefrance0000unse online]
* Kedward, H. R. and Roger Austin, eds. ''Vichy France and the Resistance: Culture & Ideology'' (Croom Helm, 1985).
* Kedward, H. R. ''Resistance in Vichy France: a study of ideas and motivation in the Southern Zone, 1940–1942'' (Oxford UP, 1978).
* Kedward, H. R. "Patriots and Patriotism in Vichy France." ''Transactions of the Royal Historical Society'' 32 (1982): 175–192 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3679022 online. (subscription required)]
* Kedward, H. R. "Mapping the Resistance: An Essay on Roots and Routes." ''Modern & Contemporary France'' 20.4 (2012): 491–503.
'''Women, family, gender'''
* Diamond, Hannah. ''Women and the Second World War in France 1939–1948'' (1999); argues that it was not a liberation for women.
* Dodd, Lindsey. ''French children under the Allied bombs, 1940–45: An oral history'' (Manchester UP, 2016).
* Gorrara, Claire. ''Women's Representations of the Occupation in Post-'68 France'' (Macmillan, 1998).
* Jakes, Kelly. "Songs of Our Fathers: Gender and Nationhood at the Liberation of France." ''Rhetoric & Public Affairs'' 20.3 (2017): 385–420 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.14321/rhetpublaffa.20.3.0385 online].
* Rossiter, Margaret L. ''Women in the Resistance'' (Praeger, 1986).
* Schwartz, Paula. "The politics of food and gender in occupied Paris." ''Modern & Contemporary France'' 7.1 (1999): 35–45. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/09639489908456468 online]
* Vigili, Fabrice. ''Shorn Women: Gender and Punishment in Liberation France'' (Berg, 2002).
* Weitz, Margaret Collins. ''Sisters in the Resistance: how women fought to free France, 1940–1945'' (Wiley, 1995).
* Weitz, Margaret Collins. "As I was then: Women in the French Resistance." ''Contemporary French Civilization'' 10.1 (1986): 1–19.
'''Historiography, memory and commemoration'''
* Berkvam, Michael L. ''Writing the Story of France in World War II: Literature and Memory, 1942–1958'' (University Press of the South, 2000).
* Fishman, Sarah. ''France at War: Vichy and the Historians'' (Berg Publishers, 2000).
* Footitt, Hilary. ''War and Liberation in France: Living with the Liberators'' (Springer, 2004).
* Golsan, Richard. ''Vichy's Afterlife: History and Counterhistory in Postwar France'' (U of Nebraska Press, 2000).
* Herman, Gerald, and Claude Bouygues. "The liberation of France, as reflected in philately." ''Contemporary French Civilization'' (1988) 12#1 pp 108–128.
* Kedward, H.R. and Nancy Wood, eds. ''The Liberation of France: Image and Event'' (Berg Publishers, 1995).
* Kedward, H. R. "Resisting French Resistance." ''Transactions of the Royal Historical Society'' 9 (1999): 271–282. [http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/17183/1/ResitingFrenchResistance.pdf online]
* Knapp, Andrew. "The destruction and liberation of Le Havre in modern memory." ''War in History'' 14.4 (2007): 476–498.
* Peschanski, Denis. "Legitimacy/Legitimation/Delegitimation: France in the Dark Years, a Textbook Case." ''Contemporary European History'' (2004): 409–423 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/20081230 online].
* Rousso, Henry. ''The Vichy Syndrome :History and Memory in France since 1944'' (Harvard UP, 1991).
* Wood, Nancy. "Memorial Militancy in France: 'Working-Through' or the Politics of Anachronism?" ''Patterns of Prejudice''. (1995), Vol. 29 Issue 2/3, pp 89–103.
'''Primary sources'''
* De Gaulle, Charles. ''War Memoirs: Call to Honour, 1940–1942'' (''L'Appel''). Tr. by Jonathan Griffin. Collins, London, 1955 (2 volumes). Viking Press, New York, 1955.
** De Gaulle, Charles. ''War Memoirs: Unity, 1942–1944'' (''L'Unité''). Tr. by Richard Howard (narrative) and Joyce Murchie and Hamish Erskine (documents). Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1959 (2 volumes). Simon & Schuster, New York, 1959 (2 volumes).
** De Gaulle, Charles. ''War Memoirs: Salvation, 1944–1946'' (''Le Salut''). Tr. by Richard Howard (narrative) and Joyce Murchie and Hamish Erskine (documents). Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1960 (2 volumes). Simon & Schuster, New York, 1960 (2 volumes).
*** Cairns, John C. "General {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} and the Salvation of France, 1944–46," ''Journal of Modern History'' (1960) 32#3 pp. 251–259 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1872428 in JSTOR] review of ''War Memoirs''
* Giangreco, D. M., Kathryn Moore, and Norman Polmar, eds. ''Eyewitness D-Day: Firsthand Accounts from the Landing at Normandy to the Liberation of Paris'' (2005) 260pp.
* de Tassigny, Jean de Lattre. ''The History of the French 1st Army'' (Translated by Malcolm Barnes) (G. Allen and Unwin, 1952).
==External links== <!-- See [[WP:EL]] -->
{{commons category|Liberation of France}}
{{Wikisourcelang|fr|L’Affiche de Londres|De Gaulle's appeal from London}} <!-- use this for French wikisource -->
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{{Liberation of France}}
{{French Resistance}}
{{Occupation of France}}
{{Authority control}} <!-- people, book titles, well-defined entities -->
[[Category:1940 in France]]
[[Category:1941 in France]]
[[Category:1942 in France]]
[[Category:1943 in France]]
[[Category:1944 in France]]
[[Category:Antisemitism in France]]
[[Category:German occupation of France during World War II]]
[[Category:Jewish French history]]
[[Category:Military history of France during World War II]]
[[Category:Vichy France]]
[[Category:Charles de Gaulle in World War II]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext ) | '{{Short description|Successful attempt to liberate France from Nazi occupation}}
{{use dmy dates|date=July 2020 }}
{{too long|words=13,000|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Liberation of France
| width =
| partof = [[Western Front (World War II)|Western Front]]
| image = File:De Gaulle speaking from Cherbourg City Hall balcony 20 August 1944.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| alt =
| caption = Resistance leader [[Charles de Gaulle]] speaking from the balcony at [[Cherbourg]] City Hall, 20 August 1944
| date = 6 June 1944 – 8 May 1945<br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=06|day1=06|year1=1944|month2=05|day2=08|year2=1945}})
| place = [[France]]
| coordinates = <!--Use the {{coord}} template -->
| map_type =
| map_relief =
| map_size =
| map_marksize =
| map_caption =
| map_label =
| territory =
| result = Allied Victory
* [[Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine|Germans expelled from France]]
* [[Provisional Government of the French Republic|Provisional Government]] established
* [[Vichy France|Vichy]] regime [[Sigmaringen enclave|fled into exile]]
| combatants_header =
| combatant1 = {{Flagicon|Free France}} [[French Resistance]] {{small|(until 1944)}}
* [[Maquis (World War II)|Maquis]]
* [[Bureau Central de Renseignements et d'Action|BCRA]]
* [[National Council of the Resistance|NCR]]
* [[Francs-Tireurs et Partisans|FTP]]
{{Flagicon|Free France}} [[French Forces of the Interior|FFI]] {{small|(since 1944)}}<br />{{Flagicon|France|1830}} [[Provisional Government of the French Republic|PGFR]] {{small|(since 1944)}}<br />{{Flag|United States|1912}}<br /> {{Flag|United Kingdom}}<br />{{Flag|Canada|1921}} <br />{{Flagicon|Poland|1928}} [[Polish Armed Forces in the West|Poland]]
| combatant2 = {{Flagcountry|Nazi Germany}} <br /> {{flag|Italian Social Republic|war}}<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of Philippe Pétain, Chief of State of Vichy France.svg}} [[Vichy France]]<ref>https://www.lefrancophoney.com/the-lost-cemetery-of-le-grand-bornand/</ref><ref name="Littlejohn 1987 169">{{Cite book|last=Littlejohn|first=David|title=Foreign Legions of the Third Reich|year=1987|page=169}}</ref>
| commander1 = {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]<br />{{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[George S. Patton]]<br />{{flagicon|Britain}} [[Bernard Montgomery]]<br />{{flagicon|Britain}} [[Miles Dempsey]]<br />{{flagicon|Canada|1921}} [[Harry Crerar]]<br />{{flagicon|Canada|1921}} [[Guy Simonds]]<br>{{flagicon|Provisional Government of the French Republic}} [[Charles de Gaulle]]<br />{{flagicon|Provisional Government of the French Republic}} [[Jean de Lattre de Tassigny]]<br>{{flagicon|Poland|1928}} [[Stanisław Maczek]]<br />{{flagicon|Poland|1928}} [[Kazimierz Sosnkowski]]
| commander2 = {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Adolf Hitler]]<br />{{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Gerd von Rundstedt]]<br />{{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Erwin Rommel]]<br />{{flagicon|Italian Social Republic|war}} [[Rodolfo Graziani]]{{sfn|Klingbeil|2005|p=380}}<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of Philippe Pétain, Chief of State of Vichy France.svg}} [[Philippe Pétain]]<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of Philippe Pétain, Chief of State of Vichy France.svg}} [[Joseph Darnand]]
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Free French}}
{{Campaignbox Western Front (World War II)}}
}}
The '''liberation of France''' ({{lang-fr|libération de la France}}) in the [[Second World War]] was accomplished through diplomacy, politics and the combined military efforts of the [[Allied Powers of World War II|Allied Powers]], [[Free French forces]] in London and Africa, as well as the [[French Resistance]].
[[Battle of France|Nazi Germany invaded France]] in May 1940. Their rapid advance through the undefended Ardennes caused a crisis in the French government; the [[French Third Republic]] dissolved itself in July, and handed over [[French Constitutional Law of 1940|absolute power]] to Marshal [[Philippe Pétain]], an elderly hero of World War I. Pétain signed an [[Armistice of 22 June 1940|armistice with Germany]] with the north and west of France under [[German military administration in occupied France during World War II|German military occupation]]. Pétain, charged with calling a Constitutional Authority, instead established an authoritarian government in the spa town of [[Vichy]], in the southern ''[[zone libre]]'' ("free zone"). Though nominally independent, [[Vichy France]] became a [[Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy|collaborationist regime]] and was little more than a Nazi [[client state]] that actively participated in [[Holocaust trains|Jewish deportations]].
Even before France surrendered on 22 June 1940, General [[Charles de Gaulle]] fled to London, from where he [[Appeal of 18 June|called on his fellow citizens]] to resist the Germans. The British recognized and funded {{nowrap|de Gaulle's}} [[Free French]] [[government in exile]] based in London. Efforts to liberate France began in the autumn of 1940 in [[French colonial empire|France's colonial empire]] in Africa, still in the hands of the Vichy regime. General {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} persuaded [[French Chad]] to support Free France, and by 1943 most other French colonies in [[French Equatorial Africa|Equatorial]] and [[North Africa]] had followed suit. {{nowrap|De Gaulle}} announced formation of the [[Empire Defense Council]] in [[Brazzaville]], which became the capital of [[Free France]].
Allied military efforts in north western Europe began in summer 1944 with two seaborne invasions of France. [[Operation Overlord]] in June 1944 landed two million men, including a French armoured division, through the [[Normandy landings|beaches of Normandy]], opening a [[Western Front (World War II)|Western front]] against Germany. [[Operation Dragoon]] in August launched a second offensive force, including [[French Army B]], from the ''[[Departments of France|département]]'' of Algeria into southern France. City after city in France was liberated, and even [[Liberation of Paris|Paris was liberated]] on 25 August 1944. As the liberation progressed, resistance groups were incorporated into the Allied strength. In September, under threat of the Allied advance Pétain and the remains of the Vichy regime [[Sigmaringen enclave|fled into exile in Germany]]. The Allied armies continued to push the Germans back [[Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine|through eastern France]] and in February and March 1945, back across the Rhine into Germany. A few [[Atlantic pockets|pockets of German resistance]] remained in control of the main Atlantic ports until the [[End of World War II in Europe|end of the war]] on 8 May 1945.
Immediately after liberation, France was swept by a [[épuration sauvage|wave of executions, assaults, and degradation]] of suspected collaborators, including shaming of women suspected of [[horizontal collaboration|relationships with Germans]]. Courts set up in June 1944 carried out an ''[[épuration légale]]'' (official purge) of officials tainted by association with Vichy or the military occupation. Some defendants received death sentences, and faced a firing squad. The first elections since 1940 were organized in May 1945 by the [[Provisional Government of the French Republic|Provisional Government]]; these municipal elections were the first in which women could vote. In referendums in October 1946, the voters approved a [[French Constitution of 27 October 1946|new constitution]] and the [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]] was born 27 October 1946.
==Background==
===Fall of France===
{{Main|Battle of France|Vichy France}}
Nazi Germany [[Invasion of France (Nazi Germany)|invaded France and the Low Countries]] beginning on 10 May 1940. German forces split the French from their British allies by striking through the lightly defended [[Ardennes]], whose topography French strategists had considered prohibitively difficult for tanks.{{fact|date=March 2024}}
{{stack|[[File:Vichy France Map.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[German occupation of France during World War II|Occupied France]] during World War II, showing German and [[Italian occupation of France during World War II|Italian occupation zones]], the ''[[zone occupée]]'', the ''[[zone libre]]'', the [[Military Administration in Belgium and Northern France]], annexed [[Alsace-Lorraine#World War II|Alsace-Lorraine]], the ''[[zone interdite]]'', and the [[Atlantic Wall]].]]}}
The invaders forced the [[British Expeditionary Force (World War II)|British Expeditionary Force]] to evacuate, and [[Siege of Lille (1940)|defeated several French divisions]] before they advanced to Paris, and down the strategic Atlantic coast. By June, the dire French military situation had French politics revolving around whether the Third Republic should negotiate an armistice, fight on from North Africa, or just surrender.{{sfn|Jackson|2001|pp=121–126}} Prime Minister [[Paul Reynaud]] wanted to keep fighting, but was outvoted and resigned.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Shlaim|first=Avi| author-link = Avi Shlaim | title=Prelude to Downfall: the British offer of Union to France, June 1940|journal=Journal of Contemporary History|date=1974 |volume=9|issue=3|pages=27–63|doi=10.1177/002200947400900302|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/002200947400900302|jstor = 260024|s2cid=159722519 }}</ref> The government relocated several times ahead of advancing German troops, ending up in Bordeaux. President [[Albert Lebrun]] appointed 84-year-old war hero [[Philippe Pétain]] as his replacement on 16 June 1940.{{sfn|Boissoneault|2017}}
Within six weeks of the initial German assault, an overwhelmed French military faced imminent defeat. The cabinet agreed to seek peace terms and sent the Germans a delegation under General [[Charles Huntziger]], with instructions to break off negotiations if the Germans demanded excessively harsh conditions such as the occupation of all of metropolitan France, the French fleet, or any of the French overseas territories. The Germans did not, however.{{sfn|Singer|2008|p=111}}
[[Pierre Laval]], a strong proponent of collaboration,<!-- and also a cabinet member wasn't he? --> arranged a meeting between Hitler and Pétain. It took place on 24 October 1940 at [[Montoire]] on Hitler's private train. Pétain and Hitler shook hands and agreed to co-operate. The meeting was exploited in [[Nazi propaganda]] for the civilian population. On 30 October 1940, Pétain made a policy of French collaboration official, declaring in a radio statement: "I enter today on the path of collaboration."{{efn |Pétain's 30 October 1940 declaration: "{{lang |fr |J'entre aujourd'hui dans la voie de la collaboration.}}". Likewise, on 22 June 1942, Laval declared that he was "hoping for victory for Germany".<ref name="Kitson-2008">{{cite book |last=Kitson |first=Simon |title=The Hunt for Nazi Spies: Fighting Espionage in Vichy France |translator-last=Tihanhi |translator-first=Katherine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Y0qZuw1OaoC |date=15 November 2008 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |orig-year=1st pub. 2005:Editions Autrement |isbn=978-0-226-43895-5 |oclc=1162488165}}</ref>}}
{{stack|[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-H25217, Henry Philippe Petain und Adolf Hitler.jpg|thumb|[[Philippe Pétain]] meeting [[Hitler]] on 24 October 1940. [[Ribbentrop]] on the right.]]}}
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General {{nowrap|De Gaulle}}, sentenced to death ''[[Trial in absentia|in absentia]]'' by the [[Vichy régime]], escaped and created a government in exile for Free France in London. Of the sentence, he said: {{quote|"I consider the death sentence by the men of Vichy entirely void, I shall settle accounts with them after victory. The sentence is that of a court largely under the influence and possibly under the direct orders of an enemy who will one day be driven from the soil of France. Then I will submit myself willingly to the people's judgment."<ref>{{cite web|title=Gen. de Gaulle Sentenced To "Death" |date=1940-08-03 |publisher=The Herald (Melbourne, Vic.)|page=1 |via=Trove |url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/243328630}}</ref>}}
===Armistice===
Pétain signed the [[Armistice of 22 June 1940|Armistice of 22 June]]. Its terms left the [[French Army]] under Vichy France a rump [[Armistice Army]].{{efn|The [[Armistice Army]] was limited in size and materiel, and disbanded in November 1942 after [[Operation Anton]], the German operation that took over the previously unoccupied ''[[zone libre]]''.}} The naval fleet, although disabled, remained under Vichy control. In the colonial empire, the armistice terms permitted defensive use of the naval fleet. In metropolitan France, forces were severely reduced, armored vehicles and tanks prohibited, and motorized transport severely limited.
In July, the [[National Assembly (France)|National Assembly]] of the [[French Third Republic]] dissolved itself and [[French Constitutional Law of 1940|gave absolute power to Pétain]], who was to set up a [[constituent assembly]] and constitutional referendum. The "French State" created by this transfer of power was commonly known after the war as the "Vichy régime". Pétain did nothing about a constitution however, and established a totalitarian government at [[Vichy]] in the southern zone.<ref>{{cite book | page =78 | title=World War II: The Essential Reference Guide |editor=Priscilla Mary Roberts |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2012 |isbn=978-1610691017}}</ref>
The Vichy régime nominally governed all of France, but in practice the ''[[zone occupée]]'' was a Nazi dictatorship and the Vichy government's power was limited and uncertain even in the ''[[zone libre]]''. Vichy France became a [[Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy|collaborationist regime]], little more than a Nazi [[client state]].<ref name=JVL>{{cite web|quote="The French state, (l'État Français) in contrast to the French Republic, willfully collaborated with Nazi Germany to a high degree: raids to capture Jews and other “undesirables” were organized by the French police not only in the northern zone – occupied by the German Wehrmacht but also in the southern “free zone” which was occupied only after the Allies invaded North Africa in November 1942"|publisher=Jewish Virtual Library | title= The Holocaust: The French Vichy Regime |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-french-vichy-regime | author=American Israeli Cooperative Enterprise}}</ref>
France was still nominally independent, with control of the [[French Navy]], the [[French colonial empire]], and the southern half of its metropolitan territory.<ref name=JVL /> France could tell itself that it still retained some shreds of dignity. Despite heavy pressure, Vichy never joined the [[Axis powers|Axis]] alliance and remained formally at war with Germany.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} The Allies took the position that France should refrain from actively helping the Germans, but distrusted its assurances. The British attacked the [[French Navy]] at anchor in [[Attack on Mers-el-Kébir|Mers-el-Kébir]], to keep it out of German hands.
===De Gaulle and Free France===
[[File:De Gaulle - à tous les Français.jpg|thumb|Poster of the [[Appeal of 18 June|18 June appeal]] distributed in [[Occupied France]] through [[Clandestine press of the French Resistance|underground means]] as pamphlets and plastered on walls as posters by supporters of the [[Résistance]].]]
{{Main|Free France}}
{{Further|Charles de Gaulle#Second World War: leader of the Free French in exile}}
Charles {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} had been since 5 June the Under-Secretary of State for National Defence and War and responsible for coordination with Britain. Refusing to accept his government's position on Germany, he escaped back to England on 17 June. In London he established a government in exile and in a series of radio appeals exhorted the French to fight back. Some historians have called the first, his [[appeal of 18 June]] on the BBC, the beginning of the [[French Resistance]]. In fact the audience for that appeal was quite small, but more and more listened as de Gaulle obtained Britain's recognition as the legitimate government of [[Free France]] and obtained their agreement to finance a military efforts against Nazi Germany.
{{nowrap|De Gaulle}} also tried, in vain initially, to gain the support of French forces in the French colonial empire. General [[Charles Noguès]], Resident-General in Morocco and Commander-in-Chief of the [[Army of Africa (France)|Army of Africa]] refused his overtures, and forbade the press in [[French North Africa]] to publish the text of {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}'s appeal.{{sfn|Lacouture|1993|pp=229–230}} The day after the armistice was signed on 21 June 1940, {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} denounced it.{{sfn|Lacouture|1993|p=236}} The French government in Bordeaux declared {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} compulsorily retired from the Army with the rank of colonel, on 23 June 1940.{{sfn|Lacouture|1993|pp=243–244}} Also on 23 June, the British Government denounced the armistice and announced that they no longer regarded the Bordeaux government as a fully independent state. They also noted a plan to establish a [[French National Committee]] in exile, but did not mention {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} by name.{{sfn|Lacouture|1993|pp=236–237}}
The armistice took effect starting at 00:35 on 25 June.{{sfn|Lacouture|1993|p=236}} On 26 June {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} wrote to Churchill about recognition for his French Committee.{{sfn|Lacouture|1993|p=208}} The [[Foreign Office]] had reservations about de Gaulle as a leader, but Churchill's envoys had tried and failed to establish contact with French leaders in North Africa, so on 28 June, the British government recognized {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} as the leader of the [[Free French]], despite the FO's reservations.{{sfn|Lacouture|1993|p=243}}
{{nowrap|De Gaulle}} also initially had little success in attracting the support of major powers.{{sfn|Lacouture|1993|p=239}} While Pétain's government was recognized by the US, the USSR, and the Vatican, and controlled the French fleet and military in all the colonies, {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}'s retinue consisted of a secretary, three colonels, a dozen captains, a law professor, and three battalions of [[French Foreign Legion|legionnaires]] who had agreed to stay in Britain and fight for him. For a time the [[New Hebrides]] were the only French colony to back {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}.{{sfn|Lacouture|1993|p=244}}
{{nowrap|De Gaulle}} and Churchill reached agreement on 7 August 1940 that Britain would also fund the [[Free France|Free French]], with the costs to be settled after the war (the financial agreement was finalized in March 1941). A separate letter guaranteed the territorial integrity of the French colonial empire.{{sfn|Lacouture|1993|p=261}}
===French Resistance===
{{Main|Free France|French Resistance}}
{{Further|Appeal of 18 June|Radio Londres|Clandestine press of the French Resistance}}
[[File:Eisenhower & Bradley with a member of the French Resistance in Normandy.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.0|Generals [[Dwight Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] and [[Omar Bradley|Bradley]] with a young member of the French resistance during the liberation of [[Lower Normandy]] in summer 1944]]
The French Resistance was a decentralized network of small cells of fighters with the tacit or overt support of many French civilians. The various resistance groups by 1944 had an estimated 100,000 members in France.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/world-war-two/resistance-movements/the-french-resistance/|title = The French Resistance}}</ref> Some were former [[Confederal militias|Republican fighters]] from the [[Spanish Civil War]]; others were workers who went into hiding rather than report for the mandatory ''[[Service du travail obligatoire]]'' (STO) to work for German arms factories.{{efn|Dissatisfied with the number of volunteers, the [[German military administration in occupied France during World War II|German military administration]] required the [[Government of Vichy France]] to enact mandatory [[forced labor]] (''service de travail obligatoire'' (STO)), which made the occupation personal to many young French people. Able-bodied French citizens who faced forced labor in Germany began instead to disappear into forests and mountain wildernesses to join the ''[[Maquis (World War II)|maquis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ashdown |first1=Paddy |author-link=Paddy Ashdown |title=The Cruel Victory |date=2014 |publisher=William Collins |location=London |isbn=978-0007520817 |pages=18–19}}</ref>}}<ref>{{ cite web |url= https://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/divers/STO/145262 |title=STO | publisher=Larousse |language=fr }}</ref> In the south of France especially, Resistance fighters took to the mountainous brush ({{lang|fr|[[Maquis (World War II)|maquis]]}}) that gave them their name, and conducted guerilla warfare on the German occupation forces, cutting telephone lines and destroying bridges.
The ''[[Armée Secrète]]'' was a French military organization active during World War II. The collective grouped the paramilitary formations of the three most important Gaullist resistance movements in the southern zone: Combat, Libération-sud and the Franc-Tireurs.
[[File:Les Clayes sous Bois Monument Jean Moulin.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Monument to [[Jean Moulin]], leader of the Resistance]]
Some organizations grew up around one of the many [[Clandestine press of the French Resistance|clandestine presses]] of the time, such as ''Combat'', founded by [[Albert Camus]], to which [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] also contributed. Stalin supported the effort{{clarify|clandestine presses?|date=March 2021}} once Germany invaded the Soviet Union.
[[French prisoners of war in World War II|French prisoners of war]] were held hostage against the French government meeting their quota of workers. When the mass impressment of able-bodied civilians began, French railway workers (''cheminots'') went on strike rather than allow the Germans to use the trains to transport them.<ref>{{cite journal| title=Ordinary Workers, Vichy and the Holocaust: French Railwaymen and the Second World War by Ludivine Broch (review)| author=Philip Nord |journal=Journal of Interdisciplinary History | year=2020 |publisher=The MIT Press
|volume= 51 | number=1 | pages=144–145 | doi=10.1162/jinh_r_01531 | s2cid=225730856 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/757206/pdf}}</ref> The ''cheminots'' eventually formed their own organization, ''[[Résistance-Fer]]''.
The [[French Forces of the Interior]] (FFI), as {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} came to call Resistance forces inside France, were an uneasy alliance of several ''maquis'' and other organizations, including the Communist-organized [[Francs-Tireurs et Partisans]] (FTP) and the [[Armée secrète]] in southern France. In addition, [[Escape and evasion lines (World War II)|escape networks]] helped Allied airmen who had been shot down get to safety.<ref>{{citation |title=French Resistance Aid to Allied Airmen |via=Jstor |author=Joseph E. Tucker| year=1947|journal=The French Review | volume=21 | number=1|pages=29–34 |publisher= American Association of Teachers of French |jstor=380696 |access-date=February 22, 2021|url=
https://www.jstor.org/stable/380696 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> The ''[[Unione Corse]]'' and the {{lang|fr|[[milieu (organized crime in France)|milieu]]}}, the criminal underground of Marseilles, gleefully provided logistical escape assistance for a price, although some such as [[Paul Carbone]] instead worked with the [[Carlingue]], French auxiliaries to the Gestapo SD and German military police.
===French colonial empire===
{{Further|French colonial empire|Vichy France#Colonial struggle with Free France|Free France#Struggle for control of the French colonies}}
[[File:EmpireFrench.png|thumb|French colonial empire]]
France's colonial empire at the start of World War II stretched from territories and possessions in Africa, the Middle East ([[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon]]), to ports in India, Indochina, the Pacific islands, and territories in North and South America.
France retained control of its colonial empire, and the terms of the armistice shifted the power balance post-armistice of France's reduced military resources away from France and towards the colonies, especially North Africa. By 1943, all French colonies, except for Japanese-controlled Indochina, had joined the Free French cause.<ref>Martin Thomas, ''The French Empire at War, 1940–1945'' (Manchester University Press, 2007)</ref>{{sfn|Jackson|2001|p=}}{{page needed|date=January 2021}}
The colonies in [[North Africa]] and [[French Equatorial Africa]] in particular played a key role<ref>{{cite web|title=Free French Africa in World War II: The African Resistance (Cambridge University Press). | publisher = University of Toronto Faculty of Arts and Sciences | author = Department of History | date = 2 September 2016 |url=https://www.history.utoronto.ca/publications/free-french-africa-world-war-ii-african-resistance|quote="What is perhaps still deeply under-appreciated is how much General de Gaulle's Free France drew its strength from 1940 to the middle of 1943 from fighting men, resources, and operations in French Equatorial Africa rather than London."}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=France commemorates its 'forgotten' African veterans in the liberation of France.|publisher=Radio France Internationale |url=https://www.rfi.fr/en/africa/20190814-france-commemorates-forgotten-African-veterans-wwii-landing-Provence-Operation-Drago |date=August 15, 2019 |language=en}}</ref>
Vichy French colonial forces were reduced under the terms of the armistice. Nevertheless, in the Mediterranean area alone, Vichy had nearly 150,000 men under arms. There were about 55,000 in [[French protectorate of Morocco|French Morocco]], 50,000 in [[French Algeria|Algeria]], and almost 40,000 in the [[Army of the Levant]].
==Diplomacy, politics, and administration==
===Diplomacy and politics===
====Appeal of 18 June====
{{Main|Appeal of 18 June}}
[[File:Charles de Gaulle au micro de la BBC.jpg|thumb|Charles de Gaulle broadcasting from the BBC in London in 1941{{efn|De Gaulle broadcasting from the BBC: There is no photograph of the [[Appeal of June 18|June 18 appeal]]; this image from 1941 is sometimes used as an illustration of the famous radio speech.<ref name="Ragache-2010">{{cite book |last=Ragache |first=Gilles |title=Les appels du 18 juin |trans-title=The Appeals of 18 June |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TpE3AQAAIAAJ |publisher=Larousse |series=À rebours |location=Paris |year=2010 |isbn=978-2035-85054-6 |oclc=705750131 |page=2 |language=fr}}</ref>}}]]
Refusing to accept his government's armistice with Germany, Charles {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} fled to England on 17 June and exhorted the French to resist occupation and to continue the fight.<ref>{{cite web|title=L'Appel du 22 juin 1940 - charles-de-gaulle.org |url=http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/pages/l-homme/dossiers-thematiques/1940-1944-la-seconde-guerre-mondiale/l-appel-du-18-juin/documents/l-appel-du-22-juin-1940.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606021817/http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/pages/l-homme/dossiers-thematiques/1940-1944-la-seconde-guerre-mondiale/l-appel-du-18-juin/documents/l-appel-du-22-juin-1940.php |archive-date=6 June 2017 |access-date=5 May 2017 |website=charles-de-gaulle.org}}</ref>
Reynaud resigned after his proposal for a [[Franco-British Union#World War II (1940)|Franco-British Union]] was rejected by his cabinet and De Gaulle facing imminent arrest, fled France on 17 June. Other leading politicians, including [[Georges Mandel]], [[Léon Blum]], [[Pierre Mendès France]], [[Jean Zay]] and [[Édouard Daladier]] (and separately Reynaud), were arrested while travelling to continue the war from North Africa.<ref name="Lacouture">{{cite book |last=Lacouture |first=Jean |title=De Gaulle: The Rebel 1890–1944 |orig-year=1984 |year=1991 |edition=English |pages=211–216}}</ref>
De Gaulle obtained special permission from [[Winston Churchill]] to broadcast a speech on 18 June via ''[[Radio Londres]]'' (a French language radio station operated by the BBC) to France, despite the Cabinet's objections that such a broadcast could provoke the Pétain government into a closer allegiance with Germany.<ref>{{Citation |first=Antony |last=Beevor |url=https://www.theguardian.com/greatspeeches/story/0,,2059384,00.html |work=The Guardian |title=Rallying call: A Mesmerising Oratory |date=29 April 2007}}</ref> In his speech, de Gaulle reminded the French people that the [[British Empire]] and the [[United States|United States of America]] would support them militarily and economically in an effort to retake France from the Germans.
Few actually heard the speech but another speech, heard by more people, was given by de Gaulle four days later.<ref>{{cite web|work=History of the BBC| publisher= BBC |title=De Gaulle's first broadcast to France | url=https://www.bbc.com/historyofthebbc/anniversaries/june/de-gaulles-first-broadcast-to-france}}</ref>
After the war, de Gaulle's radio appeal was often identified as the beginning of the French Resistance, and the process of liberating France from the yoke of German occupation.<ref name="Evans-2018">{{cite magazine |last=Evans |first=Martin |title=Review: A History of the French Resistance |url=https://www.historytoday.com/reviews/history-french-resistance |date=8 August 2018 |magazine=History Today |volume=68 |issue=8 |issn=0018-2753 |publisher=Andy Patterson |location=London |quote= However, after the Second World War, de Gaulle's speech of 18 June 1940 became enshrined in French history as the starting point of the French Resistance, which led directly to the Liberation four years later. This founding narrative allowed French people to forget the humiliation of Nazi Occupation and rebuild national self-esteem.}}</ref>
====Northern Africa====
[[File:Félix Éboué and Charles DeGaulle.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|[[Félix Éboué]] welcoming de Gaulle to Chad in October 1940]]
{{Annotated image
| image = De Gaulle arrivant dans la capitale de la France libre (restored).jpg
| image-width =250
| image-left = -5
| image-top = -150
| width = 235
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| caption = De Gaulle arriving in Brazzaville, 24 October 1940
}}
De Gaulle's support grew out of a base in colonial Africa. In the summer of 1940, the colonial empire largely supported the Vichy regime. [[Félix Éboué]], governor of Chad, switched his support to General de Gaulle in September. Encouraged, de Gaulle traveled to Brazzaville in October, where he announced the formation of an [[Empire Defense Council]]<ref name="Shillington-2013" /> in his "[[Brazzaville Manifesto]]",<ref name="Brazzaville-1940">{{cite book |author=France libre |title=Documents officiels. [Manifeste du 27 octobre 1940, à Brazzaville. Ordonnances n ° 1 et 2, du 27 octobre 1940, instituant un Conseil de défense de l'Empire. Déclaration organique complétant le manifeste du 27 octobre 1940, du 16 novembre 1940, à Brazzaville. Signé: De Gaulle.]. |trans-title=Official documents. Manifesto of 27 October 1940, in Brazzaville. Orders No. 1 and 2, of 27 October 1940, establishing an Empire Defense Council. Organic Declaration supplementing the Manifesto of 27 October 1940, of 16 November 1940, in Brazzaville. Signed: De Gaulle. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cQjwSAAACAAJ |year=1940 |publisher=Impr. officielle |place=Brazzaville |oclc=460992617}}</ref> and invited all colonies still supporting Vichy to join him and the Free French forces in the fight against Germany, which most of them did by 1943.<ref name="Shillington-2013">{{cite book |last=Shillington |first=Kevin |title=Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WixiTjxYdkYC&pg=PA448 |access-date=2 June 2020 |volume=1 A–G |date=4 July 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-45669-6 |page=448 |oclc=254075497 |quote=<!-- There was much support for the Vichy regime among French colonial personnel, with the exception of Guianese-born governor of Chad, Félix Éboué, who in September 1940 announced his switch of allegiance from Vichy to the Gaullist Free French movement based in London. Encouraged by this support for his fledgling movement, Charles de Gaulle traveled to Brazzaville in October 1940 to announce the formation of an Empire Defense Council and to invite all French possessions loyal to Vichy to join it and continue the war against Germany; within two years, most did.-->}}</ref><ref name="Wieviorka-2019">{{cite book |last=Wieviorka |first=Olivier |title=The Resistance in Western Europe, 1940–1945 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=btGQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT67 |access-date=2 June 2020 |date=3 September 2019 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-231-54864-9 |pages=67– |translator-last=Todd |translator-first=Jane Marie |quote=<!-- At the same time, de Gaulle was only one man, and had no eminent political supporters. He therefore had to broaden his base. An order of October 27, 1940, created the Conseil de défense de l'Empire (Empire Defense Council), which included, in addition to de Gaulle, the governors of the territories who had rallied to the cause (Edgard de Larminat, Félix Éboué, Leclerc, Henri Sautot) military leaders (Georges Catroux and Émile Muselier), and three personalities from varied backgrounds: Father Georges Thierry Argenlieu, a friar and alumnus of the E'cole Navale; Rene' Cassin, a distinguished jurist and prominent representative of the veterans movement; and the military doctor Adolph Sice'.-->}}</ref>
On 26 August, the governor and military commanders in the colony of [[French Chad]] announced that they were rallying to De Gaulle's [[Free French Forces]]. A small group of Gaullists seized control of [[French Cameroon]] the following morning,<ref name="Mokake-2006">{{cite book |last=Mokake |first=John N. |title=Basic Facts on Cameroon History Since 1884 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1GAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA76 |year=2006 |publisher=Cure Series |location=Limbe, Cameroon |isbn=978-9956-402-67-0 |pages=76–77 |oclc=742316797}}</ref> and on 28 August a Free French official ousted the pro-Vichy governor of [[French Congo]].{{sfn|Gildea|2019|p=52}} The next day the governor of [[Ubangi-Shari]] declared that his territory would support De Gaulle. His declaration prompted a brief struggle for power with a pro-Vichy army officer, but by the end of the day all of the colonies that formed [[French Equatorial Africa]] had rallied to Free France, except for [[French Gabon]].{{sfn|Reeves|2016|p=92}}
===Free French Administration===
A series of organizing bodies was created during the war, to guide and coordinate the diplomatic and war effort of Free France, with General Charles {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} playing a central role in the creation or operation of them all.
====Empire Defense Council====
{{Main|Empire Defense Council}}
[[File:Charles De Gaulle, Philippe de Scitivaux, René Mouchotte, Martial Valin.png|thumb|{{nowrap|De Gaulle}} with Admiral {{ill|Philippe de Scitivaux|fr|vertical-align=sup}}, pilot [[René Mouchotte]], and Air Force general [[Martial Henri Valin]]]]
On 26 June 1940, four days after the [[Pétain government]] requested the armistice, General {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} submitted a memorandum to the British government notifying Churchill of his decision to set up a Council of Defense of the Empire{{sfn|White|1964|p=161}} and formalizing the agreement reached with Churchill on 28 June. The formal recognition of the Empire Defense Council as a [[government in exile]] by the United Kingdom took place on 6 January 1941; recognition by the Soviet Union was published in December 1941, by exchange of letters.{{sfn|Danan|1972}}
====French National Committee====
[[File:Comité national français.jpg|thumb|At a committee meeting in London:{{br}} left to right [[André Diethelm|Diethelm]], [[Émile Muselier|Muselier]], [[Charles de Gaulle|de Gaulle]], [[René Cassin|Cassin]], [[René Pleven|Pleven]] and [[Philippe Auboyneau|Auboyneau]] (1942)]]
{{Main|French National Committee}}
Winston Churchill suggested that {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} create a committee, to lend an appearance of a more constitutionally based and less dictatorial authority and on 24 September 1941 {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} created by edict the [[French National Committee]]{{sfn|Bernard|1984|pp=374–378}} as the successor organization to the smaller Empire Defense Council. According to historian {{ill|Henri Bernard (historian)|lt=Henri Bernard,|fr|Henri Bernard|v=sup}} {{nowrap|De Gaulle}} went on to accept his proposal, but took care to exclude all his adversaries within the Free France movement, such as [[Émile Muselier]], [[André Labarthe]] and others, retaining only "yes men" in the group.{{sfn|Bernard|1984|pp=374–378}}
The committee was the coordinating body which acted as the government-in-exile of Free France from 1941 to 1943.{{sfn|JOFF}}{{Full citation needed|reason=The Journal Officiel is like the "Congressional Record" and is voluminous; need details of what is being cited here.|date=July 2020}} On 3 June 1943 it merged with the [[French Civil and Military High Command]] headed by [[Henri Giraud]], becoming the new "[[French Committee of National Liberation]]".<ref>{{cite journal|title=Introduction – Beyond De Gaulle and Beyond London The French External Resistance and its international networks |volume=25 | issue=2 |publisher=Taylor and Francis |journal=European Review of History |author1=Charlotte Gaucher
| author2=Laure Humbert |year=2018 |pages=195–221 |doi=10.1080/13507486.2017.1411336 |s2cid=149757902 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
====National Resistance Council====
{{Main|National Resistance Council}}
De Gaulle, began seeking the formation of a committee to unify the resistance movements. On January 1, 1942, he delegated this task to [[Jean Moulin]]. Moulin achieved this on May 27, 1943, with the first meeting of the ''Conseil National de la Résistance'' in the 6th-arrondissement apartment of René Corbin<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://museedelaresistanceenligne.org/media2965-RenA|title = Musée de la résistance en ligne}}</ref> on the second floor of 48, Rue du Four, in Paris.
====French Civil and Military High Command====
{{Main|French Civil and Military High Command}}
[[File:Eisenhower giraud salute flag.jpg|thumb|General Giraud with General Dwight D. Eisenhower at Allied headquarters in Algiers, 1943]]
The [[French Civil and Military High Command]]{{sfn|Maury|2006}}{{sfn|Maury|2010}} was the governmental body in [[Algiers]] headed by Henri Giraud following the liberation of a portion of French North Africa following the Allied [[Operation Torch]] landings on 7 and 8 November 1942.
[[François Darlan]] had been named by Pétain to oppose the Allied landings in North Africa in November 1942. Following the landings, Darlan supported the Allies.{{sfn|Nyrop|1965|p=28}} On 13 November, Eisenhower recognized him and named Darlan "High Commissioner of France residing in North Africa".{{sfn|Nyrop|1965|p=28}} [[Henri Giraud]], a French patriot loyal to Vichy but opposed to Germany and who had been the Allies choice, became commander of the military forces in North Africa. First called the "High Commission of France in Africa", the French authority was rocked when on 24 December 1942, Darlan was assassinated by a Monarchist.{{sfn|Cantier|2002|pp=374–375}} Giraud took over and the name "Civil and Military High Command" was adopted by 1943. Giraud exercised authority over [[French Algeria]] and the [[French Protectorate of Morocco]], while the [[Tunisian campaign]] against the Germans and Italians continued in the [[French Protectorate of Tunisia]]. Darlan having previously won the support of French West Africa, the latter was also in Giraud's camp, while French Equatorial Africa was in de Gaulle's camp.{{sfn|Montagnon|1990|pp=60–63}}
By March 1943, North Africa began to distance itself from Vichy. On 14 March, Giraud delivered a speech that he later described as "the first democratic speech of [his] life", in which he broke with Vichy. [[Jean Monnet]] pushed Giraud to negotiate with de Gaulle, who arrived in Algiers on 30 May 1943. On 3 June, the Civil and Military High Command in Algiers merged with the French National Committee in London to form the French National Liberation Committee.
====French Committee of National Liberation====
{{Main|French Committee of National Liberation}}
[[File:De Gaulle-Giraud shot0092.png|thumb|left|[[Henri Giraud]] and de Gaulle]]
The French Committee of National Liberation was a [[provisional government]] of Free France formed by generals Henri Giraud and Charles de Gaulle to provide united leadership, and organize and coordinate the campaign to liberate France. The committee was formed on 3 June 1943 and after a period of joint leadership came under the chairmanship of {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} on 9 November.<ref name="Emb-FR">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ambafrance-us.org/atoz/presidentsgallery.asp |title=French embassy |access-date=7 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210230259/http://www.ambafrance-us.org/atoz/presidentsgallery.asp |archive-date=10 December 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The committee directly challenged the legitimacy of the Vichy régime and unified the French forces that fought against the Nazis and their [[Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy|collaborators]]. The committee functioned as a provisional government for French Algeria (then a part of [[metropolitan France]]) and the liberated parts of the colonial empire.<ref name="Army-1965">{{cite book |author1=American University (Washington, D.C.). Foreign Areas Studies Division |author2=United States. Army |title=U.S. Army Area Handbook for Algeria |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bgq8xwHlCpoC&pg=PA28 |year=1965 |publisher=Division, Special Operations Research Office, American University |page=28 |oclc=1085291500 |access-date=23 July 2020 |quote=<!-- Most of the European colonial population of Algeria wholeheartedly supported the Vichy government. ... Even after the Allies under General Dwight D. Eisenhower liberated Algeria in November 1942, General Henri Giraud, appointed by Eisenhower as civil and military commander in chief, only slowly rescinded the Vichy legislation. It was almost a year before the Crémieux decrees were reactivated, against the virulent opposition of the European colonialists.-->}}</ref><ref name="Davis-2018">{{cite book |language=en |last=Brunet |first=Luc-Andre |editor-last1=Davis |editor-first1=Muriam Haleh |editor-last2=Serres |editor-first2=Thomas |title=North Africa and the Making of Europe: Governance, Institutions and Culture |chapter=1. The Role of Algeria in Debates over Post-War Europe within the French Resistance |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tP5DDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT35 |date=22 February 2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1-350-02184-6 |oclc=1037916970 |pages=35–36<!--electronic file, page number may be different for different providers--> |access-date=23 July 2020}}</ref><ref name="Encarta-CDG">{{cite web |title=Charles {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} biography |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/RefArticle.aspx?refid=761563271 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071123164056/http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/refarticle.aspx?refid=761563271 |archive-date=23 November 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
[[File:La Dépêche algérienne 04-06-1943.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|First page of ''La Dépêche algérienne'' headlining the creation of the French Committee of National Liberation 4 June 1943]]
The committee was formed on 3 June 1943 in Algiers, the capital of French Algeria.<ref name="Encarta-CDG"/> Giraud and de Gaulle served jointly as co-presidents of the committee. The charter of the body affirmed its commitment to "re-establish all French liberties, the laws of the Republic and the Republican régime."<ref name="Roundtable" /> The committee saw itself as a source of unity and representation for the French nation. The Vichy regime was decried as illegitimate over its collaboration with Nazi Germany. The committee received mixed responses from the Allies; the U.S. and Britain considered it a war-time body with restricted functions, different from a future government of liberated France.<ref name="Roundtable" /> The Committee soon expanded its membership, developed a distinctive administrative body and incorporated as the Provisional Consultative Assembly, creating an organized, representative government within itself. With Allied recognition, the committee and its leaders Giraud and de Gaulle enjoyed considerable popular support within France and the French resistance, thus becoming the forerunners in the process to form a provisional government for France as liberation approached.<ref name="Roundtable" /> However, Charles de Gaulle politically outmaneuvered Gen. Giraud, and asserted complete control and leadership over the committee.<ref name="Encarta-CDG" />
In August 1944 the Committee moved to Paris following the liberation of France by Allied forces.<ref name="Roundtable">{{Citation |url=http://www.historians.org/Projects/GIRoundtable/French/French10.htm |title=Will the French Republic Live Again? Unscrambling the Economic Eggs |series=GI Roundtable Series |first=John B. |last=Wolf |website=historians.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605220821/http://www.historians.org/Projects/GIRoundtable/French/French10.htm |archive-date=2013-06-05 |access-date=2020-01-30 |publisher=American Historical Association }}</ref>
In September, Allied forces recognized the committee as the legitimate provisional government of France, whereupon the Committee reorganized itself as the Provisional Government of the French Republic under the presidency of Charles {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}<ref name="Roundtable" /> and began the process of writing a new Constitution which would become the basis of the French Fourth Republic.<ref name="Encarta-CDG" />
====Provisional Consultative Assembly====
{{main|Provisional Consultative Assembly}}
[[File:Assemblée consultative provisoire d’Alger.jpg|thumb|Inaugural session of the Provisional Consultative Assembly in the presence of General de Gaulle. Palais Carnot, Algiers, November 3, 1943]]
The [[Provisional Consultative Assembly]] was set up in September 1943 in Algiers to advise the committee and to help provide a legal basis to the institutions being set up to represent the French people, at a time when the country itself and its laws represented the enemy. After the liberation of Paris in August 1944, the Committee moved to Paris and was reorganized as the [[Provisional Government of the French Republic]] under the presidency of Charles {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}. The Provisional Government guided the French war and diplomatic efforts through liberation and the end of the war, until a new Constitution was written and approved in a referendum, establishing of the [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]] in October 1946.
The Provisional Consultative Assembly was a governmental organ of Free France that was created by and operated under the aegis of the French Committee of National Liberation (CFLN). It began in north Africa and held meetings in Algiers until it moved to Paris in July 1944.<ref>{{cite web|title=Les Assemblées consultatives provisoires 3 novembre 1943 – 3 août 1945 |publisher=Assemblée Nationale |url=https://www2.assemblee-nationale.fr/decouvrir-l-assemblee/histoire/histoire-de-l-assemblee-nationale/la-republique-dans-la-tourmente-1939-1945/les-assemblees-consultatives-provisoires |language=fr }}</ref> Led by Charles de Gaulle, it was an attempt to provide some sort of representative, democratic accountability to the institutions being set up to represent the French people, at a time when the country itself and its laws were dissolved and its territory occupied or coopted by a puppet state.
The members of the Assembly represented the French resistance movements, political parties, and territories that were engaged against Germany in the Second World War alongside the Allies.
Established by ordinance on 17 September 1943 by the CFLN, it held its first meetings in Algiers, at the Palais Carnot (the former headquarters of the Financial Delegations), between 3 November 1943 and 25 July 1944. On 3 June 1944 it was placed under the authority of the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF), which succeeded the CFLN.
In his inaugural speech, de Gaulle gave the body his imprimatur, as providing a means of representing the people of France as democratically and legally as possible under difficult and unparalleled circumstances, until such time as democracy could once again be restored.<ref name="LeMonde-1993">{{cite news |last=de Gaulle |first=Charles |language=fr |title=DATES IL Y A CINQUANTE ANS L'Assemblée consultative provisoire se réunissait à Alger |trans-title=Fifty Years Ago: The Provisional Consultative Assembly meets in Algiers |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1993/11/07/dates-il-y-a-cinquante-ans-l-assemblee-consultative-provisoire-se-reunissait-a-alger_3939245_1819218.html |date=7 November 1993 |newspaper=Le Monde |publisher= |location=Paris |access-date=5 February 2021}}</ref>{{sfn|Choisnel|2007|pp=100–102}} As an indication of the importance he attached to the body, de Gaulle participated in about twenty sessions of the Consultative Assembly in Algiers. On 26 June 1944, he came to report on the military situation after the D-Day landings, and on 25 July, he was present at its last session on African soil before its move to Paris.{{sfn|Choisnel|2007|pp=100–102}}
Restructured and expanded after the liberation of France, it held sessions in Paris at the [[Palais du Luxembourg]] between 7 November 1944 and 3 August 1945.
====Provisional Government====
{{hatnote|Covered in more detail in section [[#Provisional Government of the French Republic|Provisional Government of the French Republic]] below.}}
The GPFR served as an [[interim government]] of Free France from June 1944 through liberation and lasted till 1946.
The PGFR was created by the Committee of National Liberation on 3 June 1944, three days before [[D-day]]. It moved back to Paris after the [[liberation of Paris|liberation of the capital]] in August 1944.
Most of the goals and activity of the GPFR are related to the post-Liberation period, so this subtopic is covered in more detail in the Aftermath section below, in section [[#Provisional Government of the French Republic|Provisional Government of the French Republic]].
==Military forces==
===Introduction===
The first military forces brought to bear in the liberation of France were the forces of [[Free France]], made up of colonial regiments from [[French Africa]]. The Free French forces included 300,000 North African Arabs.<ref>Robert Gildea, ''France since 1945'' (1996) p 17</ref> Two of the [[Big Three (World War II)|Big Three Allies]], the United States and the United Kingdom, were next with [[Operation Overlord]], with Australian air support and Canadian infantry in the Normandy beach landings.
Individual civilian efforts such as the [[Maquis de Saint-Marcel]] helped to harass the Germans. An OSE operation hid Allied servicemen. The many scattered cells of the [[French Resistance]] gradually consolidated into a fighting force after the Normandy landings and became known as the [[French Forces of the Interior]] (FFI). The FFI made major contributions, assisting Allied armies pushing the Germans east out of France and past the Rhine.
The military forces involved in the liberation of France were under the command of General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], commander of the [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force]] (SHAEF).{{sfn|Gilbert|1989|p=491}} General [[Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein|Bernard Montgomery]] was named commander of the [[21st Army Group]], which comprised all of the land forces involved in the initial invasion.{{sfn|Whitmarsh|2009|pp=12–13}} On 31 December 1943, Eisenhower and Montgomery first saw the outline plan the Chief of Staff to the [[Supreme Allied Commander]] (COSSAC) had prepared for an invasion, which proposed amphibious landings by three [[Division (military)|divisions]], with two more divisions in support. The two generals immediately insisted on expanding the scale of the initial invasion to five divisions, with airborne descents by three additional divisions, to allow operations on a wider front and to speed up the capture of the port at [[Cherbourg-Octeville|Cherbourg]]. The need to acquire or produce extra [[landing craft]] for the expanded operation meant delaying the invasion until June 1944.{{sfn|Whitmarsh|2009|pp=12–13}} Eventually the Allies committed 39 divisions to the [[Battle of Normandy]]: 22 American, 12 British, three Canadian, one Polish, and one French, totalling over a million troops,{{sfn|Weinberg|1995|p=684}} all under overall British command.{{sfn|Ellis|Allen|Warhurst|2004|pp=521–533}}{{efn|name=British command}}
===Free French Forces===
{{Main|Free France}}
Despite {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}'s call to continue the struggle, few French forces initially pledged their support. By the end of July 1940, only about 7,000 soldiers had joined the [[Free France|Free French Forces]] in England.<ref name="Goubert1991">{{cite book|author=Pierre Goubert|title=The Course of French History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1VbZMbFw89YC&pg=PA298|access-date=6 March 2011|date=20 November 1991|publisher=[[Psychology Press]]|isbn=978-0-415-06671-6|pages=298|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130527210545/http://books.google.com/books?id=1VbZMbFw89YC&pg=PA298|archive-date=27 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Axelrod362>{{Cite book |last1=Axelrod |first1=Alan |last2=Kingston |first2=Jack A. |year=2007 |title=Encyclopedia of World War II |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LbWFgjW6KX8C |publisher=[[Facts on File]] |isbn=9780816060221 |page = 362}}</ref> Three-quarters of French servicemen in Britain requested repatriation.<ref name="Hastings 2011">{{cite book|last=Hastings|first=Max|author-link=Max Hastings|title=All Hell Let Loose, The World at War 1939–45|year=2011|publisher=Harper Press|location=London}}</ref>{{rp|80}}
France was bitterly divided by the conflict. Frenchmen everywhere were forced to choose sides, and often deeply resented those who had made a different choice.<ref name="Hastings 2011"/>{{rp|126}} One French admiral, [[René-Émile Godfroy]], voiced the opinion of many of those who decided not to join the [[Free France#Beginningd of the Free French Forces|Free French forces]], when in June 1940 he explained to the exasperated British why he would not order his ships from their [[Alexandria]] harbour to join {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}:
:"For us Frenchmen, the fact is that a government still exists in France, a government supported by a Parliament established in non-occupied territory and which in consequence cannot be considered irregular or deposed. The establishment elsewhere of another government, and all support for this other government would clearly be rebellion."<ref name="Hastings 2011"/>{{rp|126}}
Equally, few Frenchmen believed that Britain could stand alone. In June 1940, Pétain and his generals told Churchill that "in three weeks, England will have her neck wrung like a chicken".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=vXsOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA235 Yapp, Peter, p. 235. ''The Travellers' Dictionary of Quotation'']. Retrieved October 2012</ref> Of France's far-flung empire, only the [[French domains of St Helena|43 acres of French territory of the British island of St Helena]] (on 23 June at the initiative of Georges Colin, honorary consul of the domains<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.france-libre.net/saint-helene/|title=Le Domaine français de Sainte-Hélène|date=13 November 2009 |language=fr-FR|access-date=6 July 2019}}</ref>) and the Franco-British ruled [[New Hebrides]] in the Pacific (on 20 July) answered {{nowrap|De Gaulle}}'s call to arms. It was not until late August that Free France would gain significant support in [[French Equatorial Africa]].<ref>Jennings, Eric T. ''Free French Africa in World War II''. p. 66.</ref>
Unlike the troops at [[Dunkirk]] or naval forces at sea, relatively few members of the [[French Air Force]] had the means or opportunity to escape. Like all military personnel trapped on the mainland, they were functionally subject to the Pétain government: "French authorities made it clear that those who acted on their own initiative would be classed as deserters, and guards were placed to thwart efforts to get on board ships."<ref name = "Bennett 2011">{{Cite book |last=Bennett |first=G. H. |year=2011 |title=The RAF's French Foreign Legion: De Gaulle, the British and the Re-emergence of French Airpower 1940-45 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rlhOD1V1jVsC |location=London; New York |publisher=Continuum |isbn=9781441189783 }}{{rp|16}}</ref> In the summer of 1940, around a dozen pilots made it to England and volunteered for the [[RAF]] to help fight the [[Luftwaffe]].<ref name="learningsite">[http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/france_pilots_battle_britain.htm History Learning Site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121003014827/http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/france_pilots_battle_britain.htm |date=3 October 2012 }}. Retrieved October 2012</ref><ref name = "Bennett 2011"/>{{rp|13}} Many more, however, made their way through long and circuitous routes to Spain or to French territories overseas, eventually regrouping as the [[Free French Air Force]].<ref name = "Bennett 2011"/>{{rp|13–18}}
The [[French Navy]] was better able to immediately respond to {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}'s call to arms. Most units initially stayed loyal to Vichy, but about 3,600 sailors operating 50 ships around the world joined with the [[Royal Navy]] and formed the nucleus of the [[Free French Naval Forces]] (FFNF; in French ''Forces Navales Françaises Libres'': FNFL).<ref name=Axelrod362/> France's surrender found her only [[aircraft carrier]], {{ship|French aircraft carrier|Béarn||2}}, en route from the United States loaded with American fighter and bomber aircraft. Unwilling to return to occupied France, but likewise reluctant to join {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}, ''Béarn'' instead sought harbour in [[Martinique]], her crew showing little inclination to side with the British in their continued fight against the Nazis. Already obsolete at the start of the war, she remained in Martinique for the next four years, her aircraft rusting in the tropical climate.<ref>Hastings, Max, p. 74</ref>
Many men in the French colonies felt a special need to defend France,{{citation needed|date=March 2021}} and eventually made up two-thirds of {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}’s [[Free French Forces]]. Among these volunteers, influential psychiatrist and decolonial philosopher [[Frantz Fanon]] from [[Martinique]] joined {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}’s troops at the age of 18, despite being deemed a ‘dissenter’ by Martinique's Vichy-controlled colonial government for doing so.<ref name="Pitts Afropean">{{cite book |last1=Pitts |first1=Johny |title=Afropean: Notes from Black Europe |date=June 6, 2019 |publisher=Penguin Books |page=307}}</ref>
===Colonial African forces===
[[File:Chadian soldier of WWII.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|A [[Free French]] soldier from [[French Chad]], recipient of the [[Croix de Guerre]]]]
The contribution to France's liberation made by African [[Troupes coloniales|colonial soldiers]], who comprised 9% of the French army, was long overlooked. The North African units, dating from 1830 and grouped into the [[19th Army Corps (France)|XIX Army Corps]] in 1873, formed part of the French Metropolitan Army.{{sfn|Clayton|1994|p=21}} De Gaulle made a base in African territory, from which he launched the military liberation. African troops who made the largest contribution by colonial troops to the liberation.<ref>Tony Chafer, "Forgotten Soldiers: Tony Chafer examines the paradoxes and complexities that underlie belated recognition of the contribution of African soldiers to the liberation of France in 1944" ''History Today'' 58#11 (November 2008): 35–37.</ref><ref>Panivong Norindr, "Incorporating Indigenous Soldiers in the Space of the French Nation: Rachid Bouchareb's Indigènes." ''Yale French Studies'' 115 (2009): 126–140 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25679759 online].</ref>
On the eve of the Second World War, five regiments of [[Tirailleurs Sénégalais]] were stationed in France in addition to a brigade based in Algeria. The ''2e division colonial senegalaise'' was permanently deployed in the south of France due to the potential threat of invasion from Italy.
The ''[[Army of Africa (France)|Armée d’Afrique]]'' (Army of Africa) was formally a separate army corps of the French metropolitan army, the [[19th Army Corps (France)|19th Army Corps]] (''19e Corps d'Armée'') so named in 1873. The [[Troupes coloniales|French Colonial Forces]] on the other hand came under the [[Ministry of the Navy (France)|Ministry of the Navy]] and comprised both French and indigenous units serving in Sub-Saharan Africa and elsewhere in the French colonial empire.
===Intelligence===
{{nowrap|De Gaulle}} set up his Free French intelligence system to combine both military and political roles, including covert operations. He selected journalist [[Pierre Brossolette]] (1903–44) to head the [[Bureau Central de Renseignements et d'Action]] (BCRA). The policy was reversed in 1943 by [[Emmanuel d'Astier de La Vigerie|Emmanuel d'Astrier]], the interior minister of the [[Government in exile|exile government]], who insisted on civilian control of political intelligence.<ref>Sébastien Laurent, "The free French secret services: Intelligence and the politics of republican legitimacy." ''Intelligence and National Security'' 15.4 (2000): 19–41.</ref>
===Allied forces===
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{{Main|Allies of World War II}}
{{Further|Western front of World War II|United States Third Army }}
The "Big Three" [[Allies of World War II]], the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States, all fought Germany in World War II, but Soviet Union fighting on the [[Eastern Front of World War II|Eastern Front]] played no direct role in the liberation of France, but the second front contributed to Nazi defeat.
The United Kingdom and the United States fought on the [[Western Front of World War II|Western Front]], with contributions from Canadian and [[Australian contribution to the Battle of Normandy|Australian]] soldiers who [[Normandy landings|landed in Normandy]] on D-Day, as well as Australian air support.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Grant |first1=Lachlan |title=The Australian contribution to D–Day |url=https://www.aspistrategist.org.au/the-australian-contribution-to-d-day/ |website=The Strategist |publisher=Australian Security Policy Institute |access-date=8 June 2019|date=6 June 2019}}</ref>
===French Forces of the Interior===
{{Main|French Forces of the Interior}}
French Forces of the Interior was the formal name given by General de Gaulle to French resistance fighters in the later stages of the war; the change occurred as France, the occupied nation, became France, being liberated by the Allied armies. Regional ''maquis'' became more formally organized into FFI [[light infantry]] and served as a valuable additional manpower for the regular [[Free French forces]].
After the [[invasion of Normandy]] in June 1944, at the request of the French Committee of National Liberation, [[SHAEF]] placed about 200,000 resistance fighters under the command of General [[Marie Pierre Kœnig]] on 23 June 1944<ref>Harrison, Gordon A., ''Cross-Channel Attack'', pages 206–207. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1989, and Pogue, Forrest C., ''The Supreme Command'', page 236. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1996.</ref> who attempted to unify resistance efforts against the Germans. General Eisenhower confirmed Koenig's command of the FFI .
[[File:Members of the Maquis in La Tresorerie.jpg|thumb|right|Members of the [[Maquis (World War II)|Maquis]], 14 September 1944]]
The FFI were mostly composed of resistance fighters who used their own weapons, although many FFI units included former French soldiers. They used civilian clothing and wore an armband with the letters "F.F.I."
According to General [[George S. Patton|Patton]], the rapid advance of his army through France would have been impossible without the fighting aid of the FFI. General [[Alexander M. Patch|Patch]] estimated that from the time of the [[Operation Dragoon|Mediterranean landings]] to the arrival of U.S. troops at [[Dijon]], the help given to the operations by the FFI was equivalent to four full divisions.<ref>[http://www.112gripes.com/17.html "Gripe 17" from the 1945 U.S. forces booklet "112 Gripes about the French"]</ref>
FFI units seized bridges, began the liberation of villages and towns as Allied units neared, and collected intelligence on German units in the areas entered by the Allied forces, easing the Allied advance through France in August 1944.<ref>[[Martin Blumenson|Blumenson, Martin]]. ''Breakout and Pursuit'', pages 363–364 and 674. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1989.</ref> According to a volume of the U.S. official history of the war, <blockquote>In Brittany, southern France, and the area of the [[Loire]] and [[Paris]], French Resistance forces greatly aided the pursuit to the Seine in August. Specifically, they supported the [[United States Army Central#World War II|U.S. Third Army]] in Brittany and the [[United States Army Europe|Seventh U.S.]] and [[1st Army (France)|First French Armies]] in the southern beachhead and the Rhône valley. In the advance to the Seine, the French Forces of the Interior helped protect the southern flank of the Third Army by interfering with enemy railroad and highway movements and enemy telecommunications, by developing open resistance on as wide a scale as possible, by providing tactical intelligence, by preserving installations of value to the Allied forces, and by mopping up bypassed enemy positions.<ref>Pogue, Forrest C., ''The Supreme Command'', page 238. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1996.</ref></blockquote>
As regions of France were liberated, the FFI provided a ready pool of semi-trained manpower with which France could rebuild the French Army. Estimated to have a strength of 100,000 in June 1944, the strength of the FFI grew rapidly, doubling by July 1944, and reaching 400,000 by October 1944.<ref>Sumner, Ian. ''The French Army 1939–45 (2)'', Osprey Publishing, London, 1998. {{ISBN|1-85532-707-4}}. page 37. <!-- 200,000 FFI members in October 1944 were believed to be armed.--></ref> Although the amalgamation of the FFI was in some cases fraught with political difficulty, it was ultimately successful and allowed France to re-establish a reasonably large army of 1.3 million men by [[VE Day]].<ref>Vernet, J. ''Le réarmement et la réorganisation de l'armée de terre Française (1943–1946)'', pages 86 and 89. Ministere de la Defense, Château de Vincennes, 1980. Vernet lists 10 divisions that were formed with FFI manpower. Ultimately, some 103 light infantry battalions and six labor battalions were formed with FFI personnel prior to VE Day.</ref>
====Escape lines====
{{Main|Escape and evasion lines (World War II)}}
Approximately 2,000 British and 3,000 American airmen downed in western Europe evaded German capture during the war. Airmen were assisted by many different escape lines, some of them large and organized, others informal and ephemeral. The [[Royal Air Forces Escaping Society]] estimated that 14,000 volunteers worked with the many escape and evasion lines during the war. Many others helped on an occasional basis, and the total number of people who, on one or more occasions helped downed airmen during the war, may have reached 100,000. One-half of the volunteer helpers were women, often young women, even teenagers.<ref>Olson, Lynn (2017), Last Hope Island, New York: Random House, p. 289.</ref>
Escape and evasion lines created by the Allies specifically to assist their men, such as the [[Shelburne Escape Line|Shelbourne]] or the Burgundy lines or those created by servicemen at large in occupied territory, such as the [[Pat O'Leary Line]], usually focused on helping Allied servicemen. Other escape lines, grass-roots efforts by civilians to help those fleeing the Nazis, such as the [[Comet Line|Comet]], [[Dutch-Paris]], Service EVA or the Smit-van der Heijden lines, also helped servicemen but also compromised spies, resisters, men evading the [[Service du travail obligatoire|forced labor impressments]], civilians who wanted to join the [[government in exile|governments-in-exile]] in London, and fleeing [[Jews]].<ref>Koreman, Megan (2018), ''The Escape Line: How the Ordinary Heroes of Dutch-Paris Resisted the Nazi Occupation of Western Europe'', New York: Oxford University Press</ref><ref>Gildea, Robert and Ismee Tames, eds. (2020), Fighters Across Frontiers: Transnational Resistance in Europe, 1936–1948, Manchester: Manchester University Press, pp. 90–108</ref>
====Premature activation====
In the uplands and forests, considerable numbers of resistance fighters gathered, known as [[Maquis (World War II)|maquisards]] because of the [[maquis shrubland]] that sheltered them. These "redoubts" of FFI fighters initially kept a low profile, since overt acts of sabotage resulted in savage reprisals by German forces, or direct military action on a large scale. On 26 March 1944, the [[Maquis des Glières]] in [[Haute-Savoie]] were defeated by more than 3,000 troops followed by shootings and burnings of farms amongst the local population.{{sfn|Ashdown|2015|p=113}}
Excluded from the planning for the Normandy Landings, {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} and his staff devised an operation called ''Plan Caïman'' in which French paratroopers would join the maquisards of the [[Massif Central]] to liberate the surrounding area and from there establish contact with the invading British and US forces. The Allied planners rejected the plan on the grounds that they would not have the resources to support it. On 20 May 1944, the [[Maquis du Mont Mouchet]] in the Massif Central staged an open uprising on its own initiative and was crushed within three weeks with the usual reprisals.{{sfn|Ashdown|2015|pp=152–153}} Despite this, on 6 June, {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} broadcast an impassioned call to arms to the French people on the BBC, which the maquisards interpreted as a signal for overt action; a lower-key message from Eisenhower to avoid a "premature uprising" was widely ignored.{{sfn|Ashdown|2015|pp=176–178}} As a direct consequence, in July the 4,000 FFI on the [[Vercors Plateau]] near [[Grenoble]] were attacked by a German force of 10,000 including paratroopers and troops in gliders. In the [[Battle of Vercors]], the lightly armed French defences were overwhelmed, despite assistance from Allied agents, air-drops and special forces.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.vercors-resistance.fr/le-vercors-resistant/ |title=Le Vercors résistant |last=Fillet |first=Pierre-Louis |date=May 2017 |website=vercors-resistance.fr |publisher=Association nationale des pionniers et combattants volontaires du Vercors |access-date=2 March 2021 |language=fr}}</ref>
==Allied military policy==
{{Main|Military strategy of World War II}}
Military strategy for the war as a whole was discussed among the Big Three powers, and especially among the United Kingdom and the United States, who were especially close, with numerous calls and meetings held between U.S. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and British Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]]. In addition, the leaders of the Big Three met at conferences during the war to decide on overall military strategy.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/war-time-conferences|title=Wartime Conferences, 1941–1945|author=Office of the Historian |publisher=United States Department of State }}</ref>
The [[Arcadia Conference]] held in Washington, D.C. from December 22, 1941, to January 14, 1942, followed the [[United States declaration of war on Japan|American]] and the [[United Kingdom declaration of war on Japan|British]] declarations of war on Japan; Japan's allies, Germany and Italy, [[Axis powers#Germany's and Italy's declaration of war against the United States|had just declared war on the United States]]. The main policy decisions of Arcadia included the "Germany First" (also known as "[[Europe first]]") policy that the defeat of Germany had higher priority than the war with Japan.<ref>William Hardy McNeill, ''America, Britain and Russia: Their Cooperation and Conflict 1941–1946'' (1953) pp 90–118</ref><ref>Andrew Roberts, ''Masters and Commanders: How Four Titans Won the War in the West, 1941–1945'' (2010) pp 86–87.</ref>
The [[Second Washington Conference]] in June 1942 confirmed a decision not to open a second front in France but to first invade [[French North Africa]] as part of a joint Mediterranean strategy for an attack on Italy (described as the "soft under-belly" of the Axis).<ref>{{Cite web |title=HyperWar: FRUS--The Conferences at Washington and Casablanca [Introduction] |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/Dip/FRUS41/FRUS41-Intro.html |access-date=2023-03-29 |website=www.ibiblio.org}}</ref>
The decision to undertake a cross-channel invasion in 1944 was taken at the [[Trident Conference]] in Washington in May 1943. General Eisenhower was appointed commander of SHAEF and General [[Bernard Montgomery]] was named as commander of the [[21st Army Group]], which comprised all the land forces involved in the invasion. The coast of [[Normandy]] in northwestern France was chosen as the site of the invasion.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dod.defense.gov/Portals/1/features/2016/0516_dday/docs/d-day-fact-sheet-the-beaches.pdf | title=D-Day: The Beaches}}</ref>
[[File:Teheran conference-1943.jpg|thumb|The "[[Grand Alliance (World War II)|Big Three]]" ([[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] and [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]]) at the [[Tehran Conference]]]]
The [[Tehran Conference]] (28 November to 1 December 1943) a strategy meeting of the Big Three leaders [[Joseph Stalin]], Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill held at the Soviet Union's embassy in Tehran had numerous objectives, and led to the commitment of the western Allies to open a second front in the war in the west.<ref name="WSC_Closing the Ring">{{cite book| last = Churchill| first = Winston Spencer| year = 1951| title = The Second World War: Closing the Ring| publisher = Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston| page = 642}}</ref>
==Campaigns==
{{Further|Free France|Military history of France during World War II}}
After the Fall of France, the battle to retake France began in Africa in November 1940. By September 1944, after the [[#Paris – August 1944|liberation of Paris]] and the [[#Southern France – August 1944|southern France campaign]] and taking of Mediterranean ports in Marseille and Toulon, the country was largely liberated. The Allied Forces were driving into Germany from the west and the south. The liberation of France didn't finally end till the elimination of [[#Pockets of German resistance – to May 1945|some pockets of German resistance]] along the Atlantic coast at the end of the war in May 1945.
[[File:Vichy france map.png|upright=1.2|thumb|right|The gradual loss of all Vichy territory to Free France and the Allies by 1943.<sup>[[[:File:Vichy france map.png|legend]]]</sup>]]
Militarily, the liberation of France was part of the Western Front of World War II. Other than scattered raids in 1942 and 1943, the reconquest began in earnest in the summer of 1944 in parallel campaigns in the north and south of France. On 6 June 1944, the Allies began [[Operation Overlord]], the largest seaborne invasion in history, [[Normandy landings|establishing a beachhead in Normandy]], landing two million men in northern France and opening another front in western Europe against Germany. [[Operation Cobra|American forces broke out from Normandy]] at the end of July. At the [[Falaise Pocket]] the Allied armies destroyed German forces, opening the route to Paris. In the south, the Allies launched [[Operation Dragoon]] on 15 August, opening a new military front on the Mediterranean. In four weeks, the Germans retreated from southern France to Germany. This left French ports in Allied hands, resolving earlier supply problems in the south. Under the onslaught from both directions, the French Resistance organized a [[FFI uprising|general uprising in Paris on 19 August]]. On 25 August 1944 Paris was liberated. The Allied forces began to [[Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine|push towards the Rhine]]. Initial rapid advances in the North stretched lines of supply in the autumn, and the advance slowed. German counteroffensives in the winter of 1944–45 such as the [[Battle of the Bulge]] slowed but did not stop the Allied armies, some crossing the Rhine in February, with heavy German losses. By late March several Allied armies had crossed and began [[Western Allied invasion of Germany|advancing rapidly into Germany]], with the end of the war not far away. With France mostly liberated, a few [[Atlantic pockets|pockets of German resistance]] remained until the [[End of World War II in Europe|end of the war]] in May 1945.
===Gabon – November 1940===
The [[Battle of Gabon]] resulted in the Free French Forces taking the colony of French Gabon and its capital, [[Libreville]], from Vichy French forces. It was the only significant engagement in [[Central Africa]] during the war.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}
===North Africa – November 1942=== <!-- Not, "Liberation of ...", per [[MOS:NOBACKREF]] -->
====Torch====
[[File:Near Algiers, "Torch" troops hit the beaches behind a large American flag "Left" hoping for the French Army not fire... - NARA - 195516.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|American soldiers land near [[Algiers]]. The soldier at the dune line is carrying a flag because it was hoped the French would be less likely to fire on Americans.]]
{{Main|Operation Torch}}
[[Operation Torch]], the invasion of [[French North Africa]], was carried out to trap Axis forces in North Africa between two Allied armies – an Anglo-American one in the west and a British and Commonwealth one in the east; this would also permit an invasion of Italy and free the Mediterranean for shipping. It would be the first ground combat operations for American troops in the west. In a three-pronged Allied assault against Vichy régime targets in French North Africa, the landing forces of Operation Torch came in at [[Casablanca]], [[Oran]] and [[Algiers]]. Following [[Case Anton]], French colonial governors had found themselves taking orders from the German military administration, and did so with varying degrees of enthusiasm. <!-- A few colonies such as [[French India]] pragmatically agreed that they did not wish to tangle with neighboring British colonies, which were larger and better-armed. Others had Axis neighbors, such as Tunisia or Somaliland. --> The American consul in Algiers believed that Vichy forces would welcome American soldiers.
[[File:Troops making their way inland.jpg|thumb|right|British troops after landing at Algiers in November 1942]]
A Western Task Force (aimed at Casablanca) was composed of American units, with Major General George S. Patton in command and Rear Admiral [[Henry Kent Hewitt]] heading naval operations. This Western Task Force consisted of the U.S. [[3rd Infantry Division (United States)|3rd]] and [[9th Infantry Division (United States)|9th Infantry]] Divisions, and two battalions from the U.S. [[2nd Armored Division (United States)|2nd Armored Division]] — 35,000 troops in a convoy of over 100 ships. They were transported directly from the United States in the first of a new series of [[UG convoys]] providing logistical support for the North African campaign.
The Center Task Force, aimed at Oran, included the U.S. 2nd Battalion, [[509th Infantry Regiment (United States)|509th Parachute Infantry Regiment]], the U.S. [[1st Armored Division (United States)|1st Infantry Division]] and the U.S. 1st Armored Division—a total of 18,500 troops.
The Eastern Task Force—aimed at Algiers—was commanded by Lieutenant-General [[Kenneth Anderson (British Army officer)|Kenneth Anderson]] and consisted of a brigade from the British [[78th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|78th]] and the U.S. [[34th Infantry Division (United States)|34th Infantry Divisions]], along with two British commando units ([[No. 1 Commando|No. 1]] and [[No. 6 Commando]]s), together with the [[RAF Regiment]] providing five squadrons of infantry and five Light anti-aircraft flights, totalling 20,000 troops. During the landing, ground forces were commanded by U.S. Major General [[Charles W. Ryder]], of the 34th Division and naval forces were commanded by Royal Navy Vice-Admiral Sir [[Harold Burrough]].
The plan to install [[Henri Giraud]] as governor of the freed territories did not get local support but the Vichy commander in chief of French armed forces [[François Darlan]] had been captured during the operation and was installed as High Commissioner, in return for which he ordered French forces in North Africa to cooperate with the Allies. Darlan was assassinated by an anti-Vichy monarchist and Giraud then took over. The Darlan deal triggered the invasion of Vichy France by Germany.
====Tunisian campaign====
{{Main|Tunisian campaign}}
[[French Tunisia]] had been a protectorate of France since 1881, when it became part of France's colonial empire.
After the [[Operation Torch]] landings in Morocco and Algiers the Allied forces moved eastwards into Tunisia as British forces moved west following the [[Second Battle of El Alamein]]. The Axis forces in North Africa were reinforced but subsequently cut off from resupply and caught between the two armies. The Allies took [[Bizerte]] and [[Tunis]] in May 1943 and the remaining Italian and German forces in North Africa surrendered. The Allies now had all of North Africa as a base of operations against southern Europe.
===Corsica – 1943===
[[File:B-25J-10- 43-27425 447th Bomb Squadron - 111 - 1944.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|US [[B-25]] bomber at [[Solenzara Air Base]] in Corsica in late 1944.]]
{{Main|Liberation of Corsica}}
Except for a brief period, Corsica had been under the control of France since the [[Treaty of Versailles (1768)]]. In World War II, Corsica was occupied by the [[Kingdom of Italy]] from November 1942, through September 1943.<ref>Rodogno, Davide. ''Il nuovo ordine mediterraneo – Le politiche di occupazione dell'Italia fascista in Europa (1940–1943)'' Chapter: France</ref> Italy initially occupied the island (as well as parts of France) as part of Nazi Germany's Case Anton on 11 November 1942. At its peak, Italy had 85,000 troops on the island.<ref>{{cite book|title=Gr20 – Corsica: The High-level Route|first=Paddy|last=Dillon|pages = 14|year=2006|publisher=Cicerone Press Limited|isbn=1852844779}}</ref> There was some native support among [[Italian irredentism in Corsica|Corsican irredentists]] for the occupation.{{citation needed|reason=An edit filter trapped a ref with url=lu1960.blogspot.com/2019/05/research-on-italian-corsica.html imported from Italian occupation of Corsica; this reference has been removed, leaving this portion in need of a source.|date=September 2020}} [[Benito Mussolini]] postponed the annexation of Corsica by Italy until after an assumed Axis victory in World War II, mainly because of German opposition to the irredentist claims.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cg06.fr/cms/cg06/upload/decouvrir-les-am/fr/files/recherchesregionales187.pdf |title=Marco Cuzzi: ''La rivendicazione fascista della Corsica (1938–1943)'' p. 57 (in Italian) |access-date=6 September 2020 |archive-date=28 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728100311/http://www.cg06.fr/cms/cg06/upload/decouvrir-les-am/fr/files/recherchesregionales187.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Although there was mild support for the occupation among collaborationists{{cn|date=April 2022}} and resistance was initially limited, it grew after the Italian invasion and by April 1943 became united, and was armed by airdrop and shipments by the Free French submarine [[Casabianca (Q183)|Casabianca]] and establish some territorial control.<ref name="Chaubin-2003">{{Cite video |author1=Hélène Chaubin |author2=Sylvain Gregory |author3=Antoine Poletti | title=La résistance en Corse | medium=CD-ROM |publisher=Association pour des Études sur la Résistance Intérieure |series=Histoire en mémoire, 1939–1945 |location=Paris |year=2003 |oclc=492457259}}</ref>
After Mussolini's imprisonment in July 1943, German troops took over the occupation of Corsica. The [[Allied invasion of Italy]] began 3 September 1943, leading to [[Armistice of Cassibile|Italy's surrender to the Allies]], with the main invasion force landing in Italy on 9 September.{{citation needed|date=September 2020}} The local resistance signaled an uprising for the same day, beginning the liberation of Corsica ([[Operation Vesuvius]]).
The Allies did not initially want such a movement, preferring to focus their forces on the invasion of Italy. However, in light of the insurrection, the Allies acquiesced to [[Free French]] troops landing on Corsica, starting with an elite detachment of the reconstituted [[French I Corps]] landing (again by the submarine ''[[French submarine Casabianca (1935)|Casabianca]]'') at Arone near the village of Piana in northwest Corsica. This prompted the German troops to attack Italian troops in Corsica as well as the Resistance. The Resistance, and the Italian [[44 Infantry Division Cremona|44 Infantry Division ''Cremona'']] and [[20 Infantry Division Friuli|20 Infantry Division ''Friuli'']] engaged in heavy combat with the German ''[[Sturmbrigade Reichsführer SS]]''. The ''Sturmbrigade'' was joined by the [[90th Light Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)|90th Panzergrenadier Division]] and the Italian XII Paratroopers Battalion/ 184th Paratroopers Regiment [[184th Paratroopers Division "Nembo"]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Esercito Italiano: Divisione "Nembo" (184) |url=http://www.esercito.difesa.it/root/storia/CIL_nembo.asp |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207024405/http://www.esercito.difesa.it/root/storia/CIL_nembo.asp |archive-date=2008-12-07 }}</ref> which were retreating from [[Sardinia]] through Corsica, from [[Bonifacio, Corse-du-Sud|Bonifacio]] to the northern port of Bastia. There were now 30,000 German troops in Corsica withdrawing via Bastia. On 13 September elements of the [[4th Moroccan Mountain Division]] landed in [[Ajaccio]] to try to stop the Germans. During the night of 3 to 4 October, the last German units evacuated Bastia, leaving behind 700 dead and 350 [[Prisoner of war|POWs]].{{citation needed|date=September 2020}}
===Battle of Normandy – June 1944===
{{Main|Operation Overlord|Normandy landings}}
{{Further|Battle for Caen|Battle of Cherbourg|Operation Cobra|Falaise Pocket|Operation Marathon (World War II)}}
[[File:British commandos of 1st Special Service Brigade, led by Lord Lovat, landing on 'Queen Red' sector of Sword Beach, at La Breche, on the morning of 6 June 1944. B5103.jpg|thumb|left|British troops wading ashore at La Breche, [[Normandy]], France 6 June 1944]]
[[Operation Overlord]] was launched on 6 June 1944 with troops landing in Normandy. Attacks by 1,200 planes preceded an amphibious assault by more than 5,000 vessels. Nearly 160,000 troops crossed the English Channel on 6 June.
The [[Battle of Normandy]] was won due to what is still today the largest ever military landing logistical operation; it brought three million soldiers, mostly American, British, and French, over the Channel from Britain.
Some of the German Army units they met in this operation were ''[[Ostlegionen]]'', part of the German [[German 243rd Static Infantry Division|243]]rd and [[German 709th Static Infantry Division|709]]th Static Infantry Divisions, near the [[Utah beach|Utah]], [[Juno beach|Juno]] and [[Sword beach|Sword]] invasion beaches.<ref>{{Cite book|title=D-Day, June 6, 1944: the Battle for the Normandy Beaches |last=Ambrose |first=Stephen |publisher=Simon & Schuster|year=1997|isbn=0-7434-4974-6|location=London|pages=34}}</ref>{{clarify|the 243rd and 709th are defending Cotentin so only near Utah beach?|date=February 2021}}
[[File:NormandySupply edit.jpg|thumb|Vast amounts of men and equipment were landed on the Normandy beaches]]
The British intelligence organization, [[MI9]], created [[Operation Marathon (World War II)|Operation Marathon]] to gather downed airmen into isolated forest camps where they would await their rescue by allied military forces advancing after the Normandy Invasion of June 6, 1944. The [[Comet Line]], a Belgian/French escape line, operated the forest camps with financial and logistical help from [[MI9]], which also provided support for Operation Bonaparte, another escape and evasion line for downed airmen in Normandy.<ref>[Behind Enemy Lines
French-Canadian spies outfox the Nazis to save Allied airmen in preparation for D-Day https://www.canadashistory.ca/explore/military-war/behind-enemy-lines]. Tom Douglas. Canada's History Society, May 14, 2014</ref>
===Paris – August 1944===
[[File:Crowds of French patriots line the Champs Elysees-edit2.jpg|thumb|left|Parade on the [[Champs Elysees]], 26 August 1944 after Liberation]]<!-- Images: [[c:Category:Liberation of Paris]] -->
{{Main|Liberation of Paris}}
{{Further|Paris in World War II}}
The Liberation of Paris was an urban military battle that took place over the period of a week from 19 August 1944 until the German garrison surrendered the French capital on 25 August 1944. Paris had been ruled by Nazi Germany since the signing of the [[Armistice with France (Second Compiègne)|Armistice]] on 22 June 1940, after which the ''[[Wehrmacht]]'' [[Nazi occupation of France|occupied northern and western France]].
As the final phase of Operation Overlord was still going on in August 1944, Eisenhower was not considering the liberation of Paris to be a primary objective. The goal of the U.S. and Anglo-Canadian armed forces was to destroy the German forces, and end World War II in Europe, to allow the Allies to concentrate their efforts on the Pacific war.<ref>[http://www.radiofrance.fr/reportage/cahiers/cahiers.php?rid=235000257 "''Les Cahiers Multimédias: Il y a 60 ans : la Libération de Paris''"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014173359/http://www.radiofrance.fr/reportage/cahiers/cahiers.php?rid=235000257|date=14 October 2007}} (in French). Gérard Conreur/Mémorial du Maréchal Leclerc et de la Libération de Paris. [[Radio France]]. 6 July 2004.</ref>
====Uprising – 15 August====
[[File:Lot 4568-2 (19583145252).jpg|thumb|Armored vehicles of the 2nd Armored Division fighting at the {{lang|fr|[[Palais Garnier]]|italic=no}}, a German tank in flames (Aug 25)]]
As the French Resistance began to rise in Paris against the Germans on 15 August, Eisenhower stated that it was too early for an assault on Paris. He was also aware that [[Hitler]] had ordered the German military to completely destroy the city in the event of an Allied attack, and Paris was considered to have too great a value, culturally and historically, to risk its destruction.
On 15 August employees of the [[Paris Métro]], the [[French Gendarmerie|Gendarmerie]], and [[National Police (France)|National Police]] went on strike; postal workers followed the next day. They were soon joined by workers across the city, causing a [[general strike]] to break out on 18 August. Barricades began to appear on 20 August, with Resistance fighters organizing themselves to sustain a siege. Trucks were positioned, trees cut down, and trenches were dug in the pavement to free paving stones for consolidating the barricades.
Skirmishes reached their peak on 22 August, when some German units tried to leave their fortifications. At 09:00 on 23 August, under the orders of [[Dietrich von Choltitz]], commander of the German garrison and military governor of Paris, the Germans opened fire on the [[Grand Palais]], an FFI stronghold, and German tanks fired at the barricades in the streets. Adolf Hitler gave the order to inflict maximum damage on the city.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070816141409/http://www.humanite.fr/2004-08-23_Politique_Balises-1944 ''Libération de Paris: Balises 1944''], L'Humanité, 23 August 2004.</ref>
====Allied arrival – 24–25 August====
The liberation began when the FFI staged an uprising against the German garrison upon the approach of General Patton's [[US Third Army]]. On the night of 24 August, elements of General [[Philippe Leclerc]]'s [[2nd Armored Division (France)|2nd Armored Division]] made their way into Paris and arrived at the [[Hôtel de Ville, Paris|Hôtel de Ville]] shortly before midnight. The next morning, 25 August, the bulk of the 2nd Armored Division and the [[4th Infantry Division (United States)|US 4th Infantry Division]] and other allied units entered the city. von Choltitz surrendered to the French at the [[Hôtel Meurice]], the newly established French headquarters. de Gaulle arrived to assume control of the city.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}
It is estimated that between 800 and 1,000 Resistance fighters were killed during the Battle for Paris, and another 1,500 were wounded.<ref>{{cite book|last = Thorton |first= Willis | year = 1962 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Wld0AAAAIAAJ&q=800+and+1000+killed+|title =The Liberation of Paris |via= Google Books|access-date=30 August 2011}}</ref>
====German surrender – 25 August====
[[File:American troops march down the Champs Elysees crop.jpg|thumb|left|U.S. 28th Infantry Division in the "Victory Day" parade on 29 August]]
Despite repeated orders from Adolf Hitler that the French capital be destroyed before being given up, Choltitz surrendered on 25 August at the Hôtel Meurice. He then signed the official surrender at the [[Paris Police Prefecture]]. Choltitz later described himself in ''Is Paris Burning?'' (''Brennt Paris?'') as the saviour of Paris, for not blowing it up before surrendering.<ref>{{cite book |language=de |last=Choltitz, von |first=Dietrich |title=Brennt Paris? Adolf Hitler ... Tatsachenbericht d. letzten deutschen Befehlshabers in Paris |trans-title=Factual report of the last German commander in Paris |publisher=UNA Weltbücherei |location=Mannheim |date=1950 |oclc=1183798630}}</ref>
[[File:The Liberation of Paris, 25 - 26 August 1944 HU66477.jpg|thumb|De Gaulle and his entourage stroll down the Champs Élysées on August 26]]
The same day, Charles {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}, President of the Provisional Government of the French Republic moved back into the War Ministry and made a rousing speech to the crowd from the Hôtel de Ville. The day after {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}'s speech, General Leclerc's 2nd Armored Division paraded down the [[Champs-Élysées]], while {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} marched down the boulevard and entered the [[Place de la Concorde]].<ref>{{cite magazine |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Paris is Free Again |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Uk8EAAAAMBAJ&dq=while+de+Gaulle+marched+down+the+boulevard+and+entered+the+Place+de+la+Concorde&pg=PA25 |magazine=Life |location= |publisher=Time Life |date=11 September 1944 |access-date=4 December 2021}}</ref> On 29 August, the U.S. Army's [[U.S. 28th Infantry Division|28th Infantry Division]] paraded 24-abreast up the ''[[Avenue Hoche]]'' to the [[Arc de Triomphe]], then down the Champs Élysées, greeted by joyous crowds.<ref>Stanton, Shelby L. (Captain U.S. Army, Retired), ''World War II Order of Battle'', The encyclopedic reference to all U.S. Army ground force units from battalion through division, 1939–1945, Galahad Books, New York, 1991, p. 105. {{ISBN|0-88365-775-9}}.</ref>
The uprising in Paris gave the newly established Free French government and {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}, enough prestige and authority to establish a provisional French Republic, replacing the fallen Vichy regime,<ref name="charles1">{{cite web|url=http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/article.php3?id_article=23&var_recherche=lib%E9ration|title=1944–1946: La Libération|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070615090446/http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/article.php3?id_article=23 |archive-date=15 June 2007|date=15 June 2007|language=French|publisher=Charles {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} foundation official website}}</ref> which had [[#End of Vichy|fled into exile]].
===Southern France – August 1944===
[[File:Operation Dragoon invasion fleet 1944.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|The Operation Dragoon invasion fleet on the [[French Riviera]]]]
{{Main|Operation Dragoon}}
{{Further|Mediterranean and Middle East Theatre}}
====Planning and goals====
When first planned, the [[Southern France Campaign (1944)|campaign in southern France]] and the landings in Normandy were to take place simultaneously—Operation Overlord in Normandy, and "Anvil" (as the southern campaign was originally called) in the south of France. A dual landing was soon recognized to be impossible; the southern campaign was postponed. The ports in Normandy had insufficient capacity to handle Allied military supply needs and French generals under {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} pressed for a direct attack on southern France with the participation of French troops. Despite objections by Churchill, the operation was authorized by the Allied [[Combined Chiefs of Staff]] on 14{{nbsp}}July and scheduled for 15{{nbsp}}August.{{sfnp|Yeide|2007|p=13}}{{sfnp|Zaloga|2009|pp=6–8}}{{sfnp|Tucker-Jones|2010|p=69}}
The goal of the southern France campaign, now known as Operation Dragoon was to secure the vital ports on the French Mediterranean coast (of Marseille and Toulon.) and pressure German forces with another front. The US [[VI Corps (United States)|VI Corps]] landed on the beaches of the [[French Riviera]] ({{lang|fr|Côte d'Azur}}) on 15 August 1944 shielded by a large naval task force, followed by several divisions of French Army B (commanded by [[Jean de Lattre de Tassigny]].{{sfnp|Pogue|1986|p=227}}).
They were opposed by the scattered forces of the German [[Army Group G]], (''Heeresgruppe{{nbsp}}G'') which had been weakened by the relocation of its divisions to other fronts and the replacement of its soldiers with third-rate men outfitted with obsolete equipment. The Army was understrength, most of the units having been sent north earlier.{{sfn|Vogel|1983|pp=588–598}}{{sfn|Clarke|Smith|1993|p=63}} The units that were present were spread thinly, made up of second rate units from eastern Europe (''[[Ostlegionen]]'') with low morale and poor equipment.{{sfn|Vogel|1983|pp=588–598}}{{sfn|Zaloga|2009|pp=16–19}} The coastal defenses had been improved by the Vichy regime and later improved by the Germans after they took over in November 1942.{{sfn|Tucker-Jones|2010|p=78}}
[[File:Anvildragoon.png|thumb|left|upright=1.0|Allied invasion of southern France in [[Operation Dragoon]]]]
<!-- Alternative: File:80-G-46491_(27457631371).jpg -->
The FFI played a major role in the fighting.{{sfnp|Zaloga|2009|pp=8, 29}} The Allied ground and naval forces were supported by a fleet of 3470 planes, mostly stationed on Corsica and Sardinia.{{sfnp|Vogel|1983|pp=584–586}}
On 14 August, preliminary landings took place in the [[Hyères Islands]] by the [[First Special Service Force]], a joint U.S.-Canadian special-forces unit, to secure a staging area and for amphibious landing training. After sporadic resistance, driving the German garrison to the western part of the island, the Germans surrendered on 17 August. The Force transferred to the mainland, becoming part of the [[1st Airborne Task Force (Allied)|First Airborne Task Force]]. Meanwhile, French commandos were active to the west in [[Operation Romeo]] and [[Operation Span]].{{sfn|Zaloga|2009|pp=36–41}}{{sfn|Vogel|1983|p=597}}
[[File:Liberation of Marseille, August 1944.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.0|[[Jean de Lattre de Tassigny]] walking through the liberated city of Marseille]]
Hindered by Allied [[air supremacy]] and a large-scale uprising by the FFI, the weak German forces were swiftly defeated. The Germans withdrew to the north through the [[Rhône]] valley, to establish a stable defense line at Dijon. Allied mobile units were able to overtake the Germans and partially block their route at the town of [[Montélimar]]. The ensuing battle led to a stalemate, with neither side able to achieve a decisive breakthrough, until the Germans were finally able to complete their withdrawal and retreat from the town. While the Germans were retreating, the French managed to capture the important ports of [[Marseille]] and [[Toulon]], putting them into operation soon after.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}
The Germans were not able to hold Dijon and ordered a complete withdrawal from Southern France. Army Group{{nbsp}}G retreated further north, pursued by Allied forces. The fighting ultimately came to a stop at the [[Vosges mountains]], where Army Group{{nbsp}}G was finally able to establish a stable defense line. After meeting with the Allied units from Operation Overlord, the Allied forces were in need of reorganizing and, facing stiffened German resistance, the offensive was halted on 14{{nbsp}}September. Operation Dragoon was considered a success by the Allies. It enabled them to liberate most of Southern France in just four weeks while inflicting heavy casualties on the German forces, although a substantial part of the best German units were able to escape. The captured French ports were put into operation, allowing the Allies to solve their supply problems soon after.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}
===Eastern France – Autumn 1944===
{{unreferenced section|date=October 2020}}
{{Main|Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine|Clearing the Channel Coast|Lorraine campaign|Battle of Alsace}}
[[File:The British Army in Normandy 1944 B9743.jpg|thumb|left|British infantry of the 1st Battalion, [[Royal Hampshire Regiment|Hampshire Regiment]] crossing the Seine at [[Vernon, Eure|Vernon]], 28 August 1944.]]
The [[First Canadian Army]] [[Clearing the Channel Coast|liberated the French coast]] from Normandy to the Low Countries. Hitler had ordered the troops occupying them to [[German World War II strongholds|hold them at all costs]] but using isolation and coordinated bombardment, the ports were reduced.
Fighting on the Western front seemed to stabilize, and the Allied advance stalled in front of the [[Siegfried Line#Clashes on the Siegfried Line|Siegfried Line]] (''Westwall'') and the southern reaches of the Rhine. Starting in early September, the Americans began slow and bloody fighting through the [[Battle of Hurtgen Forest|Hurtgen Forest]] (described by [[Ernest Hemingway]] as "[[Battle of Passchendaele|Passchendaele]] with tree bursts"—) to breach the Line.
American forces fought from September until mid-December to push the Germans out of Lorraine and from behind the Siegfried Line. The crossing of the [[Moselle River]] and the capture of the fortress of [[Metz]] proved difficult for the American troops in the face of German reinforcements, supply shortages, and unfavorable weather. During September and October, the Allied [[6th Army Group]] ([[Seventh United States Army|U.S. Seventh Army]] and [[First Army (France)|French First Army]]) fought a difficult campaign through the [[Vosges Mountains]] that was marked by dogged German resistance and slow advances. In November, however, the German front snapped under the pressure, resulting in sudden Allied advances that liberated [[Belfort]], [[Mulhouse]], and [[Strasbourg]], and placed Allied forces along the [[Rhine|Rhine River]]. The Germans managed to hold a large bridgehead (the [[Colmar Pocket]]), on the western bank of the Rhine and centered around the city of [[Colmar]]. On 16 November the Allies started a large scale autumn offensive called [[Operation Queen]]. With its main thrust again through the [[Hurtgen Forest|Hürtgen Forest]], the offensive drove the Allies to the [[Rur River]], but failed in its core objectives to capture the Rur dams and pave the way towards the Rhine. The Allied operations were then succeeded by the German Ardennes offensive.
===Pockets of German resistance – to May 1945===
{{Main|Atlantic pockets}}
{{Further|Allied siege of La Rochelle|Battle of the Atlantic}}
[[File:Free French armoured car which participated to the liberation of La Rochelle in 1945.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|[[French Army]] armored car which participated in the liberation of [[La Rochelle]] in 1945. [[Musée d'Orbigny-Bernon]] ]]
The pocket of La Rochelle was a zone of German resistance at the end of the Second World War. It was made up of the city of La Rochelle, the submarine base at [[La Pallice]], of the [[Île de Ré]] and of most of the [[Oléron|Ile d'Oléron]] (the southern part of the island was part of the [[Royan pocket]]).
==Victory – 7 May 1945==
{{Further|Western Front (World War II)#End of the Third Reich|European theatre of World War II#End of the war in Europe|End of World War II in Europe}}
[[File:Journal American 5659.JPG|thumb|upright|left|Journal American of 7 May 1945 announcing Victory in Europe ({{ILL|Musée de la Reddition|fr|v=sup}})]]
Victory in Europe was achieved on 7 May 1945. [[Death of Adolf Hitler|Hitler committed suicide]] on 30 April during the [[Battle of Berlin]] and Germany's surrender was authorised by his successor, ''[[Reichspräsident]]'' [[Karl Dönitz]] leader of the rump administration [[Flensburg Government]]. The act of military surrender was first signed at 02:41 on 7 May in [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force|SHAEF]] HQ at [[Reims]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Hamilton|first=Charles|title=Leaders & Personalities of the Third Reich, Vol. 2|publisher=R. James Bender Publishing|year=1996|isbn=978-0-912138-66-4|location=San Jose, CA|pages=285, 286}}</ref> and a slightly modified document, considered the definitive [[German Instrument of Surrender]], was signed on 8 May 1945 in [[Karlshorst]], [[Berlin]] at 21:20 local time.
{{Blockquote|text=The German High Command will at once issue orders to all German military, naval and air authorities and to all forces under German control to cease active operations at 23.01 hours Central European time on 8 May 1945...|author=[[German Instrument of Surrender]]|title=Article 2|source=}}
==Aftermath==
By the autumn of 1944, Paris and the northern part of France were in Allied hands following Normandy campaign, and the southern part of France was free in the wake of the success of [[Operation Dragoon]]. Except for a few Atlantic pockets, the Allies were in full control of France, freeing their military forces to push eastward across the Rhine into Germany and towards Berlin.
Meanwhile, liberation of most of metropolitan France unleashed several other overlapping events. The [[Provisional Government of the French Republic|Provisional Government]], already in existence since June 1944, moved back to the capital after Paris was liberated in late August, where it piloted an orderly transition back to [[republican government]]. The Vichy regime held its last meeting on 17 August 1944, before fleeing into exile in Sigmaringen, Germany.
Within France, a wave of assaults, [[extra-judicial execution]]s, and public humiliations followed of suspected collaborators, particularly of women who had consorted with German men.<ref>{{cite magazine| title=This Picture Tells a Tragic Story of What Happened to Women After D-Day |author= Ann Mah | date=June 6, 2018 | magazine=Time | url=https://time.com/5303229/women-after-d-day/}}</ref> This was known as the {{lang|fr|épuration sauvage}} ("wild purge"). At least 20,000 French women had their heads shorn. Many women in Normandy reported [[Rape during the liberation of France|rapes by American soldiers]]; several were subsequently executed.<ref>{{cite news|first=Fabienne |last=Faur |title=GIs were liberators yes, but also trouble in Normandy |date=2013-05-26 |publisher=[[Agence France-Presse]] |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hY3cUraWo4fVJqWbA34Fd2IeTFOQ?docId=CNG.26cca045d911d64d66269c72328f270e.b11 |access-date=2014-06-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303160004/https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hY3cUraWo4fVJqWbA34Fd2IeTFOQ?docId=CNG.26cca045d911d64d66269c72328f270e.b11 |archive-date=March 3, 2014 }}</ref>
A series of [[Épuration légale|legal purges]] followed, ordered by courts set up for the purpose. The first free municipal elections since before the war were organized by the Provisional Government in May 1945, and women voted for the first time. The new [[French Constitution of 27 October 1946|Constitution]] of the [[Fourth French Republic]] was accepted in October 1946.
===End of Vichy===
[[File:Sigmaringen schloss.jpg|thumb|The Vichy government moved to the castle in [[Sigmaringen]], Germany]]
{{Main|Vichy France#Decline of the regime}}
{{Further|Sigmaringen enclave}}
Under pressure from the advancing Allied forces, Pierre Laval held the last government council on 17 August 1944, with five ministers.{{sfn|Brissaud|1965|pp=504–505}} With permission from the Germans, he attempted to call back the prior [[National Assembly]] with the goal of giving it power{{sfn|Paxton-fr|1997|pp=382–383}} and thus impeding the communists and {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}.{{sfn|Kupferman|2006|pp=520–525}} He obtained the agreement of German ambassador [[Otto Abetz]] to bring [[Édouard Herriot]], (President of the [[Chamber of Deputies (France)|Chamber of Deputies]]) back to Paris.{{sfn|Kupferman|2006|pp=520–525}} But ultra-[[collaborationists]] [[Marcel Déat]] and [[Fernand de Brinon]] protested to the Germans, who changed their minds{{sfn|Brissaud|1965|pp=491–492}} and took Laval to [[Belfort]] on 20 August 1944{{sfn|Jäckel-fr|1968|p=495}} along with the remains of his government, "to assure its legitimate security", along with Petain, and arrested Herriot.{{sfn|Kupferman|2006|pp=527–529}}
A governmental commission directed by Fernand de Brinon was proclaimed on 6 September.{{sfn|Aron|1962|pp=40, 45}} On 7 September, they were taken ahead of the advancing Allied Forces out of France to the town of Sigmaringen, where other Vichy officials were already present, arriving on the 8th.{{sfn|Aron|1962|pp=41–45}}
[[Sigmaringen Castle]] was occupied and used by the Vichy government-in-exile from September 1944 to April 1945. Pétain resided at the Castle, but refused to cooperate and kept mostly to himself,{{sfn|Aron|1962|pp=40, 45}} and ex-Prime Minister Laval also refused.{{sfn|Aron|1962|pp=81–82}} Despite the efforts of the collaborationists and the Germans, Pétain never recognized the Sigmaringen Commission.{{sfn|Sautermeister|2013|p=13}} The Germans, wanting to present a facade of legality, enlisted other Vichy officials such as [[Fernand de Brinon]] as president, along with [[Joseph Darnand]], [[Jean Luchaire]], [[Eugène Bridoux]] and [[Marcel Déat]].{{sfn|Rousso|1999|pp=51–59}}
On 7 September 1944,{{sfn|Béglé|2014}} fleeing the advance of Allied troops into France, a thousand French collaborators (including a hundred officials of the Vichy regime, a few hundred members of the [[French Militia]], collaborationist party militants, and the editorial staff of the newspaper ''[[Je suis partout]]'') but also waiting-game opportunists{{efn|"waiting-game opportunists": ''[[Attentisme|Attentistes]]'' in the original.}} also went into exile in Sigmaringen.
The commission had its own radio station ({{lang|fr|Radio-patrie, Ici la France}}) and an official press ({{lang|fr|La France}}, ''[[Le Petit Parisien]]''), and hosted the embassies of the Axis powers: Germany, Italy and Japan. The population of the enclave was about 6,000, including known collaborationist journalists, the writers [[Louis-Ferdinand Céline]] and [[Lucien Rebatet]], the actor [[Robert Le Vigan]] and their families, as well as 500 soldiers, 700 French SS, prisoners of war and STO workers.{{sfn|Jackson|2001|pp=567–568}} Inadequate housing, insufficient food, promiscuity among the paramilitaries, and lack of hygiene facilitated the spread of numerous illnesses including [[flu]] and [[tuberculosis]], and a high mortality rate among children. The only two French doctors, Doctor Destouches, alias ([[Louis-Ferdinand Céline]]) and [[Bernard Ménétrel]].{{sfn|Béglé|2014}} treated these ailments as best they could.
On 21 April 1945 [[General de Lattre]] ordered his forces to take Sigmaringen. The end came within days. By the 26th, Pétain was in the hands of French authorities in Switzerland,{{sfn|Aron|1962|pp=48–49}} and Laval had fled to Spain.{{sfn|Aron|1962|pp=81–82}} Brinon,{{sfn|Cointet|2014|p=426}} Luchaire, and Darnand were captured, tried, and executed by 1947. Other members escaped to Italy or Spain.
===Justice and retribution===
{{Further|Vichy France#Purges|Collaborationism#France}}
<!-- Images: [[c:Category:Femmes tondues]] -->
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1971-041-10, Paris, der Kollaboration beschuldigte Französinnen.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|French women accused of [[Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy#France|collaboration with the enemy]] during the [[Occupied France|occupation]] are led through the streets of Paris barefoot, faces burnt, and with their heads shaved.]]
====Extrajudicial purges====
{{Main|Épuration sauvage}}
{{Further|Horizontal collaboration}}
Immediately following the liberation, France was swept by a wave of executions, public humiliations, assaults and detentions of suspected collaborators, known as the ''[[épuration sauvage]]'' (wild purge).{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=577}} This period succeeded the German occupational administration but preceded the authority of the French Provisional Government and consequently lacked any form of institutional justice.{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=577}} Approximately 9,000 were executed, mostly without trial in [[summary execution]]s,{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=577}} notably including members and leaders of the pro-Nazi ''milices''. In one case, as many as 77 milice members were summarily executed at once.<ref>{{in lang|fr}} [[Henri Amouroux]], [http://www.asmp.fr/travaux/communications/2006/amouroux.htm 'La justice du Peuple en 1944'] (Justice of the People in 1944) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070423205311/http://www.asmp.fr/travaux/communications/2006/amouroux.htm |date=2007-04-23 }}, [[Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques]], 9 Jan 2006.</ref> An inquest into the issue of summary executions launched by [[Jules Moch]], then Minister of the Interior, came to the conclusion that there had been 9,673 summary executions. A second inquiry in 1952 separated out 8,867 executions of suspected collaborators and 1,955 summary executions for which the motive of killing was not known, giving a total of 10,822 executions.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}} Shaving the heads of women as a form of humiliation and [[shaming]] was a common feature of the purges,{{sfn|Jackson|2001|p=580}} and between 10,000 and 30,000 women accused of having collaborated with the Germans or having had [[horizontal collaboration|relationships with German soldiers]] or officers were subjected to the practice,{{sfn|Jackson|2001|p=581}} becoming known as {{ill|tonsured women|fr|Femmes tondues|v=sup}} ({{lang|fr|femmes tondues}}).{{sfn|Weitz|1995|pp=276–277}}
====Legal purge====
{{Main|Épuration légale}}
The official ''[[épuration légale]]'' ("legal purge") began following a June 1944 decree that established a three-tier system of judicial courts:{{sfn|Gildea|2002|p=69}} a High Court of Justice which dealt with Vichy ministers and officials; Courts of Justice for other serious cases of alleged collaboration; and regular Civic Courts for lesser cases of alleged collaboration.{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=577}}{{sfn|Williams|1992|pp=272–273}} Over 700 collaborators were executed following legal trials.<ref>Conan, Eric; Rousso, Henry (1998). Vichy: An Ever-Present Past. Sudbury, Massachusetts: Dartmouth. ISBN 978-0-87451-795-8.</ref> The initial phase of purge trials ended with a series of amnesty laws passed between 1951 and 1953{{sfn|Conan|Rousso|1998|p=9}} which reduced the number of imprisoned collaborators from 40,000 to 62,{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=608}} and was followed by a period of official "repression" that lasted between 1954 and 1971.{{sfn|Conan|Rousso|1998|p=9}}
Reliable statistics of the death toll do not exist. At the low end, one estimate is that approximately 10,500 were executed, before and after liberation. "The courts of Justice pronounced about 6,760 death sentences, 3,910 in absentia and 2,853 in the presence of the accused. Of these 2,853, 73 percent were commuted by {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}, and 767 carried out. In addition, about 770 executions were ordered by the military tribunals. Thus the total number of people executed before and after the Liberation was approximately 10,500, including those killed in the épuration sauvage",{{Sfn|Jackson|2003|p=577}} notably including members and leaders of the [[milice]]s. US forces put the number of summary executions following liberation at 80,000. The French Minister of the Interior in March 1945 claimed that the number executed was 105,000.{{sfn|Huddleston|1955|p=299}}
===Elections of May 1945===
{{more citations needed section|find=Élections municipales de 1945|date=February 2021}}
The [[French municipal elections of 1945]]<!--permitted circular link per MOS:CIRCULAR--> were held in two rounds on 29 April and 13 May 1945. These were the first elections since the liberation of France and the first in which women could vote.{{efn|name="women vote"}} Elections did not take place in four departments ([[Bas-Rhin]], [[Haut-Rhin]], Moselle and [[Territory of Belfort]]) with recent fighting that had {{clarify span|prevented the creation of electoral lists|reason=Lists of candidates, or lists of voters?|date=February 2021}}. In Moselle, they were postponed to 23 and 30 September, at the same time as the cantonal elections, because the end of the fighting was too {{clarify span|close.|reason=Close in time, or space?date=February 2021|date=February 2021}} These difficulties made it very difficult to compile electoral lists that included women, and there were very few by-elections before these historic dates.
====Election context====
While the war was not yet officially over (the German surrender of May 8, 1945 was signed between the two rounds of voting), the elections took place in a difficult political and social context: the economic situation remained very precarious, not all prisoners of war had returned, and many scores were being settled in local political life.
These elections were the first test for the validity of the provisional institutions that had emerged from the Resistance.
The electoral system in force was the [[Two-round system|two-round majority system]], except in Paris, where elections were held under the [[Proportional representation|proportional system]]. This election was also marked by the participation of women for the first time in France. On April 21, 1944, the right to vote had been granted to women by the French Committee of National Liberation,{{efn|name="women vote"}} and confirmed by the ordinance of October 5 under the Provisional Government of the French Republic. Given the absence of 2 1/2 million prisoners of war, deportees, STO workers, and the ban on voting by career soldiers, the electorate in this election was composed of up to 62% women (although the figure of 53% is also cited).{{where|date=February 2021}} Despite the novelty of women voters, there was no particular media reaction, partly because of the difficulties related to the immediate post-war period which were of greater concern, such as returned deportees, prisoner camps, food rationing, and so on.
The referendum proposed to the French by the Provisional Government (GPRF) contained two questions. The first one proposed the drafting of a new Constitution and, consequently, the abandonment of the institutions of the Third Republic. Charles de Gaulle advocated for its support, as did all political parties, excepting the [[Radical Party (France)|radicals]], who remained faithful to the Third Republic. On 21 October 1945, 96 per cent of the French voted "yes" on the first question of the referendum in favor of changing the institutions: the Assembly elected that day would thus be [[Constituent assembly|constituent]].<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/286279 | jstor=286279 | title=French Public Opinion and the Founding of the Fourth Republic | last1=Cowans | first1=Jon | journal=French Historical Studies | date=1991 | volume=17 | issue=1 | pages=62–95 | doi=10.2307/286279 }}</ref>
The second referendum question concerned the powers of this Constituent Assembly. Fearing a preponderance of communists in control over it, which would allow them to legally install a power of their own choice, General de Gaulle provided a text strictly limiting its prerogatives: its duration was limited to seven months, the constitutional plans it would draft would be submitted to popular referendum, and finally it could only bring down the government by a motion of censure voted by an absolute majority of its members. Most parties supported de Gaulle in advocating a "yes" vote, including the [[Popular Republican Movement]] (MRP), the [[French Section of the Workers' International|socialists]] and the [[Republican Party of Liberty|moderates]], while the [[French Communist Party|communists]] and radicals pushed for "no". Nevertheless, 66 per cent of the electorate approved of limiting the powers of the Assembly by voting "yes" in the referendum.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Berstein |first1=Serge |last2=Milza |first2=Pierre |author-link2=Pierre Milza |title=Histoire de la France au XXe siècle |trans-title=History of 20th Century France |pages=662–663 |location=Brussels |publisher=Editions Complexe}}.</ref>{{better source|reason=No year or ISBN, and none of the versions seen at worldcat seem to correspond to one with 663 pages.|date=July 2022}}
===Provisional Government of the French Republic===
[[File:Emblem of the Provisional Government of the French Republic.svg|thumb|Emblem of the [[Provisional Government of the French Republic]] (1944)]]
{{unreferenced section|reason=The main article has very few references and none of them to support this content.|date=January 2021 |find=Provisional Government of the French Republic}}
{{Main|Provisional Government of the French Republic}}
{{Further|Charles de Gaulle#Provisional Government of the French Republic}}
The Provisional Government of the French Republic was the successor organization to the French Committee of National Liberation. It served as an interim government of Free France between 1944 and 1946, and lasted until the establishment of the Fourth Republic. Its founding marked the official restoration and re-establishment of a provisional French Republic, assuring continuity with the defunct Third Republic which dissolved itself in 1940 with the advent of the Vichy regime.
[[File:Gouvernement provisoire de la République française.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Council of Ministers of the Provisional Government meeting in Paris, 2 November 1945]]
The PGFR was created by the Committee of National Liberation on 3 June 1944, the day before {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} arrived in London from Algiers on Winston Churchill's invitation, and three days before D-day. It moved back to Paris after the liberation of the capital, where its war and foreign policy goals were to secure a [[Allied-occupied Germany|French occupation zone in Germany]] and a [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council]]. This was assured through a large military contribution on the [[Western Front (World War II)#1944–1945: The Second Front|western front]].
Besides war and foreign policy goals, its principal mission was to prepare the transition to a new constitutional order, that ultimately resulted in the Fourth Republic. It also made several important reforms and political decisions, such as granting [[women's suffrage in France|women the right to vote]],{{efn|name="women vote"|The right to vote was granted to women in the {{ill|Ordinance of 21 April 1944|fr|Ordonnance portant organisation des pouvoirs publics en France après la Libération|lt=Ordinance of 21 April 1944.|vertical-align=sup}}}} founding the ''[[École nationale d'administration]]'', and laying the groundwork of [[social security in France]].
With regard to transition to a new Republic, the GPRF organized the [[1945 French legislative election]] for 21 October 1945, drew up a Constitution to present to the public for approval, and organized the [[October 1946 French constitutional referendum|Constitutional referendum]] on 13 October 1946 in which it was adopted by the voters, thus bringing into existence the Fourth Republic.
===Fourth Republic===
[[File:Affiche Charles de Gaulle - RPF - 1947.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|Campaign poster for [[Charles de Gaulle]]'s RPF party: "We can overcome this; My fellow French citizens, vote for the ''[[Rassemblement du Peuple Français]]'' [[Slate (elections)|slate]]". Lithograph, Paris, 1944–1947]]
{{Main|French Fourth Republic}}
{{Further|Tripartisme}}
With most of the political class discredited and containing many members who had more or less collaborated with Nazi Germany, [[Gaullism]] and [[communism]] became the most popular political forces in France.<ref>{{cite journal|title=De Gaulle and the R.P.F. |author=Geoffrey C. Cook | journal=Political Science Quarterly |volume=65 | number=3| date= September 1950 |pages=335–352 | publisher=The Academy of Political Science |doi=10.2307/2145251 |jstor=2145251 |url=
https://www.jstor.org/stable/2145251 }}</ref>
The Provisional Government (GPRF) ruled from 1944 to 1946, with de Gaulle in charge. Meanwhile, negotiations took place over the proposed new constitution, which was to be put to a referendum. De{{nbsp}}Gaulle advocated a presidential system of government, and criticized the reinstatement of what he pejoratively called "the parties system". He resigned in January 1946 and was replaced by [[Felix Gouin]] of the French Section of the Workers' International (socialists; SFIO). Ultimately, only the French Communist Party (PCF) and the socialist SFIO supported the draft constitution, which envisaged a form of government based on [[unicameralism]]; but this was rejected in the [[May 1946 French constitutional referendum|referendum of 5 May 1946]].
For the [[June 1946 French legislative election|1946 elections]], the [[Rally of Left Republicans]] (RGR), which encompassed the Radical Party, the [[Democratic and Socialist Union of the Resistance]] and other conservative parties, unsuccessfully attempted to oppose the [[Christian democracy|Christian democrat]] and socialist MRP–SFIO–PCF alliance. The new constituent assembly included 166 MRP deputies, 153 PCF deputies and 128 SFIO deputies, giving the [[tripartite alliance (France)|tripartite alliance]] an absolute majority. [[Georges Bidault]] of the MRP replaced Felix Gouin as the head of government.
A new draft of the Constitution was written, which this time proposed the establishment of a [[bicameralism|bicameral]] form of government. [[Leon Blum]] of the SFIO headed the GPRF from 1946 to 1947. After a new legislative election in June 1946, the Christian democrat Georges Bidault assumed leadership of the [[Government of France|Cabinet]]. Despite De{{nbsp}}Gaulle's so-called [[The Bayeux speeches|discourse of Bayeux]] of 16 June 1946 in which he denounced the new institutions, the new draft was approved by 53% of voters voting in favor (with an abstention rate of 31%) in the [[October 1946 French constitutional referendum|referendum of 13 October 1946]]. This culminated in the establishment of the Fourth Republic two weeks later, an arrangement in which executive power essentially resided in the hands of the [[Prime Minister of France|President of the Council]] (the prime minister). The [[President of France|President of the Republic]] was given a largely symbolic role, although he remained chief of the French Army and as a last resort could be called upon to resolve conflicts.
==Impact==
===Demographic===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-027-1477-07, Marseille, Gare d'Arenc. Deportation von Juden.png|thumb|upright=0.8|Deportation of Jews during the [[Marseille roundup]], 23 January 1943]]
{{Further|World War II casualties|Holocaust in France}}
[[World War II casualties#Human losses by country|France's losses during World War II]] totaled 600,000 people (1.44% of the population), including 210,000 military deaths from all causes, and 390,000 civilian deaths due to military activity and crimes against humanity.<ref name="Frumkin-1939">{{cite book |last=Frumkin |first=Gregory |title=Population Changes in Europe Since 1939 |location=Geneva |date=1951 |pages=44–45 |oclc=83196162}}</ref> In addition they suffered 390,000 wounded military.<ref name="Clodfelter 582">{{cite book |last1=Clodfelter |first1=Micheal |title=Warfare and Armed Conflicts – A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–2000 |edition=2nd |year=2002 |isbn=0-7864-1204-6 |oclc=48003215 |publisher=McFarland & Co. |location=Jefferson, N.C. |page=582}}</ref>
Jewish life and society at large had to adjust to a reduced population of French Jews.
Of the 340,000 Jews living in metropolitan/continental France in 1940, more than 75,000 were deported to death camps by the Vichy regime, where about 72,500 were killed.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marrus |first1=Michael Robert in 1995 |title=Vichy France and the Jews |year=1995 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=9780804724999 |pages=XV, 243–5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q7ORlIpHKLEC&pg=PA243 }}</ref><ref name="bseditions.fr">{{cite web |url=http://www.encyclopedie.bseditions.fr/article.php?pArticleId=158&pChapitreId=23982&pArticleLib=Le+Bilan+de+la+Shoah+en+France+%5BLe+r%E9gime+de+Vichy%5D |title=Le Bilan de la Shoah en France [Le régime de Vichy] |trans-title=The Toll of the Holocaust in France [Vichy Regime] |work=bseditions.fr}}</ref><ref name="YV">[[Yad Vashem]] [http://www.yad-vashem.org.il/yv/en/education/languages/dutch/pdf/article_croes.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011041206/http://www.yad-vashem.org.il/yv/en/education/languages/dutch/pdf/article_croes.pdf|date=11 October 2017}}</ref>
{{clear}}<!-- temp, to unblock the See also to expand to full browser width and fold accordingly-->
===Economic===
{{Main|Trente Glorieuses}}
{{Further|Marshall Plan}}
France emerged from World War II severely weakened economically. It had been in a period of economic stagnation even when the war broke out.<ref name="Milward" />{{rp|39}} By 1945 national income, in real terms, was little more than half what it had been in 1929.<ref name="Monnet">{{cite book | last=Monnet | first=Jean | title=Memoirs | publisher=Doubleday & Company, Inc. | year=1978|isbn=0-385-12505-4|location=Garden City, New York| translator-last=Mayne|translator-first=Richard}}</ref>{{rp|233}}
To aid economic recovery, the Chairman of the French Provisional Government, [[Charles de Gaulle]], established the [[Plan Commission|General Planning Commission]] ([[:fr:Commissariat général du Plan|Le Commissariat général du Plan]]) on 3 January 1946.<ref name="Duchene">{{Cite book |last=Duchêne |first=François |title=Jean Monnet: The First Statesman of Interdependence |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |year=1994 |isbn=0-393-03497-6 |location=New York }}</ref>{{rp|152}} The Commission implemented the Modernization and Re-equipment Plan, commonly known as the [[Monnet Plan]] after [[Jean Monnet]], the chief advocate and the first head of the commission.<ref name="Milward">{{cite book | first=Alan | last=Milward | title=The Reconstruction of Western Europe: 1945–1951 | publisher=Taylor and Francis Group | date=1987}}</ref>{{rp|38,98}}
To help finance imports of capital equipment and raw materials needed for France's recovery and modernization program, the country negotiated loans from the U.S. and the World Bank in 1946.<ref name="Duchene" />{{rp|159}} <ref name="Monnet" />{{rp|254}} Also, from 1948 to 1952, France received just under $3 billion in [[Marshall Plan]] aid.<ref name="Monnet" />{{rp|269}}
Yergin and Stanislaw argue France's post-war Modernization and Re-equipment Plan set it on the road to an "economic miracle" in the 1950s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/shared/minitext/prof_jeanmonnet.html|last1=Yergin|first1=Daniel|last2=Stanislaw|first2=Joseph|title=Commanding Heights: Jean Monnet|website=[[PBS]]|date=1998|pages=29–32}}</ref>{{rp|29–32}}
===Judicial===
{{See also|Biens mal acquis}}
Many [[Government of Vichy France|leaders]] and [[French collaboration with Nazi Germany|collaborators of the Vichy regime]] were arrested, and some were imprisoned or sentenced to death. Marshall Petain's death sentence was commuted to life due to his status as a World War I hero.<ref>{{cite web|quote="...he was found guilty of treason and conspiracy to overthrow the Republic"|title=Death of Marshal Pétain: Philippe Pétain died on 23 July 1951, aged 95.| author=Richard Cavendish| publisher=History Today |volume=51 | issue=7 |date=July 2001 |url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/months-past/death-marshal-pétain}}</ref> Pierre Laval was tried, and executed by firing squad in October 1945.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/oct/16/fromthearchives|date=15 Oct 2008|publisher=The Guardian|work=From the archives| title=The execution of Pierre Laval}}</ref>
Some former collaborators escaped immediate penalties or even continued conventional lives, such as [[Maurice Papon]], who was arrested and convicted in 1998 of [[crimes against humanity]] for his role in the deportation of Jews from Bordeaux.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/world/u-s-deports-former-nazi-concentration-camp-guard-to-germany-1.5317233 |title=US deports former Nazi concentration camp guard to Germany |date=February 20, 2021 |author = Dakin Andone| publisher=CTV }}</ref> German war criminal [[Klaus Barbie]], known as the "butcher of Lyon", was extradited from Bolivia in 1983. He was put on trial and sentenced in 1987 to life imprisonment in Lyon.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/09/26/world/klaus-barbie-77-lyons-gestapo-chief.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm |work=The New York Times |last=Saxon |first=Wolfgang |title=Klaus Barbie, 77, Lyons Gestapo Chief |date=26 September 1991}}</ref><!-- sentenced in Lyon, or prison in Lyon? -->
===Historiographical===
For decades prior to the 1970s modern period, French historiography was dominated by conservative or pro-Communist thinking, neither of them very inclined to consider the grass-roots pro-democracy developments at liberation.<ref name="Horn-2020">{{cite book |author=Gerd-Rainer Horn |title=The Moment of Liberation in Western Europe: Power Struggles and Rebellions, 1943–1948 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2EfWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA256 |date=19 March 2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-958791-9 |pages=255–256 |oclc=1160072047}}</ref>
There was little recognition in French scholarship on the active participation of the Vichy regime in the deportation of French Jews, until American political scientist [[Robert Paxton]]'s 1972 book, ''Vichy France: Old Guard and New Order, 1940–1944''. The book received a French translation within a year and sold thousands of copies in France. In the words of French historian [[Gérard Noiriel]], the book "had the effect of a bombshell, because it showed, with supporting evidence, that the French state had participated in the deportation of Jews to the Nazi concentration camps, a fact that had been concealed by historians until then."<ref>{{cite book |language=fr |last1=Noiriel |first1=Gérard |author-link1=:fr:Gérard Noiriel |title=Une histoire populaire de la France : De la guerre de Cent Ans à nos jours |trans-title=A Popular History of France: from the 100 Years War to the Present Day |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xXJvDwAAQBAJ |publisher=Agone |series=Mémoires sociales |date=19 November 2019 |orig-year=1st pub. 2018:Agone |page=547 <!--|total pages=832--> |isbn=978-2-7489-0301-0 <!--|isbn2=2-7489-0301-3--> |oclc=1057326362 |quote=[Le livre] fit l'effet d'une bombe, car il montrait, preuves à l'appui, que l'État français avait participé à la déportation des Juifs dans les camps de concentration nazis, ce qui avait été occulté par les historiens jusque-là.}}</ref>
The "[[Paxtonian revolution]]", as the French called it, had a profound effect on French historiography. In 1997, Paxton was called as an expert witness to testify about collaboration during the Vichy period, at the trial in France of [[Maurice Papon]].<ref name="Lagarde-2018">{{cite web |language=fr |last1=Lagarde |first1=Yann |title=Quand l'histoire fait scandale : La France de Vichy |trans-title=When History Becomes Scandal : Vichy France |url=https://www.franceculture.fr/histoire/comment-la-revolution-paxtonienne-a-bouleverse-notre-regard-sur-loccupation |publisher=[[France Culture]] |series=La Fabrique de l'histoire [Making History] |date=2018-07-02}}</ref>
===Social and cultural===
Many were concerned with getting life back to the way it was, "a l'identique", as it was described, but leaders said that modernization was needed.{{sfn|Chapman|2018|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=a2VEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT7 Intro. PT7]}} As [[Jean Monnet]] said, "We have no choice.{{sfn|Chapman|2018|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=a2VEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT7 Intro. PT7]}} The only alternative to modernization is decadence." The question of what this would look like was not obvious, and was one of the core political issues, from liberation to Algerian independence.{{sfn|Chapman|2018|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=a2VEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT7 Intro. PT7]}}
The Second World War had devastated the glittering art and literary effervescence of the
''[[Années folles]]'' in 1920s Paris, as well as the many Jewish, émigré and refugee artists and writers who had formed the [[School of Paris]] between the two world wars. [[Marc Chagall]] escaped to safety in the US with the help of American journalist [[Varian Fry]],<ref>{{Cite book|title=Chagall and His Times: A Documentary Narrative|last=Harshav|first=Benjamin|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=2004|pages=497}}</ref> but he was one of the lucky, and while he eventually returned to France, he never went back to Paris. The poet [[Max Jacob]] on the other hand had died of pneumonia in the camp at Drancy,<ref>[https://www.theparisreview.org/blog/2020/10/14/the-death-of-max-jacob/ The Death of Max Jacob], Rosanna Warren, Paris Review October 14, 2020</ref> and [[Chaïm Soutine]] died of a bleeding ulcer died while hiding from the Nazis in Paris.<ref>[https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2018/05/14/the-vulnerable-ferocity-of-chaim-soutine The Vulnerable Ferocity of Chaim Soutine: His painting process could seem like something between a mud-wrestling match and a fight to the death.] Peter Schjeldahl, The New Yorker, May 07, 2018</ref>
After the liberation of France, artists and writers returned, but for the most part they were other artists who made another kind of art. Their themes were no longer color, [[surrealism]] and [[Dada]], but mirrored the industrialization of France in their exploration of abstract geometry and the influence of Rothko. [[existentialism|Existentialist]] writers expressed absurdity not as a riot of surrealism but instead as an [[epistemology]] of ambiguous moral choices and rejection of outside moral authority.
But [[Ernest Hemingway]] returned with the Allied army{{cn|date=March 2022}} and left as a calling card a bucket of hand grenades at the door of [[Pablo Picasso]],<ref name=eh>[https://www.theguardian.com/books/2018/jul/11/left-bank-agnes-poirier-review-existentialism-jazz-paris-1940s Left Bank by Agnès Poirier – existentialism, jazz and the miracle of Paris in the 1940s: A gushing love letter to the French capital features De Beauvoir, Sartre, Samuel Beckett and wave after and wave of oversexed, overpaid Americans], Stuart Jeffries. The Guardian, Wed 11 Jul 2018</ref> who had returned to Paris after the Germans overran his rural refuge;<ref>[https://www.ngv.vic.gov.au/picasso/education/ed_JTE_TWY.html Picasso Love & War 1935-1945: A Journey Through the Exhibition: The War Years]</ref> [[Guernica (Picasso)|Guernica]]<ref>[https://www.pbs.org/treasuresoftheworld/guernica/glevel_1/4_exile.html Guernica] PBS</ref> had made it impossible for him to consider a return to [[Francisco Franco|Franco]]'s Spain. [[Miles Davis]] lived in Paris after the war, and so did [[Norman Mailer]] and [[Samuel Beckett]], [[Simone Signoret]] and [[Jean Cocteau]].<ref name=eh /> Charles de Gaulle appointed [[André Malraux]] as Minister of Information and then of Cultural Affairs.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andre-Malraux André Malvaux], Encyclopædia Britannica</ref>
<!-- in art we do also need to mention tachisme -->
===Political===
{{See also|French Third Republic#Historiography of decadence}}
The liberation of France had profound effect on the future of French and world politics.
'''Fourth Republic'''
The [[Provisional Government of the French Republic|provisional government]] maintained its position that the Vichy régime had been illegitimate, and therefore considered it a priority to put a Constitutional framework into place. The resulting document full-throatedly reaffirmed the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man]], and affirmed several additional rights, including the [[right of asylum]], of unionization and of freedom of association. As of the very first municipal elections following the liberation of France, women had the right to vote, and from then forward under the [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]].
The [[French Fifth Republic]] today is built upon the rights expressed in the preface to this document, which it incorporated into its 1958 constitution,<!-- check this wording --> and which is still in force today.
'''Communist Party'''
The trained and disciplined [[Francs-Tireurs et Partisans]] brought into play by the [[Communist International]]<!-- or Communist Party of France? Nail down --> after Hitler invaded Russia<!-- should this be Soviet Union? --> both helped to sway the fight and to dispel the previous perception of under the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]] of left-wing {{citation needed|date=March 2021}} politicians as decadent and ineffectual, a disdain that to some extent had underlain the willingness of that government to seek the assistance of the paternalist and traditionalist Pétain, who had gained the heart of the French by prioritizing the conservation of French forces, following bloodying and bruising casualties in World War 1 on the Eastern front against Germany.
'''Geopolitics'''
Given the important role played by the [[Big Three (World War II)|Big Three]] in the eventual victory of the Allies, the liberation of France and of Europe led to the [[geopolitics]] of the [[Cold War]], and to the [[decolonization]] of French and other European former colonies in Africa and elsewhere.
The creation of the [[United Nations]] closely followed the end of World War II. As a successor to the [[League of Nations]] whose demise foreshadowed World War II, it did however share some of its flaws, in particular the lack of an army and therefore the means to enforce its charter.
'''Decolonization'''
While [[Félix Éboué]] believed that his support of [[Free France]] would lead to a new relationship between France and [[French Africa]],<ref>{{cite web |last1=ÉBOUÉ |first1=Félix |title=La nouvelle politique indigène pour l'Afrique équatoriale française |url=https://www.cvce.eu/s/ow. |website=cvce.eu by uni.lu |publisher=Toulon: Office Français d'Édition. 08-11-1941 |access-date=9 July 2020 }}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> the French were initially inclined to dismiss the considerable contribution of African units to the war effort. In fact, on 1 December 1944, [[gendarmes]] mowed down a regiment of [[Tirailleurs Senegalais]] at the [[Thiaroye massacre|Thiaroye camp]] for complaining of poor conditions and demanding their back pay.
[[French Protectorate in Morocco|Morocco]] and [[French Protectorate of Tunisia|Tunisia]], which were French protectorates in World War II, and with the exception of Casablanca, played a more limited role in the war, primarily in the [[Western Desert campaign]], were able to negotiate their independence from France relatively quickly. Algeria, however, which had since 1848 been considered an integral part of France,<ref>{{cite web|title=French Resistance and the Algerian War| url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/french-resistance-and-algerian-war| author=Martin Evans | publisher=History Today |volume= 41 |issue=7 |date=July 1991}}</ref> and had a sizeable population of French settlers, suffered through an extensive and bloody [[Algerian War|war of independence]].
A series of events beginning 8 May 1945, [[Victory in Europe Day|the same day]] that [[Nazi Germany]] surrendered, triggered growing demand for independence. About 5,000 Muslims paraded in [[Sétif]], a market town west of [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]], to celebrate the victory. The local French [[gendarmerie]] tried to seize banners attacking colonial rule and rioting broke out. The ensuing [[Setif and Guelma massacre|indiscriminate French reprisals]] sparked further denunciations of colonial rule.<ref name="TedMorgan">{{cite book |last=Morgan |first=Ted |author-link=Ted Morgan (writer) |title=My Battle of Algiers |page=[https://archive.org/details/mybattleofalgier00morg/page/26 26] |isbn=978-0-06-085224-5 |date=2006-01-31 |publisher=HarperCollins |url=https://archive.org/details/mybattleofalgier00morg/page/26 }}</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|France}}
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[1940 in France]]
* [[1941 in France]]
* [[1942 in France]]
* [[1943 in France]]
* [[1944 in France]]
* [[1945 in France]]
* [[Foreign policy of Charles de Gaulle]]
* [[France–Germany border]]
* [[French Liberation Army]]
* [[Liberation of Europe]]
* [[Military history of France during World War II]]
* [[Post–World War II economic expansion]]
* [[Rene Bousquet]]
* [[Royal Air Forces Escaping Society]]
* [[SOE F Section networks]]
* [[Timeline of the Battle of France]]
* [[Timeline of the liberation of France]]
* [[20th-century French art]]
{{div col end}}
==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=nb}}
{{notelist |notes=
{{efn |name=British command |The British [[79th Armoured Division]] never operated as a single formation ({{harvnb|Buckley|2006|p=13}}) but was an operational grouping of all the [[Hobart's Funnies|specialised armoured vehicles]] committed to solve the particular problems of the German defences of the [[Atlantic Wall]] and thus has been excluded from the total. In addition, a combined total of 16 (three from the 79th Armoured Division) British, Belgian, Canadian, and Dutch independent brigades were committed to the operation, along with four battalions of the [[Special Air Service]] ({{harvnb|Ellis|Allen|Warhurst|2004|pp=521–523, 524}}).}}
}}
{{Notelist|30em}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
===Works cited===
* <!--{{sfn|Aron|1962|p=}}-->{{cite book |language=fr |last1=Aron |first1=Robert |author1-link=Robert Aron |title=Grands dossiers de l'histoire contemporaine |trans-title=Major issues in contemporary history |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L88fAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Librairie Académique Perrin |year=1962 |location=Paris |chapter=Pétain : sa carrière, son procès |trans-chapter=Pétain: his career, his trial |isbn= |oclc=1356008}}
* <!--{{sfn|Béglé|2014}}-->{{cite magazine |lang=fr |magazine=[[Le Point]] |url=http://www.lepoint.fr/livres/rentree-litteraire-avec-pierre-assouline-sigmaringen-c-est-la-vie-de-chateau-20-01-2014-1782076_37.php |first=Jérôme |last=Béglé |title=Rentrée littéraire – Avec Pierre Assouline, Sigmaringen, c'est la vie de château ! |trans-title=Autumn publishing season launch – With Pierre Assouline, Sigmaringen, That's life in the castle |date=20 January 2014 |publisher=Le Point Communications}}
* <!--{{sfn|Ashdown|2015|p=}}-->{{cite book |last=Ashdown |first=Paddy |author-link=Paddy Ashdown |date=2015 |title=The Cruel Victory: The French Resistance, D-Day and the Battle for the Vercors 1944 |location=London |publisher=William Collins |page=97 |isbn=978-0007520817}}
* <!--{{sfn|Bernard|1984|p=}}--> {{Cite journal |journal=Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire |title=Kersaudy (François). Churchill and {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} [compte-rendu] |language=fr |first=Henri |last=Bernard |author-link=:fr:Henri Bernard |date=1984 |volume=62 |number=2 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/rbph_0035-0818_1984_num_62_2_3467_t1_0374_0000_1 |type=book review |orig-year=1st pub: [[HarperCollins|Collins]] (1981) |access-date=23 July 2020 }} <!-- book review of: {{cite book |lang=en |title=Churchill and {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} |author=François Kersaudy |date=1981 |publisher=Collins |location=London |isbn=9782259008846 |oclc=875685503}}-->
* <!--{{sfn|Boissoneault|2017}}--> {{cite web|title=Was Vichy France a Puppet Government or a Willing Nazi Collaborator? |first=Lorraine |last=Boissoneault |work=Smithsonian Magazine |date=November 9, 2017 |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/vichy-government-france-world-war-ii-willingly-collaborated-nazis-180967160/ }}
* <!-- {{sfn|Brissaud|1965|p=}}--> {{citation |language=fr |last=Brissaud |first=André |title=La Dernière année de Vichy (1943–1944) |trans-title=The Last Year of Vichy |location=Paris |publisher=Librairie Académique Perrin |year=1965 |oclc=406974043}}
* <!--{{sfn|Buckley|2006|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Buckley |first=John |author-link=John Buckley (historian) |title=British Armour in the Normandy Campaign 1944 |year=2006 |orig-year=1st pub. 2004 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=Abingdon, Oxfordshire |isbn=0-415-40773-7 }}
* {{cite book |language=fr |last1=Cantier |first1=Jacques |title=L'Algérie sous le régime de Vichy |trans-title=Algeria Under the Vichy Regime |date=2002 |publisher=Odile Jacob |isbn=978-2738-11057-2}}
* <!--{{sfn|Chapman|2018|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Chapman |first=Herrick |title=France's Long Reconstruction : in search of the modern republic |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a2VEDwAAQBAJ |access-date=3 February 2021 |date=8 January 2018 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Boston |isbn=978-0674-97641-2 |chapter=Introduction |oclc=984973630 |quote=Many an ordinary citizen was more concerned with getting life back to a stable routine and rebuilding a home or a local school exactly as it had been—"a l'identique", as people put it. But French leaders agreed that France had to modernize. ... 'We will remake France,' the Resistance exhorted in its underground press. Just what this new France should be, however, was hardly self-evident, and as a consequence the question of reconstruction—what it should be and how to do it—remained at the heart of French political combat for more than a decade after the war, and as I will argue, until the end of the Algerian war in 1962. |quote-page=<!--Introduction, first page-->PT7}}
* <!--{{sfn|Choisnel-2007|p=}}--> {{cite book |language=fr |first=Emmanuel |last=Choisnel |title=L'Assemblée consultative provisoire (1943-1945) Le sursaut républicain |trans-title=The Provisional Consultative Assembly (1943-1945) The Republican Leap |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9fZnAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Harmattan |date=2007|isbn=978-2-296-03898-1 |oclc=301791978 |quote=En fait les 49 sièges dévolus à la résistance intérieure ne furent jamais intégralement pourvus |trans-quote="In fact, the 49 seats allocated to the internal resistance were never fully filled"}} -->
* <!--{{sfn|Clarke|Smith|1993|p=}}--> {{cite book |last1=Clarke |first1=Jeffrey J. |last2=Smith |first2=Robert Ross |name-list-style=amp |series= United States Army in World War II: European Theater of Operations |title=Riviera To The Rhine. |url=https://archive.org/details/CMHPub7101RivieraToTheRhine-nsia |publisher=Center of Military History, United States Army |place=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-16-025966-1 |year=1993}}
* {{cite book |last=Clayton |first=Anthony |title=Histoire de l'Armée française en Afrique 1830-1962 |year=1994 |publisher=Albin Michel |location=Paris | language=fr |isbn=978-2-28-600869-7}}
* <!--{{sfn|Cointet|2014|p=}}--> {{cite book |language=fr |first1=Jean-Paul |last1=Cointet |author1-link=Jean-Paul Cointet |title=Sigmaringen |publisher=Perrin |series=Tempus |location=Paris |year=2014 <!--total pages=462--> |isbn=978-2-262-03300-2}}
* <!--{{sfn|Conan|Rousso|1998|p=}}--> {{Cite book |last1=Conan |first1=Eric |last2=Rousso |first2=Henry |title=Vichy: An Ever-Present Past |year=1998 |publisher=Dartmouth |location=Sudbury, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0-87451-795-8}}
* <!--{{sfn|Danan|1972|p=}}--> {{cite journal |journal=Publications de la faculté de droit et des sciences politiques et sociales d'Amiens |last=Danan |first=Yves-Maxime |year=1972 |title=La nature juridique du Conseil de défense de l'empire (Brazzaville, October 1940) Contribution à la Théorie des Gouvernements Insurrectionnels |trans-title=The legal nature of the Empire Defense (October 1940) Contribution to the Theory of Insurrectionnal Governments |url=https://www.u-picardie.fr/curapp-revues/root/3/danan.pdf |issue=4 |pages=145–149 }}
* <!--{{sfn|Ellis|Allen|Warhurst|2004|p=}}-->{{cite book |last1=Ellis |first1=L.F. |last2=Allen |first2=G.R.G. |last3=Warhurst |first3=A.E. |editor-last=Butler |editor-first=J.R.M |editor-link=James Ramsay Montagu Butler |title=Victory in the West, Volume I: The Battle of Normandy |year=2004 |orig-year=1st pub. 1962 |series=History of the Second World War United Kingdom Military Series |publisher=Naval & Military Press |location=London |isbn=1-84574-058-0}}
* <!--{{sfn|Gilbert|1989|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Gilbert |first=Martin |author-link=Martin Gilbert |title=The Second World War: A Complete History |year=1989 |publisher=H. Holt |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8050-1788-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/secondworldwar00gilb }}
* <!--{{sfn|Gildea|2002|p=}}--> {{Cite book |last=Gildea |first=Robert |title=France since 1945 |year=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=USA |isbn=978-0-19-280131-9 }}
* <!--{{sfn|Gildea|2019|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Gildea |first=Robert |title=Empires of the Mind: The Colonial Past and the Politics of the Present |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KB2GDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA52 |date=28 February 2019 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-62940-9 |oclc=1089913483 |pages=52– |chapter=2 Empires in Crisis: Two World Wars}}
* <!--{{sfn|Huddleston|1955|p=}}--> {{cite book |last1=Huddleston |first1=Sisley |author-link=Sisley Huddleston |title=France; The Tragic Years 1939-1947 |date=1955 |publisher=The Devin-Adair Company |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/stream/francethetragicy006833mbp#page/n13/mode/2up }}
* <!--{{sfn|Jäckel-fr|1968|p=495}}--> {{cite book |language=fr |first=Eberhard |last=Jäckel |title=La France dans l'Europe de Hitler |trans-title=France in Hitler's Europe – Germany's France foreign policy in the Second World War |location=Paris |publisher=Fayard |series=Les grandes études contemporaines |date=1968 |orig-year=1st pub. 1966: Deutsche Verlag-Anstalg GmbH (in German) as "Frankreich in Hitlers Europa – Die deutsche Frankreichpolitik im Zweiten Weltkrieg" |ref={{harvid|Jäckel-fr|1968}} }}
* <!--{{sfn|Jackson|2001|p=}}--> {{cite book |title=France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944 |publisher=Oxford University Press |last1=Jackson |first1=Julian |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-820706-1 |url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/france00juli }}
* {{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Julian |title=France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944 |year=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=US |isbn=978-0199254576 |url=https://archive.org/details/france00juli }}
* <!--{{sfn|JOFF|p=}}--> {{cite book |title=Journal officiel de la France libre |trans-title=Official Journal of Free France |ref={{harvid|JOFF}}}}
* <!--{{sfn|Kupferman|2006|p=}}--> {{cite book |language=fr |first1=Fred |last1=Kupferman |author-link1=Fred Kupferman |title=Laval |publisher=Tallandier |location=Paris |year=2006 |edition=2 |orig-year=1st pub: Balland (1987) |isbn=978-2-84734-254-3 |url=http://www.persee.fr/doc/polit_0032-342x_1988_num_53_2_3786_t1_0526_0000_4}}
* <!--{{sfn|Lacouture|1993|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Lacouture |first=Jean |author-link=Jean Lacouture |title=De Gaulle: The Rebel, 1890-1944 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o-0gPwAACAAJ |year=1993 |publisher=Harvill |location=London |isbn=978-0-00-271288-0 |oclc=27942042 |translator-last=O'Brian |translator-first=Patrick |orig-year=1st pub. [[Seuil]]:1984}}
* <!--{{sfn|Maury|2006}}--> {{cite web |language=fr |last=Maury |first=Jean-Pierre |title=Gouvernement de la Libération |url=https://mjp.univ-perp.fr/france/co1944-1.htm |year=2006 |publisher= Digithèque MJP, University of Perpignan |location=Perpignan}}
* <!--{{sfn|Maury|2010}}--> {{cite web |language=fr |last=Maury |first=Jean-Pierre |title=Le Commandement en chef civil et militaire |url=https://mjp.univ-perp.fr/france/co1944-1.htm |year=2010 |publisher= Digithèque MJP, University of Perpignan |location=Perpignan}}
* {{cite book |language=fr |last=Montagnon |first=Pierre |date=1990 |title=La France coloniale : Retour à l'Hexagone |volume=2 |trans-title=Colonial France: Return to the Hexagon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3732Y--CKI4C |location= |publisher=Pygmalion |isbn=978-2-7564-0938-2 |oclc= }}
* {{cite book |last1=Nyrop |first1=Richard |author2=American University (Washington, D.C.). Foreign Areas Studies Division United States. Army |title=U.S. Army Area Handbook for Algeria |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bgq8xwHlCpoC&pg=PA28 |year=1965 |publisher=Division, Special Operations Research Office, American University |oclc=1085291500 |accessdate=23 July 2020 |ref={{harvid|Nyrop|1965}} |quote=Most of the European colonial population of Algeria wholeheartedly supported the Vichy government. ... Even after the Allies under General Dwight D. Eisenhower liberated Algeria in November 1942, General Henri Giraud, appointed by Eisenhower as civil and military commander in chief, only slowly rescinded the Vichy legislation. It was almost a year before the Crémieux decrees were reactivated, against the virulent opposition of the European colonialists.}}
* <!--{{sfn|Paxton-fr|1997|p=382-383}}--> {{citation |language=fr |first=Robert O. |last=Paxton |translator-first=Claude |translator-last=Bertrand |title=La France de Vichy – 1940–1944 |location=Paris |publisher=Éditions du Seuil |series=Points-Histoire |date=1997 <!--(reprint November 1999)--> |orig-year=1st pub: 1972: [[Knopf]] (in English) as "Vichy France: old guard and new order, 1940–1944" (978-0394-47360-4) |isbn=978-2-02-039210-5 |ref={{harvid|Paxton-fr|1997}} }}
* <!--{{sfn|Pogue|1986|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Pogue |first=Forrest C. |series=United States Army in World War II: European Theater of Operations |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-E-Supreme/index.html |title=The Supreme Command |publisher=Center of Military History, United States Army |location=Washington, D.C. |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-16-001916-6 |via=Hyperwar Foundation |orig-year=1st pub. 1954}}
* <!--{{sfn|Reeves|2016|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Reeves |first=Mark |title=Dissent, Protest and Dispute in Africa |chapter=M'Fam goes home : African soldiers in the Gabon Campaign of 1940 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |date=2016 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BCklDwAAQBAJ |isbn=978-1315-41308-2}}
* <!--{{sfn|Rousso|1999|p= }}--> {{cite book|language=fr |first1=Henry |last1=Rousso |author1-link=Henry Rousso |title=Pétain et la fin de la collaboration : Sigmaringen, 1944-1945 |trans-title=Pétain and the end of collaboration: Sigmaringen, 1944–1945 |publisher=Éditions Complexe |location=Paris |year=1999 <!--total pages=441--> |isbn=2-87027-138-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nCE_2I4vyZkC |access-date= }}
* <!--{{sfn|Sautermeister|2013|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Sautermeister |first=Christine |title=Louis-Ferdinand Céline à Sigmaringen : réalité et fiction dans "D'un château l'autre |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RQPZBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT15 |access-date=13 August 2020 |date=6 February 2013 |publisher=Ecriture |isbn=978-2-35905-098-1 |oclc=944523109 |quote=''De septembre 1944 jusque fin avril 1945, Sigmaringen constitue donc une enclave française. Le drapeau français est hissé devant le château. Deux ambassades et un consulat en cautionnent la légitimité : l'Allemagne, le Japon et l'Italie.''}}
* <!--{{sfn|Singer|2008|p=111}}--> {{cite book |first=Barnett |last=Singer |title=Maxime Weygand: A Biography of the French General in Two World Wars |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0VZeIHEv3FkC&pg=PA111 |year=2008 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-3571-5 |access-date=1 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151101104418/https://books.google.com/books?id=0VZeIHEv3FkC&pg=PA111 |archive-date=1 November 2015 |url-status=live}}
* <!--{{sfn|Tucker-Jones|2010|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Tucker-Jones |first=Anthony |title=Operation Dragoon: The Liberation of Southern France 1944 |publisher=Pen and Sword |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-84884-140-6}}
* <!--{{sfn|Vogel|1983|p=}}--> {{cite book |editor-last1=Boog |editor-first1=Horst |editor-last2=Krebs |editor-first2=Gerhard |editor-last3=Vogel |editor-first3=Detlef |last=Vogel |first=Detlef |others=[[Military History Research Office (Germany)|''Militärgeschichtliches Forschungsamt'']] |chapter=Deutsche und Alliierte Kriegsführung im Westen [German and Allied warfare in the West] |language=German |series=[[Germany and the Second World War]] |title= Das Deutsche Reich in der Defensive |trans-title= The German Reich on the Defense: The Strategic Air War in Europe and the War in the West and East Asia 1943–1944/5 |volume=VII |pages=419–642 |publisher=Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt |year=1983 |isbn=978-3-421-05507-1}}
* <!--{{sfn|Weinberg|1995|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Weinberg |first=Gerhard |author-link=Gerhard Weinberg |year=1995 |orig-year=1st pub. 1993 |title=A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AJj1glSfifgC |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-55879-2 }}
* <!--{{sfn|Weitz|1995|p=}}--> {{Cite book |last=Weitz |first=Margaret Collins |title=Sisters in the Resistance – How Women Fought to Free France 1940–1945 |year=1995 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=New York |isbn=978-0-471-19698-3}}
* <!--{{sfn|White|1964|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=White |first=Dorothy Shipley |title=Seeds of Discord: De Gaulle, Free France and the Allies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PowduQEACAAJ |year=1964 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |location=Syracuse, NY |chapter=XI The French Empire Rises <!--p.161-177--> |oclc=876345256 |access-date=3 June 2020}}
* <!--{{sfn|Whitmarsh|2009|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Whitmarsh |first=Andrew |title=D-Day in Photographs |year=2009 |publisher=History Press |location=Stroud |isbn=978-0-7524-5095-7 }}
* <!--{{sfn|Williams|1992|p=}}--> {{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Alan |title=Republic of Images: A History of French Filmmaking |year=1992 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0-674-76268-8 }}
* <!--{{sfn|Yeide|2007|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Yeide |first=Harry |title=First to the Rhine: The 6th Army Group In World War II |publisher=Zenith Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7603-3146-0}}
* <!--{{sfn|Zaloga|2009|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Zaloga |first=Steven J. |author-link=Steven Zaloga |series = Campaign No. 210 |title=Operation Dragoon 1944: France's other D-Day |publisher=Osprey Publishing |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-84603-367-4 }}
==Further reading==
* Aron, Robert. ''France reborn; the history of the liberation, June 1944 – May 1945'' (1964) [https://archive.org/details/francerebornhist00aron_0 online]
* Diamond, Hanna, and Simon Kitson, eds. ''Vichy, resistance, liberation: new perspectives on wartime France'' (Bloomsbury, 2005).
* <!--{{sfn|Doughty|2014|p=}}--> {{cite book|author1-link=Robert A. Doughty |last=Doughty |first=Robert A. |title=The Breaking Point: Sedan and the Fall of France, 1940 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MpXEBAAAQBAJ |series=Stackpole military history series. |date=15 September 2014 |publisher=Stackpole Books |location=Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania |isbn=978-0-8117-1459-4 |oclc=869908029}}
* Gordon, Bertram M. ''Historical Dictionary of World War II France: The Occupation, Vichy, and the Resistance, 1938–1946 '' (1998).
* <!--{{sfn|Annex-Alger}}--> {{cite web |language=fr |first1=Anne-Marie | last1 = Gouriou |first2=Roseline | last2=Salmon |title=Annexe du répertoire, Assemblée consultative provisoire (Alger) |trans-title=Appendix to the Directory, Provisional Consultative Assembly (Algiers) |url=http://www.archivesnationales.culture.gouv.fr/chan/chan/pdf/sm/C_15247_15281_annexe_Alger.pdf |year = 2008|ref={{harvid|Annex-Alger}} }}
* <!--{{sfn|Annex-Paris|2008}}--> {{cite web |language=fr |first1=Anne-Marie | last1 = Gouriou |first2=Roseline | last2=Salmon |title=Annexe du répertoire, Assemblée consultative provisoire (Paris) |trans-title=Appendix to the Directory, Provisional Consultative Assembly (Paris) |url=http://www.archivesnationales.culture.gouv.fr/chan/chan/pdf/sm/C_15247_15281_annexe_Paris.pdf |publisher=Archives nationales [National Archives] |location=Paris |year=2008 |ref={{harvid|Annex-Paris|2008}} }}
* <!--{{sfn|Hermiston|2016|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Hermiston |first=Roger |title=All Behind You, Winston – Churchill's Great Coalition, 1940–45 |year=2016 |publisher=Aurum Press |location=London |isbn=978-17-81316-64-1 }}
* Jackson, Julian''. France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944'' (Oxford UP, 2004).
* <!--{{sfn|Lloyd|2003|p=ix}}--> {{cite book |last=Lloyd |first=Christopher |title=Collaboration and Resistance in Occupied France: Representing Treason and Sacrifice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CoyDDAAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 |date=16 September 2003 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |location=Basingstoke, Hants. |isbn=978-0-230-50392-2 |oclc=69330013}}
* Paxton, Robert. ''Vichy France: Old Guard, New Order, 1940–1944'' (Knopf, 1972). [https://archive.org/details/vichyfranceoldgu00paxt_0 online]
* <!--{{sfn|Pogue|1989|p=}}-->{{cite book |last1=Pogue |first1=Forrest C. |title=The Supreme Command |date=1989 |orig-year=1954 |url=http://history.army.mil/html/books/007/7-1/CMH_Pub_7-1.pdf |series=United States Army in World War II., European Theater of Operations |id= CMH pub. 7-1 |chapter=II The Coalition Command |publisher=Center of Military History United States Army |location=Washington, D. C.|lccn=53-61717 |oclc=1013540453}}
* <!--{{sfn|Potter|Nimitz|1960|p=}}--> {{cite book |last1=Potter |first1=E.B. |last2=Nimitz |first2=Chester W. |name-list-style=amp |title=Sea Power |publisher=Prentice-Hall |year=1960 |location=Englewood Cliffs, NJ |isbn=978-0-13-796870-1}}
* <!--{{sfn|Telfer|2015|p=}}--> {{cite book |last=Telfer |first=Kevin |title=The Summer of '45 |year=2015 |publisher=Aurum Press Ltd |location=Islington |isbn=978-17-81314-35-7 }}
'''Allies'''
* Berthon, Simon. ''Allies at War: The Bitter Rivalry among Churchill, Roosevelt, and {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}''. (2001). [https://archive.org/details/alliesatwarbitte0000bert online]
* Bourque, Stephen Alan. ''Beyond the Beach: The Allied War Against France'' (Naval Institute Press, 2018).
* Dodd, Lindsey, and Andrew Knapp. "'How many Frenchmen did you kill?' British bombing policy towards France (1940–1945)" ''French History'' (2008) 22#4 pp 469–492.
* Dougherty, James. ''The Politics of Wartime Aid: American Economic Assistance to France and French Northwest Africa, 1940–1946'' (Greenwood, 1978).
* Funk, Arthur L. "Churchill, Eisenhower, and the French Resistance." ''Journal of Military History'' 45.1 (1981): 29+.
* Hurstfield, Julian G. ''America and the French Nation 1939–1945'' (U North Carolina Press, 1986). [https://archive.org/details/americafrenchna00hurs online]
* [[François Kersaudy|Kersaudy, Francois]]. ''Churchill and De Gaulle'' (2nd ed 1990) [https://archive.org/details/churchilldegaull00fran online]
* Pratt, Julius W. "De Gaulle and the United States: How the Rift Began," ''History Teacher'' (1968) 1#4 pp. 5–15 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3054237 in JSTOR]
* Rossi, Mario. ''Roosevelt and the French'' (Praeger, 1994).
* Rossi, Mario. "United States Military Authorities and Free France, 1942–1944," ''Journal of Military History'' (1997) 61#1 pp. 49–64 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2953914 in JSTOR]
'''Biographical'''
* Clayton, Anthony. ''Three Marshals of France: Leadership After Trauma'' (Brassey's, 1992) on Alphonse Juin, Jean de Lattre de Tassigny and Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque.
* [[Jonathan Fenby|Fenby, Jonathan]]. ''The General: Charles {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} and the France He Saved.'' (Simon and Schuster. 2011), popular history; [https://archive.org/details/generalcharlesde0000fenb online]
* Funk, Arthur Layton. ''Charles {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}: The Crucial Years, 1943–1944'' (1959) [https://web.archive.org/web/20110628215323/http://www.questia.com/read/58600747 online edition]
* [[Julian T. Jackson|Jackson, Julian]], ''A Certain Idea of France: The Life of Charles {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}'' (2018) 887pp; the latest biography
* Weinberg, Gerhard L. ''Visions of Victory: The Hopes of Eight World War II Leaders.'' (2005). 292 pp. chapter on {{nowrap|de Gaulle}}
'''Collaboration'''
* Hirschfeld, Gerhard, and Patrick Marsh, eds. ''Collaboration in France: Politics and Culture during the Nazi Occupation, 1940–1944'' (Berg, 1989).
* Novick, Peter. ''The Resistance versus Vichy: the Purge of Collaborators in Liberated France.'' (Columbia UP, 1968).
'''Colonial military units'''
* Jennings, Eric C. ''Free French Africa in World War II: The African Resistance.'' (Cambridge University Press, 2015) (9781107696976)
* Driss Maghraoui (2014) [The goumiers in the Second World War: history and colonial representation https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13629387.2014.948309?journalCode=fnas20], The Journal of North African Studies, 19:4, 571–586, DOI: 10.1080/13629387.2014.948309
'''Daily Life'''
* Gildea, Robert. ''Marianne in Chains: Daily Life in the Heart of France During the German Occupation'' (Metropolitan Books, 2002).
* Vinen, Richard. ''The Unfree French: Life Under the Occupation'' (Yale UP, 2006).
'''Economy'''
* Broch, Ludivine. ''Ordinary workers, Vichy and the Holocaust: French railwaymen and the Second World War'' (Cambridge UP, 2016).
* Broch, Ludivine. “Professionalism in the Final Solution: French Railway Workers and the Jewish Deportations, 1942–1944” ''Contemporary European History'' (2014) 23:3.
* Brunet, Luc-André. "The new industrial order: Vichy, steel, and the origins of the Monnet Plan, 1940–1946" (PhD. Diss. The London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE), 2014) [http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/1028/1/Brunet_The_New_Industrial_Order.pdf online].
* Imlay, Talbot C., Martin Horn, and Talbot Imlay. ''The Politics of Industrial Collaboration During World War II: Ford France, Vichy and Nazi Germany'' (Cambridge UP, 2014).
'''Germans'''
* Imlay, Talbot. "The German Side of Things: Recent Scholarship on the German Occupation of France." ''French Historical Studies'' 39.1 (2016): 183–215.
* U Laub, Thomas J. ''After the fall: German policy in occupied France, 1940–1944'' (Oxford UP, 2010).
'''Invasions'''
* [[Peter Caddick-Adams|Caddick-Adams, Peter]]. ''Sand and Steel: The D-Day Invasion and the Liberation of France'' (Oxford UP, 2019).
* Cross, Robin. ''Operation Dragoon: The Allied Liberation of the South of France: 1944'' (Pegasus Books, 2019).
* [[James Holland (author)|Holland, James]]. ''Normandy ’44: D-Day and the Epic 77-Day Battle for France. A New History'' (2019)
* Keegan, John ''Six Armies in Normandy: From D-Day to the Liberation of Paris'' (1994) [https://archive.org/details/sixarmiesinnorma00keeg online]
* Tucker-Jones, Anthony. ''Operation Dragoon: The Liberation of Southern France 1944'' (Casemate, 2010).
* Wilkins, Thomas Stow. "Analysing coalition warfare from an intra-alliance politics perspective: the Normandy campaign 1944." ''Journal of Strategic Studies'' 29#6 (2006): 1121–1150.
* Wilt, Alan F. "The Summer of 1944: A comparison of Overlord and Anvil/Dragoon." ''Journal of Strategic Studies'' 4.2 (1981): 187–195.
'''Jews and minorities'''
* Echenberg, Myron. "'Morts Pour la France'; The African Soldier in France During the Second World War." ''Journal of African History'' (1985): 363–380 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/181655 online].
* Marrus, Michael R. and Robert O. Paxton. ''Vichy France and the Jews'' (1981) [https://archive.org/details/vichyfrancejews00marr/page/n9/mode/2up online]
* Woodfork, Jacqueline. "'It Is a Crime To Be a Tirailleur in the Army': The Impact of Senegalese Civilian Status in the French Colonial Army during the Second World War." ''Journal of Military History'' 77.1 (2013).
* Zuccotti, Susan. ''The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews'' (Basic Books. 1993).
'''Regions and localities'''
* Cipko, Serge. "Sacred Ground: The Liberation of Alsace-Lorraine, 1944–1946." ''Past Imperfect'' (1994), Vol. 3, pp 159–184. [https://ejournals.library.ualberta.ca/index.php/pi/article/view/1378/923 online]
* Diamond, Hanna. "The Return of the Republic: Crowd Photography and the Liberation in Toulouse, 1944–1945." ''French Politics, Culture & Society'' 37.1 (2019): 90–116.
* Kedward, Harry Roderick. ''In Search of the Maquis: Rural Resistance in Southern France 1942–1944'' (Clarendon Press, 1993).
* Knutson, Elizabeth, and Michael MacQueen. "Regional Identity and German Policy in Alsace 1940–1944." ''Contemporary French Civilization'' 18.2 (1994): 151–166.
* Moorehead, Caroline. ''Village of secrets: defying the Nazis in Vichy France'' (Random House, 2014), a village in eastern France
* Reid, Donald. "Un village français: Imagining lives in occupied France." ''French Cultural Studies'' 30.3 (2019): 220–231.
* Sica, Emanuele. ''Mussolini's Army in the French Riviera: Italy's Occupation of France'' (U of Illinois Press, 2015). [https://www.h-france.net/vol16reviews/vol16no241varley.pdf online review]
* Smith, Jean Edward. ''The Liberation of Paris: How Eisenhower, De Gaulle, and Von Choltitz Saved the City of Light'' (Simon & Schuster), 2020.
* Zaretsky, Robert. ''Nîmes at war: religion, politics, and public opinion in the Gard, 1938–1944'' (1995) [https://archive.org/details/nimesatwarreligi0000zare online]
'''The Resistance'''
* Ehrlich, Blake. ''Resistance; France 1940–1945'' (1965) [https://archive.org/details/resistancefrance0000unse online]
* Kedward, H. R. and Roger Austin, eds. ''Vichy France and the Resistance: Culture & Ideology'' (Croom Helm, 1985).
* Kedward, H. R. ''Resistance in Vichy France: a study of ideas and motivation in the Southern Zone, 1940–1942'' (Oxford UP, 1978).
* Kedward, H. R. "Patriots and Patriotism in Vichy France." ''Transactions of the Royal Historical Society'' 32 (1982): 175–192 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3679022 online. (subscription required)]
* Kedward, H. R. "Mapping the Resistance: An Essay on Roots and Routes." ''Modern & Contemporary France'' 20.4 (2012): 491–503.
'''Women, family, gender'''
* Diamond, Hannah. ''Women and the Second World War in France 1939–1948'' (1999); argues that it was not a liberation for women.
* Dodd, Lindsey. ''French children under the Allied bombs, 1940–45: An oral history'' (Manchester UP, 2016).
* Gorrara, Claire. ''Women's Representations of the Occupation in Post-'68 France'' (Macmillan, 1998).
* Jakes, Kelly. "Songs of Our Fathers: Gender and Nationhood at the Liberation of France." ''Rhetoric & Public Affairs'' 20.3 (2017): 385–420 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.14321/rhetpublaffa.20.3.0385 online].
* Rossiter, Margaret L. ''Women in the Resistance'' (Praeger, 1986).
* Schwartz, Paula. "The politics of food and gender in occupied Paris." ''Modern & Contemporary France'' 7.1 (1999): 35–45. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/09639489908456468 online]
* Vigili, Fabrice. ''Shorn Women: Gender and Punishment in Liberation France'' (Berg, 2002).
* Weitz, Margaret Collins. ''Sisters in the Resistance: how women fought to free France, 1940–1945'' (Wiley, 1995).
* Weitz, Margaret Collins. "As I was then: Women in the French Resistance." ''Contemporary French Civilization'' 10.1 (1986): 1–19.
'''Historiography, memory and commemoration'''
* Berkvam, Michael L. ''Writing the Story of France in World War II: Literature and Memory, 1942–1958'' (University Press of the South, 2000).
* Fishman, Sarah. ''France at War: Vichy and the Historians'' (Berg Publishers, 2000).
* Footitt, Hilary. ''War and Liberation in France: Living with the Liberators'' (Springer, 2004).
* Golsan, Richard. ''Vichy's Afterlife: History and Counterhistory in Postwar France'' (U of Nebraska Press, 2000).
* Herman, Gerald, and Claude Bouygues. "The liberation of France, as reflected in philately." ''Contemporary French Civilization'' (1988) 12#1 pp 108–128.
* Kedward, H.R. and Nancy Wood, eds. ''The Liberation of France: Image and Event'' (Berg Publishers, 1995).
* Kedward, H. R. "Resisting French Resistance." ''Transactions of the Royal Historical Society'' 9 (1999): 271–282. [http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/17183/1/ResitingFrenchResistance.pdf online]
* Knapp, Andrew. "The destruction and liberation of Le Havre in modern memory." ''War in History'' 14.4 (2007): 476–498.
* Peschanski, Denis. "Legitimacy/Legitimation/Delegitimation: France in the Dark Years, a Textbook Case." ''Contemporary European History'' (2004): 409–423 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/20081230 online].
* Rousso, Henry. ''The Vichy Syndrome :History and Memory in France since 1944'' (Harvard UP, 1991).
* Wood, Nancy. "Memorial Militancy in France: 'Working-Through' or the Politics of Anachronism?" ''Patterns of Prejudice''. (1995), Vol. 29 Issue 2/3, pp 89–103.
'''Primary sources'''
* De Gaulle, Charles. ''War Memoirs: Call to Honour, 1940–1942'' (''L'Appel''). Tr. by Jonathan Griffin. Collins, London, 1955 (2 volumes). Viking Press, New York, 1955.
** De Gaulle, Charles. ''War Memoirs: Unity, 1942–1944'' (''L'Unité''). Tr. by Richard Howard (narrative) and Joyce Murchie and Hamish Erskine (documents). Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1959 (2 volumes). Simon & Schuster, New York, 1959 (2 volumes).
** De Gaulle, Charles. ''War Memoirs: Salvation, 1944–1946'' (''Le Salut''). Tr. by Richard Howard (narrative) and Joyce Murchie and Hamish Erskine (documents). Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1960 (2 volumes). Simon & Schuster, New York, 1960 (2 volumes).
*** Cairns, John C. "General {{nowrap|de Gaulle}} and the Salvation of France, 1944–46," ''Journal of Modern History'' (1960) 32#3 pp. 251–259 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1872428 in JSTOR] review of ''War Memoirs''
* Giangreco, D. M., Kathryn Moore, and Norman Polmar, eds. ''Eyewitness D-Day: Firsthand Accounts from the Landing at Normandy to the Liberation of Paris'' (2005) 260pp.
* de Tassigny, Jean de Lattre. ''The History of the French 1st Army'' (Translated by Malcolm Barnes) (G. Allen and Unwin, 1952).
==External links== <!-- See [[WP:EL]] -->
{{commons category|Liberation of France}}
{{Wikisourcelang|fr|L’Affiche de Londres|De Gaulle's appeal from London}} <!-- use this for French wikisource -->
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[[Category:1940 in France]]
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[[Category:1943 in France]]
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[[Category:Antisemitism in France]]
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[[Category:Vichy France]]
[[Category:Charles de Gaulle in World War II]]' |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html ) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Successful attempt to liberate France from Nazi occupation</div>
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack stack-clear-right"><div><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Liberation of France</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Western Front (World War II)">Western Front</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:HD-SN-99-02715.JPEG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/HD-SN-99-02715.JPEG/250px-HD-SN-99-02715.JPEG" decoding="async" width="250" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/HD-SN-99-02715.JPEG/375px-HD-SN-99-02715.JPEG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/HD-SN-99-02715.JPEG/500px-HD-SN-99-02715.JPEG 2x" data-file-width="2809" data-file-height="2793" /></a></span><br />Resistance leader <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a> speaking from the balcony at <a href="/wiki/Cherbourg" title="Cherbourg">Cherbourg</a> City Hall, 20 August 1944</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>6 June 1944 – 8 May 1945<br />(11 months and 2 days)</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status">
<p>Allied Victory
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_advance_from_Paris_to_the_Rhine" class="mw-redirect" title="Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine">Germans expelled from France</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government</a> established</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy</a> regime <a href="/wiki/Sigmaringen_enclave" title="Sigmaringen enclave">fled into exile</a></li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;">
<p><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France"><img alt="Free France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">French Resistance</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(until 1944)</span>
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maquis_(World_War_II)" title="Maquis (World War II)">Maquis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_Central_de_Renseignements_et_d%27Action" title="Bureau Central de Renseignements et d'Action">BCRA</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_the_Resistance" title="National Council of the Resistance">NCR</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Francs-Tireurs_et_Partisans" title="Francs-Tireurs et Partisans">FTP</a></li></ul>
<span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France"><img alt="Free France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/French_Forces_of_the_Interior" title="French Forces of the Interior">FFI</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(since 1944)</span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">PGFR</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(since 1944)</span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a><br /> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="256" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> <br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland"><img alt="Poland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Flag_of_Poland_%281927%E2%80%931980%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland_%281927%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Flag_of_Poland_%281927%E2%80%931980%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland_%281927%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Flag_of_Poland_%281927%E2%80%931980%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland_%281927%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces_in_the_West" title="Polish Armed Forces in the West">Poland</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em">
<span class="datasortkey" data-sort-value="Germany"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a></span> <br /> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/War_flag_of_the_Italian_Social_Republic.svg/23px-War_flag_of_the_Italian_Social_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/War_flag_of_the_Italian_Social_Republic.svg/35px-War_flag_of_the_Italian_Social_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/War_flag_of_the_Italian_Social_Republic.svg/45px-War_flag_of_the_Italian_Social_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Littlejohn_1987_169_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Littlejohn_1987_169-2">[2]</a></sup></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;">
<span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/George_S._Patton" title="George S. Patton">George S. Patton</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Montgomery" title="Bernard Montgomery">Bernard Montgomery</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Miles_Dempsey" title="Miles Dempsey">Miles Dempsey</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada"><img alt="Canada" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="256" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Harry_Crerar" title="Harry Crerar">Harry Crerar</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada"><img alt="Canada" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="256" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Guy_Simonds" title="Guy Simonds">Guy Simonds</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic"><img alt="Provisional Government of the French Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic"><img alt="Provisional Government of the French Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931974%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Lattre_de_Tassigny" title="Jean de Lattre de Tassigny">Jean de Lattre de Tassigny</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland"><img alt="Poland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Flag_of_Poland_%281927%E2%80%931980%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland_%281927%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Flag_of_Poland_%281927%E2%80%931980%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland_%281927%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Flag_of_Poland_%281927%E2%80%931980%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland_%281927%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Maczek" title="Stanisław Maczek">Stanisław Maczek</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland"><img alt="Poland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Flag_of_Poland_%281927%E2%80%931980%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland_%281927%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Flag_of_Poland_%281927%E2%80%931980%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland_%281927%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Flag_of_Poland_%281927%E2%80%931980%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland_%281927%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kazimierz_Sosnkowski" title="Kazimierz Sosnkowski">Kazimierz Sosnkowski</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em">
<span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany"><img alt="Nazi Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany"><img alt="Nazi Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Gerd_von_Rundstedt" title="Gerd von Rundstedt">Gerd von Rundstedt</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany"><img alt="Nazi Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Rommel" title="Erwin Rommel">Erwin Rommel</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic"><img alt="Italian Social Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/War_flag_of_the_Italian_Social_Republic.svg/23px-War_flag_of_the_Italian_Social_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/War_flag_of_the_Italian_Social_Republic.svg/35px-War_flag_of_the_Italian_Social_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/War_flag_of_the_Italian_Social_Republic.svg/45px-War_flag_of_the_Italian_Social_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Rodolfo_Graziani" title="Rodolfo Graziani">Rodolfo Graziani</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlingbeil2005380_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlingbeil2005380-3">[3]</a></sup><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Philippe_P%C3%A9tain" title="Philippe Pétain">Philippe Pétain</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Darnand" title="Joseph Darnand">Joseph Darnand</a></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output 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transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Free_French" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Free French"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Free_French_campaigns" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free French</a> campaigns</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<dl><dt>Africa & Middle East</dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dakar" title="Battle of Dakar">Dakar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gabon" title="Battle of Gabon">Gabon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Keren" title="Battle of Keren">Keren</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_campaign" title="Syria–Lebanon campaign"><i>Exporter</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Kufra" title="Capture of Kufra">Kufra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bir_Hakeim" title="Battle of Bir Hakeim">Bir Hakeim</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Run_for_Tunis" title="Run for Tunis">Run for Tunis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch"><i>Torch</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_campaign" title="Tunisian campaign">Tunisia</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt>Europe</dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Normandie-Niemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Normandie-Niemen">Eastern Front</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily"><i>Husky</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Italian_occupation_of_Corsica#Operation_Vésuve" title="Italian occupation of Corsica">Corsica</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Cassino" title="Battle of Monte Cassino">Monte Cassino</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maquis_des_Gli%C3%A8res" title="Maquis des Glières">Glières</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ist" title="Battle of Ist">Ist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maquis_du_Mont_Mouchet" title="Maquis du Mont Mouchet">Mont Mouchet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord"><i>Overlord</i></a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris" title="Liberation of Paris">Paris</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Elba" title="Invasion of Elba">Elba</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maquis_de_Saint-Marcel" title="Maquis de Saint-Marcel">Saint-Marcel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vercors" title="Battle of Vercors">Vercors</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon"><i>Dragoon</i></a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Toulon_(1944)" title="Battle of Toulon (1944)">Toulon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marseille" title="Battle of Marseille">Marseilles</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lorraine_campaign" title="Lorraine campaign">Lorraine</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dompaire" title="Battle of Dompaire">Dompaire</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Strasbourg" title="Liberation of Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Northwind_(1944)" title="Operation Northwind (1944)"><i>Nordwind</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Colmar_Pocket" title="Colmar Pocket">Colmar Pocket</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Alps" title="Second Battle of the Alps">Alps</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt>Indian Ocean & Asia</dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_R%C3%A9union" title="Battle of Réunion">Réunion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crimson" title="Operation Crimson"><i>Crimson</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_in_French_Indochina" title="Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina">Indochina</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt>North America</dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon" title="Capture of Saint Pierre and Miquelon">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Western_Front_ofWorld_War_II" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Western_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Template:Campaignbox Western Front (World War II)"><abbr title="View this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Western_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Western Front (World War II)"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Western_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Western Front (World War II)"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Western_Front_ofWorld_War_II" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Western Front (World War II)">Western Front of<br />World War II</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><b><a href="/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a></b>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_River_Forth" title="Battle of the River Forth">River Forth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saar_Offensive" title="Saar Offensive">Saar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Heligoland_Bight_(1939)" title="Battle of the Heligoland Bight (1939)">The Heligoland Bight</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Operation_Wikinger" title="Operation Wikinger">Wikinger</a></i></li></ul>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Luxembourg" title="German invasion of Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></b>
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Schuster_Line" title="Schuster Line">Schuster Line</a></li></ul>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_the_Netherlands" title="German invasion of the Netherlands">The Netherlands</a></b>
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maastricht" title="Battle of Maastricht">Maastricht</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mill" title="Battle of Mill">Mill</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_for_The_Hague" title="Battle for The Hague">The Hague</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rotterdam" title="Battle of Rotterdam">Rotterdam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zeeland" title="Battle of Zeeland">Zeeland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Grebbeberg" title="Battle of the Grebbeberg">The Grebbeberg</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Afsluitdijk" title="Battle of the Afsluitdijk">Afsluitdijk</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_bombing_of_Rotterdam" title="German bombing of Rotterdam">Rotterdam Blitz</a></li></ul>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Belgium_(1940)" title="German invasion of Belgium (1940)">Belgium</a></b>
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Eben-Emael" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Fort Eben-Emael">Fort Eben-Emael</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hannut" title="Battle of Hannut">Hannut</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operation_David" title="Operation David"><i>David</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gembloux_(1940)" title="Battle of Gembloux (1940)">Gembloux</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lys_(1940)" title="Battle of the Lys (1940)">La Lys</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Ypres%E2%80%93Comines_Canal" title="Battle of the Ypres–Comines Canal">Ypres–Comines Canal</a></li></ul>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">France</a></b>
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sedan_(1940)" title="Battle of Sedan (1940)">Sedan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Montcornet" title="Battle of Montcornet">Montcornet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Saumur_(1940)" title="Battle of Saumur (1940)">Saumur</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arras_(1940)" title="Battle of Arras (1940)">Arras</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Boulogne" title="Battle of Boulogne">Boulogne</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Calais_(1940)" title="Siege of Calais (1940)">Calais</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dunkirk" title="Battle of Dunkirk">Dunkirk</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dunkirk_evacuation" title="Dunkirk evacuation"><i>Dynamo</i></a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Abbeville" title="Battle of Abbeville">Abbeville</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Lille_(1940)" title="Siege of Lille (1940)">Lille</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Paula" title="Operation Paula"><i>Paula</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_France" title="Italian invasion of France">1st Alps</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haddock_Force" title="Haddock Force">Haddock Force</a></li></ul></li></ul>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Britain</a></b>
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kanalkampf" title="Kanalkampf">Kanalkampf</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Adlertag" title="Adlertag">Adlertag</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/The_Hardest_Day" title="The Hardest Day">The Hardest Day</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain_Day" title="Battle of Britain Day">Battle of Britain Day</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Sea_Lion" title="Operation Sea Lion"><i>Sea Lion</i></a></li></ul>
<p><b>1941–1943</b>
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Channel_Dash" title="Channel Dash"><i>Cerberus</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Donnerkeil" title="Operation Donnerkeil"><i>Donnerkeil</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baedeker_Blitz" title="Baedeker Blitz">Baedeker Blitz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Commando_raids_on_the_Atlantic_Wall" title="List of Commando raids on the Atlantic Wall">Commando Raids</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/St_Nazaire_Raid" title="St Nazaire Raid">St Nazaire Raid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dieppe_Raid" title="Dieppe Raid">Dieppe Raid</a></li></ul></li></ul>
<p><b>1944–1945</b>
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Steinbock" title="Operation Steinbock">Baby Blitz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord"><i>Overlord</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Chastity" title="Operation Chastity"><i>Chastity</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon"><i>Dragoon</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Siegfried_Line_campaign" title="Siegfried Line campaign">Siegfried Line</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_in_World_War_II#The_final_year" title="Netherlands in World War II">Netherlands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Market_Garden" title="Operation Market Garden"><i>Market Garden</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_H%C3%BCrtgen_Forest" title="Battle of Hürtgen Forest">Hürtgen Forest</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aachen" title="Battle of Aachen">Aachen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Queen" title="Operation Queen"><i>Queen</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Scheldt" title="Battle of the Scheldt">Scheldt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge" title="Battle of the Bulge">Bulge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Northwind_(1944)" title="Operation Northwind (1944)"><i>Nordwind</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Alps" title="Second Battle of the Alps">2nd Alps</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Colmar_Pocket" title="Colmar Pocket">Colmar Pocket</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_pockets" title="Atlantic pockets">Atlantic Pockets</a></li></ul>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Western_Allied_invasion_of_Germany" title="Western Allied invasion of Germany">Germany</a></b>
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Blackcock" title="Operation Blackcock"><i>Blackcock</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Veritable" title="Operation Veritable"><i>Veritable</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Grenade" title="Operation Grenade"><i>Grenade</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Blockbuster" title="Operation Blockbuster"><i>Blockbuster</i></a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Operation_Lumberjack" title="Operation Lumberjack">Lumberjack</a></i>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Remagen" title="Battle of Remagen">Remagen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cologne_(1945)" title="Battle of Cologne (1945)">Cologne</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Gisela" title="Operation Gisela"><i>Gisela</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Undertone" title="Operation Undertone"><i>Undertone</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Plunder" title="Operation Plunder"><i>Plunder</i></a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Varsity" title="Operation Varsity"><i>Varsity</i></a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Paderborn_(1945)" title="Battle of Paderborn (1945)">Paderborn</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ruhr_Pocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Ruhr Pocket">Ruhr</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Task_Force_Baum" title="Task Force Baum">TF Baum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Frankfurt" title="Battle of Frankfurt">Frankfurt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_W%C3%BCrzburg_(1945)" title="Battle of Würzburg (1945)">Würzburg</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kassel_(1945)" title="Battle of Kassel (1945)">Kassel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Heilbronn_(1945)" title="Battle of Heilbronn (1945)">Heilbronn</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nuremberg_(1945)" title="Battle of Nuremberg (1945)">Nuremberg</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Hamburg" title="Capture of Hamburg">Hamburg</a></li></ul>
<p><b>Strategic campaigns</b>
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Blitz" title="The Blitz">The Blitz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Defence_of_the_Reich" title="Defence of the Reich">Defence of the Reich</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II" title="Strategic bombing during World War II">Strategic Bombing Campaign</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Commando_raids_on_the_Atlantic_Wall" title="List of Commando raids on the Atlantic Wall">Raids on the Atlantic Wall</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Battle of Atlantic</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div>
<p>The <b>liberation of France</b> (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">libération de la France</i>) in the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a> was accomplished through diplomacy, politics and the combined military efforts of the <a href="/wiki/Allied_Powers_of_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Allied Powers of World War II">Allied Powers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Free_French_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Free French forces">Free French forces</a> in London and Africa, as well as the <a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">French Resistance</a>.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">Nazi Germany invaded France</a> in May 1940. Their rapid advance through the undefended Ardennes caused a crisis in the French government; the <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">French Third Republic</a> dissolved itself in July, and handed over <a href="/wiki/French_Constitutional_Law_of_1940" title="French Constitutional Law of 1940">absolute power</a> to Marshal <a href="/wiki/Philippe_P%C3%A9tain" title="Philippe Pétain">Philippe Pétain</a>, an elderly hero of World War I. Pétain signed an <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_22_June_1940" title="Armistice of 22 June 1940">armistice with Germany</a> with the north and west of France under <a href="/wiki/German_military_administration_in_occupied_France_during_World_War_II" title="German military administration in occupied France during World War II">German military occupation</a>. Pétain, charged with calling a Constitutional Authority, instead established an authoritarian government in the spa town of <a href="/wiki/Vichy" title="Vichy">Vichy</a>, in the southern <i><a href="/wiki/Zone_libre" title="Zone libre">zone libre</a></i> ("free zone"). Though nominally independent, <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a> became a <a href="/wiki/Collaboration_with_Nazi_Germany_and_Fascist_Italy" title="Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy">collaborationist regime</a> and was little more than a Nazi <a href="/wiki/Client_state" title="Client state">client state</a> that actively participated in <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_trains" title="Holocaust trains">Jewish deportations</a>.
</p><p>Even before France surrendered on 22 June 1940, General <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a> fled to London, from where he <a href="/wiki/Appeal_of_18_June" title="Appeal of 18 June">called on his fellow citizens</a> to resist the Germans. The British recognized and funded <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle's</span> <a href="/wiki/Free_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Free French">Free French</a> <a href="/wiki/Government_in_exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Government in exile">government in exile</a> based in London. Efforts to liberate France began in the autumn of 1940 in <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">France's colonial empire</a> in Africa, still in the hands of the Vichy regime. General <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span> persuaded <a href="/wiki/French_Chad" title="French Chad">French Chad</a> to support Free France, and by 1943 most other French colonies in <a href="/wiki/French_Equatorial_Africa" title="French Equatorial Africa">Equatorial</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> had followed suit. <span class="nowrap">De Gaulle</span> announced formation of the <a href="/wiki/Empire_Defense_Council" title="Empire Defense Council">Empire Defense Council</a> in <a href="/wiki/Brazzaville" title="Brazzaville">Brazzaville</a>, which became the capital of <a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a>.
</p><p>Allied military efforts in north western Europe began in summer 1944 with two seaborne invasions of France. <a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Operation Overlord</a> in June 1944 landed two million men, including a French armoured division, through the <a href="/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">beaches of Normandy</a>, opening a <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Western Front (World War II)">Western front</a> against Germany. <a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon">Operation Dragoon</a> in August launched a second offensive force, including <a href="/wiki/French_Army_B" class="mw-redirect" title="French Army B">French Army B</a>, from the <i><a href="/wiki/Departments_of_France" title="Departments of France">département</a></i> of Algeria into southern France. City after city in France was liberated, and even <a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris" title="Liberation of Paris">Paris was liberated</a> on 25 August 1944. As the liberation progressed, resistance groups were incorporated into the Allied strength. In September, under threat of the Allied advance Pétain and the remains of the Vichy regime <a href="/wiki/Sigmaringen_enclave" title="Sigmaringen enclave">fled into exile in Germany</a>. The Allied armies continued to push the Germans back <a href="/wiki/Allied_advance_from_Paris_to_the_Rhine" class="mw-redirect" title="Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine">through eastern France</a> and in February and March 1945, back across the Rhine into Germany. A few <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_pockets" title="Atlantic pockets">pockets of German resistance</a> remained in control of the main Atlantic ports until the <a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="End of World War II in Europe">end of the war</a> on 8 May 1945.
</p><p>Immediately after liberation, France was swept by a <a href="/wiki/%C3%89puration_sauvage" class="mw-redirect" title="Épuration sauvage">wave of executions, assaults, and degradation</a> of suspected collaborators, including shaming of women suspected of <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_collaboration" title="Horizontal collaboration">relationships with Germans</a>. Courts set up in June 1944 carried out an <i><a href="/wiki/%C3%89puration_l%C3%A9gale" title="Épuration légale">épuration légale</a></i> (official purge) of officials tainted by association with Vichy or the military occupation. Some defendants received death sentences, and faced a firing squad. The first elections since 1940 were organized in May 1945 by the <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government</a>; these municipal elections were the first in which women could vote. In referendums in October 1946, the voters approved a <a href="/wiki/French_Constitution_of_27_October_1946" title="French Constitution of 27 October 1946">new constitution</a> and the <a href="/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">Fourth Republic</a> was born 27 October 1946.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Background"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Background</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Fall_of_France"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Fall of France</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Armistice"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Armistice</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#De_Gaulle_and_Free_France"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">De Gaulle and Free France</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#French_Resistance"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">French Resistance</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#French_colonial_empire"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">French colonial empire</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Diplomacy,_politics,_and_administration"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Diplomacy, politics, and administration</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Diplomacy_and_politics"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Diplomacy and politics</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Appeal_of_18_June"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Appeal of 18 June</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Northern_Africa"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Northern Africa</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Free_French_Administration"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Free French Administration</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#Empire_Defense_Council"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Empire Defense Council</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#French_National_Committee"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">French National Committee</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><a href="#National_Resistance_Council"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">National Resistance Council</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><a href="#French_Civil_and_Military_High_Command"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.4</span> <span class="toctext">French Civil and Military High Command</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><a href="#French_Committee_of_National_Liberation"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.5</span> <span class="toctext">French Committee of National Liberation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-17"><a href="#Provisional_Consultative_Assembly"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.6</span> <span class="toctext">Provisional Consultative Assembly</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-18"><a href="#Provisional_Government"><span class="tocnumber">2.2.7</span> <span class="toctext">Provisional Government</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Military_forces"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Military forces</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Introduction"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Introduction</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Free_French_Forces"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Free French Forces</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Colonial_African_forces"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Colonial African forces</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Intelligence"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Intelligence</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Allied_forces"><span class="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">Allied forces</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#French_Forces_of_the_Interior"><span class="tocnumber">3.6</span> <span class="toctext">French Forces of the Interior</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-26"><a href="#Escape_lines"><span class="tocnumber">3.6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Escape lines</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-27"><a href="#Premature_activation"><span class="tocnumber">3.6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Premature activation</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#Allied_military_policy"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Allied military policy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#Campaigns"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Campaigns</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Gabon_–_November_1940"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Gabon – November 1940</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><a href="#North_Africa_–_November_1942"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">North Africa – November 1942</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-32"><a href="#Torch"><span class="tocnumber">5.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Torch</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-33"><a href="#Tunisian_campaign"><span class="tocnumber">5.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Tunisian campaign</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><a href="#Corsica_–_1943"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Corsica – 1943</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="#Battle_of_Normandy_–_June_1944"><span class="tocnumber">5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Battle of Normandy – June 1944</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36"><a href="#Paris_–_August_1944"><span class="tocnumber">5.5</span> <span class="toctext">Paris – August 1944</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-37"><a href="#Uprising_–_15_August"><span class="tocnumber">5.5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Uprising – 15 August</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-38"><a href="#Allied_arrival_–_24–25_August"><span class="tocnumber">5.5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Allied arrival – 24–25 August</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-39"><a href="#German_surrender_–_25_August"><span class="tocnumber">5.5.3</span> <span class="toctext">German surrender – 25 August</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-40"><a href="#Southern_France_–_August_1944"><span class="tocnumber">5.6</span> <span class="toctext">Southern France – August 1944</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-41"><a href="#Planning_and_goals"><span class="tocnumber">5.6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Planning and goals</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-42"><a href="#Eastern_France_–_Autumn_1944"><span class="tocnumber">5.7</span> <span class="toctext">Eastern France – Autumn 1944</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-43"><a href="#Pockets_of_German_resistance_–_to_May_1945"><span class="tocnumber">5.8</span> <span class="toctext">Pockets of German resistance – to May 1945</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-44"><a href="#Victory_–_7_May_1945"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Victory – 7 May 1945</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-45"><a href="#Aftermath"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Aftermath</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-46"><a href="#End_of_Vichy"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">End of Vichy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-47"><a href="#Justice_and_retribution"><span class="tocnumber">7.2</span> <span class="toctext">Justice and retribution</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-48"><a href="#Extrajudicial_purges"><span class="tocnumber">7.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Extrajudicial purges</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-49"><a href="#Legal_purge"><span class="tocnumber">7.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Legal purge</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-50"><a href="#Elections_of_May_1945"><span class="tocnumber">7.3</span> <span class="toctext">Elections of May 1945</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-51"><a href="#Election_context"><span class="tocnumber">7.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Election context</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-52"><a href="#Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic"><span class="tocnumber">7.4</span> <span class="toctext">Provisional Government of the French Republic</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-53"><a href="#Fourth_Republic"><span class="tocnumber">7.5</span> <span class="toctext">Fourth Republic</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-54"><a href="#Impact"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Impact</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-55"><a href="#Demographic"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Demographic</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-56"><a href="#Economic"><span class="tocnumber">8.2</span> <span class="toctext">Economic</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-57"><a href="#Judicial"><span class="tocnumber">8.3</span> <span class="toctext">Judicial</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-58"><a href="#Historiographical"><span class="tocnumber">8.4</span> <span class="toctext">Historiographical</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-59"><a href="#Social_and_cultural"><span class="tocnumber">8.5</span> <span class="toctext">Social and cultural</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-60"><a href="#Political"><span class="tocnumber">8.6</span> <span class="toctext">Political</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-61"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-62"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-63"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-64"><a href="#Works_cited"><span class="tocnumber">11.1</span> <span class="toctext">Works cited</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-65"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-66"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Background">Background</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section's source code: Background"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Fall_of_France">Fall of France</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section's source code: Fall of France"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">Battle of France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a></div>
<p>Nazi Germany <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_France_(Nazi_Germany)" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of France (Nazi Germany)">invaded France and the Low Countries</a> beginning on 10 May 1940. German forces split the French from their British allies by striking through the lightly defended <a href="/wiki/Ardennes" title="Ardennes">Ardennes</a>, whose topography French strategists had considered prohibitively difficult for tanks.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1034237262"><div class="stack mw-stack stack-right"><div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vichy_France_Map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Vichy_France_Map.jpg/290px-Vichy_France_Map.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Vichy_France_Map.jpg/435px-Vichy_France_Map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Vichy_France_Map.jpg/580px-Vichy_France_Map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2442" data-file-height="2589" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_France_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="German occupation of France during World War II">Occupied France</a> during World War II, showing German and <a href="/wiki/Italian_occupation_of_France_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian occupation of France during World War II">Italian occupation zones</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Zone_occup%C3%A9e" class="mw-redirect" title="Zone occupée">zone occupée</a></i>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Zone_libre" title="Zone libre">zone libre</a></i>, the <a href="/wiki/Military_Administration_in_Belgium_and_Northern_France" title="Military Administration in Belgium and Northern France">Military Administration in Belgium and Northern France</a>, annexed <a href="/wiki/Alsace-Lorraine#World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Alsace-Lorraine">Alsace-Lorraine</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Zone_interdite" title="Zone interdite">zone interdite</a></i>, and the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Wall" title="Atlantic Wall">Atlantic Wall</a>.</figcaption></figure></div></div>
<p>The invaders forced the <a href="/wiki/British_Expeditionary_Force_(World_War_II)" title="British Expeditionary Force (World War II)">British Expeditionary Force</a> to evacuate, and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Lille_(1940)" title="Siege of Lille (1940)">defeated several French divisions</a> before they advanced to Paris, and down the strategic Atlantic coast. By June, the dire French military situation had French politics revolving around whether the Third Republic should negotiate an armistice, fight on from North Africa, or just surrender.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2001121–126_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2001121–126-4">[4]</a></sup> Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Paul_Reynaud" title="Paul Reynaud">Paul Reynaud</a> wanted to keep fighting, but was outvoted and resigned.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> The government relocated several times ahead of advancing German troops, ending up in Bordeaux. President <a href="/wiki/Albert_Lebrun" title="Albert Lebrun">Albert Lebrun</a> appointed 84-year-old war hero <a href="/wiki/Philippe_P%C3%A9tain" title="Philippe Pétain">Philippe Pétain</a> as his replacement on 16 June 1940.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoissoneault2017_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoissoneault2017-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p>Within six weeks of the initial German assault, an overwhelmed French military faced imminent defeat. The cabinet agreed to seek peace terms and sent the Germans a delegation under General <a href="/wiki/Charles_Huntziger" title="Charles Huntziger">Charles Huntziger</a>, with instructions to break off negotiations if the Germans demanded excessively harsh conditions such as the occupation of all of metropolitan France, the French fleet, or any of the French overseas territories. The Germans did not, however.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESinger2008111_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESinger2008111-7">[7]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Laval" title="Pierre Laval">Pierre Laval</a>, a strong proponent of collaboration, arranged a meeting between Hitler and Pétain. It took place on 24 October 1940 at <a href="/wiki/Montoire" class="mw-redirect" title="Montoire">Montoire</a> on Hitler's private train. Pétain and Hitler shook hands and agreed to co-operate. The meeting was exploited in <a href="/wiki/Nazi_propaganda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi propaganda">Nazi propaganda</a> for the civilian population. On 30 October 1940, Pétain made a policy of French collaboration official, declaring in a radio statement: "I enter today on the path of collaboration."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[a]</a></sup>
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1034237262"><div class="stack mw-stack stack-right"><div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H25217,_Henry_Philippe_Petain_und_Adolf_Hitler.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H25217%2C_Henry_Philippe_Petain_und_Adolf_Hitler.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H25217%2C_Henry_Philippe_Petain_und_Adolf_Hitler.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H25217%2C_Henry_Philippe_Petain_und_Adolf_Hitler.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H25217%2C_Henry_Philippe_Petain_und_Adolf_Hitler.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H25217%2C_Henry_Philippe_Petain_und_Adolf_Hitler.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H25217%2C_Henry_Philippe_Petain_und_Adolf_Hitler.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="530" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Philippe_P%C3%A9tain" title="Philippe Pétain">Philippe Pétain</a> meeting <a href="/wiki/Hitler" class="mw-redirect" title="Hitler">Hitler</a> on 24 October 1940. <a href="/wiki/Ribbentrop" class="mw-redirect" title="Ribbentrop">Ribbentrop</a> on the right.</figcaption></figure></div></div><p>
General <span class="nowrap">De Gaulle</span>, sentenced to death <i><a href="/wiki/Trial_in_absentia" title="Trial in absentia">in absentia</a></i> by the <a href="/wiki/Vichy_r%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Vichy régime">Vichy régime</a>, escaped and created a government in exile for Free France in London. Of the sentence, he said: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1211633275">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"I consider the death sentence by the men of Vichy entirely void, I shall settle accounts with them after victory. The sentence is that of a court largely under the influence and possibly under the direct orders of an enemy who will one day be driven from the soil of France. Then I will submit myself willingly to the people's judgment."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[9]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Armistice">Armistice</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section's source code: Armistice"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Pétain signed the <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_22_June_1940" title="Armistice of 22 June 1940">Armistice of 22 June</a>. Its terms left the <a href="/wiki/French_Army" title="French Army">French Army</a> under Vichy France a rump <a href="/wiki/Armistice_Army" title="Armistice Army">Armistice Army</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[b]</a></sup> The naval fleet, although disabled, remained under Vichy control. In the colonial empire, the armistice terms permitted defensive use of the naval fleet. In metropolitan France, forces were severely reduced, armored vehicles and tanks prohibited, and motorized transport severely limited.
</p><p>In July, the <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(France)" title="National Assembly (France)">National Assembly</a> of the <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">French Third Republic</a> dissolved itself and <a href="/wiki/French_Constitutional_Law_of_1940" title="French Constitutional Law of 1940">gave absolute power to Pétain</a>, who was to set up a <a href="/wiki/Constituent_assembly" title="Constituent assembly">constituent assembly</a> and constitutional referendum. The "French State" created by this transfer of power was commonly known after the war as the "Vichy régime". Pétain did nothing about a constitution however, and established a totalitarian government at <a href="/wiki/Vichy" title="Vichy">Vichy</a> in the southern zone.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[10]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Vichy régime nominally governed all of France, but in practice the <i><a href="/wiki/Zone_occup%C3%A9e" class="mw-redirect" title="Zone occupée">zone occupée</a></i> was a Nazi dictatorship and the Vichy government's power was limited and uncertain even in the <i><a href="/wiki/Zone_libre" title="Zone libre">zone libre</a></i>. Vichy France became a <a href="/wiki/Collaboration_with_Nazi_Germany_and_Fascist_Italy" title="Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy">collaborationist regime</a>, little more than a Nazi <a href="/wiki/Client_state" title="Client state">client state</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-JVL_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JVL-13">[11]</a></sup>
</p><p>France was still nominally independent, with control of the <a href="/wiki/French_Navy" title="French Navy">French Navy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonial empire</a>, and the southern half of its metropolitan territory.<sup id="cite_ref-JVL_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JVL-13">[11]</a></sup> France could tell itself that it still retained some shreds of dignity. Despite heavy pressure, Vichy never joined the <a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis</a> alliance and remained formally at war with Germany.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Allies took the position that France should refrain from actively helping the Germans, but distrusted its assurances. The British attacked the <a href="/wiki/French_Navy" title="French Navy">French Navy</a> at anchor in <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Mers-el-K%C3%A9bir" title="Attack on Mers-el-Kébir">Mers-el-Kébir</a>, to keep it out of German hands.
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="De_Gaulle_and_Free_France">De Gaulle and Free France</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section's source code: De Gaulle and Free France"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:De_Gaulle_-_%C3%A0_tous_les_Fran%C3%A7ais.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/De_Gaulle_-_%C3%A0_tous_les_Fran%C3%A7ais.jpg/220px-De_Gaulle_-_%C3%A0_tous_les_Fran%C3%A7ais.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/De_Gaulle_-_%C3%A0_tous_les_Fran%C3%A7ais.jpg/330px-De_Gaulle_-_%C3%A0_tous_les_Fran%C3%A7ais.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/De_Gaulle_-_%C3%A0_tous_les_Fran%C3%A7ais.jpg/440px-De_Gaulle_-_%C3%A0_tous_les_Fran%C3%A7ais.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1180" data-file-height="1572" /></a><figcaption>Poster of the <a href="/wiki/Appeal_of_18_June" title="Appeal of 18 June">18 June appeal</a> distributed in <a href="/wiki/Occupied_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupied France">Occupied France</a> through <a href="/wiki/Clandestine_press_of_the_French_Resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Clandestine press of the French Resistance">underground means</a> as pamphlets and plastered on walls as posters by supporters of the <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9sistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Résistance">Résistance</a>.</figcaption></figure>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle#Second_World_War:_leader_of_the_Free_French_in_exile" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle § Second World War: leader of the Free French in exile</a></div>
<p>Charles <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span> had been since 5 June the Under-Secretary of State for National Defence and War and responsible for coordination with Britain. Refusing to accept his government's position on Germany, he escaped back to England on 17 June. In London he established a government in exile and in a series of radio appeals exhorted the French to fight back. Some historians have called the first, his <a href="/wiki/Appeal_of_18_June" title="Appeal of 18 June">appeal of 18 June</a> on the BBC, the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">French Resistance</a>. In fact the audience for that appeal was quite small, but more and more listened as de Gaulle obtained Britain's recognition as the legitimate government of <a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a> and obtained their agreement to finance a military efforts against Nazi Germany.
</p><p><span class="nowrap">De Gaulle</span> also tried, in vain initially, to gain the support of French forces in the French colonial empire. General <a href="/wiki/Charles_Nogu%C3%A8s" title="Charles Noguès">Charles Noguès</a>, Resident-General in Morocco and Commander-in-Chief of the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_Africa_(France)" title="Army of Africa (France)">Army of Africa</a> refused his overtures, and forbade the press in <a href="/wiki/French_North_Africa" title="French North Africa">French North Africa</a> to publish the text of <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span>'s appeal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacouture1993229–230_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELacouture1993229–230-14">[12]</a></sup> The day after the armistice was signed on 21 June 1940, <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span> denounced it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacouture1993236_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELacouture1993236-15">[13]</a></sup> The French government in Bordeaux declared <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span> compulsorily retired from the Army with the rank of colonel, on 23 June 1940.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacouture1993243–244_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELacouture1993243–244-16">[14]</a></sup> Also on 23 June, the British Government denounced the armistice and announced that they no longer regarded the Bordeaux government as a fully independent state. They also noted a plan to establish a <a href="/wiki/French_National_Committee" title="French National Committee">French National Committee</a> in exile, but did not mention <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span> by name.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacouture1993236–237_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELacouture1993236–237-17">[15]</a></sup>
</p><p>The armistice took effect starting at 00:35 on 25 June.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacouture1993236_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELacouture1993236-15">[13]</a></sup> On 26 June <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span> wrote to Churchill about recognition for his French Committee.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacouture1993208_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELacouture1993208-18">[16]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Office">Foreign Office</a> had reservations about de Gaulle as a leader, but Churchill's envoys had tried and failed to establish contact with French leaders in North Africa, so on 28 June, the British government recognized <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span> as the leader of the <a href="/wiki/Free_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Free French">Free French</a>, despite the FO's reservations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacouture1993243_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELacouture1993243-19">[17]</a></sup>
</p><p><span class="nowrap">De Gaulle</span> also initially had little success in attracting the support of major powers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacouture1993239_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELacouture1993239-20">[18]</a></sup> While Pétain's government was recognized by the US, the USSR, and the Vatican, and controlled the French fleet and military in all the colonies, <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span>'s retinue consisted of a secretary, three colonels, a dozen captains, a law professor, and three battalions of <a href="/wiki/French_Foreign_Legion" title="French Foreign Legion">legionnaires</a> who had agreed to stay in Britain and fight for him. For a time the <a href="/wiki/New_Hebrides" title="New Hebrides">New Hebrides</a> were the only French colony to back <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacouture1993244_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELacouture1993244-21">[19]</a></sup>
</p><p><span class="nowrap">De Gaulle</span> and Churchill reached agreement on 7 August 1940 that Britain would also fund the <a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free French</a>, with the costs to be settled after the war (the financial agreement was finalized in March 1941). A separate letter guaranteed the territorial integrity of the French colonial empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacouture1993261_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELacouture1993261-22">[20]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="French_Resistance">French Resistance</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section's source code: French Resistance"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">French Resistance</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Appeal_of_18_June" title="Appeal of 18 June">Appeal of 18 June</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radio_Londres" title="Radio Londres">Radio Londres</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Clandestine_press_of_the_French_Resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Clandestine press of the French Resistance">Clandestine press of the French Resistance</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eisenhower_%26_Bradley_with_a_member_of_the_French_Resistance_in_Normandy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Eisenhower_%26_Bradley_with_a_member_of_the_French_Resistance_in_Normandy.jpg/220px-Eisenhower_%26_Bradley_with_a_member_of_the_French_Resistance_in_Normandy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Eisenhower_%26_Bradley_with_a_member_of_the_French_Resistance_in_Normandy.jpg/330px-Eisenhower_%26_Bradley_with_a_member_of_the_French_Resistance_in_Normandy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Eisenhower_%26_Bradley_with_a_member_of_the_French_Resistance_in_Normandy.jpg/440px-Eisenhower_%26_Bradley_with_a_member_of_the_French_Resistance_in_Normandy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2871" data-file-height="2480" /></a><figcaption>Generals <a href="/wiki/Dwight_Eisenhower" class="mw-redirect" title="Dwight Eisenhower">Eisenhower</a> and <a href="/wiki/Omar_Bradley" title="Omar Bradley">Bradley</a> with a young member of the French resistance during the liberation of <a href="/wiki/Lower_Normandy" title="Lower Normandy">Lower Normandy</a> in summer 1944</figcaption></figure>
<p>The French Resistance was a decentralized network of small cells of fighters with the tacit or overt support of many French civilians. The various resistance groups by 1944 had an estimated 100,000 members in France.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a></sup> Some were former <a href="/wiki/Confederal_militias" title="Confederal militias">Republican fighters</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a>; others were workers who went into hiding rather than report for the mandatory <i><a href="/wiki/Service_du_travail_obligatoire" title="Service du travail obligatoire">Service du travail obligatoire</a></i> (STO) to work for German arms factories.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[c]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[23]</a></sup> In the south of France especially, Resistance fighters took to the mountainous brush (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Maquis_(World_War_II)" title="Maquis (World War II)">maquis</a></i></span>) that gave them their name, and conducted guerilla warfare on the German occupation forces, cutting telephone lines and destroying bridges.
</p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Arm%C3%A9e_Secr%C3%A8te" class="mw-redirect" title="Armée Secrète">Armée Secrète</a></i> was a French military organization active during World War II. The collective grouped the paramilitary formations of the three most important Gaullist resistance movements in the southern zone: Combat, Libération-sud and the Franc-Tireurs.
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Les_Clayes_sous_Bois_Monument_Jean_Moulin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Les_Clayes_sous_Bois_Monument_Jean_Moulin.jpg/180px-Les_Clayes_sous_Bois_Monument_Jean_Moulin.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Les_Clayes_sous_Bois_Monument_Jean_Moulin.jpg/270px-Les_Clayes_sous_Bois_Monument_Jean_Moulin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Les_Clayes_sous_Bois_Monument_Jean_Moulin.jpg/360px-Les_Clayes_sous_Bois_Monument_Jean_Moulin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Monument to <a href="/wiki/Jean_Moulin" title="Jean Moulin">Jean Moulin</a>, leader of the Resistance</figcaption></figure>
<p>Some organizations grew up around one of the many <a href="/wiki/Clandestine_press_of_the_French_Resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Clandestine press of the French Resistance">clandestine presses</a> of the time, such as <i>Combat</i>, founded by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Albert Camus</a>, to which <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> also contributed. Stalin supported the effort<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (March 2021)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> once Germany invaded the Soviet Union.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/French_prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_II" title="French prisoners of war in World War II">French prisoners of war</a> were held hostage against the French government meeting their quota of workers. When the mass impressment of able-bodied civilians began, French railway workers (<i>cheminots</i>) went on strike rather than allow the Germans to use the trains to transport them.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[24]</a></sup> The <i>cheminots</i> eventually formed their own organization, <i><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9sistance-Fer" title="Résistance-Fer">Résistance-Fer</a></i>.
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/French_Forces_of_the_Interior" title="French Forces of the Interior">French Forces of the Interior</a> (FFI), as <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span> came to call Resistance forces inside France, were an uneasy alliance of several <i>maquis</i> and other organizations, including the Communist-organized <a href="/wiki/Francs-Tireurs_et_Partisans" title="Francs-Tireurs et Partisans">Francs-Tireurs et Partisans</a> (FTP) and the <a href="/wiki/Arm%C3%A9e_secr%C3%A8te" title="Armée secrète">Armée secrète</a> in southern France. In addition, <a href="/wiki/Escape_and_evasion_lines_(World_War_II)" title="Escape and evasion lines (World War II)">escape networks</a> helped Allied airmen who had been shot down get to safety.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[25]</a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Unione_Corse" title="Unione Corse">Unione Corse</a></i> and the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Milieu_(organized_crime_in_France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Milieu (organized crime in France)">milieu</a></i></span>, the criminal underground of Marseilles, gleefully provided logistical escape assistance for a price, although some such as <a href="/wiki/Paul_Carbone" title="Paul Carbone">Paul Carbone</a> instead worked with the <a href="/wiki/Carlingue" title="Carlingue">Carlingue</a>, French auxiliaries to the Gestapo SD and German military police.
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="French_colonial_empire">French colonial empire</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section's source code: French colonial empire"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonial empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France#Colonial_struggle_with_Free_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France § Colonial struggle with Free France</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Free_France#Struggle_for_control_of_the_French_colonies" title="Free France">Free France § Struggle for control of the French colonies</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EmpireFrench.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/EmpireFrench.png/220px-EmpireFrench.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/EmpireFrench.png/330px-EmpireFrench.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/EmpireFrench.png/440px-EmpireFrench.png 2x" data-file-width="2753" data-file-height="1400" /></a><figcaption>French colonial empire</figcaption></figure>
<p>France's colonial empire at the start of World War II stretched from territories and possessions in Africa, the Middle East (<a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" title="Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon</a>), to ports in India, Indochina, the Pacific islands, and territories in North and South America.
France retained control of its colonial empire, and the terms of the armistice shifted the power balance post-armistice of France's reduced military resources away from France and towards the colonies, especially North Africa. By 1943, all French colonies, except for Japanese-controlled Indochina, had joined the Free French cause.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[26]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2001_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2001-30">[27]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
The colonies in <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_Equatorial_Africa" title="French Equatorial Africa">French Equatorial Africa</a> in particular played a key role<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[29]</a></sup>
</p><p>Vichy French colonial forces were reduced under the terms of the armistice. Nevertheless, in the Mediterranean area alone, Vichy had nearly 150,000 men under arms. There were about 55,000 in <a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Morocco" class="mw-redirect" title="French protectorate of Morocco">French Morocco</a>, 50,000 in <a href="/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">Algeria</a>, and almost 40,000 in the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Levant" title="Army of the Levant">Army of the Levant</a>.
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<h2><span id="Diplomacy.2C_politics.2C_and_administration"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Diplomacy,_politics,_and_administration">Diplomacy, politics, and administration</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section's source code: Diplomacy, politics, and administration"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Diplomacy_and_politics">Diplomacy and politics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section's source code: Diplomacy and politics"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Appeal_of_18_June">Appeal of 18 June</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section's source code: Appeal of 18 June"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Appeal_of_18_June" title="Appeal of 18 June">Appeal of 18 June</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_de_Gaulle_au_micro_de_la_BBC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Charles_de_Gaulle_au_micro_de_la_BBC.jpg/220px-Charles_de_Gaulle_au_micro_de_la_BBC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Charles_de_Gaulle_au_micro_de_la_BBC.jpg/330px-Charles_de_Gaulle_au_micro_de_la_BBC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Charles_de_Gaulle_au_micro_de_la_BBC.jpg/440px-Charles_de_Gaulle_au_micro_de_la_BBC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1122" data-file-height="828" /></a><figcaption>Charles de Gaulle broadcasting from the BBC in London in 1941<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[d]</a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<p>Refusing to accept his government's armistice with Germany, Charles <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span> fled to England on 17 June and exhorted the French to resist occupation and to continue the fight.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[31]</a></sup>
</p><p>Reynaud resigned after his proposal for a <a href="/wiki/Franco-British_Union#World_War_II_(1940)" title="Franco-British Union">Franco-British Union</a> was rejected by his cabinet and De Gaulle facing imminent arrest, fled France on 17 June. Other leading politicians, including <a href="/wiki/Georges_Mandel" title="Georges Mandel">Georges Mandel</a>, <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Blum" title="Léon Blum">Léon Blum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Mend%C3%A8s_France" title="Pierre Mendès France">Pierre Mendès France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Zay" title="Jean Zay">Jean Zay</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Daladier" title="Édouard Daladier">Édouard Daladier</a> (and separately Reynaud), were arrested while travelling to continue the war from North Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Lacouture_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lacouture-36">[32]</a></sup>
</p><p>De Gaulle obtained special permission from <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> to broadcast a speech on 18 June via <i><a href="/wiki/Radio_Londres" title="Radio Londres">Radio Londres</a></i> (a French language radio station operated by the BBC) to France, despite the Cabinet's objections that such a broadcast could provoke the Pétain government into a closer allegiance with Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[33]</a></sup> In his speech, de Gaulle reminded the French people that the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States of America</a> would support them militarily and economically in an effort to retake France from the Germans.
</p><p>Few actually heard the speech but another speech, heard by more people, was given by de Gaulle four days later.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[34]</a></sup>
After the war, de Gaulle's radio appeal was often identified as the beginning of the French Resistance, and the process of liberating France from the yoke of German occupation.<sup id="cite_ref-Evans-2018_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Evans-2018-39">[35]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Northern_Africa">Northern Africa</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section's source code: Northern Africa"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:F%C3%A9lix_%C3%89bou%C3%A9_and_Charles_DeGaulle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/F%C3%A9lix_%C3%89bou%C3%A9_and_Charles_DeGaulle.jpg/180px-F%C3%A9lix_%C3%89bou%C3%A9_and_Charles_DeGaulle.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/F%C3%A9lix_%C3%89bou%C3%A9_and_Charles_DeGaulle.jpg/270px-F%C3%A9lix_%C3%89bou%C3%A9_and_Charles_DeGaulle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/F%C3%A9lix_%C3%89bou%C3%A9_and_Charles_DeGaulle.jpg/360px-F%C3%A9lix_%C3%89bou%C3%A9_and_Charles_DeGaulle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2549" data-file-height="3161" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_%C3%89bou%C3%A9" title="Félix Éboué">Félix Éboué</a> welcoming de Gaulle to Chad in October 1940</figcaption></figure>
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<div style="visibility:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:De_Gaulle_arrivant_dans_la_capitale_de_la_France_libre_(restored).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/De_Gaulle_arrivant_dans_la_capitale_de_la_France_libre_%28restored%29.jpg/250px-De_Gaulle_arrivant_dans_la_capitale_de_la_France_libre_%28restored%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="397" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/De_Gaulle_arrivant_dans_la_capitale_de_la_France_libre_%28restored%29.jpg/375px-De_Gaulle_arrivant_dans_la_capitale_de_la_France_libre_%28restored%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/De_Gaulle_arrivant_dans_la_capitale_de_la_France_libre_%28restored%29.jpg/500px-De_Gaulle_arrivant_dans_la_capitale_de_la_France_libre_%28restored%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="996" data-file-height="1580" /></a></span></div>
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<div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:De_Gaulle_arrivant_dans_la_capitale_de_la_France_libre_(restored).jpg" title="File:De Gaulle arrivant dans la capitale de la France libre (restored).jpg"> </a></div>De Gaulle arriving in Brazzaville, 24 October 1940</div>
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<p>De Gaulle's support grew out of a base in colonial Africa. In the summer of 1940, the colonial empire largely supported the Vichy regime. <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_%C3%89bou%C3%A9" title="Félix Éboué">Félix Éboué</a>, governor of Chad, switched his support to General de Gaulle in September. Encouraged, de Gaulle traveled to Brazzaville in October, where he announced the formation of an <a href="/wiki/Empire_Defense_Council" title="Empire Defense Council">Empire Defense Council</a><sup id="cite_ref-Shillington-2013_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shillington-2013-40">[36]</a></sup> in his "<a href="/wiki/Brazzaville_Manifesto" class="mw-redirect" title="Brazzaville Manifesto">Brazzaville Manifesto</a>",<sup id="cite_ref-Brazzaville-1940_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brazzaville-1940-41">[37]</a></sup> and invited all colonies still supporting Vichy to join him and the Free French forces in the fight against Germany, which most of them did by 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-Shillington-2013_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shillington-2013-40">[36]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wieviorka-2019_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wieviorka-2019-42">[38]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 26 August, the governor and military commanders in the colony of <a href="/wiki/French_Chad" title="French Chad">French Chad</a> announced that they were rallying to De Gaulle's <a href="/wiki/Free_French_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Free French Forces">Free French Forces</a>. A small group of Gaullists seized control of <a href="/wiki/French_Cameroon" title="French Cameroon">French Cameroon</a> the following morning,<sup id="cite_ref-Mokake-2006_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mokake-2006-43">[39]</a></sup> and on 28 August a Free French official ousted the pro-Vichy governor of <a href="/wiki/French_Congo" title="French Congo">French Congo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGildea201952_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGildea201952-44">[40]</a></sup> The next day the governor of <a href="/wiki/Ubangi-Shari" title="Ubangi-Shari">Ubangi-Shari</a> declared that his territory would support De Gaulle. His declaration prompted a brief struggle for power with a pro-Vichy army officer, but by the end of the day all of the colonies that formed <a href="/wiki/French_Equatorial_Africa" title="French Equatorial Africa">French Equatorial Africa</a> had rallied to Free France, except for <a href="/wiki/French_Gabon" class="mw-redirect" title="French Gabon">French Gabon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReeves201692_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReeves201692-45">[41]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Free_French_Administration">Free French Administration</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section's source code: Free French Administration"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>A series of organizing bodies was created during the war, to guide and coordinate the diplomatic and war effort of Free France, with General Charles <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span> playing a central role in the creation or operation of them all.
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Empire_Defense_Council">Empire Defense Council</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section's source code: Empire Defense Council"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Empire_Defense_Council" title="Empire Defense Council">Empire Defense Council</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_De_Gaulle,_Philippe_de_Scitivaux,_Ren%C3%A9_Mouchotte,_Martial_Valin.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Charles_De_Gaulle%2C_Philippe_de_Scitivaux%2C_Ren%C3%A9_Mouchotte%2C_Martial_Valin.png/220px-Charles_De_Gaulle%2C_Philippe_de_Scitivaux%2C_Ren%C3%A9_Mouchotte%2C_Martial_Valin.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Charles_De_Gaulle%2C_Philippe_de_Scitivaux%2C_Ren%C3%A9_Mouchotte%2C_Martial_Valin.png/330px-Charles_De_Gaulle%2C_Philippe_de_Scitivaux%2C_Ren%C3%A9_Mouchotte%2C_Martial_Valin.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Charles_De_Gaulle%2C_Philippe_de_Scitivaux%2C_Ren%C3%A9_Mouchotte%2C_Martial_Valin.png/440px-Charles_De_Gaulle%2C_Philippe_de_Scitivaux%2C_Ren%C3%A9_Mouchotte%2C_Martial_Valin.png 2x" data-file-width="2574" data-file-height="1982" /></a><figcaption><span class="nowrap">De Gaulle</span> with Admiral <a href="/w/index.php?title=Philippe_de_Scitivaux&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philippe de Scitivaux (page does not exist)">Philippe de Scitivaux</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_de_Scitivaux" class="extiw" title="fr:Philippe de Scitivaux">fr</a>]</sup>, pilot <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Mouchotte" title="René Mouchotte">René Mouchotte</a>, and Air Force general <a href="/wiki/Martial_Henri_Valin" title="Martial Henri Valin">Martial Henri Valin</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>On 26 June 1940, four days after the <a href="/wiki/P%C3%A9tain_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Pétain government">Pétain government</a> requested the armistice, General <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span> submitted a memorandum to the British government notifying Churchill of his decision to set up a Council of Defense of the Empire<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite1964161_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite1964161-46">[42]</a></sup> and formalizing the agreement reached with Churchill on 28 June. The formal recognition of the Empire Defense Council as a <a href="/wiki/Government_in_exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Government in exile">government in exile</a> by the United Kingdom took place on 6 January 1941; recognition by the Soviet Union was published in December 1941, by exchange of letters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanan1972_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanan1972-47">[43]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="French_National_Committee">French National Committee</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section's source code: French National Committee"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Comit%C3%A9_national_fran%C3%A7ais.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Comit%C3%A9_national_fran%C3%A7ais.jpg/220px-Comit%C3%A9_national_fran%C3%A7ais.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Comit%C3%A9_national_fran%C3%A7ais.jpg/330px-Comit%C3%A9_national_fran%C3%A7ais.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Comit%C3%A9_national_fran%C3%A7ais.jpg/440px-Comit%C3%A9_national_fran%C3%A7ais.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1546" /></a><figcaption>At a committee meeting in London:<br /> left to right <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Diethelm" title="André Diethelm">Diethelm</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Muselier" title="Émile Muselier">Muselier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">de Gaulle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Cassin" title="René Cassin">Cassin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Pleven" title="René Pleven">Pleven</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philippe_Auboyneau" title="Philippe Auboyneau">Auboyneau</a> (1942)</figcaption></figure>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/French_National_Committee" title="French National Committee">French National Committee</a></div>
<p>Winston Churchill suggested that <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span> create a committee, to lend an appearance of a more constitutionally based and less dictatorial authority and on 24 September 1941 <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span> created by edict the <a href="/wiki/French_National_Committee" title="French National Committee">French National Committee</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernard1984374–378_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernard1984374–378-48">[44]</a></sup> as the successor organization to the smaller Empire Defense Council. According to historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Bernard_(historian)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Henri Bernard (historian) (page does not exist)">Henri Bernard,</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bernard" class="extiw" title="fr:Henri Bernard">fr</a>]</sup> <span class="nowrap">De Gaulle</span> went on to accept his proposal, but took care to exclude all his adversaries within the Free France movement, such as <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Muselier" title="Émile Muselier">Émile Muselier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Labarthe" class="mw-redirect" title="André Labarthe">André Labarthe</a> and others, retaining only "yes men" in the group.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernard1984374–378_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernard1984374–378-48">[44]</a></sup>
</p><p>The committee was the coordinating body which acted as the government-in-exile of Free France from 1941 to 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJOFF_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJOFF-49">[45]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (July 2020)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> On 3 June 1943 it merged with the <a href="/wiki/French_Civil_and_Military_High_Command" title="French Civil and Military High Command">French Civil and Military High Command</a> headed by <a href="/wiki/Henri_Giraud" title="Henri Giraud">Henri Giraud</a>, becoming the new "<a href="/wiki/French_Committee_of_National_Liberation" title="French Committee of National Liberation">French Committee of National Liberation</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[46]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="National_Resistance_Council">National Resistance Council</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section's source code: National Resistance Council"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/National_Resistance_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="National Resistance Council">National Resistance Council</a></div>
<p>De Gaulle, began seeking the formation of a committee to unify the resistance movements. On January 1, 1942, he delegated this task to <a href="/wiki/Jean_Moulin" title="Jean Moulin">Jean Moulin</a>. Moulin achieved this on May 27, 1943, with the first meeting of the <i>Conseil National de la Résistance</i> in the 6th-arrondissement apartment of René Corbin<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[47]</a></sup> on the second floor of 48, Rue du Four, in Paris.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="French_Civil_and_Military_High_Command">French Civil and Military High Command</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section's source code: French Civil and Military High Command"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/French_Civil_and_Military_High_Command" title="French Civil and Military High Command">French Civil and Military High Command</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eisenhower_giraud_salute_flag.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Eisenhower_giraud_salute_flag.jpg/220px-Eisenhower_giraud_salute_flag.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Eisenhower_giraud_salute_flag.jpg/330px-Eisenhower_giraud_salute_flag.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Eisenhower_giraud_salute_flag.jpg/440px-Eisenhower_giraud_salute_flag.jpg 2x" data-file-width="715" data-file-height="665" /></a><figcaption>General Giraud with General Dwight D. Eisenhower at Allied headquarters in Algiers, 1943</figcaption></figure>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/French_Civil_and_Military_High_Command" title="French Civil and Military High Command">French Civil and Military High Command</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaury2006_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaury2006-52">[48]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaury2010_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaury2010-53">[49]</a></sup> was the governmental body in <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a> headed by Henri Giraud following the liberation of a portion of French North Africa following the Allied <a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Operation Torch</a> landings on 7 and 8 November 1942.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Darlan" title="François Darlan">François Darlan</a> had been named by Pétain to oppose the Allied landings in North Africa in November 1942. Following the landings, Darlan supported the Allies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENyrop196528_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENyrop196528-54">[50]</a></sup> On 13 November, Eisenhower recognized him and named Darlan "High Commissioner of France residing in North Africa".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENyrop196528_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENyrop196528-54">[50]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Henri_Giraud" title="Henri Giraud">Henri Giraud</a>, a French patriot loyal to Vichy but opposed to Germany and who had been the Allies choice, became commander of the military forces in North Africa. First called the "High Commission of France in Africa", the French authority was rocked when on 24 December 1942, Darlan was assassinated by a Monarchist.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECantier2002374–375_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECantier2002374–375-55">[51]</a></sup> Giraud took over and the name "Civil and Military High Command" was adopted by 1943. Giraud exercised authority over <a href="/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">French Algeria</a> and the <a href="/wiki/French_Protectorate_of_Morocco" class="mw-redirect" title="French Protectorate of Morocco">French Protectorate of Morocco</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_campaign" title="Tunisian campaign">Tunisian campaign</a> against the Germans and Italians continued in the <a href="/wiki/French_Protectorate_of_Tunisia" class="mw-redirect" title="French Protectorate of Tunisia">French Protectorate of Tunisia</a>. Darlan having previously won the support of French West Africa, the latter was also in Giraud's camp, while French Equatorial Africa was in de Gaulle's camp.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontagnon199060–63_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontagnon199060–63-56">[52]</a></sup>
</p><p>By March 1943, North Africa began to distance itself from Vichy. On 14 March, Giraud delivered a speech that he later described as "the first democratic speech of [his] life", in which he broke with Vichy. <a href="/wiki/Jean_Monnet" title="Jean Monnet">Jean Monnet</a> pushed Giraud to negotiate with de Gaulle, who arrived in Algiers on 30 May 1943. On 3 June, the Civil and Military High Command in Algiers merged with the French National Committee in London to form the French National Liberation Committee.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="French_Committee_of_National_Liberation">French Committee of National Liberation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section's source code: French Committee of National Liberation"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/French_Committee_of_National_Liberation" title="French Committee of National Liberation">French Committee of National Liberation</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:De_Gaulle-Giraud_shot0092.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/De_Gaulle-Giraud_shot0092.png/220px-De_Gaulle-Giraud_shot0092.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/De_Gaulle-Giraud_shot0092.png/330px-De_Gaulle-Giraud_shot0092.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/De_Gaulle-Giraud_shot0092.png/440px-De_Gaulle-Giraud_shot0092.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henri_Giraud" title="Henri Giraud">Henri Giraud</a> and de Gaulle</figcaption></figure>
<p>The French Committee of National Liberation was a <a href="/wiki/Provisional_government" title="Provisional government">provisional government</a> of Free France formed by generals Henri Giraud and Charles de Gaulle to provide united leadership, and organize and coordinate the campaign to liberate France. The committee was formed on 3 June 1943 and after a period of joint leadership came under the chairmanship of <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span> on 9 November.<sup id="cite_ref-Emb-FR_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Emb-FR-57">[53]</a></sup> The committee directly challenged the legitimacy of the Vichy régime and unified the French forces that fought against the Nazis and their <a href="/wiki/Collaboration_with_Nazi_Germany_and_Fascist_Italy" title="Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy">collaborators</a>. The committee functioned as a provisional government for French Algeria (then a part of <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_France" title="Metropolitan France">metropolitan France</a>) and the liberated parts of the colonial empire.<sup id="cite_ref-Army-1965_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Army-1965-58">[54]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Davis-2018_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davis-2018-59">[55]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Encarta-CDG_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encarta-CDG-60">[56]</a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_D%C3%A9p%C3%AAche_alg%C3%A9rienne_04-06-1943.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/La_D%C3%A9p%C3%AAche_alg%C3%A9rienne_04-06-1943.jpg/280px-La_D%C3%A9p%C3%AAche_alg%C3%A9rienne_04-06-1943.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/La_D%C3%A9p%C3%AAche_alg%C3%A9rienne_04-06-1943.jpg/420px-La_D%C3%A9p%C3%AAche_alg%C3%A9rienne_04-06-1943.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/La_D%C3%A9p%C3%AAche_alg%C3%A9rienne_04-06-1943.jpg 2x" data-file-width="425" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>First page of <i>La Dépêche algérienne</i> headlining the creation of the French Committee of National Liberation 4 June 1943</figcaption></figure>
<p>The committee was formed on 3 June 1943 in Algiers, the capital of French Algeria.<sup id="cite_ref-Encarta-CDG_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encarta-CDG-60">[56]</a></sup> Giraud and de Gaulle served jointly as co-presidents of the committee. The charter of the body affirmed its commitment to "re-establish all French liberties, the laws of the Republic and the Republican régime."<sup id="cite_ref-Roundtable_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roundtable-61">[57]</a></sup> The committee saw itself as a source of unity and representation for the French nation. The Vichy regime was decried as illegitimate over its collaboration with Nazi Germany. The committee received mixed responses from the Allies; the U.S. and Britain considered it a war-time body with restricted functions, different from a future government of liberated France.<sup id="cite_ref-Roundtable_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roundtable-61">[57]</a></sup> The Committee soon expanded its membership, developed a distinctive administrative body and incorporated as the Provisional Consultative Assembly, creating an organized, representative government within itself. With Allied recognition, the committee and its leaders Giraud and de Gaulle enjoyed considerable popular support within France and the French resistance, thus becoming the forerunners in the process to form a provisional government for France as liberation approached.<sup id="cite_ref-Roundtable_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roundtable-61">[57]</a></sup> However, Charles de Gaulle politically outmaneuvered Gen. Giraud, and asserted complete control and leadership over the committee.<sup id="cite_ref-Encarta-CDG_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encarta-CDG-60">[56]</a></sup>
</p><p>In August 1944 the Committee moved to Paris following the liberation of France by Allied forces.<sup id="cite_ref-Roundtable_61-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roundtable-61">[57]</a></sup>
</p><p>In September, Allied forces recognized the committee as the legitimate provisional government of France, whereupon the Committee reorganized itself as the Provisional Government of the French Republic under the presidency of Charles <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span><sup id="cite_ref-Roundtable_61-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roundtable-61">[57]</a></sup> and began the process of writing a new Constitution which would become the basis of the French Fourth Republic.<sup id="cite_ref-Encarta-CDG_60-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encarta-CDG-60">[56]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Provisional_Consultative_Assembly">Provisional Consultative Assembly</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section's source code: Provisional Consultative Assembly"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Consultative_Assembly" title="Provisional Consultative Assembly">Provisional Consultative Assembly</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Assembl%C3%A9e_consultative_provisoire_d%E2%80%99Alger.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Assembl%C3%A9e_consultative_provisoire_d%E2%80%99Alger.jpg/220px-Assembl%C3%A9e_consultative_provisoire_d%E2%80%99Alger.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Assembl%C3%A9e_consultative_provisoire_d%E2%80%99Alger.jpg/330px-Assembl%C3%A9e_consultative_provisoire_d%E2%80%99Alger.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Assembl%C3%A9e_consultative_provisoire_d%E2%80%99Alger.jpg/440px-Assembl%C3%A9e_consultative_provisoire_d%E2%80%99Alger.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1130" data-file-height="682" /></a><figcaption>Inaugural session of the Provisional Consultative Assembly in the presence of General de Gaulle. Palais Carnot, Algiers, November 3, 1943</figcaption></figure>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Consultative_Assembly" title="Provisional Consultative Assembly">Provisional Consultative Assembly</a> was set up in September 1943 in Algiers to advise the committee and to help provide a legal basis to the institutions being set up to represent the French people, at a time when the country itself and its laws represented the enemy. After the liberation of Paris in August 1944, the Committee moved to Paris and was reorganized as the <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government of the French Republic</a> under the presidency of Charles <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span>. The Provisional Government guided the French war and diplomatic efforts through liberation and the end of the war, until a new Constitution was written and approved in a referendum, establishing of the <a href="/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">Fourth Republic</a> in October 1946.
</p><p>The Provisional Consultative Assembly was a governmental organ of Free France that was created by and operated under the aegis of the French Committee of National Liberation (CFLN). It began in north Africa and held meetings in Algiers until it moved to Paris in July 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[58]</a></sup> Led by Charles de Gaulle, it was an attempt to provide some sort of representative, democratic accountability to the institutions being set up to represent the French people, at a time when the country itself and its laws were dissolved and its territory occupied or coopted by a puppet state.
</p><p>The members of the Assembly represented the French resistance movements, political parties, and territories that were engaged against Germany in the Second World War alongside the Allies.
</p><p>Established by ordinance on 17 September 1943 by the CFLN, it held its first meetings in Algiers, at the Palais Carnot (the former headquarters of the Financial Delegations), between 3 November 1943 and 25 July 1944. On 3 June 1944 it was placed under the authority of the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF), which succeeded the CFLN.
</p><p>In his inaugural speech, de Gaulle gave the body his imprimatur, as providing a means of representing the people of France as democratically and legally as possible under difficult and unparalleled circumstances, until such time as democracy could once again be restored.<sup id="cite_ref-LeMonde-1993_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeMonde-1993-63">[59]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChoisnel2007100–102_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoisnel2007100–102-64">[60]</a></sup> As an indication of the importance he attached to the body, de Gaulle participated in about twenty sessions of the Consultative Assembly in Algiers. On 26 June 1944, he came to report on the military situation after the D-Day landings, and on 25 July, he was present at its last session on African soil before its move to Paris.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChoisnel2007100–102_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoisnel2007100–102-64">[60]</a></sup>
</p><p>Restructured and expanded after the liberation of France, it held sessions in Paris at the <a href="/wiki/Palais_du_Luxembourg" class="mw-redirect" title="Palais du Luxembourg">Palais du Luxembourg</a> between 7 November 1944 and 3 August 1945.
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Provisional_Government">Provisional Government</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section's source code: Provisional Government"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Covered in more detail in section <a href="#Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic">Provisional Government of the French Republic</a> below.</div>
<p>The GPFR served as an <a href="/wiki/Interim_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Interim government">interim government</a> of Free France from June 1944 through liberation and lasted till 1946.
</p><p>The PGFR was created by the Committee of National Liberation on 3 June 1944, three days before <a href="/wiki/D-day" class="mw-redirect" title="D-day">D-day</a>. It moved back to Paris after the <a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris" title="Liberation of Paris">liberation of the capital</a> in August 1944.
</p><p>Most of the goals and activity of the GPFR are related to the post-Liberation period, so this subtopic is covered in more detail in the Aftermath section below, in section <a href="#Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic">Provisional Government of the French Republic</a>.
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Military_forces">Military forces</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section's source code: Military forces"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Introduction">Introduction</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section's source code: Introduction"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The first military forces brought to bear in the liberation of France were the forces of <a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a>, made up of colonial regiments from <a href="/wiki/French_Africa" title="French Africa">French Africa</a>. The Free French forces included 300,000 North African Arabs.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[61]</a></sup> Two of the <a href="/wiki/Big_Three_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Big Three (World War II)">Big Three Allies</a>, the United States and the United Kingdom, were next with <a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Operation Overlord</a>, with Australian air support and Canadian infantry in the Normandy beach landings.
</p><p>Individual civilian efforts such as the <a href="/wiki/Maquis_de_Saint-Marcel" title="Maquis de Saint-Marcel">Maquis de Saint-Marcel</a> helped to harass the Germans. An OSE operation hid Allied servicemen. The many scattered cells of the <a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">French Resistance</a> gradually consolidated into a fighting force after the Normandy landings and became known as the <a href="/wiki/French_Forces_of_the_Interior" title="French Forces of the Interior">French Forces of the Interior</a> (FFI). The FFI made major contributions, assisting Allied armies pushing the Germans east out of France and past the Rhine.
</p><p>The military forces involved in the liberation of France were under the command of General <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a>, commander of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Headquarters_Allied_Expeditionary_Force" title="Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force">Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force</a> (SHAEF).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilbert1989491_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilbert1989491-66">[62]</a></sup> General <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Law_Montgomery,_1st_Viscount_Montgomery_of_Alamein" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein">Bernard Montgomery</a> was named commander of the <a href="/wiki/21st_Army_Group" title="21st Army Group">21st Army Group</a>, which comprised all of the land forces involved in the initial invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitmarsh200912–13_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitmarsh200912–13-67">[63]</a></sup> On 31 December 1943, Eisenhower and Montgomery first saw the outline plan the Chief of Staff to the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Allied_Commander" title="Supreme Allied Commander">Supreme Allied Commander</a> (COSSAC) had prepared for an invasion, which proposed amphibious landings by three <a href="/wiki/Division_(military)" title="Division (military)">divisions</a>, with two more divisions in support. The two generals immediately insisted on expanding the scale of the initial invasion to five divisions, with airborne descents by three additional divisions, to allow operations on a wider front and to speed up the capture of the port at <a href="/wiki/Cherbourg-Octeville" title="Cherbourg-Octeville">Cherbourg</a>. The need to acquire or produce extra <a href="/wiki/Landing_craft" title="Landing craft">landing craft</a> for the expanded operation meant delaying the invasion until June 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitmarsh200912–13_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitmarsh200912–13-67">[63]</a></sup> Eventually the Allies committed 39 divisions to the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Normandy" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Normandy">Battle of Normandy</a>: 22 American, 12 British, three Canadian, one Polish, and one French, totalling over a million troops,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinberg1995684_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg1995684-68">[64]</a></sup> all under overall British command.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisAllenWarhurst2004521–533_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllisAllenWarhurst2004521–533-69">[65]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-British_command_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-British_command-70">[e]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Free_French_Forces">Free French Forces</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section's source code: Free French Forces"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a></div>
<p>Despite <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span>'s call to continue the struggle, few French forces initially pledged their support. By the end of July 1940, only about 7,000 soldiers had joined the <a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free French Forces</a> in England.<sup id="cite_ref-Goubert1991_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goubert1991-71">[66]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Axelrod362_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Axelrod362-72">[67]</a></sup> Three-quarters of French servicemen in Britain requested repatriation.<sup id="cite_ref-Hastings_2011_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hastings_2011-73">[68]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 80">: 80 </span></sup>
</p><p>France was bitterly divided by the conflict. Frenchmen everywhere were forced to choose sides, and often deeply resented those who had made a different choice.<sup id="cite_ref-Hastings_2011_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hastings_2011-73">[68]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 126">: 126 </span></sup> One French admiral, <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9-%C3%89mile_Godfroy" title="René-Émile Godfroy">René-Émile Godfroy</a>, voiced the opinion of many of those who decided not to join the <a href="/wiki/Free_France#Beginningd_of_the_Free_French_Forces" title="Free France">Free French forces</a>, when in June 1940 he explained to the exasperated British why he would not order his ships from their <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> harbour to join <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span>:
</p>
<dl><dd>"For us Frenchmen, the fact is that a government still exists in France, a government supported by a Parliament established in non-occupied territory and which in consequence cannot be considered irregular or deposed. The establishment elsewhere of another government, and all support for this other government would clearly be rebellion."<sup id="cite_ref-Hastings_2011_73-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hastings_2011-73">[68]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 126">: 126 </span></sup></dd></dl>
<p>Equally, few Frenchmen believed that Britain could stand alone. In June 1940, Pétain and his generals told Churchill that "in three weeks, England will have her neck wrung like a chicken".<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[69]</a></sup> Of France's far-flung empire, only the <a href="/wiki/French_domains_of_St_Helena" class="mw-redirect" title="French domains of St Helena">43 acres of French territory of the British island of St Helena</a> (on 23 June at the initiative of Georges Colin, honorary consul of the domains<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[70]</a></sup>) and the Franco-British ruled <a href="/wiki/New_Hebrides" title="New Hebrides">New Hebrides</a> in the Pacific (on 20 July) answered <span class="nowrap">De Gaulle</span>'s call to arms. It was not until late August that Free France would gain significant support in <a href="/wiki/French_Equatorial_Africa" title="French Equatorial Africa">French Equatorial Africa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[71]</a></sup>
</p><p>Unlike the troops at <a href="/wiki/Dunkirk" title="Dunkirk">Dunkirk</a> or naval forces at sea, relatively few members of the <a href="/wiki/French_Air_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="French Air Force">French Air Force</a> had the means or opportunity to escape. Like all military personnel trapped on the mainland, they were functionally subject to the Pétain government: "French authorities made it clear that those who acted on their own initiative would be classed as deserters, and guards were placed to thwart efforts to get on board ships."<sup id="cite_ref-Bennett_2011_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bennett_2011-77">[72]</a></sup> In the summer of 1940, around a dozen pilots made it to England and volunteered for the <a href="/wiki/RAF" class="mw-redirect" title="RAF">RAF</a> to help fight the <a href="/wiki/Luftwaffe" title="Luftwaffe">Luftwaffe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-learningsite_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-learningsite-78">[73]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bennett_2011_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bennett_2011-77">[72]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 13">: 13 </span></sup> Many more, however, made their way through long and circuitous routes to Spain or to French territories overseas, eventually regrouping as the <a href="/wiki/Free_French_Air_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Free French Air Force">Free French Air Force</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bennett_2011_77-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bennett_2011-77">[72]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 13–18">: 13–18 </span></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/French_Navy" title="French Navy">French Navy</a> was better able to immediately respond to <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span>'s call to arms. Most units initially stayed loyal to Vichy, but about 3,600 sailors operating 50 ships around the world joined with the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> and formed the nucleus of the <a href="/wiki/Free_French_Naval_Forces" title="Free French Naval Forces">Free French Naval Forces</a> (FFNF; in French <i>Forces Navales Françaises Libres</i>: FNFL).<sup id="cite_ref-Axelrod362_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Axelrod362-72">[67]</a></sup> France's surrender found her only <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">aircraft carrier</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_aircraft_carrier_B%C3%A9arn" title="French aircraft carrier Béarn"><i>Béarn</i></a>, en route from the United States loaded with American fighter and bomber aircraft. Unwilling to return to occupied France, but likewise reluctant to join <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span>, <i>Béarn</i> instead sought harbour in <a href="/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a>, her crew showing little inclination to side with the British in their continued fight against the Nazis. Already obsolete at the start of the war, she remained in Martinique for the next four years, her aircraft rusting in the tropical climate.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">[74]</a></sup>
</p><p>Many men in the French colonies felt a special need to defend France,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and eventually made up two-thirds of <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span>’s <a href="/wiki/Free_French_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Free French Forces">Free French Forces</a>. Among these volunteers, influential psychiatrist and decolonial philosopher <a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Frantz Fanon</a> from <a href="/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a> joined <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span>’s troops at the age of 18, despite being deemed a ‘dissenter’ by Martinique's Vichy-controlled colonial government for doing so.<sup id="cite_ref-Pitts_Afropean_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pitts_Afropean-80">[75]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Colonial_African_forces">Colonial African forces</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section's source code: Colonial African forces"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chadian_soldier_of_WWII.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Chadian_soldier_of_WWII.jpg/220px-Chadian_soldier_of_WWII.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Chadian_soldier_of_WWII.jpg/330px-Chadian_soldier_of_WWII.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Chadian_soldier_of_WWII.jpg/440px-Chadian_soldier_of_WWII.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3286" data-file-height="2836" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Free_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Free French">Free French</a> soldier from <a href="/wiki/French_Chad" title="French Chad">French Chad</a>, recipient of the <a href="/wiki/Croix_de_Guerre" title="Croix de Guerre">Croix de Guerre</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>The contribution to France's liberation made by African <a href="/wiki/Troupes_coloniales" title="Troupes coloniales">colonial soldiers</a>, who comprised 9% of the French army, was long overlooked. The North African units, dating from 1830 and grouped into the <a href="/wiki/19th_Army_Corps_(France)" title="19th Army Corps (France)">XIX Army Corps</a> in 1873, formed part of the French Metropolitan Army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClayton199421_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClayton199421-81">[76]</a></sup> De Gaulle made a base in African territory, from which he launched the military liberation. African troops who made the largest contribution by colonial troops to the liberation.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82">[77]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">[78]</a></sup>
</p><p>On the eve of the Second World War, five regiments of <a href="/wiki/Tirailleurs_S%C3%A9n%C3%A9galais" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirailleurs Sénégalais">Tirailleurs Sénégalais</a> were stationed in France in addition to a brigade based in Algeria. The <i>2e division colonial senegalaise</i> was permanently deployed in the south of France due to the potential threat of invasion from Italy.
</p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Africa_(France)" title="Army of Africa (France)">Armée d’Afrique</a></i> (Army of Africa) was formally a separate army corps of the French metropolitan army, the <a href="/wiki/19th_Army_Corps_(France)" title="19th Army Corps (France)">19th Army Corps</a> (<i>19e Corps d'Armée</i>) so named in 1873. The <a href="/wiki/Troupes_coloniales" title="Troupes coloniales">French Colonial Forces</a> on the other hand came under the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Navy_(France)" title="Ministry of the Navy (France)">Ministry of the Navy</a> and comprised both French and indigenous units serving in Sub-Saharan Africa and elsewhere in the French colonial empire.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Intelligence">Intelligence</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section's source code: Intelligence"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p><span class="nowrap">De Gaulle</span> set up his Free French intelligence system to combine both military and political roles, including covert operations. He selected journalist <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Brossolette" title="Pierre Brossolette">Pierre Brossolette</a> (1903–44) to head the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_Central_de_Renseignements_et_d%27Action" title="Bureau Central de Renseignements et d'Action">Bureau Central de Renseignements et d'Action</a> (BCRA). The policy was reversed in 1943 by <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_d%27Astier_de_La_Vigerie" title="Emmanuel d'Astier de La Vigerie">Emmanuel d'Astrier</a>, the interior minister of the <a href="/wiki/Government_in_exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Government in exile">exile government</a>, who insisted on civilian control of political intelligence.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84">[79]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Allied_forces">Allied forces</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section's source code: Allied forces"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies of World War II</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Western_front_of_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Western front of World War II">Western front of World War II</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Third_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Third Army">United States Third Army</a></div>
<p>The "Big Three" <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies of World War II</a>, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States, all fought Germany in World War II, but Soviet Union fighting on the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_of_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Front of World War II">Eastern Front</a> played no direct role in the liberation of France, but the second front contributed to Nazi defeat.
</p><p>The United Kingdom and the United States fought on the <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_of_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Front of World War II">Western Front</a>, with contributions from Canadian and <a href="/wiki/Australian_contribution_to_the_Battle_of_Normandy" title="Australian contribution to the Battle of Normandy">Australian</a> soldiers who <a href="/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">landed in Normandy</a> on D-Day, as well as Australian air support.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">[80]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="French_Forces_of_the_Interior">French Forces of the Interior</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section's source code: French Forces of the Interior"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/French_Forces_of_the_Interior" title="French Forces of the Interior">French Forces of the Interior</a></div>
<p>French Forces of the Interior was the formal name given by General de Gaulle to French resistance fighters in the later stages of the war; the change occurred as France, the occupied nation, became France, being liberated by the Allied armies. Regional <i>maquis</i> became more formally organized into FFI <a href="/wiki/Light_infantry" title="Light infantry">light infantry</a> and served as a valuable additional manpower for the regular <a href="/wiki/Free_French_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Free French forces">Free French forces</a>.
</p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Normandy" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Normandy">invasion of Normandy</a> in June 1944, at the request of the French Committee of National Liberation, <a href="/wiki/SHAEF" class="mw-redirect" title="SHAEF">SHAEF</a> placed about 200,000 resistance fighters under the command of General <a href="/wiki/Marie_Pierre_K%C5%93nig" class="mw-redirect" title="Marie Pierre Kœnig">Marie Pierre Kœnig</a> on 23 June 1944<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86">[81]</a></sup> who attempted to unify resistance efforts against the Germans. General Eisenhower confirmed Koenig's command of the FFI .
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<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Members_of_the_Maquis_in_La_Tresorerie.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Members_of_the_Maquis_in_La_Tresorerie.jpg/220px-Members_of_the_Maquis_in_La_Tresorerie.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Members_of_the_Maquis_in_La_Tresorerie.jpg/330px-Members_of_the_Maquis_in_La_Tresorerie.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Members_of_the_Maquis_in_La_Tresorerie.jpg/440px-Members_of_the_Maquis_in_La_Tresorerie.jpg 2x" data-file-width="635" data-file-height="469" /></a><figcaption>Members of the <a href="/wiki/Maquis_(World_War_II)" title="Maquis (World War II)">Maquis</a>, 14 September 1944</figcaption></figure>
<p>The FFI were mostly composed of resistance fighters who used their own weapons, although many FFI units included former French soldiers. They used civilian clothing and wore an armband with the letters "F.F.I."
</p><p>According to General <a href="/wiki/George_S._Patton" title="George S. Patton">Patton</a>, the rapid advance of his army through France would have been impossible without the fighting aid of the FFI. General <a href="/wiki/Alexander_M._Patch" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander M. Patch">Patch</a> estimated that from the time of the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon">Mediterranean landings</a> to the arrival of U.S. troops at <a href="/wiki/Dijon" title="Dijon">Dijon</a>, the help given to the operations by the FFI was equivalent to four full divisions.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87">[82]</a></sup>
</p><p>
FFI units seized bridges, began the liberation of villages and towns as Allied units neared, and collected intelligence on German units in the areas entered by the Allied forces, easing the Allied advance through France in August 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">[83]</a></sup> According to a volume of the U.S. official history of the war, </p><blockquote><p>In Brittany, southern France, and the area of the <a href="/wiki/Loire" title="Loire">Loire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, French Resistance forces greatly aided the pursuit to the Seine in August. Specifically, they supported the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Central#World_War_II" title="United States Army Central">U.S. Third Army</a> in Brittany and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Army Europe">Seventh U.S.</a> and <a href="/wiki/1st_Army_(France)" title="1st Army (France)">First French Armies</a> in the southern beachhead and the Rhône valley. In the advance to the Seine, the French Forces of the Interior helped protect the southern flank of the Third Army by interfering with enemy railroad and highway movements and enemy telecommunications, by developing open resistance on as wide a scale as possible, by providing tactical intelligence, by preserving installations of value to the Allied forces, and by mopping up bypassed enemy positions.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89">[84]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>As regions of France were liberated, the FFI provided a ready pool of semi-trained manpower with which France could rebuild the French Army. Estimated to have a strength of 100,000 in June 1944, the strength of the FFI grew rapidly, doubling by July 1944, and reaching 400,000 by October 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90">[85]</a></sup> Although the amalgamation of the FFI was in some cases fraught with political difficulty, it was ultimately successful and allowed France to re-establish a reasonably large army of 1.3 million men by <a href="/wiki/VE_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="VE Day">VE Day</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91">[86]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Escape_lines">Escape lines</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section's source code: Escape lines"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Escape_and_evasion_lines_(World_War_II)" title="Escape and evasion lines (World War II)">Escape and evasion lines (World War II)</a></div>
<p>Approximately 2,000 British and 3,000 American airmen downed in western Europe evaded German capture during the war. Airmen were assisted by many different escape lines, some of them large and organized, others informal and ephemeral. The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Forces_Escaping_Society" title="Royal Air Forces Escaping Society">Royal Air Forces Escaping Society</a> estimated that 14,000 volunteers worked with the many escape and evasion lines during the war. Many others helped on an occasional basis, and the total number of people who, on one or more occasions helped downed airmen during the war, may have reached 100,000. One-half of the volunteer helpers were women, often young women, even teenagers.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92">[87]</a></sup>
</p><p>Escape and evasion lines created by the Allies specifically to assist their men, such as the <a href="/wiki/Shelburne_Escape_Line" title="Shelburne Escape Line">Shelbourne</a> or the Burgundy lines or those created by servicemen at large in occupied territory, such as the <a href="/wiki/Pat_O%27Leary_Line" title="Pat O'Leary Line">Pat O'Leary Line</a>, usually focused on helping Allied servicemen. Other escape lines, grass-roots efforts by civilians to help those fleeing the Nazis, such as the <a href="/wiki/Comet_Line" title="Comet Line">Comet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch-Paris" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch-Paris">Dutch-Paris</a>, Service EVA or the Smit-van der Heijden lines, also helped servicemen but also compromised spies, resisters, men evading the <a href="/wiki/Service_du_travail_obligatoire" title="Service du travail obligatoire">forced labor impressments</a>, civilians who wanted to join the <a href="/wiki/Government_in_exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Government in exile">governments-in-exile</a> in London, and fleeing <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93">[88]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94">[89]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Premature_activation">Premature activation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section's source code: Premature activation"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>In the uplands and forests, considerable numbers of resistance fighters gathered, known as <a href="/wiki/Maquis_(World_War_II)" title="Maquis (World War II)">maquisards</a> because of the <a href="/wiki/Maquis_shrubland" title="Maquis shrubland">maquis shrubland</a> that sheltered them. These "redoubts" of FFI fighters initially kept a low profile, since overt acts of sabotage resulted in savage reprisals by German forces, or direct military action on a large scale. On 26 March 1944, the <a href="/wiki/Maquis_des_Gli%C3%A8res" title="Maquis des Glières">Maquis des Glières</a> in <a href="/wiki/Haute-Savoie" title="Haute-Savoie">Haute-Savoie</a> were defeated by more than 3,000 troops followed by shootings and burnings of farms amongst the local population.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshdown2015113_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshdown2015113-95">[90]</a></sup>
</p><p>Excluded from the planning for the Normandy Landings, <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span> and his staff devised an operation called <i>Plan Caïman</i> in which French paratroopers would join the maquisards of the <a href="/wiki/Massif_Central" title="Massif Central">Massif Central</a> to liberate the surrounding area and from there establish contact with the invading British and US forces. The Allied planners rejected the plan on the grounds that they would not have the resources to support it. On 20 May 1944, the <a href="/wiki/Maquis_du_Mont_Mouchet" title="Maquis du Mont Mouchet">Maquis du Mont Mouchet</a> in the Massif Central staged an open uprising on its own initiative and was crushed within three weeks with the usual reprisals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshdown2015152–153_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshdown2015152–153-96">[91]</a></sup> Despite this, on 6 June, <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span> broadcast an impassioned call to arms to the French people on the BBC, which the maquisards interpreted as a signal for overt action; a lower-key message from Eisenhower to avoid a "premature uprising" was widely ignored.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshdown2015176–178_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshdown2015176–178-97">[92]</a></sup> As a direct consequence, in July the 4,000 FFI on the <a href="/wiki/Vercors_Plateau" class="mw-redirect" title="Vercors Plateau">Vercors Plateau</a> near <a href="/wiki/Grenoble" title="Grenoble">Grenoble</a> were attacked by a German force of 10,000 including paratroopers and troops in gliders. In the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vercors" title="Battle of Vercors">Battle of Vercors</a>, the lightly armed French defences were overwhelmed, despite assistance from Allied agents, air-drops and special forces.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">[93]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Allied_military_policy">Allied military policy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section's source code: Allied military policy"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Military_strategy_of_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Military strategy of World War II">Military strategy of World War II</a></div>
<p>Military strategy for the war as a whole was discussed among the Big Three powers, and especially among the United Kingdom and the United States, who were especially close, with numerous calls and meetings held between U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> and British Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>. In addition, the leaders of the Big Three met at conferences during the war to decide on overall military strategy.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">[94]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Arcadia_Conference" title="Arcadia Conference">Arcadia Conference</a> held in Washington, D.C. from December 22, 1941, to January 14, 1942, followed the <a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Japan" title="United States declaration of war on Japan">American</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_declaration_of_war_on_Japan" title="United Kingdom declaration of war on Japan">British</a> declarations of war on Japan; Japan's allies, Germany and Italy, <a href="/wiki/Axis_powers#Germany's_and_Italy's_declaration_of_war_against_the_United_States" title="Axis powers">had just declared war on the United States</a>. The main policy decisions of Arcadia included the "Germany First" (also known as "<a href="/wiki/Europe_first" title="Europe first">Europe first</a>") policy that the defeat of Germany had higher priority than the war with Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100">[95]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101">[96]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Second_Washington_Conference" title="Second Washington Conference">Second Washington Conference</a> in June 1942 confirmed a decision not to open a second front in France but to first invade <a href="/wiki/French_North_Africa" title="French North Africa">French North Africa</a> as part of a joint Mediterranean strategy for an attack on Italy (described as the "soft under-belly" of the Axis).<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102">[97]</a></sup>
</p><p>The decision to undertake a cross-channel invasion in 1944 was taken at the <a href="/wiki/Trident_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Trident Conference">Trident Conference</a> in Washington in May 1943. General Eisenhower was appointed commander of SHAEF and General <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Montgomery" title="Bernard Montgomery">Bernard Montgomery</a> was named as commander of the <a href="/wiki/21st_Army_Group" title="21st Army Group">21st Army Group</a>, which comprised all the land forces involved in the invasion. The coast of <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a> in northwestern France was chosen as the site of the invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103">[98]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Teheran_conference-1943.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Teheran_conference-1943.jpg/220px-Teheran_conference-1943.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Teheran_conference-1943.jpg/330px-Teheran_conference-1943.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Teheran_conference-1943.jpg/440px-Teheran_conference-1943.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5805" data-file-height="4602" /></a><figcaption>The "<a href="/wiki/Grand_Alliance_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Alliance (World War II)">Big Three</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Stalin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Churchill</a>) at the <a href="/wiki/Tehran_Conference" title="Tehran Conference">Tehran Conference</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Tehran_Conference" title="Tehran Conference">Tehran Conference</a> (28 November to 1 December 1943) a strategy meeting of the Big Three leaders <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill held at the Soviet Union's embassy in Tehran had numerous objectives, and led to the commitment of the western Allies to open a second front in the war in the west.<sup id="cite_ref-WSC_Closing_the_Ring_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WSC_Closing_the_Ring-104">[99]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Campaigns">Campaigns</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section's source code: Campaigns"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_France_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of France during World War II">Military history of France during World War II</a></div>
<p>After the Fall of France, the battle to retake France began in Africa in November 1940. By September 1944, after the <a href="#Paris_–_August_1944">liberation of Paris</a> and the <a href="#Southern_France_–_August_1944">southern France campaign</a> and taking of Mediterranean ports in Marseille and Toulon, the country was largely liberated. The Allied Forces were driving into Germany from the west and the south. The liberation of France didn't finally end till the elimination of <a href="#Pockets_of_German_resistance_–_to_May_1945">some pockets of German resistance</a> along the Atlantic coast at the end of the war in May 1945.
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<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vichy_france_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Vichy_france_map.png/260px-Vichy_france_map.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Vichy_france_map.png/390px-Vichy_france_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Vichy_france_map.png/520px-Vichy_france_map.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>The gradual loss of all Vichy territory to Free France and the Allies by 1943.<sup>[<a href="/wiki/File:Vichy_france_map.png" title="File:Vichy france map.png">legend</a>]</sup></figcaption></figure>
<p>Militarily, the liberation of France was part of the Western Front of World War II. Other than scattered raids in 1942 and 1943, the reconquest began in earnest in the summer of 1944 in parallel campaigns in the north and south of France. On 6 June 1944, the Allies began <a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Operation Overlord</a>, the largest seaborne invasion in history, <a href="/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">establishing a beachhead in Normandy</a>, landing two million men in northern France and opening another front in western Europe against Germany. <a href="/wiki/Operation_Cobra" title="Operation Cobra">American forces broke out from Normandy</a> at the end of July. At the <a href="/wiki/Falaise_Pocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Falaise Pocket">Falaise Pocket</a> the Allied armies destroyed German forces, opening the route to Paris. In the south, the Allies launched <a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon">Operation Dragoon</a> on 15 August, opening a new military front on the Mediterranean. In four weeks, the Germans retreated from southern France to Germany. This left French ports in Allied hands, resolving earlier supply problems in the south. Under the onslaught from both directions, the French Resistance organized a <a href="/wiki/FFI_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="FFI uprising">general uprising in Paris on 19 August</a>. On 25 August 1944 Paris was liberated. The Allied forces began to <a href="/wiki/Allied_advance_from_Paris_to_the_Rhine" class="mw-redirect" title="Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine">push towards the Rhine</a>. Initial rapid advances in the North stretched lines of supply in the autumn, and the advance slowed. German counteroffensives in the winter of 1944–45 such as the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge" title="Battle of the Bulge">Battle of the Bulge</a> slowed but did not stop the Allied armies, some crossing the Rhine in February, with heavy German losses. By late March several Allied armies had crossed and began <a href="/wiki/Western_Allied_invasion_of_Germany" title="Western Allied invasion of Germany">advancing rapidly into Germany</a>, with the end of the war not far away. With France mostly liberated, a few <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_pockets" title="Atlantic pockets">pockets of German resistance</a> remained until the <a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="End of World War II in Europe">end of the war</a> in May 1945.
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<h3><span id="Gabon_.E2.80.93_November_1940"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Gabon_–_November_1940">Gabon – November 1940</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section's source code: Gabon – November 1940"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gabon" title="Battle of Gabon">Battle of Gabon</a> resulted in the Free French Forces taking the colony of French Gabon and its capital, <a href="/wiki/Libreville" title="Libreville">Libreville</a>, from Vichy French forces. It was the only significant engagement in <a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central Africa</a> during the war.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
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<h3><span id="North_Africa_.E2.80.93_November_1942"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="North_Africa_–_November_1942">North Africa – November 1942</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section's source code: North Africa – November 1942"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Torch">Torch</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section's source code: Torch"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Near_Algiers,_%22Torch%22_troops_hit_the_beaches_behind_a_large_American_flag_%22Left%22_hoping_for_the_French_Army_not_fire..._-_NARA_-_195516.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Near_Algiers%2C_%22Torch%22_troops_hit_the_beaches_behind_a_large_American_flag_%22Left%22_hoping_for_the_French_Army_not_fire..._-_NARA_-_195516.jpg/290px-Near_Algiers%2C_%22Torch%22_troops_hit_the_beaches_behind_a_large_American_flag_%22Left%22_hoping_for_the_French_Army_not_fire..._-_NARA_-_195516.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Near_Algiers%2C_%22Torch%22_troops_hit_the_beaches_behind_a_large_American_flag_%22Left%22_hoping_for_the_French_Army_not_fire..._-_NARA_-_195516.jpg/435px-Near_Algiers%2C_%22Torch%22_troops_hit_the_beaches_behind_a_large_American_flag_%22Left%22_hoping_for_the_French_Army_not_fire..._-_NARA_-_195516.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Near_Algiers%2C_%22Torch%22_troops_hit_the_beaches_behind_a_large_American_flag_%22Left%22_hoping_for_the_French_Army_not_fire..._-_NARA_-_195516.jpg/580px-Near_Algiers%2C_%22Torch%22_troops_hit_the_beaches_behind_a_large_American_flag_%22Left%22_hoping_for_the_French_Army_not_fire..._-_NARA_-_195516.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1260" /></a><figcaption>American soldiers land near <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a>. The soldier at the dune line is carrying a flag because it was hoped the French would be less likely to fire on Americans.</figcaption></figure>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Operation Torch</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Operation Torch</a>, the invasion of <a href="/wiki/French_North_Africa" title="French North Africa">French North Africa</a>, was carried out to trap Axis forces in North Africa between two Allied armies – an Anglo-American one in the west and a British and Commonwealth one in the east; this would also permit an invasion of Italy and free the Mediterranean for shipping. It would be the first ground combat operations for American troops in the west. In a three-pronged Allied assault against Vichy régime targets in French North Africa, the landing forces of Operation Torch came in at <a href="/wiki/Casablanca" title="Casablanca">Casablanca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oran" title="Oran">Oran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a>. Following <a href="/wiki/Case_Anton" title="Case Anton">Case Anton</a>, French colonial governors had found themselves taking orders from the German military administration, and did so with varying degrees of enthusiasm. The American consul in Algiers believed that Vichy forces would welcome American soldiers.
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<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Troops_making_their_way_inland.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Troops_making_their_way_inland.jpg/220px-Troops_making_their_way_inland.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Troops_making_their_way_inland.jpg/330px-Troops_making_their_way_inland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Troops_making_their_way_inland.jpg/440px-Troops_making_their_way_inland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="523" /></a><figcaption>British troops after landing at Algiers in November 1942</figcaption></figure>
<p>A Western Task Force (aimed at Casablanca) was composed of American units, with Major General George S. Patton in command and Rear Admiral <a href="/wiki/Henry_Kent_Hewitt" title="Henry Kent Hewitt">Henry Kent Hewitt</a> heading naval operations. This Western Task Force consisted of the U.S. <a href="/wiki/3rd_Infantry_Division_(United_States)" title="3rd Infantry Division (United States)">3rd</a> and <a href="/wiki/9th_Infantry_Division_(United_States)" title="9th Infantry Division (United States)">9th Infantry</a> Divisions, and two battalions from the U.S. <a href="/wiki/2nd_Armored_Division_(United_States)" title="2nd Armored Division (United States)">2nd Armored Division</a> — 35,000 troops in a convoy of over 100 ships. They were transported directly from the United States in the first of a new series of <a href="/wiki/UG_convoys" title="UG convoys">UG convoys</a> providing logistical support for the North African campaign.
</p><p>The Center Task Force, aimed at Oran, included the U.S. 2nd Battalion, <a href="/wiki/509th_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="509th Infantry Regiment (United States)">509th Parachute Infantry Regiment</a>, the U.S. <a href="/wiki/1st_Armored_Division_(United_States)" title="1st Armored Division (United States)">1st Infantry Division</a> and the U.S. 1st Armored Division—a total of 18,500 troops.
</p><p>The Eastern Task Force—aimed at Algiers—was commanded by Lieutenant-General <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Anderson_(British_Army_officer)" title="Kenneth Anderson (British Army officer)">Kenneth Anderson</a> and consisted of a brigade from the British <a href="/wiki/78th_Infantry_Division_(United_Kingdom)" title="78th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)">78th</a> and the U.S. <a href="/wiki/34th_Infantry_Division_(United_States)" title="34th Infantry Division (United States)">34th Infantry Divisions</a>, along with two British commando units (<a href="/wiki/No._1_Commando" title="No. 1 Commando">No. 1</a> and <a href="/wiki/No._6_Commando" title="No. 6 Commando">No. 6 Commandos</a>), together with the <a href="/wiki/RAF_Regiment" title="RAF Regiment">RAF Regiment</a> providing five squadrons of infantry and five Light anti-aircraft flights, totalling 20,000 troops. During the landing, ground forces were commanded by U.S. Major General <a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Ryder" title="Charles W. Ryder">Charles W. Ryder</a>, of the 34th Division and naval forces were commanded by Royal Navy Vice-Admiral Sir <a href="/wiki/Harold_Burrough" title="Harold Burrough">Harold Burrough</a>.
</p><p>The plan to install <a href="/wiki/Henri_Giraud" title="Henri Giraud">Henri Giraud</a> as governor of the freed territories did not get local support but the Vichy commander in chief of French armed forces <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Darlan" title="François Darlan">François Darlan</a> had been captured during the operation and was installed as High Commissioner, in return for which he ordered French forces in North Africa to cooperate with the Allies. Darlan was assassinated by an anti-Vichy monarchist and Giraud then took over. The Darlan deal triggered the invasion of Vichy France by Germany.
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Tunisian_campaign">Tunisian campaign</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section's source code: Tunisian campaign"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_campaign" title="Tunisian campaign">Tunisian campaign</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/French_Tunisia" class="mw-redirect" title="French Tunisia">French Tunisia</a> had been a protectorate of France since 1881, when it became part of France's colonial empire.
</p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Operation Torch</a> landings in Morocco and Algiers the Allied forces moved eastwards into Tunisia as British forces moved west following the <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="Second Battle of El Alamein">Second Battle of El Alamein</a>. The Axis forces in North Africa were reinforced but subsequently cut off from resupply and caught between the two armies. The Allies took <a href="/wiki/Bizerte" title="Bizerte">Bizerte</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a> in May 1943 and the remaining Italian and German forces in North Africa surrendered. The Allies now had all of North Africa as a base of operations against southern Europe.
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<h3><span id="Corsica_.E2.80.93_1943"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Corsica_–_1943">Corsica – 1943</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section's source code: Corsica – 1943"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:B-25J-10-_43-27425_447th_Bomb_Squadron_-_111_-_1944.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/B-25J-10-_43-27425_447th_Bomb_Squadron_-_111_-_1944.jpg/220px-B-25J-10-_43-27425_447th_Bomb_Squadron_-_111_-_1944.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/B-25J-10-_43-27425_447th_Bomb_Squadron_-_111_-_1944.jpg/330px-B-25J-10-_43-27425_447th_Bomb_Squadron_-_111_-_1944.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/B-25J-10-_43-27425_447th_Bomb_Squadron_-_111_-_1944.jpg/440px-B-25J-10-_43-27425_447th_Bomb_Squadron_-_111_-_1944.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="457" /></a><figcaption>US <a href="/wiki/B-25" class="mw-redirect" title="B-25">B-25</a> bomber at <a href="/wiki/Solenzara_Air_Base" title="Solenzara Air Base">Solenzara Air Base</a> in Corsica in late 1944.</figcaption></figure>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Corsica" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberation of Corsica">Liberation of Corsica</a></div>
<p>Except for a brief period, Corsica had been under the control of France since the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles_(1768)" title="Treaty of Versailles (1768)">Treaty of Versailles (1768)</a>. In World War II, Corsica was occupied by the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a> from November 1942, through September 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105">[100]</a></sup> Italy initially occupied the island (as well as parts of France) as part of Nazi Germany's Case Anton on 11 November 1942. At its peak, Italy had 85,000 troops on the island.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106">[101]</a></sup> There was some native support among <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Corsica" title="Italian irredentism in Corsica">Corsican irredentists</a> for the occupation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="An edit filter trapped a ref with url=lu1960.blogspot.com/2019/05/research-on-italian-corsica.html imported from Italian occupation of Corsica; this reference has been removed, leaving this portion in need of a source. (September 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a> postponed the annexation of Corsica by Italy until after an assumed Axis victory in World War II, mainly because of German opposition to the irredentist claims.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107">[102]</a></sup>
</p><p>Although there was mild support for the occupation among collaborationists<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and resistance was initially limited, it grew after the Italian invasion and by April 1943 became united, and was armed by airdrop and shipments by the Free French submarine <a href="/wiki/Casabianca_(Q183)" class="mw-redirect" title="Casabianca (Q183)">Casabianca</a> and establish some territorial control.<sup id="cite_ref-Chaubin-2003_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chaubin-2003-108">[103]</a></sup>
</p><p>After Mussolini's imprisonment in July 1943, German troops took over the occupation of Corsica. The <a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Italy" title="Allied invasion of Italy">Allied invasion of Italy</a> began 3 September 1943, leading to <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile" title="Armistice of Cassibile">Italy's surrender to the Allies</a>, with the main invasion force landing in Italy on 9 September.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The local resistance signaled an uprising for the same day, beginning the liberation of Corsica (<a href="/wiki/Operation_Vesuvius" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Vesuvius">Operation Vesuvius</a>).
</p><p>The Allies did not initially want such a movement, preferring to focus their forces on the invasion of Italy. However, in light of the insurrection, the Allies acquiesced to <a href="/wiki/Free_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Free French">Free French</a> troops landing on Corsica, starting with an elite detachment of the reconstituted <a href="/wiki/French_I_Corps" class="mw-redirect" title="French I Corps">French I Corps</a> landing (again by the submarine <i><a href="/wiki/French_submarine_Casabianca_(1935)" title="French submarine Casabianca (1935)">Casabianca</a></i>) at Arone near the village of Piana in northwest Corsica. This prompted the German troops to attack Italian troops in Corsica as well as the Resistance. The Resistance, and the Italian <a href="/wiki/44_Infantry_Division_Cremona" class="mw-redirect" title="44 Infantry Division Cremona">44 Infantry Division <i>Cremona</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/20_Infantry_Division_Friuli" class="mw-redirect" title="20 Infantry Division Friuli">20 Infantry Division <i>Friuli</i></a> engaged in heavy combat with the German <i><a href="/wiki/Sturmbrigade_Reichsf%C3%BChrer_SS" class="mw-redirect" title="Sturmbrigade Reichsführer SS">Sturmbrigade Reichsführer SS</a></i>. The <i>Sturmbrigade</i> was joined by the <a href="/wiki/90th_Light_Infantry_Division_(Wehrmacht)" title="90th Light Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)">90th Panzergrenadier Division</a> and the Italian XII Paratroopers Battalion/ 184th Paratroopers Regiment <a href="/wiki/184th_Paratroopers_Division_%22Nembo%22" title="184th Paratroopers Division "Nembo"">184th Paratroopers Division "Nembo"</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">[104]</a></sup> which were retreating from <a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a> through Corsica, from <a href="/wiki/Bonifacio,_Corse-du-Sud" title="Bonifacio, Corse-du-Sud">Bonifacio</a> to the northern port of Bastia. There were now 30,000 German troops in Corsica withdrawing via Bastia. On 13 September elements of the <a href="/wiki/4th_Moroccan_Mountain_Division" title="4th Moroccan Mountain Division">4th Moroccan Mountain Division</a> landed in <a href="/wiki/Ajaccio" title="Ajaccio">Ajaccio</a> to try to stop the Germans. During the night of 3 to 4 October, the last German units evacuated Bastia, leaving behind 700 dead and 350 <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">POWs</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h3><span id="Battle_of_Normandy_.E2.80.93_June_1944"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Battle_of_Normandy_–_June_1944">Battle of Normandy – June 1944</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section's source code: Battle of Normandy – June 1944"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Operation Overlord</a> and <a href="/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">Normandy landings</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Battle_for_Caen" title="Battle for Caen">Battle for Caen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cherbourg" title="Battle of Cherbourg">Battle of Cherbourg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Operation_Cobra" title="Operation Cobra">Operation Cobra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Falaise_Pocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Falaise Pocket">Falaise Pocket</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Operation_Marathon_(World_War_II)" title="Operation Marathon (World War II)">Operation Marathon (World War II)</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_commandos_of_1st_Special_Service_Brigade,_led_by_Lord_Lovat,_landing_on_%27Queen_Red%27_sector_of_Sword_Beach,_at_La_Breche,_on_the_morning_of_6_June_1944._B5103.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/British_commandos_of_1st_Special_Service_Brigade%2C_led_by_Lord_Lovat%2C_landing_on_%27Queen_Red%27_sector_of_Sword_Beach%2C_at_La_Breche%2C_on_the_morning_of_6_June_1944._B5103.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/British_commandos_of_1st_Special_Service_Brigade%2C_led_by_Lord_Lovat%2C_landing_on_%27Queen_Red%27_sector_of_Sword_Beach%2C_at_La_Breche%2C_on_the_morning_of_6_June_1944._B5103.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/British_commandos_of_1st_Special_Service_Brigade%2C_led_by_Lord_Lovat%2C_landing_on_%27Queen_Red%27_sector_of_Sword_Beach%2C_at_La_Breche%2C_on_the_morning_of_6_June_1944._B5103.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1805" data-file-height="1772" /></a><figcaption>British troops wading ashore at La Breche, <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a>, France 6 June 1944</figcaption></figure>
<p><a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Operation Overlord</a> was launched on 6 June 1944 with troops landing in Normandy. Attacks by 1,200 planes preceded an amphibious assault by more than 5,000 vessels. Nearly 160,000 troops crossed the English Channel on 6 June.
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Normandy" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Normandy">Battle of Normandy</a> was won due to what is still today the largest ever military landing logistical operation; it brought three million soldiers, mostly American, British, and French, over the Channel from Britain.
</p><p>Some of the German Army units they met in this operation were <i><a href="/wiki/Ostlegionen" title="Ostlegionen">Ostlegionen</a></i>, part of the German <a href="/wiki/German_243rd_Static_Infantry_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="German 243rd Static Infantry Division">243rd</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_709th_Static_Infantry_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="German 709th Static Infantry Division">709th</a> Static Infantry Divisions, near the <a href="/wiki/Utah_beach" class="mw-redirect" title="Utah beach">Utah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Juno_beach" class="mw-redirect" title="Juno beach">Juno</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sword_beach" class="mw-redirect" title="Sword beach">Sword</a> invasion beaches.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110">[105]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (February 2021)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NormandySupply_edit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/NormandySupply_edit.jpg/220px-NormandySupply_edit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/NormandySupply_edit.jpg/330px-NormandySupply_edit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/NormandySupply_edit.jpg/440px-NormandySupply_edit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2804" data-file-height="2150" /></a><figcaption>Vast amounts of men and equipment were landed on the Normandy beaches</figcaption></figure>
<p>The British intelligence organization, <a href="/wiki/MI9" title="MI9">MI9</a>, created <a href="/wiki/Operation_Marathon_(World_War_II)" title="Operation Marathon (World War II)">Operation Marathon</a> to gather downed airmen into isolated forest camps where they would await their rescue by allied military forces advancing after the Normandy Invasion of June 6, 1944. The <a href="/wiki/Comet_Line" title="Comet Line">Comet Line</a>, a Belgian/French escape line, operated the forest camps with financial and logistical help from <a href="/wiki/MI9" title="MI9">MI9</a>, which also provided support for Operation Bonaparte, another escape and evasion line for downed airmen in Normandy.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111">[106]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span id="Paris_.E2.80.93_August_1944"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Paris_–_August_1944">Paris – August 1944</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section's source code: Paris – August 1944"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crowds_of_French_patriots_line_the_Champs_Elysees-edit2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Crowds_of_French_patriots_line_the_Champs_Elysees-edit2.jpg/220px-Crowds_of_French_patriots_line_the_Champs_Elysees-edit2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Crowds_of_French_patriots_line_the_Champs_Elysees-edit2.jpg/330px-Crowds_of_French_patriots_line_the_Champs_Elysees-edit2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Crowds_of_French_patriots_line_the_Champs_Elysees-edit2.jpg/440px-Crowds_of_French_patriots_line_the_Champs_Elysees-edit2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7210" data-file-height="5663" /></a><figcaption>Parade on the <a href="/wiki/Champs_Elysees" class="mw-redirect" title="Champs Elysees">Champs Elysees</a>, 26 August 1944 after Liberation</figcaption></figure>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris" title="Liberation of Paris">Liberation of Paris</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Paris_in_World_War_II" title="Paris in World War II">Paris in World War II</a></div>
<p>The Liberation of Paris was an urban military battle that took place over the period of a week from 19 August 1944 until the German garrison surrendered the French capital on 25 August 1944. Paris had been ruled by Nazi Germany since the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Armistice_with_France_(Second_Compi%C3%A8gne)" class="mw-redirect" title="Armistice with France (Second Compiègne)">Armistice</a> on 22 June 1940, after which the <i><a href="/wiki/Wehrmacht" title="Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Nazi_occupation_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi occupation of France">occupied northern and western France</a>.
</p><p>As the final phase of Operation Overlord was still going on in August 1944, Eisenhower was not considering the liberation of Paris to be a primary objective. The goal of the U.S. and Anglo-Canadian armed forces was to destroy the German forces, and end World War II in Europe, to allow the Allies to concentrate their efforts on the Pacific war.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">[107]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span id="Uprising_.E2.80.93_15_August"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Uprising_–_15_August">Uprising – 15 August</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section's source code: Uprising – 15 August"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lot_4568-2_(19583145252).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Lot_4568-2_%2819583145252%29.jpg/220px-Lot_4568-2_%2819583145252%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Lot_4568-2_%2819583145252%29.jpg/330px-Lot_4568-2_%2819583145252%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Lot_4568-2_%2819583145252%29.jpg/440px-Lot_4568-2_%2819583145252%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2839" data-file-height="2060" /></a><figcaption>Armored vehicles of the 2nd Armored Division fighting at the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Palais_Garnier" title="Palais Garnier">Palais Garnier</a></span></span>, a German tank in flames (Aug 25)</figcaption></figure>
<p>As the French Resistance began to rise in Paris against the Germans on 15 August, Eisenhower stated that it was too early for an assault on Paris. He was also aware that <a href="/wiki/Hitler" class="mw-redirect" title="Hitler">Hitler</a> had ordered the German military to completely destroy the city in the event of an Allied attack, and Paris was considered to have too great a value, culturally and historically, to risk its destruction.
</p><p>On 15 August employees of the <a href="/wiki/Paris_M%C3%A9tro" title="Paris Métro">Paris Métro</a>, the <a href="/wiki/French_Gendarmerie" class="mw-redirect" title="French Gendarmerie">Gendarmerie</a>, and <a href="/wiki/National_Police_(France)" title="National Police (France)">National Police</a> went on strike; postal workers followed the next day. They were soon joined by workers across the city, causing a <a href="/wiki/General_strike" title="General strike">general strike</a> to break out on 18 August. Barricades began to appear on 20 August, with Resistance fighters organizing themselves to sustain a siege. Trucks were positioned, trees cut down, and trenches were dug in the pavement to free paving stones for consolidating the barricades.
</p><p>Skirmishes reached their peak on 22 August, when some German units tried to leave their fortifications. At 09:00 on 23 August, under the orders of <a href="/wiki/Dietrich_von_Choltitz" title="Dietrich von Choltitz">Dietrich von Choltitz</a>, commander of the German garrison and military governor of Paris, the Germans opened fire on the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Palais" title="Grand Palais">Grand Palais</a>, an FFI stronghold, and German tanks fired at the barricades in the streets. Adolf Hitler gave the order to inflict maximum damage on the city.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113">[108]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span id="Allied_arrival_.E2.80.93_24.E2.80.9325_August"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Allied_arrival_–_24–25_August">Allied arrival – 24–25 August</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section's source code: Allied arrival – 24–25 August"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>The liberation began when the FFI staged an uprising against the German garrison upon the approach of General Patton's <a href="/wiki/US_Third_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="US Third Army">US Third Army</a>. On the night of 24 August, elements of General <a href="/wiki/Philippe_Leclerc" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippe Leclerc">Philippe Leclerc</a>'s <a href="/wiki/2nd_Armored_Division_(France)" title="2nd Armored Division (France)">2nd Armored Division</a> made their way into Paris and arrived at the <a href="/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_de_Ville,_Paris" title="Hôtel de Ville, Paris">Hôtel de Ville</a> shortly before midnight. The next morning, 25 August, the bulk of the 2nd Armored Division and the <a href="/wiki/4th_Infantry_Division_(United_States)" title="4th Infantry Division (United States)">US 4th Infantry Division</a> and other allied units entered the city. von Choltitz surrendered to the French at the <a href="/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_Meurice" class="mw-redirect" title="Hôtel Meurice">Hôtel Meurice</a>, the newly established French headquarters. de Gaulle arrived to assume control of the city.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>It is estimated that between 800 and 1,000 Resistance fighters were killed during the Battle for Paris, and another 1,500 were wounded.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114">[109]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span id="German_surrender_.E2.80.93_25_August"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="German_surrender_–_25_August">German surrender – 25 August</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section's source code: German surrender – 25 August"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:American_troops_march_down_the_Champs_Elysees_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/American_troops_march_down_the_Champs_Elysees_crop.jpg/220px-American_troops_march_down_the_Champs_Elysees_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/American_troops_march_down_the_Champs_Elysees_crop.jpg/330px-American_troops_march_down_the_Champs_Elysees_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/American_troops_march_down_the_Champs_Elysees_crop.jpg/440px-American_troops_march_down_the_Champs_Elysees_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1078" data-file-height="739" /></a><figcaption>U.S. 28th Infantry Division in the "Victory Day" parade on 29 August</figcaption></figure>
<p>Despite repeated orders from Adolf Hitler that the French capital be destroyed before being given up, Choltitz surrendered on 25 August at the Hôtel Meurice. He then signed the official surrender at the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Police_Prefecture" title="Paris Police Prefecture">Paris Police Prefecture</a>. Choltitz later described himself in <i>Is Paris Burning?</i> (<i>Brennt Paris?</i>) as the saviour of Paris, for not blowing it up before surrendering.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115">[110]</a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Liberation_of_Paris,_25_-_26_August_1944_HU66477.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/The_Liberation_of_Paris%2C_25_-_26_August_1944_HU66477.jpg/220px-The_Liberation_of_Paris%2C_25_-_26_August_1944_HU66477.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/The_Liberation_of_Paris%2C_25_-_26_August_1944_HU66477.jpg/330px-The_Liberation_of_Paris%2C_25_-_26_August_1944_HU66477.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/The_Liberation_of_Paris%2C_25_-_26_August_1944_HU66477.jpg/440px-The_Liberation_of_Paris%2C_25_-_26_August_1944_HU66477.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2480" data-file-height="1819" /></a><figcaption>De Gaulle and his entourage stroll down the Champs Élysées on August 26</figcaption></figure>
<p>The same day, Charles <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span>, President of the Provisional Government of the French Republic moved back into the War Ministry and made a rousing speech to the crowd from the Hôtel de Ville. The day after <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span>'s speech, General Leclerc's 2nd Armored Division paraded down the <a href="/wiki/Champs-%C3%89lys%C3%A9es" title="Champs-Élysées">Champs-Élysées</a>, while <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span> marched down the boulevard and entered the <a href="/wiki/Place_de_la_Concorde" title="Place de la Concorde">Place de la Concorde</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116">[111]</a></sup> On 29 August, the U.S. Army's <a href="/wiki/U.S._28th_Infantry_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. 28th Infantry Division">28th Infantry Division</a> paraded 24-abreast up the <i><a href="/wiki/Avenue_Hoche" title="Avenue Hoche">Avenue Hoche</a></i> to the <a href="/wiki/Arc_de_Triomphe" title="Arc de Triomphe">Arc de Triomphe</a>, then down the Champs Élysées, greeted by joyous crowds.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117">[112]</a></sup>
</p><p>The uprising in Paris gave the newly established Free French government and <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span>, enough prestige and authority to establish a provisional French Republic, replacing the fallen Vichy regime,<sup id="cite_ref-charles1_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-charles1-118">[113]</a></sup> which had <a href="#End_of_Vichy">fled into exile</a>.
</p>
<h3><span id="Southern_France_.E2.80.93_August_1944"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Southern_France_–_August_1944">Southern France – August 1944</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section's source code: Southern France – August 1944"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Operation_Dragoon_invasion_fleet_1944.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Operation_Dragoon_invasion_fleet_1944.jpg/220px-Operation_Dragoon_invasion_fleet_1944.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Operation_Dragoon_invasion_fleet_1944.jpg/330px-Operation_Dragoon_invasion_fleet_1944.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Operation_Dragoon_invasion_fleet_1944.jpg/440px-Operation_Dragoon_invasion_fleet_1944.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="661" /></a><figcaption>The Operation Dragoon invasion fleet on the <a href="/wiki/French_Riviera" title="French Riviera">French Riviera</a></figcaption></figure>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon">Operation Dragoon</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_and_Middle_East_Theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean and Middle East Theatre">Mediterranean and Middle East Theatre</a></div>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Planning_and_goals">Planning and goals</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section's source code: Planning and goals"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>When first planned, the <a href="/wiki/Southern_France_Campaign_(1944)" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern France Campaign (1944)">campaign in southern France</a> and the landings in Normandy were to take place simultaneously—Operation Overlord in Normandy, and "Anvil" (as the southern campaign was originally called) in the south of France. A dual landing was soon recognized to be impossible; the southern campaign was postponed. The ports in Normandy had insufficient capacity to handle Allied military supply needs and French generals under <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span> pressed for a direct attack on southern France with the participation of French troops. Despite objections by Churchill, the operation was authorized by the Allied <a href="/wiki/Combined_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Combined Chiefs of Staff">Combined Chiefs of Staff</a> on 14<span class="nowrap"> </span>July and scheduled for 15<span class="nowrap"> </span>August.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYeide200713_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYeide200713-119">[114]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZaloga20096–8_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaloga20096–8-120">[115]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETucker-Jones201069_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker-Jones201069-121">[116]</a></sup>
</p><p>The goal of the southern France campaign, now known as Operation Dragoon was to secure the vital ports on the French Mediterranean coast (of Marseille and Toulon.) and pressure German forces with another front. The US <a href="/wiki/VI_Corps_(United_States)" title="VI Corps (United States)">VI Corps</a> landed on the beaches of the <a href="/wiki/French_Riviera" title="French Riviera">French Riviera</a> (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Côte d'Azur</i></span>) on 15 August 1944 shielded by a large naval task force, followed by several divisions of French Army B (commanded by <a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Lattre_de_Tassigny" title="Jean de Lattre de Tassigny">Jean de Lattre de Tassigny</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPogue1986227_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPogue1986227-122">[117]</a></sup>).
</p><p>They were opposed by the scattered forces of the German <a href="/wiki/Army_Group_G" title="Army Group G">Army Group G</a>, (<i>Heeresgruppe<span class="nowrap"> </span>G</i>) which had been weakened by the relocation of its divisions to other fronts and the replacement of its soldiers with third-rate men outfitted with obsolete equipment. The Army was understrength, most of the units having been sent north earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogel1983588–598_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogel1983588–598-123">[118]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClarkeSmith199363_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarkeSmith199363-124">[119]</a></sup> The units that were present were spread thinly, made up of second rate units from eastern Europe (<i><a href="/wiki/Ostlegionen" title="Ostlegionen">Ostlegionen</a></i>) with low morale and poor equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogel1983588–598_123-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogel1983588–598-123">[118]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZaloga200916–19_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaloga200916–19-125">[120]</a></sup> The coastal defenses had been improved by the Vichy regime and later improved by the Germans after they took over in November 1942.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETucker-Jones201078_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker-Jones201078-126">[121]</a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anvildragoon.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Anvildragoon.png/220px-Anvildragoon.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Anvildragoon.png/330px-Anvildragoon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Anvildragoon.png/440px-Anvildragoon.png 2x" data-file-width="690" data-file-height="556" /></a><figcaption>Allied invasion of southern France in <a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon">Operation Dragoon</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>The FFI played a major role in the fighting.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZaloga20098,_29_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaloga20098,_29-127">[122]</a></sup> The Allied ground and naval forces were supported by a fleet of 3470 planes, mostly stationed on Corsica and Sardinia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogel1983584–586_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogel1983584–586-128">[123]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 14 August, preliminary landings took place in the <a href="/wiki/Hy%C3%A8res_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyères Islands">Hyères Islands</a> by the <a href="/wiki/First_Special_Service_Force" title="First Special Service Force">First Special Service Force</a>, a joint U.S.-Canadian special-forces unit, to secure a staging area and for amphibious landing training. After sporadic resistance, driving the German garrison to the western part of the island, the Germans surrendered on 17 August. The Force transferred to the mainland, becoming part of the <a href="/wiki/1st_Airborne_Task_Force_(Allied)" title="1st Airborne Task Force (Allied)">First Airborne Task Force</a>. Meanwhile, French commandos were active to the west in <a href="/wiki/Operation_Romeo" title="Operation Romeo">Operation Romeo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Operation_Span" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Span">Operation Span</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZaloga200936–41_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaloga200936–41-129">[124]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogel1983597_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogel1983597-130">[125]</a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Liberation_of_Marseille,_August_1944.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Liberation_of_Marseille%2C_August_1944.jpg/220px-Liberation_of_Marseille%2C_August_1944.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Liberation_of_Marseille%2C_August_1944.jpg/330px-Liberation_of_Marseille%2C_August_1944.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Liberation_of_Marseille%2C_August_1944.jpg/440px-Liberation_of_Marseille%2C_August_1944.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="2480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Lattre_de_Tassigny" title="Jean de Lattre de Tassigny">Jean de Lattre de Tassigny</a> walking through the liberated city of Marseille</figcaption></figure>
<p>Hindered by Allied <a href="/wiki/Air_supremacy" title="Air supremacy">air supremacy</a> and a large-scale uprising by the FFI, the weak German forces were swiftly defeated. The Germans withdrew to the north through the <a href="/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne" title="Rhône">Rhône</a> valley, to establish a stable defense line at Dijon. Allied mobile units were able to overtake the Germans and partially block their route at the town of <a href="/wiki/Mont%C3%A9limar" title="Montélimar">Montélimar</a>. The ensuing battle led to a stalemate, with neither side able to achieve a decisive breakthrough, until the Germans were finally able to complete their withdrawal and retreat from the town. While the Germans were retreating, the French managed to capture the important ports of <a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseille</a> and <a href="/wiki/Toulon" title="Toulon">Toulon</a>, putting them into operation soon after.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>The Germans were not able to hold Dijon and ordered a complete withdrawal from Southern France. Army Group<span class="nowrap"> </span>G retreated further north, pursued by Allied forces. The fighting ultimately came to a stop at the <a href="/wiki/Vosges_mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Vosges mountains">Vosges mountains</a>, where Army Group<span class="nowrap"> </span>G was finally able to establish a stable defense line. After meeting with the Allied units from Operation Overlord, the Allied forces were in need of reorganizing and, facing stiffened German resistance, the offensive was halted on 14<span class="nowrap"> </span>September. Operation Dragoon was considered a success by the Allies. It enabled them to liberate most of Southern France in just four weeks while inflicting heavy casualties on the German forces, although a substantial part of the best German units were able to escape. The captured French ports were put into operation, allowing the Allies to solve their supply problems soon after.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h3><span id="Eastern_France_.E2.80.93_Autumn_1944"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Eastern_France_–_Autumn_1944">Eastern France – Autumn 1944</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section's source code: Eastern France – Autumn 1944"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1097763485"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Liberation_of_France" title="Special:EditPage/Liberation of France">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Allied_advance_from_Paris_to_the_Rhine" class="mw-redirect" title="Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine">Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clearing_the_Channel_Coast" title="Clearing the Channel Coast">Clearing the Channel Coast</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lorraine_campaign" title="Lorraine campaign">Lorraine campaign</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alsace" title="Battle of Alsace">Battle of Alsace</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_Normandy_1944_B9743.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/The_British_Army_in_Normandy_1944_B9743.jpg/220px-The_British_Army_in_Normandy_1944_B9743.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/The_British_Army_in_Normandy_1944_B9743.jpg/330px-The_British_Army_in_Normandy_1944_B9743.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/The_British_Army_in_Normandy_1944_B9743.jpg/440px-The_British_Army_in_Normandy_1944_B9743.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="798" /></a><figcaption>British infantry of the 1st Battalion, <a href="/wiki/Royal_Hampshire_Regiment" title="Royal Hampshire Regiment">Hampshire Regiment</a> crossing the Seine at <a href="/wiki/Vernon,_Eure" title="Vernon, Eure">Vernon</a>, 28 August 1944.</figcaption></figure>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/First_Canadian_Army" title="First Canadian Army">First Canadian Army</a> <a href="/wiki/Clearing_the_Channel_Coast" title="Clearing the Channel Coast">liberated the French coast</a> from Normandy to the Low Countries. Hitler had ordered the troops occupying them to <a href="/wiki/German_World_War_II_strongholds" class="mw-redirect" title="German World War II strongholds">hold them at all costs</a> but using isolation and coordinated bombardment, the ports were reduced.
</p><p>Fighting on the Western front seemed to stabilize, and the Allied advance stalled in front of the <a href="/wiki/Siegfried_Line#Clashes_on_the_Siegfried_Line" title="Siegfried Line">Siegfried Line</a> (<i>Westwall</i>) and the southern reaches of the Rhine. Starting in early September, the Americans began slow and bloody fighting through the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hurtgen_Forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Hurtgen Forest">Hurtgen Forest</a> (described by <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Hemingway" title="Ernest Hemingway">Ernest Hemingway</a> as "<a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Passchendaele" title="Battle of Passchendaele">Passchendaele</a> with tree bursts"—) to breach the Line.
</p><p>American forces fought from September until mid-December to push the Germans out of Lorraine and from behind the Siegfried Line. The crossing of the <a href="/wiki/Moselle_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Moselle River">Moselle River</a> and the capture of the fortress of <a href="/wiki/Metz" title="Metz">Metz</a> proved difficult for the American troops in the face of German reinforcements, supply shortages, and unfavorable weather. During September and October, the Allied <a href="/wiki/6th_Army_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="6th Army Group">6th Army Group</a> (<a href="/wiki/Seventh_United_States_Army" title="Seventh United States Army">U.S. Seventh Army</a> and <a href="/wiki/First_Army_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="First Army (France)">French First Army</a>) fought a difficult campaign through the <a href="/wiki/Vosges_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Vosges Mountains">Vosges Mountains</a> that was marked by dogged German resistance and slow advances. In November, however, the German front snapped under the pressure, resulting in sudden Allied advances that liberated <a href="/wiki/Belfort" title="Belfort">Belfort</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mulhouse" title="Mulhouse">Mulhouse</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a>, and placed Allied forces along the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine River</a>. The Germans managed to hold a large bridgehead (the <a href="/wiki/Colmar_Pocket" title="Colmar Pocket">Colmar Pocket</a>), on the western bank of the Rhine and centered around the city of <a href="/wiki/Colmar" title="Colmar">Colmar</a>. On 16 November the Allies started a large scale autumn offensive called <a href="/wiki/Operation_Queen" title="Operation Queen">Operation Queen</a>. With its main thrust again through the <a href="/wiki/Hurtgen_Forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurtgen Forest">Hürtgen Forest</a>, the offensive drove the Allies to the <a href="/wiki/Rur_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Rur River">Rur River</a>, but failed in its core objectives to capture the Rur dams and pave the way towards the Rhine. The Allied operations were then succeeded by the German Ardennes offensive.
</p>
<h3><span id="Pockets_of_German_resistance_.E2.80.93_to_May_1945"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Pockets_of_German_resistance_–_to_May_1945">Pockets of German resistance – to May 1945</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section's source code: Pockets of German resistance – to May 1945"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_pockets" title="Atlantic pockets">Atlantic pockets</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Allied_siege_of_La_Rochelle" title="Allied siege of La Rochelle">Allied siege of La Rochelle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Battle of the Atlantic</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Free_French_armoured_car_which_participated_to_the_liberation_of_La_Rochelle_in_1945.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Free_French_armoured_car_which_participated_to_the_liberation_of_La_Rochelle_in_1945.jpg/220px-Free_French_armoured_car_which_participated_to_the_liberation_of_La_Rochelle_in_1945.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Free_French_armoured_car_which_participated_to_the_liberation_of_La_Rochelle_in_1945.jpg/330px-Free_French_armoured_car_which_participated_to_the_liberation_of_La_Rochelle_in_1945.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Free_French_armoured_car_which_participated_to_the_liberation_of_La_Rochelle_in_1945.jpg/440px-Free_French_armoured_car_which_participated_to_the_liberation_of_La_Rochelle_in_1945.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/French_Army" title="French Army">French Army</a> armored car which participated in the liberation of <a href="/wiki/La_Rochelle" title="La Rochelle">La Rochelle</a> in 1945. <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Orbigny-Bernon" class="mw-redirect" title="Musée d'Orbigny-Bernon">Musée d'Orbigny-Bernon</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>The pocket of La Rochelle was a zone of German resistance at the end of the Second World War. It was made up of the city of La Rochelle, the submarine base at <a href="/wiki/La_Pallice" title="La Pallice">La Pallice</a>, of the <a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele_de_R%C3%A9" title="Île de Ré">Île de Ré</a> and of most of the <a href="/wiki/Ol%C3%A9ron" title="Oléron">Ile d'Oléron</a> (the southern part of the island was part of the <a href="/wiki/Royan_pocket" title="Royan pocket">Royan pocket</a>).
</p>
<h2><span id="Victory_.E2.80.93_7_May_1945"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Victory_–_7_May_1945">Victory – 7 May 1945</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section's source code: Victory – 7 May 1945"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)#End_of_the_Third_Reich" title="Western Front (World War II)">Western Front (World War II) § End of the Third Reich</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II#End_of_the_war_in_Europe" title="European theatre of World War II">European theatre of World War II § End of the war in Europe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="End of World War II in Europe">End of World War II in Europe</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Journal_American_5659.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Journal_American_5659.JPG/170px-Journal_American_5659.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Journal_American_5659.JPG/255px-Journal_American_5659.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Journal_American_5659.JPG/340px-Journal_American_5659.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2417" data-file-height="3221" /></a><figcaption>Journal American of 7 May 1945 announcing Victory in Europe (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_Reddition&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Musée de la Reddition (page does not exist)">Musée de la Reddition</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_Reddition" class="extiw" title="fr:Musée de la Reddition">fr</a>]</sup>)</figcaption></figure>
<p>Victory in Europe was achieved on 7 May 1945. <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Death of Adolf Hitler">Hitler committed suicide</a> on 30 April during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Berlin" title="Battle of Berlin">Battle of Berlin</a> and Germany's surrender was authorised by his successor, <i><a href="/wiki/Reichspr%C3%A4sident" class="mw-redirect" title="Reichspräsident">Reichspräsident</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Karl_D%C3%B6nitz" title="Karl Dönitz">Karl Dönitz</a> leader of the rump administration <a href="/wiki/Flensburg_Government" title="Flensburg Government">Flensburg Government</a>. The act of military surrender was first signed at 02:41 on 7 May in <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Headquarters_Allied_Expeditionary_Force" title="Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force">SHAEF</a> HQ at <a href="/wiki/Reims" title="Reims">Reims</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131">[126]</a></sup> and a slightly modified document, considered the definitive <a href="/wiki/German_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="German Instrument of Surrender">German Instrument of Surrender</a>, was signed on 8 May 1945 in <a href="/wiki/Karlshorst" title="Karlshorst">Karlshorst</a>, <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> at 21:20 local time.
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1211633275"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The German High Command will at once issue orders to all German military, naval and air authorities and to all forces under German control to cease active operations at 23.01 hours Central European time on 8 May 1945...</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/German_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="German Instrument of Surrender">German Instrument of Surrender</a>, Article 2</cite></div></blockquote>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Aftermath">Aftermath</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section's source code: Aftermath"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>By the autumn of 1944, Paris and the northern part of France were in Allied hands following Normandy campaign, and the southern part of France was free in the wake of the success of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon">Operation Dragoon</a>. Except for a few Atlantic pockets, the Allies were in full control of France, freeing their military forces to push eastward across the Rhine into Germany and towards Berlin.
</p><p>Meanwhile, liberation of most of metropolitan France unleashed several other overlapping events. The <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government</a>, already in existence since June 1944, moved back to the capital after Paris was liberated in late August, where it piloted an orderly transition back to <a href="/wiki/Republican_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Republican government">republican government</a>. The Vichy regime held its last meeting on 17 August 1944, before fleeing into exile in Sigmaringen, Germany.
</p><p>Within France, a wave of assaults, <a href="/wiki/Extra-judicial_execution" class="mw-redirect" title="Extra-judicial execution">extra-judicial executions</a>, and public humiliations followed of suspected collaborators, particularly of women who had consorted with German men.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132">[127]</a></sup> This was known as the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">épuration sauvage</i></span> ("wild purge"). At least 20,000 French women had their heads shorn. Many women in Normandy reported <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_liberation_of_France" title="Rape during the liberation of France">rapes by American soldiers</a>; several were subsequently executed.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133">[128]</a></sup>
</p><p>A series of <a href="/wiki/%C3%89puration_l%C3%A9gale" title="Épuration légale">legal purges</a> followed, ordered by courts set up for the purpose. The first free municipal elections since before the war were organized by the Provisional Government in May 1945, and women voted for the first time. The new <a href="/wiki/French_Constitution_of_27_October_1946" title="French Constitution of 27 October 1946">Constitution</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_French_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth French Republic">Fourth French Republic</a> was accepted in October 1946.
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="End_of_Vichy">End of Vichy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section's source code: End of Vichy"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sigmaringen_schloss.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Sigmaringen_schloss.jpg/220px-Sigmaringen_schloss.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Sigmaringen_schloss.jpg/330px-Sigmaringen_schloss.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Sigmaringen_schloss.jpg/440px-Sigmaringen_schloss.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3643" data-file-height="2770" /></a><figcaption>The Vichy government moved to the castle in <a href="/wiki/Sigmaringen" title="Sigmaringen">Sigmaringen</a>, Germany</figcaption></figure>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France#Decline_of_the_regime" title="Vichy France">Vichy France § Decline of the regime</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Sigmaringen_enclave" title="Sigmaringen enclave">Sigmaringen enclave</a></div>
<p>Under pressure from the advancing Allied forces, Pierre Laval held the last government council on 17 August 1944, with five ministers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrissaud1965504–505_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrissaud1965504–505-134">[129]</a></sup> With permission from the Germans, he attempted to call back the prior <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly" title="National Assembly">National Assembly</a> with the goal of giving it power<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPaxton-fr1997382–383_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaxton-fr1997382–383-135">[130]</a></sup> and thus impeding the communists and <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKupferman2006520–525_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKupferman2006520–525-136">[131]</a></sup> He obtained the agreement of German ambassador <a href="/wiki/Otto_Abetz" title="Otto Abetz">Otto Abetz</a> to bring <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Herriot" title="Édouard Herriot">Édouard Herriot</a>, (President of the <a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_(France)" title="Chamber of Deputies (France)">Chamber of Deputies</a>) back to Paris.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKupferman2006520–525_136-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKupferman2006520–525-136">[131]</a></sup> But ultra-<a href="/wiki/Collaborationists" class="mw-redirect" title="Collaborationists">collaborationists</a> <a href="/wiki/Marcel_D%C3%A9at" title="Marcel Déat">Marcel Déat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fernand_de_Brinon" title="Fernand de Brinon">Fernand de Brinon</a> protested to the Germans, who changed their minds<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrissaud1965491–492_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrissaud1965491–492-137">[132]</a></sup> and took Laval to <a href="/wiki/Belfort" title="Belfort">Belfort</a> on 20 August 1944<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJäckel-fr1968495_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJäckel-fr1968495-138">[133]</a></sup> along with the remains of his government, "to assure its legitimate security", along with Petain, and arrested Herriot.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKupferman2006527–529_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKupferman2006527–529-139">[134]</a></sup>
</p><p>A governmental commission directed by Fernand de Brinon was proclaimed on 6 September.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAron196240,_45_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAron196240,_45-140">[135]</a></sup> On 7 September, they were taken ahead of the advancing Allied Forces out of France to the town of Sigmaringen, where other Vichy officials were already present, arriving on the 8th.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAron196241–45_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAron196241–45-141">[136]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Sigmaringen_Castle" title="Sigmaringen Castle">Sigmaringen Castle</a> was occupied and used by the Vichy government-in-exile from September 1944 to April 1945. Pétain resided at the Castle, but refused to cooperate and kept mostly to himself,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAron196240,_45_140-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAron196240,_45-140">[135]</a></sup> and ex-Prime Minister Laval also refused.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAron196281–82_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAron196281–82-142">[137]</a></sup> Despite the efforts of the collaborationists and the Germans, Pétain never recognized the Sigmaringen Commission.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESautermeister201313_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESautermeister201313-143">[138]</a></sup> The Germans, wanting to present a facade of legality, enlisted other Vichy officials such as <a href="/wiki/Fernand_de_Brinon" title="Fernand de Brinon">Fernand de Brinon</a> as president, along with <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Darnand" title="Joseph Darnand">Joseph Darnand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Luchaire" title="Jean Luchaire">Jean Luchaire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Bridoux" title="Eugène Bridoux">Eugène Bridoux</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcel_D%C3%A9at" title="Marcel Déat">Marcel Déat</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERousso199951–59_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERousso199951–59-144">[139]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 7 September 1944,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBéglé2014_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBéglé2014-145">[140]</a></sup> fleeing the advance of Allied troops into France, a thousand French collaborators (including a hundred officials of the Vichy regime, a few hundred members of the <a href="/wiki/French_Militia" class="mw-redirect" title="French Militia">French Militia</a>, collaborationist party militants, and the editorial staff of the newspaper <i><a href="/wiki/Je_suis_partout" title="Je suis partout">Je suis partout</a></i>) but also waiting-game opportunists<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146">[f]</a></sup> also went into exile in Sigmaringen.
</p><p>The commission had its own radio station (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Radio-patrie, Ici la France</i></span>) and an official press (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">La France</i></span>, <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Petit_Parisien" title="Le Petit Parisien">Le Petit Parisien</a></i>), and hosted the embassies of the Axis powers: Germany, Italy and Japan. The population of the enclave was about 6,000, including known collaborationist journalists, the writers <a href="/wiki/Louis-Ferdinand_C%C3%A9line" title="Louis-Ferdinand Céline">Louis-Ferdinand Céline</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lucien_Rebatet" title="Lucien Rebatet">Lucien Rebatet</a>, the actor <a href="/wiki/Robert_Le_Vigan" title="Robert Le Vigan">Robert Le Vigan</a> and their families, as well as 500 soldiers, 700 French SS, prisoners of war and STO workers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2001567–568_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2001567–568-147">[141]</a></sup> Inadequate housing, insufficient food, promiscuity among the paramilitaries, and lack of hygiene facilitated the spread of numerous illnesses including <a href="/wiki/Flu" class="mw-redirect" title="Flu">flu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>, and a high mortality rate among children. The only two French doctors, Doctor Destouches, alias (<a href="/wiki/Louis-Ferdinand_C%C3%A9line" title="Louis-Ferdinand Céline">Louis-Ferdinand Céline</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Bernard_M%C3%A9n%C3%A9trel" title="Bernard Ménétrel">Bernard Ménétrel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBéglé2014_145-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBéglé2014-145">[140]</a></sup> treated these ailments as best they could.
</p><p>On 21 April 1945 <a href="/wiki/General_de_Lattre" class="mw-redirect" title="General de Lattre">General de Lattre</a> ordered his forces to take Sigmaringen. The end came within days. By the 26th, Pétain was in the hands of French authorities in Switzerland,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAron196248–49_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAron196248–49-148">[142]</a></sup> and Laval had fled to Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAron196281–82_142-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAron196281–82-142">[137]</a></sup> Brinon,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECointet2014426_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECointet2014426-149">[143]</a></sup> Luchaire, and Darnand were captured, tried, and executed by 1947. Other members escaped to Italy or Spain.
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Justice_and_retribution">Justice and retribution</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section's source code: Justice and retribution"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France#Purges" title="Vichy France">Vichy France § Purges</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Collaborationism#France" class="mw-redirect" title="Collaborationism">Collaborationism § France</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-041-10,_Paris,_der_Kollaboration_beschuldigte_Franz%C3%B6sinnen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-041-10%2C_Paris%2C_der_Kollaboration_beschuldigte_Franz%C3%B6sinnen.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-041-10%2C_Paris%2C_der_Kollaboration_beschuldigte_Franz%C3%B6sinnen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-041-10%2C_Paris%2C_der_Kollaboration_beschuldigte_Franz%C3%B6sinnen.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-041-10%2C_Paris%2C_der_Kollaboration_beschuldigte_Franz%C3%B6sinnen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-041-10%2C_Paris%2C_der_Kollaboration_beschuldigte_Franz%C3%B6sinnen.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-041-10%2C_Paris%2C_der_Kollaboration_beschuldigte_Franz%C3%B6sinnen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="792" data-file-height="529" /></a><figcaption>French women accused of <a href="/wiki/Collaboration_with_Nazi_Germany_and_Fascist_Italy#France" title="Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy">collaboration with the enemy</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Occupied_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupied France">occupation</a> are led through the streets of Paris barefoot, faces burnt, and with their heads shaved.</figcaption></figure>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Extrajudicial_purges">Extrajudicial purges</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section's source code: Extrajudicial purges"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/%C3%89puration_sauvage" class="mw-redirect" title="Épuration sauvage">Épuration sauvage</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_collaboration" title="Horizontal collaboration">Horizontal collaboration</a></div>
<p>Immediately following the liberation, France was swept by a wave of executions, public humiliations, assaults and detentions of suspected collaborators, known as the <i><a href="/wiki/%C3%89puration_sauvage" class="mw-redirect" title="Épuration sauvage">épuration sauvage</a></i> (wild purge).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2003577_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2003577-150">[144]</a></sup> This period succeeded the German occupational administration but preceded the authority of the French Provisional Government and consequently lacked any form of institutional justice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2003577_150-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2003577-150">[144]</a></sup> Approximately 9,000 were executed, mostly without trial in <a href="/wiki/Summary_execution" title="Summary execution">summary executions</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2003577_150-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2003577-150">[144]</a></sup> notably including members and leaders of the pro-Nazi <i>milices</i>. In one case, as many as 77 milice members were summarily executed at once.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151">[145]</a></sup> An inquest into the issue of summary executions launched by <a href="/wiki/Jules_Moch" title="Jules Moch">Jules Moch</a>, then Minister of the Interior, came to the conclusion that there had been 9,673 summary executions. A second inquiry in 1952 separated out 8,867 executions of suspected collaborators and 1,955 summary executions for which the motive of killing was not known, giving a total of 10,822 executions.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Shaving the heads of women as a form of humiliation and <a href="/wiki/Shaming" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaming">shaming</a> was a common feature of the purges,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2001580_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2001580-152">[146]</a></sup> and between 10,000 and 30,000 women accused of having collaborated with the Germans or having had <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_collaboration" title="Horizontal collaboration">relationships with German soldiers</a> or officers were subjected to the practice,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2001581_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2001581-153">[147]</a></sup> becoming known as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tonsured_women&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tonsured women (page does not exist)">tonsured women</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femmes_tondues" class="extiw" title="fr:Femmes tondues">fr</a>]</sup> (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">femmes tondues</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeitz1995276–277_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeitz1995276–277-154">[148]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Legal_purge">Legal purge</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section's source code: Legal purge"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/%C3%89puration_l%C3%A9gale" title="Épuration légale">Épuration légale</a></div>
<p>The official <i><a href="/wiki/%C3%89puration_l%C3%A9gale" title="Épuration légale">épuration légale</a></i> ("legal purge") began following a June 1944 decree that established a three-tier system of judicial courts:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGildea200269_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGildea200269-155">[149]</a></sup> a High Court of Justice which dealt with Vichy ministers and officials; Courts of Justice for other serious cases of alleged collaboration; and regular Civic Courts for lesser cases of alleged collaboration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2003577_150-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2003577-150">[144]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1992272–273_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1992272–273-156">[150]</a></sup> Over 700 collaborators were executed following legal trials.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157">[151]</a></sup> The initial phase of purge trials ended with a series of amnesty laws passed between 1951 and 1953<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConanRousso19989_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConanRousso19989-158">[152]</a></sup> which reduced the number of imprisoned collaborators from 40,000 to 62,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2003608_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2003608-159">[153]</a></sup> and was followed by a period of official "repression" that lasted between 1954 and 1971.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConanRousso19989_158-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConanRousso19989-158">[152]</a></sup>
</p><p>Reliable statistics of the death toll do not exist. At the low end, one estimate is that approximately 10,500 were executed, before and after liberation. "The courts of Justice pronounced about 6,760 death sentences, 3,910 in absentia and 2,853 in the presence of the accused. Of these 2,853, 73 percent were commuted by <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span>, and 767 carried out. In addition, about 770 executions were ordered by the military tribunals. Thus the total number of people executed before and after the Liberation was approximately 10,500, including those killed in the épuration sauvage",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2003577_150-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2003577-150">[144]</a></sup> notably including members and leaders of the <a href="/wiki/Milice" title="Milice">milices</a>. US forces put the number of summary executions following liberation at 80,000. The French Minister of the Interior in March 1945 claimed that the number executed was 105,000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuddleston1955299_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddleston1955299-160">[154]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Elections_of_May_1945">Elections of May 1945</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section's source code: Elections of May 1945"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1097763485"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Liberation_of_France" title="Special:EditPage/Liberation of France">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22%C3%89lections+municipales+de+1945%22">"Élections municipales de 1945"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22%C3%89lections+municipales+de+1945%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22%C3%89lections+municipales+de+1945%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22%C3%89lections+municipales+de+1945%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22%C3%89lections+municipales+de+1945%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22%C3%89lections+municipales+de+1945%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/French_municipal_elections_of_1945" class="mw-redirect" title="French municipal elections of 1945">French municipal elections of 1945</a> were held in two rounds on 29 April and 13 May 1945. These were the first elections since the liberation of France and the first in which women could vote.<sup id="cite_ref-women_vote_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-women_vote-161">[g]</a></sup> Elections did not take place in four departments (<a href="/wiki/Bas-Rhin" title="Bas-Rhin">Bas-Rhin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haut-Rhin" title="Haut-Rhin">Haut-Rhin</a>, Moselle and <a href="/wiki/Territory_of_Belfort" class="mw-redirect" title="Territory of Belfort">Territory of Belfort</a>) with recent fighting that had <span class="clarify-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:#595959; border:1px solid #DDD;">prevented the creation of electoral lists</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Clarify" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Lists of candidates, or lists of voters? (February 2021)">clarify</span></a></i>]</sup>. In Moselle, they were postponed to 23 and 30 September, at the same time as the cantonal elections, because the end of the fighting was too <span class="clarify-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:#595959; border:1px solid #DDD;">close.</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Clarify" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Close in time, or space?date=February 2021 (February 2021)">clarify</span></a></i>]</sup> These difficulties made it very difficult to compile electoral lists that included women, and there were very few by-elections before these historic dates.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Election_context">Election context</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section's source code: Election context"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>While the war was not yet officially over (the German surrender of May 8, 1945 was signed between the two rounds of voting), the elections took place in a difficult political and social context: the economic situation remained very precarious, not all prisoners of war had returned, and many scores were being settled in local political life.
</p><p>These elections were the first test for the validity of the provisional institutions that had emerged from the Resistance.
</p><p>The electoral system in force was the <a href="/wiki/Two-round_system" title="Two-round system">two-round majority system</a>, except in Paris, where elections were held under the <a href="/wiki/Proportional_representation" title="Proportional representation">proportional system</a>. This election was also marked by the participation of women for the first time in France. On April 21, 1944, the right to vote had been granted to women by the French Committee of National Liberation,<sup id="cite_ref-women_vote_161-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-women_vote-161">[g]</a></sup> and confirmed by the ordinance of October 5 under the Provisional Government of the French Republic. Given the absence of 2 1/2 million prisoners of war, deportees, STO workers, and the ban on voting by career soldiers, the electorate in this election was composed of up to 62% women (although the figure of 53% is also cited).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Naming_conventions_(geographic_names)" title="Wikipedia:Naming conventions (geographic names)"><span title="The geographic scope near this tag is ambiguous. (February 2021)">where?</span></a></i>]</sup> Despite the novelty of women voters, there was no particular media reaction, partly because of the difficulties related to the immediate post-war period which were of greater concern, such as returned deportees, prisoner camps, food rationing, and so on.
</p><p>The referendum proposed to the French by the Provisional Government (GPRF) contained two questions. The first one proposed the drafting of a new Constitution and, consequently, the abandonment of the institutions of the Third Republic. Charles de Gaulle advocated for its support, as did all political parties, excepting the <a href="/wiki/Radical_Party_(France)" title="Radical Party (France)">radicals</a>, who remained faithful to the Third Republic. On 21 October 1945, 96 per cent of the French voted "yes" on the first question of the referendum in favor of changing the institutions: the Assembly elected that day would thus be <a href="/wiki/Constituent_assembly" title="Constituent assembly">constituent</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162">[155]</a></sup>
</p><p>The second referendum question concerned the powers of this Constituent Assembly. Fearing a preponderance of communists in control over it, which would allow them to legally install a power of their own choice, General de Gaulle provided a text strictly limiting its prerogatives: its duration was limited to seven months, the constitutional plans it would draft would be submitted to popular referendum, and finally it could only bring down the government by a motion of censure voted by an absolute majority of its members. Most parties supported de Gaulle in advocating a "yes" vote, including the <a href="/wiki/Popular_Republican_Movement" title="Popular Republican Movement">Popular Republican Movement</a> (MRP), the <a href="/wiki/French_Section_of_the_Workers%27_International" title="French Section of the Workers' International">socialists</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Liberty" title="Republican Party of Liberty">moderates</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/French_Communist_Party" title="French Communist Party">communists</a> and radicals pushed for "no". Nevertheless, 66 per cent of the electorate approved of limiting the powers of the Assembly by voting "yes" in the referendum.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163">[156]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="No year or ISBN, and none of the versions seen at worldcat seem to correspond to one with 663 pages. (July 2022)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic">Provisional Government of the French Republic</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section's source code: Provisional Government of the French Republic"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Emblem_of_the_Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic.svg/220px-Emblem_of_the_Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Emblem_of_the_Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic.svg/330px-Emblem_of_the_Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Emblem_of_the_Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic.svg/440px-Emblem_of_the_Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="285" /></a><figcaption>Emblem of the <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government of the French Republic</a> (1944)</figcaption></figure>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1097763485"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Liberation_of_France" title="Special:EditPage/Liberation of France">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Provisional+Government+of+the+French+Republic%22">"Provisional Government of the French Republic"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Provisional+Government+of+the+French+Republic%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Provisional+Government+of+the+French+Republic%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Provisional+Government+of+the+French+Republic%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Provisional+Government+of+the+French+Republic%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Provisional+Government+of+the+French+Republic%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government of the French Republic</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle#Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle § Provisional Government of the French Republic</a></div>
<p>The Provisional Government of the French Republic was the successor organization to the French Committee of National Liberation. It served as an interim government of Free France between 1944 and 1946, and lasted until the establishment of the Fourth Republic. Its founding marked the official restoration and re-establishment of a provisional French Republic, assuring continuity with the defunct Third Republic which dissolved itself in 1940 with the advent of the Vichy regime.
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gouvernement_provisoire_de_la_R%C3%A9publique_fran%C3%A7aise.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Gouvernement_provisoire_de_la_R%C3%A9publique_fran%C3%A7aise.jpg/310px-Gouvernement_provisoire_de_la_R%C3%A9publique_fran%C3%A7aise.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Gouvernement_provisoire_de_la_R%C3%A9publique_fran%C3%A7aise.jpg/465px-Gouvernement_provisoire_de_la_R%C3%A9publique_fran%C3%A7aise.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Gouvernement_provisoire_de_la_R%C3%A9publique_fran%C3%A7aise.jpg/620px-Gouvernement_provisoire_de_la_R%C3%A9publique_fran%C3%A7aise.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1499" /></a><figcaption>Council of Ministers of the Provisional Government meeting in Paris, 2 November 1945</figcaption></figure>
<p>The PGFR was created by the Committee of National Liberation on 3 June 1944, the day before <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span> arrived in London from Algiers on Winston Churchill's invitation, and three days before D-day. It moved back to Paris after the liberation of the capital, where its war and foreign policy goals were to secure a <a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">French occupation zone in Germany</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Permanent_members_of_the_United_Nations_Security_Council" title="Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council">permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council</a>. This was assured through a large military contribution on the <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)#1944–1945:_The_Second_Front" title="Western Front (World War II)">western front</a>.
</p><p>Besides war and foreign policy goals, its principal mission was to prepare the transition to a new constitutional order, that ultimately resulted in the Fourth Republic. It also made several important reforms and political decisions, such as granting <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Women's suffrage in France">women the right to vote</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-women_vote_161-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-women_vote-161">[g]</a></sup> founding the <i><a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_nationale_d%27administration" title="École nationale d'administration">École nationale d'administration</a></i>, and laying the groundwork of <a href="/wiki/Social_security_in_France" title="Social security in France">social security in France</a>.
</p><p>With regard to transition to a new Republic, the GPRF organized the <a href="/wiki/1945_French_legislative_election" title="1945 French legislative election">1945 French legislative election</a> for 21 October 1945, drew up a Constitution to present to the public for approval, and organized the <a href="/wiki/October_1946_French_constitutional_referendum" title="October 1946 French constitutional referendum">Constitutional referendum</a> on 13 October 1946 in which it was adopted by the voters, thus bringing into existence the Fourth Republic.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Fourth_Republic">Fourth Republic</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section's source code: Fourth Republic"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Affiche_Charles_de_Gaulle_-_RPF_-_1947.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Affiche_Charles_de_Gaulle_-_RPF_-_1947.jpg/220px-Affiche_Charles_de_Gaulle_-_RPF_-_1947.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Affiche_Charles_de_Gaulle_-_RPF_-_1947.jpg/330px-Affiche_Charles_de_Gaulle_-_RPF_-_1947.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Affiche_Charles_de_Gaulle_-_RPF_-_1947.jpg/440px-Affiche_Charles_de_Gaulle_-_RPF_-_1947.jpg 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1084" /></a><figcaption>Campaign poster for <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a>'s RPF party: "We can overcome this; My fellow French citizens, vote for the <i><a href="/wiki/Rassemblement_du_Peuple_Fran%C3%A7ais" class="mw-redirect" title="Rassemblement du Peuple Français">Rassemblement du Peuple Français</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Slate_(elections)" title="Slate (elections)">slate</a>". Lithograph, Paris, 1944–1947</figcaption></figure>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">French Fourth Republic</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Tripartisme" title="Tripartisme">Tripartisme</a></div>
<p>With most of the political class discredited and containing many members who had more or less collaborated with Nazi Germany, <a href="/wiki/Gaullism" title="Gaullism">Gaullism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a> became the most popular political forces in France.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164">[157]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Provisional Government (GPRF) ruled from 1944 to 1946, with de Gaulle in charge. Meanwhile, negotiations took place over the proposed new constitution, which was to be put to a referendum. De<span class="nowrap"> </span>Gaulle advocated a presidential system of government, and criticized the reinstatement of what he pejoratively called "the parties system". He resigned in January 1946 and was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Felix_Gouin" class="mw-redirect" title="Felix Gouin">Felix Gouin</a> of the French Section of the Workers' International (socialists; SFIO). Ultimately, only the French Communist Party (PCF) and the socialist SFIO supported the draft constitution, which envisaged a form of government based on <a href="/wiki/Unicameralism" title="Unicameralism">unicameralism</a>; but this was rejected in the <a href="/wiki/May_1946_French_constitutional_referendum" title="May 1946 French constitutional referendum">referendum of 5 May 1946</a>.
</p><p>For the <a href="/wiki/June_1946_French_legislative_election" title="June 1946 French legislative election">1946 elections</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Rally_of_Left_Republicans" class="mw-redirect" title="Rally of Left Republicans">Rally of Left Republicans</a> (RGR), which encompassed the Radical Party, the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_and_Socialist_Union_of_the_Resistance" title="Democratic and Socialist Union of the Resistance">Democratic and Socialist Union of the Resistance</a> and other conservative parties, unsuccessfully attempted to oppose the <a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democrat</a> and socialist MRP–SFIO–PCF alliance. The new constituent assembly included 166 MRP deputies, 153 PCF deputies and 128 SFIO deputies, giving the <a href="/wiki/Tripartite_alliance_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripartite alliance (France)">tripartite alliance</a> an absolute majority. <a href="/wiki/Georges_Bidault" title="Georges Bidault">Georges Bidault</a> of the MRP replaced Felix Gouin as the head of government.
</p><p>A new draft of the Constitution was written, which this time proposed the establishment of a <a href="/wiki/Bicameralism" title="Bicameralism">bicameral</a> form of government. <a href="/wiki/Leon_Blum" class="mw-redirect" title="Leon Blum">Leon Blum</a> of the SFIO headed the GPRF from 1946 to 1947. After a new legislative election in June 1946, the Christian democrat Georges Bidault assumed leadership of the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_France" title="Government of France">Cabinet</a>. Despite De<span class="nowrap"> </span>Gaulle's so-called <a href="/wiki/The_Bayeux_speeches" class="mw-redirect" title="The Bayeux speeches">discourse of Bayeux</a> of 16 June 1946 in which he denounced the new institutions, the new draft was approved by 53% of voters voting in favor (with an abstention rate of 31%) in the <a href="/wiki/October_1946_French_constitutional_referendum" title="October 1946 French constitutional referendum">referendum of 13 October 1946</a>. This culminated in the establishment of the Fourth Republic two weeks later, an arrangement in which executive power essentially resided in the hands of the <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_France" title="Prime Minister of France">President of the Council</a> (the prime minister). The <a href="/wiki/President_of_France" title="President of France">President of the Republic</a> was given a largely symbolic role, although he remained chief of the French Army and as a last resort could be called upon to resolve conflicts.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Impact">Impact</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section's source code: Impact"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Demographic">Demographic</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section's source code: Demographic"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-027-1477-07,_Marseille,_Gare_d%27Arenc._Deportation_von_Juden.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-027-1477-07%2C_Marseille%2C_Gare_d%27Arenc._Deportation_von_Juden.png/180px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-027-1477-07%2C_Marseille%2C_Gare_d%27Arenc._Deportation_von_Juden.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-027-1477-07%2C_Marseille%2C_Gare_d%27Arenc._Deportation_von_Juden.png/270px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-027-1477-07%2C_Marseille%2C_Gare_d%27Arenc._Deportation_von_Juden.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-027-1477-07%2C_Marseille%2C_Gare_d%27Arenc._Deportation_von_Juden.png/360px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-027-1477-07%2C_Marseille%2C_Gare_d%27Arenc._Deportation_von_Juden.png 2x" data-file-width="509" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Deportation of Jews during the <a href="/wiki/Marseille_roundup" title="Marseille roundup">Marseille roundup</a>, 23 January 1943</figcaption></figure>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/World_War_II_casualties" title="World War II casualties">World War II casualties</a> and <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust in France">Holocaust in France</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_casualties#Human_losses_by_country" title="World War II casualties">France's losses during World War II</a> totaled 600,000 people (1.44% of the population), including 210,000 military deaths from all causes, and 390,000 civilian deaths due to military activity and crimes against humanity.<sup id="cite_ref-Frumkin-1939_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frumkin-1939-165">[158]</a></sup> In addition they suffered 390,000 wounded military.<sup id="cite_ref-Clodfelter_582_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clodfelter_582-166">[159]</a></sup>
</p><p>Jewish life and society at large had to adjust to a reduced population of French Jews.
Of the 340,000 Jews living in metropolitan/continental France in 1940, more than 75,000 were deported to death camps by the Vichy regime, where about 72,500 were killed.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167">[160]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bseditions.fr_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bseditions.fr-168">[161]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-YV_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-YV-169">[162]</a></sup>
</p>
<div style="clear:both;" class=""></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Economic">Economic</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section's source code: Economic"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Trente_Glorieuses" title="Trente Glorieuses">Trente Glorieuses</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></div>
<p>France emerged from World War II severely weakened economically. It had been in a period of economic stagnation even when the war broke out.<sup id="cite_ref-Milward_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Milward-170">[163]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 39">: 39 </span></sup> By 1945 national income, in real terms, was little more than half what it had been in 1929.<sup id="cite_ref-Monnet_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monnet-171">[164]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 233">: 233 </span></sup>
</p><p>To aid economic recovery, the Chairman of the French Provisional Government, <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a>, established the <a href="/wiki/Plan_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Plan Commission">General Planning Commission</a> (<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commissariat_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral_du_Plan" class="extiw" title="fr:Commissariat général du Plan">Le Commissariat général du Plan</a>) on 3 January 1946.<sup id="cite_ref-Duchene_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Duchene-172">[165]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 152">: 152 </span></sup> The Commission implemented the Modernization and Re-equipment Plan, commonly known as the <a href="/wiki/Monnet_Plan" title="Monnet Plan">Monnet Plan</a> after <a href="/wiki/Jean_Monnet" title="Jean Monnet">Jean Monnet</a>, the chief advocate and the first head of the commission.<sup id="cite_ref-Milward_170-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Milward-170">[163]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 38, 98">: 38, 98 </span></sup>
</p><p>To help finance imports of capital equipment and raw materials needed for France's recovery and modernization program, the country negotiated loans from the U.S. and the World Bank in 1946.<sup id="cite_ref-Duchene_172-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Duchene-172">[165]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 159">: 159 </span></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-Monnet_171-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monnet-171">[164]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 254">: 254 </span></sup> Also, from 1948 to 1952, France received just under $3 billion in <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a> aid.<sup id="cite_ref-Monnet_171-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monnet-171">[164]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 269">: 269 </span></sup>
</p><p>Yergin and Stanislaw argue France's post-war Modernization and Re-equipment Plan set it on the road to an "economic miracle" in the 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173">[166]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 29–32">: 29–32 </span></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Judicial">Judicial</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section's source code: Judicial"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Biens_mal_acquis" title="Biens mal acquis">Biens mal acquis</a></div>
<p>Many <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Vichy_France" title="Government of Vichy France">leaders</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_collaboration_with_Nazi_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="French collaboration with Nazi Germany">collaborators of the Vichy regime</a> were arrested, and some were imprisoned or sentenced to death. Marshall Petain's death sentence was commuted to life due to his status as a World War I hero.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174">[167]</a></sup> Pierre Laval was tried, and executed by firing squad in October 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175">[168]</a></sup>
</p><p>Some former collaborators escaped immediate penalties or even continued conventional lives, such as <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Papon" title="Maurice Papon">Maurice Papon</a>, who was arrested and convicted in 1998 of <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a> for his role in the deportation of Jews from Bordeaux.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176">[169]</a></sup> German war criminal <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Barbie" title="Klaus Barbie">Klaus Barbie</a>, known as the "butcher of Lyon", was extradited from Bolivia in 1983. He was put on trial and sentenced in 1987 to life imprisonment in Lyon.<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177">[170]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Historiographical">Historiographical</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section's source code: Historiographical"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>For decades prior to the 1970s modern period, French historiography was dominated by conservative or pro-Communist thinking, neither of them very inclined to consider the grass-roots pro-democracy developments at liberation.<sup id="cite_ref-Horn-2020_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horn-2020-178">[171]</a></sup>
</p><p>There was little recognition in French scholarship on the active participation of the Vichy regime in the deportation of French Jews, until American political scientist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Paxton" title="Robert Paxton">Robert Paxton</a>'s 1972 book, <i>Vichy France: Old Guard and New Order, 1940–1944</i>. The book received a French translation within a year and sold thousands of copies in France. In the words of French historian <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Noiriel" title="Gérard Noiriel">Gérard Noiriel</a>, the book "had the effect of a bombshell, because it showed, with supporting evidence, that the French state had participated in the deportation of Jews to the Nazi concentration camps, a fact that had been concealed by historians until then."<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179">[172]</a></sup>
</p><p>The "<a href="/wiki/Paxtonian_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Paxtonian revolution">Paxtonian revolution</a>", as the French called it, had a profound effect on French historiography. In 1997, Paxton was called as an expert witness to testify about collaboration during the Vichy period, at the trial in France of <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Papon" title="Maurice Papon">Maurice Papon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lagarde-2018_180-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lagarde-2018-180">[173]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Social_and_cultural">Social and cultural</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section's source code: Social and cultural"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Many were concerned with getting life back to the way it was, "a l'identique", as it was described, but leaders said that modernization was needed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman2018[httpsbooksgooglecombooksida2VEDwAAQBAJpgPT7_Intro._PT7]_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman2018[httpsbooksgooglecombooksida2VEDwAAQBAJpgPT7_Intro._PT7]-181">[174]</a></sup> As <a href="/wiki/Jean_Monnet" title="Jean Monnet">Jean Monnet</a> said, "We have no choice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman2018[httpsbooksgooglecombooksida2VEDwAAQBAJpgPT7_Intro._PT7]_181-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman2018[httpsbooksgooglecombooksida2VEDwAAQBAJpgPT7_Intro._PT7]-181">[174]</a></sup> The only alternative to modernization is decadence." The question of what this would look like was not obvious, and was one of the core political issues, from liberation to Algerian independence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman2018[httpsbooksgooglecombooksida2VEDwAAQBAJpgPT7_Intro._PT7]_181-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman2018[httpsbooksgooglecombooksida2VEDwAAQBAJpgPT7_Intro._PT7]-181">[174]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Second World War had devastated the glittering art and literary effervescence of the
<i><a href="/wiki/Ann%C3%A9es_folles" title="Années folles">Années folles</a></i> in 1920s Paris, as well as the many Jewish, émigré and refugee artists and writers who had formed the <a href="/wiki/School_of_Paris" title="School of Paris">School of Paris</a> between the two world wars. <a href="/wiki/Marc_Chagall" title="Marc Chagall">Marc Chagall</a> escaped to safety in the US with the help of American journalist <a href="/wiki/Varian_Fry" title="Varian Fry">Varian Fry</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182">[175]</a></sup> but he was one of the lucky, and while he eventually returned to France, he never went back to Paris. The poet <a href="/wiki/Max_Jacob" title="Max Jacob">Max Jacob</a> on the other hand had died of pneumonia in the camp at Drancy,<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183">[176]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Cha%C3%AFm_Soutine" title="Chaïm Soutine">Chaïm Soutine</a> died of a bleeding ulcer died while hiding from the Nazis in Paris.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184">[177]</a></sup>
</p><p>After the liberation of France, artists and writers returned, but for the most part they were other artists who made another kind of art. Their themes were no longer color, <a href="/wiki/Surrealism" title="Surrealism">surrealism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dada" title="Dada">Dada</a>, but mirrored the industrialization of France in their exploration of abstract geometry and the influence of Rothko. <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialist</a> writers expressed absurdity not as a riot of surrealism but instead as an <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> of ambiguous moral choices and rejection of outside moral authority.
</p><p>But <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Hemingway" title="Ernest Hemingway">Ernest Hemingway</a> returned with the Allied army<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and left as a calling card a bucket of hand grenades at the door of <a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-eh_185-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eh-185">[178]</a></sup> who had returned to Paris after the Germans overran his rural refuge;<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186">[179]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Guernica_(Picasso)" title="Guernica (Picasso)">Guernica</a><sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187">[180]</a></sup> had made it impossible for him to consider a return to <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Franco</a>'s Spain. <a href="/wiki/Miles_Davis" title="Miles Davis">Miles Davis</a> lived in Paris after the war, and so did <a href="/wiki/Norman_Mailer" title="Norman Mailer">Norman Mailer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Samuel Beckett</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simone_Signoret" title="Simone Signoret">Simone Signoret</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean_Cocteau" title="Jean Cocteau">Jean Cocteau</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-eh_185-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eh-185">[178]</a></sup> Charles de Gaulle appointed <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Malraux" title="André Malraux">André Malraux</a> as Minister of Information and then of Cultural Affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188">[181]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Political">Political</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section's source code: Political"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic#Historiography_of_decadence" title="French Third Republic">French Third Republic § Historiography of decadence</a></div>
<p>The liberation of France had profound effect on the future of French and world politics.
</p><p><b>Fourth Republic</b>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">provisional government</a> maintained its position that the Vichy régime had been illegitimate, and therefore considered it a priority to put a Constitutional framework into place. The resulting document full-throatedly reaffirmed the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man" class="mw-redirect" title="Declaration of the Rights of Man">Declaration of the Rights of Man</a>, and affirmed several additional rights, including the <a href="/wiki/Right_of_asylum" title="Right of asylum">right of asylum</a>, of unionization and of freedom of association. As of the very first municipal elections following the liberation of France, women had the right to vote, and from then forward under the <a href="/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">Fourth Republic</a>.
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/French_Fifth_Republic" title="French Fifth Republic">French Fifth Republic</a> today is built upon the rights expressed in the preface to this document, which it incorporated into its 1958 constitution, and which is still in force today.
</p><p><b>Communist Party</b>
</p><p>The trained and disciplined <a href="/wiki/Francs-Tireurs_et_Partisans" title="Francs-Tireurs et Partisans">Francs-Tireurs et Partisans</a> brought into play by the <a href="/wiki/Communist_International" title="Communist International">Communist International</a> after Hitler invaded Russia both helped to sway the fight and to dispel the previous perception of under the <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a> of left-wing <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> politicians as decadent and ineffectual, a disdain that to some extent had underlain the willingness of that government to seek the assistance of the paternalist and traditionalist Pétain, who had gained the heart of the French by prioritizing the conservation of French forces, following bloodying and bruising casualties in World War 1 on the Eastern front against Germany.
</p><p><b>Geopolitics</b>
</p><p>Given the important role played by the <a href="/wiki/Big_Three_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Big Three (World War II)">Big Three</a> in the eventual victory of the Allies, the liberation of France and of Europe led to the <a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">geopolitics</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, and to the <a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">decolonization</a> of French and other European former colonies in Africa and elsewhere.
</p><p>The creation of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> closely followed the end of World War II. As a successor to the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> whose demise foreshadowed World War II, it did however share some of its flaws, in particular the lack of an army and therefore the means to enforce its charter.
</p><p><b>Decolonization</b>
</p><p>While <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_%C3%89bou%C3%A9" title="Félix Éboué">Félix Éboué</a> believed that his support of <a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a> would lead to a new relationship between France and <a href="/wiki/French_Africa" title="French Africa">French Africa</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189">[182]</a></sup> the French were initially inclined to dismiss the considerable contribution of African units to the war effort. In fact, on 1 December 1944, <a href="/wiki/Gendarmes" class="mw-redirect" title="Gendarmes">gendarmes</a> mowed down a regiment of <a href="/wiki/Tirailleurs_Senegalais" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirailleurs Senegalais">Tirailleurs Senegalais</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Thiaroye_massacre" title="Thiaroye massacre">Thiaroye camp</a> for complaining of poor conditions and demanding their back pay.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/French_Protectorate_in_Morocco" class="mw-redirect" title="French Protectorate in Morocco">Morocco</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_Protectorate_of_Tunisia" class="mw-redirect" title="French Protectorate of Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, which were French protectorates in World War II, and with the exception of Casablanca, played a more limited role in the war, primarily in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_campaign" title="Western Desert campaign">Western Desert campaign</a>, were able to negotiate their independence from France relatively quickly. Algeria, however, which had since 1848 been considered an integral part of France,<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190">[183]</a></sup> and had a sizeable population of French settlers, suffered through an extensive and bloody <a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">war of independence</a>.
</p><p>A series of events beginning 8 May 1945, <a href="/wiki/Victory_in_Europe_Day" title="Victory in Europe Day">the same day</a> that <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> surrendered, triggered growing demand for independence. About 5,000 Muslims paraded in <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9tif" title="Sétif">Sétif</a>, a market town west of <a href="/wiki/Constantine,_Algeria" title="Constantine, Algeria">Constantine</a>, to celebrate the victory. The local French <a href="/wiki/Gendarmerie" title="Gendarmerie">gendarmerie</a> tried to seize banners attacking colonial rule and rioting broke out. The ensuing <a href="/wiki/Setif_and_Guelma_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Setif and Guelma massacre">indiscriminate French reprisals</a> sparked further denunciations of colonial rule.<sup id="cite_ref-TedMorgan_191-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TedMorgan-191">[184]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section's source code: See also"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214689105">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:solid #aaa 1px;padding:0.1em;background:#f9f9f9}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .portalbox{background:transparent}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .pane{background:transparent}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright">
<li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/32px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/48px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/64px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:France" title="Portal:France">France portal</a></span></li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/1940_in_France" title="1940 in France">1940 in France</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/1941_in_France" title="1941 in France">1941 in France</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/1942_in_France" title="1942 in France">1942 in France</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/1943_in_France" title="1943 in France">1943 in France</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/1944_in_France" title="1944 in France">1944 in France</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/1945_in_France" title="1945 in France">1945 in France</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Foreign policy of Charles de Gaulle">Foreign policy of Charles de Gaulle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93Germany_border" title="France–Germany border">France–Germany border</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/French_Liberation_Army" title="French Liberation Army">French Liberation Army</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberation of Europe">Liberation of Europe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_France_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of France during World War II">Military history of France during World War II</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post–World War II economic expansion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rene_Bousquet" class="mw-redirect" title="Rene Bousquet">Rene Bousquet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Forces_Escaping_Society" title="Royal Air Forces Escaping Society">Royal Air Forces Escaping Society</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SOE_F_Section_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="SOE F Section networks">SOE F Section networks</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Battle_of_France" title="Timeline of the Battle of France">Timeline of the Battle of France</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_liberation_of_France" title="Timeline of the liberation of France">Timeline of the liberation of France</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/20th-century_French_art" title="20th-century French art">20th-century French art</a></li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section's source code: Notes"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1217336898">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist">
</div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1217336898"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha">
<div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pétain's 30 October 1940 declaration: "<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">J'entre aujourd'hui dans la voie de la collaboration.</i></span>". Likewise, on 22 June 1942, Laval declared that he was "hoping for victory for Germany".<sup id="cite_ref-Kitson-2008_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kitson-2008-8">[8]</a></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/wiki/Armistice_Army" title="Armistice Army">Armistice Army</a> was limited in size and materiel, and disbanded in November 1942 after <a href="/wiki/Operation_Anton" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Anton">Operation Anton</a>, the German operation that took over the previously unoccupied <i><a href="/wiki/Zone_libre" title="Zone libre">zone libre</a></i>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dissatisfied with the number of volunteers, the <a href="/wiki/German_military_administration_in_occupied_France_during_World_War_II" title="German military administration in occupied France during World War II">German military administration</a> required the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Vichy_France" title="Government of Vichy France">Government of Vichy France</a> to enact mandatory <a href="/wiki/Forced_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced labor">forced labor</a> (<i>service de travail obligatoire</i> (STO)), which made the occupation personal to many young French people. Able-bodied French citizens who faced forced labor in Germany began instead to disappear into forests and mountain wildernesses to join the <i><a href="/wiki/Maquis_(World_War_II)" title="Maquis (World War II)">maquis</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[22]</a></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">De Gaulle broadcasting from the BBC: There is no photograph of the <a href="/wiki/Appeal_of_June_18" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal of June 18">June 18 appeal</a>; this image from 1941 is sometimes used as an illustration of the famous radio speech.<sup id="cite_ref-Ragache-2010_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ragache-2010-33">[30]</a></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-British_command-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-British_command_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The British <a href="/wiki/79th_Armoured_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="79th Armoured Division">79th Armoured Division</a> never operated as a single formation (<a href="#CITEREFBuckley2006">Buckley 2006</a>, p. 13) but was an operational grouping of all the <a href="/wiki/Hobart%27s_Funnies" title="Hobart's Funnies">specialised armoured vehicles</a> committed to solve the particular problems of the German defences of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Wall" title="Atlantic Wall">Atlantic Wall</a> and thus has been excluded from the total. In addition, a combined total of 16 (three from the 79th Armoured Division) British, Belgian, Canadian, and Dutch independent brigades were committed to the operation, along with four battalions of the <a href="/wiki/Special_Air_Service" title="Special Air Service">Special Air Service</a> (<a href="#CITEREFEllisAllenWarhurst2004">Ellis, Allen & Warhurst 2004</a>, pp. 521–523, 524).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"waiting-game opportunists": <i><a href="/wiki/Attentisme" title="Attentisme">Attentistes</a></i> in the original.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-women_vote-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-women_vote_161-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-women_vote_161-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-women_vote_161-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The right to vote was granted to women in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ordinance_of_21_April_1944&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ordinance of 21 April 1944 (page does not exist)">Ordinance of 21 April 1944.</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordonnance_portant_organisation_des_pouvoirs_publics_en_France_apr%C3%A8s_la_Lib%C3%A9ration" class="extiw" title="fr:Ordonnance portant organisation des pouvoirs publics en France après la Libération">fr</a>]</sup></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1217336898"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;">
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section's source code: References"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1217336898"><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.lefrancophoney.com/the-lost-cemetery-of-le-grand-bornand/">https://www.lefrancophoney.com/the-lost-cemetery-of-le-grand-bornand/</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Littlejohn_1987_169-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Littlejohn_1987_169_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1215172403">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#2C882D;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLittlejohn1987" class="citation book cs1">Littlejohn, David (1987). <i>Foreign Legions of the Third Reich</i>. p. 169.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foreign+Legions+of+the+Third+Reich&rft.pages=169&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Littlejohn&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlingbeil2005380-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlingbeil2005380_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKlingbeil2005">Klingbeil 2005</a>, p. 380.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFKlingbeil2005 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2001121–126-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2001121–126_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson2001">Jackson 2001</a>, pp. 121–126.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFShlaim1974" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Avi_Shlaim" title="Avi Shlaim">Shlaim, Avi</a> (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/002200947400900302">"Prelude to Downfall: the British offer of Union to France, June 1940"</a>. <i>Journal of Contemporary History</i>. <b>9</b> (3): 27–63. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002200947400900302">10.1177/002200947400900302</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/260024">260024</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159722519">159722519</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Contemporary+History&rft.atitle=Prelude+to+Downfall%3A+the+British+offer+of+Union+to+France%2C+June+1940&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=27-63&rft.date=1974&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159722519%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F260024%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002200947400900302&rft.aulast=Shlaim&rft.aufirst=Avi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F002200947400900302&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoissoneault2017-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoissoneault2017_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoissoneault2017">Boissoneault 2017</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESinger2008111-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESinger2008111_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSinger2008">Singer 2008</a>, p. 111.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Kitson-2008-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kitson-2008_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFKitson2008" class="citation book cs1">Kitson, Simon (15 November 2008) [1st pub. 2005:Editions Autrement]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7Y0qZuw1OaoC"><i>The Hunt for Nazi Spies: Fighting Espionage in Vichy France</i></a>. Translated by Tihanhi, Katherine. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-43895-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-43895-5"><bdi>978-0-226-43895-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1162488165">1162488165</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hunt+for+Nazi+Spies%3A+Fighting+Espionage+in+Vichy+France&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2008-11-15&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1162488165&rft.isbn=978-0-226-43895-5&rft.aulast=Kitson&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7Y0qZuw1OaoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/243328630">"Gen. de Gaulle Sentenced To "Death"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. The Herald (Melbourne, Vic.). 3 August 1940. p. 1 – via Trove.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gen.+de+Gaulle+Sentenced+To+%22Death%22&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=The+Herald+%28Melbourne%2C+Vic.%29&rft.date=1940-08-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftrove.nla.gov.au%2Fnewspaper%2Farticle%2F243328630&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPriscilla_Mary_Roberts2012" class="citation book cs1">Priscilla Mary Roberts, ed. (2012). <i>World War II: The Essential Reference Guide</i>. ABC-CLIO. p. 78. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1610691017" title="Special:BookSources/978-1610691017"><bdi>978-1610691017</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+War+II%3A+The+Essential+Reference+Guide&rft.pages=78&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1610691017&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-JVL-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JVL_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JVL_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAmerican_Israeli_Cooperative_Enterprise" class="citation web cs1">American Israeli Cooperative Enterprise. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-french-vichy-regime">"The Holocaust: The French Vichy Regime"</a>. Jewish Virtual Library. <q>The French state, (l'État Français) in contrast to the French Republic, willfully collaborated with Nazi Germany to a high degree: raids to capture Jews and other "undesirables" were organized by the French police not only in the northern zone – occupied by the German Wehrmacht but also in the southern "free zone" which was occupied only after the Allies invaded North Africa in November 1942</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Holocaust%3A+The+French+Vichy+Regime&rft.pub=Jewish+Virtual+Library&rft.au=American+Israeli+Cooperative+Enterprise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fthe-french-vichy-regime&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELacouture1993229–230-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacouture1993229–230_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLacouture1993">Lacouture 1993</a>, pp. 229–230.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELacouture1993236-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacouture1993236_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacouture1993236_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLacouture1993">Lacouture 1993</a>, p. 236.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELacouture1993243–244-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacouture1993243–244_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLacouture1993">Lacouture 1993</a>, pp. 243–244.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELacouture1993236–237-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacouture1993236–237_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLacouture1993">Lacouture 1993</a>, pp. 236–237.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELacouture1993208-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacouture1993208_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLacouture1993">Lacouture 1993</a>, p. 208.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELacouture1993243-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacouture1993243_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLacouture1993">Lacouture 1993</a>, p. 243.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELacouture1993239-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacouture1993239_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLacouture1993">Lacouture 1993</a>, p. 239.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELacouture1993244-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacouture1993244_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLacouture1993">Lacouture 1993</a>, p. 244.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELacouture1993261-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELacouture1993261_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLacouture1993">Lacouture 1993</a>, p. 261.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/world-war-two/resistance-movements/the-french-resistance/">"The French Resistance"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+French+Resistance&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historylearningsite.co.uk%2Fworld-war-two%2Fresistance-movements%2Fthe-french-resistance%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAshdown2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paddy_Ashdown" title="Paddy Ashdown">Ashdown, Paddy</a> (2014). <i>The Cruel Victory</i>. London: William Collins. pp. 18–19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0007520817" title="Special:BookSources/978-0007520817"><bdi>978-0007520817</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cruel+Victory&rft.place=London&rft.pages=18-19&rft.pub=William+Collins&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0007520817&rft.aulast=Ashdown&rft.aufirst=Paddy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/divers/STO/145262">"STO"</a> (in French). Larousse.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=STO&rft.pub=Larousse&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.larousse.fr%2Fencyclopedie%2Fdivers%2FSTO%2F145262&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPhilip_Nord2020" class="citation journal cs1">Philip Nord (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/757206/pdf">"Ordinary Workers, Vichy and the Holocaust: French Railwaymen and the Second World War by Ludivine Broch (review)"</a>. <i>Journal of Interdisciplinary History</i>. <b>51</b> (1). The MIT Press: 144–145. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fjinh_r_01531">10.1162/jinh_r_01531</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225730856">225730856</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Interdisciplinary+History&rft.atitle=Ordinary+Workers%2C+Vichy+and+the+Holocaust%3A+French+Railwaymen+and+the+Second+World+War+by+Ludivine+Broch+%28review%29&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=144-145&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2Fjinh_r_01531&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225730856%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Philip+Nord&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Farticle%2F757206%2Fpdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph_E._Tucker1947" class="citation cs2">Joseph E. Tucker (1947), <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/380696">"French Resistance Aid to Allied Airmen"</a></span>, <i>The French Review</i>, <b>21</b> (1), American Association of Teachers of French: 29–34, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/380696">380696</a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 February</span> 2021</span> – via Jstor</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+French+Review&rft.atitle=French+Resistance+Aid+to+Allied+Airmen&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=29-34&rft.date=1947&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F380696%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Joseph+E.+Tucker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F380696&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin Thomas, <i>The French Empire at War, 1940–1945</i> (Manchester University Press, 2007)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2001-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2001_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson2001">Jackson 2001</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDepartment_of_History2016" class="citation web cs1">Department of History (2 September 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.utoronto.ca/publications/free-french-africa-world-war-ii-african-resistance">"Free French Africa in World War II: The African Resistance (Cambridge University Press)"</a>. University of Toronto Faculty of Arts and Sciences. <q>What is perhaps still deeply under-appreciated is how much General de Gaulle's Free France drew its strength from 1940 to the middle of 1943 from fighting men, resources, and operations in French Equatorial Africa rather than London.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Free+French+Africa+in+World+War+II%3A+The+African+Resistance+%28Cambridge+University+Press%29.&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Faculty+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft.date=2016-09-02&rft.au=Department+of+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.utoronto.ca%2Fpublications%2Ffree-french-africa-world-war-ii-african-resistance&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rfi.fr/en/africa/20190814-france-commemorates-forgotten-African-veterans-wwii-landing-Provence-Operation-Drago">"France commemorates its 'forgotten' African veterans in the liberation of France"</a>. Radio France Internationale. 15 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=France+commemorates+its+%27forgotten%27+African+veterans+in+the+liberation+of+France.&rft.pub=Radio+France+Internationale&rft.date=2019-08-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rfi.fr%2Fen%2Fafrica%2F20190814-france-commemorates-forgotten-African-veterans-wwii-landing-Provence-Operation-Drago&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Ragache-2010-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ragache-2010_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRagache2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ragache, Gilles (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TpE3AQAAIAAJ"><i>Les appels du 18 juin</i></a> [<i>The Appeals of 18 June</i>]. À rebours (in French). Paris: Larousse. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2035-85054-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-2035-85054-6"><bdi>978-2035-85054-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/705750131">705750131</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+appels+du+18+juin&rft.place=Paris&rft.series=%C3%80+rebours&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Larousse&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F705750131&rft.isbn=978-2035-85054-6&rft.aulast=Ragache&rft.aufirst=Gilles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTpE3AQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170606021817/http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/pages/l-homme/dossiers-thematiques/1940-1944-la-seconde-guerre-mondiale/l-appel-du-18-juin/documents/l-appel-du-22-juin-1940.php">"L'Appel du 22 juin 1940 - charles-de-gaulle.org"</a>. <i>charles-de-gaulle.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/pages/l-homme/dossiers-thematiques/1940-1944-la-seconde-guerre-mondiale/l-appel-du-18-juin/documents/l-appel-du-22-juin-1940.php">the original</a> on 6 June 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 May</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=charles-de-gaulle.org&rft.atitle=L%27Appel+du+22+juin+1940+-+charles-de-gaulle.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.charles-de-gaulle.org%2Fpages%2Fl-homme%2Fdossiers-thematiques%2F1940-1944-la-seconde-guerre-mondiale%2Fl-appel-du-18-juin%2Fdocuments%2Fl-appel-du-22-juin-1940.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Lacouture-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lacouture_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFLacouture1991" class="citation book cs1">Lacouture, Jean (1991) [1984]. <i>De Gaulle: The Rebel 1890–1944</i> (English ed.). pp. 211–216.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+Gaulle%3A+The+Rebel+1890%E2%80%931944&rft.pages=211-216&rft.edition=English&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Lacouture&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBeevor2007" class="citation cs2">Beevor, Antony (29 April 2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/greatspeeches/story/0,,2059384,00.html">"Rallying call: A Mesmerising Oratory"</a>, <i>The Guardian</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Rallying+call%3A+A+Mesmerising+Oratory&rft.date=2007-04-29&rft.aulast=Beevor&rft.aufirst=Antony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fgreatspeeches%2Fstory%2F0%2C%2C2059384%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/historyofthebbc/anniversaries/june/de-gaulles-first-broadcast-to-france">"De Gaulle's first broadcast to France"</a>. <i>History of the BBC</i>. BBC.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+of+the+BBC&rft.atitle=De+Gaulle%27s+first+broadcast+to+France&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fhistoryofthebbc%2Fanniversaries%2Fjune%2Fde-gaulles-first-broadcast-to-france&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Evans-2018-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Evans-2018_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFEvans2018" class="citation magazine cs1">Evans, Martin (8 August 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historytoday.com/reviews/history-french-resistance">"Review: A History of the French Resistance"</a>. <i>History Today</i>. Vol. 68, no. 8. London: Andy Patterson. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0018-2753">0018-2753</a>. <q>However, after the Second World War, de Gaulle's speech of 18 June 1940 became enshrined in French history as the starting point of the French Resistance, which led directly to the Liberation four years later. This founding narrative allowed French people to forget the humiliation of Nazi Occupation and rebuild national self-esteem.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Today&rft.atitle=Review%3A+A+History+of+the+French+Resistance&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=8&rft.date=2018-08-08&rft.issn=0018-2753&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historytoday.com%2Freviews%2Fhistory-french-resistance&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Shillington-2013-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shillington-2013_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shillington-2013_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFShillington2013" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Shillington, Kevin (4 July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WixiTjxYdkYC&pg=PA448"><i>Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set</i></a>. Vol. 1 A–G. Routledge. p. 448. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-45669-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-45669-6"><bdi>978-1-135-45669-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/254075497">254075497</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+African+History+3-Volume+Set&rft.pages=448&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013-07-04&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F254075497&rft.isbn=978-1-135-45669-6&rft.aulast=Shillington&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWixiTjxYdkYC%26pg%3DPA448&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Brazzaville-1940-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brazzaville-1940_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFFrance_libre1940" class="citation book cs1">France libre (1940). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cQjwSAAACAAJ"><i>Documents officiels. [Manifeste du 27 octobre 1940, à Brazzaville. Ordonnances n ° 1 et 2, du 27 octobre 1940, instituant un Conseil de défense de l'Empire. Déclaration organique complétant le manifeste du 27 octobre 1940, du 16 novembre 1940, à Brazzaville. Signé: De Gaulle.]</i></a> [<i>Official documents. Manifesto of 27 October 1940, in Brazzaville. Orders No. 1 and 2, of 27 October 1940, establishing an Empire Defense Council. Organic Declaration supplementing the Manifesto of 27 October 1940, of 16 November 1940, in Brazzaville. Signed: De Gaulle.</i>]. Brazzaville: Impr. officielle. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/460992617">460992617</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Documents+officiels.+%26%2391%3BManifeste+du+27+octobre+1940%2C+%C3%A0+Brazzaville.+Ordonnances+n+%C2%B0+1+et+2%2C+du+27+octobre+1940%2C+instituant+un+Conseil+de+d%C3%A9fense+de+l%27Empire.+D%C3%A9claration+organique+compl%C3%A9tant+le+manifeste+du+27+octobre+1940%2C+du+16+novembre+1940%2C+%C3%A0+Brazzaville.+Sign%C3%A9%3A+De+Gaulle.%26%2393%3B.&rft.place=Brazzaville&rft.pub=Impr.+officielle&rft.date=1940&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F460992617&rft.au=France+libre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcQjwSAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Wieviorka-2019-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wieviorka-2019_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWieviorka2019" class="citation book cs1">Wieviorka, Olivier (3 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=btGQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT67"><i>The Resistance in Western Europe, 1940–1945</i></a>. Translated by Todd, Jane Marie. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 67–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-54864-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-54864-9"><bdi>978-0-231-54864-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Resistance+in+Western+Europe%2C+1940%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=67-&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2019-09-03&rft.isbn=978-0-231-54864-9&rft.aulast=Wieviorka&rft.aufirst=Olivier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbtGQDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Mokake-2006-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mokake-2006_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMokake2006" class="citation book cs1">Mokake, John N. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jW1GAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA76"><i>Basic Facts on Cameroon History Since 1884</i></a>. Limbe, Cameroon: Cure Series. pp. 76–77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9956-402-67-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-9956-402-67-0"><bdi>978-9956-402-67-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/742316797">742316797</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Basic+Facts+on+Cameroon+History+Since+1884&rft.place=Limbe%2C+Cameroon&rft.pages=76-77&rft.pub=Cure+Series&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F742316797&rft.isbn=978-9956-402-67-0&rft.aulast=Mokake&rft.aufirst=John+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjW1GAQAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA76&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGildea201952-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGildea201952_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGildea2019">Gildea 2019</a>, p. 52.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReeves201692-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReeves201692_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReeves2016">Reeves 2016</a>, p. 92.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite1964161-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite1964161_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhite1964">White 1964</a>, p. 161.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanan1972-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanan1972_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDanan1972">Danan 1972</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernard1984374–378-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernard1984374–378_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernard1984374–378_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBernard1984">Bernard 1984</a>, pp. 374–378.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJOFF-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJOFF_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJOFF">JOFF</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCharlotte_GaucherLaure_Humbert2018" class="citation journal cs1">Charlotte Gaucher; Laure Humbert (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13507486.2017.1411336">"Introduction – Beyond De Gaulle and Beyond London The French External Resistance and its international networks"</a>. <i>European Review of History</i>. <b>25</b> (2). Taylor and Francis: 195–221. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13507486.2017.1411336">10.1080/13507486.2017.1411336</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149757902">149757902</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Review+of+History&rft.atitle=Introduction+%E2%80%93+Beyond+De+Gaulle+and+Beyond+London+The+French+External+Resistance+and+its+international+networks&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=195-221&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13507486.2017.1411336&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A149757902%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Charlotte+Gaucher&rft.au=Laure+Humbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F13507486.2017.1411336&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://museedelaresistanceenligne.org/media2965-RenA">"Musée de la résistance en ligne"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mus%C3%A9e+de+la+r%C3%A9sistance+en+ligne&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuseedelaresistanceenligne.org%2Fmedia2965-RenA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaury2006-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaury2006_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaury2006">Maury 2006</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaury2010-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaury2010_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaury2010">Maury 2010</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENyrop196528-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENyrop196528_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENyrop196528_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNyrop1965">Nyrop 1965</a>, p. 28.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECantier2002374–375-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECantier2002374–375_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCantier2002">Cantier 2002</a>, pp. 374–375.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontagnon199060–63-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontagnon199060–63_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMontagnon1990">Montagnon 1990</a>, pp. 60–63.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Emb-FR-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Emb-FR_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071210230259/http://www.ambafrance-us.org/atoz/presidentsgallery.asp">"French embassy"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ambafrance-us.org/atoz/presidentsgallery.asp">the original</a> on 10 December 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 December</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=French+embassy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ambafrance-us.org%2Fatoz%2Fpresidentsgallery.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Army-1965-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Army-1965_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAmerican_University_(Washington,_D.C.)._Foreign_Areas_Studies_DivisionUnited_States._Army1965" class="citation book cs1">American University (Washington, D.C.). Foreign Areas Studies Division; United States. Army (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bgq8xwHlCpoC&pg=PA28"><i>U.S. Army Area Handbook for Algeria</i></a>. Division, Special Operations Research Office, American University. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1085291500">1085291500</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=U.S.+Army+Area+Handbook+for+Algeria&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Division%2C+Special+Operations+Research+Office%2C+American+University&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1085291500&rft.au=American+University+%28Washington%2C+D.C.%29.+Foreign+Areas+Studies+Division&rft.au=United+States.+Army&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dbgq8xwHlCpoC%26pg%3DPA28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Davis-2018-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Davis-2018_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBrunet2018" class="citation book cs1">Brunet, Luc-Andre (22 February 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tP5DDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT35">"1. The Role of Algeria in Debates over Post-War Europe within the French Resistance"</a>. In Davis, Muriam Haleh; Serres, Thomas (eds.). <i>North Africa and the Making of Europe: Governance, Institutions and Culture</i>. Bloomsbury. pp. 35–36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-350-02184-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-350-02184-6"><bdi>978-1-350-02184-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1037916970">1037916970</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1.+The+Role+of+Algeria+in+Debates+over+Post-War+Europe+within+the+French+Resistance&rft.btitle=North+Africa+and+the+Making+of+Europe%3A+Governance%2C+Institutions+and+Culture&rft.pages=35-36&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2018-02-22&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1037916970&rft.isbn=978-1-350-02184-6&rft.aulast=Brunet&rft.aufirst=Luc-Andre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtP5DDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Encarta-CDG-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Encarta-CDG_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encarta-CDG_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encarta-CDG_60-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encarta-CDG_60-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071123164056/http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/refarticle.aspx?refid=761563271">"Charles <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span> biography"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/RefArticle.aspx?refid=761563271">the original</a> on 23 November 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Charles+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3Ede+Gaulle%3C%2Fspan%3E+biography&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencarta.msn.com%2Fencnet%2Frefpages%2FRefArticle.aspx%3Frefid%3D761563271&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Roundtable-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Roundtable_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roundtable_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roundtable_61-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roundtable_61-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roundtable_61-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWolf" class="citation cs2">Wolf, John B., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130605220821/http://www.historians.org/Projects/GIRoundtable/French/French10.htm">"Will the French Republic Live Again? Unscrambling the Economic Eggs"</a>, <i>historians.org</i>, GI Roundtable Series, American Historical Association, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historians.org/Projects/GIRoundtable/French/French10.htm">the original</a> on 5 June 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 January</span> 2020</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=historians.org&rft.atitle=Will+the+French+Republic+Live+Again%3F+Unscrambling+the+Economic+Eggs&rft.aulast=Wolf&rft.aufirst=John+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historians.org%2FProjects%2FGIRoundtable%2FFrench%2FFrench10.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.assemblee-nationale.fr/decouvrir-l-assemblee/histoire/histoire-de-l-assemblee-nationale/la-republique-dans-la-tourmente-1939-1945/les-assemblees-consultatives-provisoires">"Les Assemblées consultatives provisoires 3 novembre 1943 – 3 août 1945"</a> (in French). Assemblée Nationale.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Les+Assembl%C3%A9es+consultatives+provisoires+3+novembre+1943+%E2%80%93+3+ao%C3%BBt+1945&rft.pub=Assembl%C3%A9e+Nationale&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.assemblee-nationale.fr%2Fdecouvrir-l-assemblee%2Fhistoire%2Fhistoire-de-l-assemblee-nationale%2Fla-republique-dans-la-tourmente-1939-1945%2Fles-assemblees-consultatives-provisoires&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-LeMonde-1993-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LeMonde-1993_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFde_Gaulle1993" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">de Gaulle, Charles (7 November 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1993/11/07/dates-il-y-a-cinquante-ans-l-assemblee-consultative-provisoire-se-reunissait-a-alger_3939245_1819218.html">"DATES IL Y A CINQUANTE ANS L'Assemblée consultative provisoire se réunissait à Alger"</a> [Fifty Years Ago: The Provisional Consultative Assembly meets in Algiers]. <i>Le Monde</i> (in French). Paris<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Monde&rft.atitle=DATES+IL+Y+A+CINQUANTE+ANS+L%27Assembl%C3%A9e+consultative+provisoire+se+r%C3%A9unissait+%C3%A0+Alger&rft.date=1993-11-07&rft.aulast=de+Gaulle&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lemonde.fr%2Farchives%2Farticle%2F1993%2F11%2F07%2Fdates-il-y-a-cinquante-ans-l-assemblee-consultative-provisoire-se-reunissait-a-alger_3939245_1819218.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoisnel2007100–102-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChoisnel2007100–102_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChoisnel2007100–102_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChoisnel2007">Choisnel 2007</a>, pp. 100–102.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Gildea, <i>France since 1945</i> (1996) p 17</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilbert1989491-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilbert1989491_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGilbert1989">Gilbert 1989</a>, p. 491.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitmarsh200912–13-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitmarsh200912–13_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitmarsh200912–13_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhitmarsh2009">Whitmarsh 2009</a>, pp. 12–13.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg1995684-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinberg1995684_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeinberg1995">Weinberg 1995</a>, p. 684.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllisAllenWarhurst2004521–533-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisAllenWarhurst2004521–533_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEllisAllenWarhurst2004">Ellis, Allen & Warhurst 2004</a>, pp. 521–533.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Goubert1991-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Goubert1991_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPierre_Goubert1991" class="citation book cs1">Pierre Goubert (20 November 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1VbZMbFw89YC&pg=PA298"><i>The Course of French History</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Psychology_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychology Press">Psychology Press</a>. p. 298. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-06671-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-06671-6"><bdi>978-0-415-06671-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130527210545/http://books.google.com/books?id=1VbZMbFw89YC&pg=PA298">Archived</a> from the original on 27 May 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Course+of+French+History&rft.pages=298&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1991-11-20&rft.isbn=978-0-415-06671-6&rft.au=Pierre+Goubert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1VbZMbFw89YC%26pg%3DPA298&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Axelrod362-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Axelrod362_72-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Axelrod362_72-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAxelrodKingston2007" class="citation book cs1">Axelrod, Alan; Kingston, Jack A. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LbWFgjW6KX8C"><i>Encyclopedia of World War II</i></a>. Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/Facts_on_File" class="mw-redirect" title="Facts on File">Facts on File</a>. p. 362. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780816060221" title="Special:BookSources/9780816060221"><bdi>9780816060221</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+World+War+II&rft.pages=362&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780816060221&rft.aulast=Axelrod&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft.au=Kingston%2C+Jack+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLbWFgjW6KX8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Hastings_2011-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hastings_2011_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hastings_2011_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hastings_2011_73-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHastings2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Max_Hastings" title="Max Hastings">Hastings, Max</a> (2011). <i>All Hell Let Loose, The World at War 1939–45</i>. London: Harper Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=All+Hell+Let+Loose%2C+The+World+at+War+1939%E2%80%9345&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Harper+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Hastings&rft.aufirst=Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vXsOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA235">Yapp, Peter, p. 235. <i>The Travellers' Dictionary of Quotation</i></a>. Retrieved October 2012</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.france-libre.net/saint-helene/">"Le Domaine français de Sainte-Hélène"</a> (in French). 13 November 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Le+Domaine+fran%C3%A7ais+de+Sainte-H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne&rft.date=2009-11-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.france-libre.net%2Fsaint-helene%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jennings, Eric T. <i>Free French Africa in World War II</i>. p. 66.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Bennett_2011-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bennett_2011_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bennett_2011_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bennett_2011_77-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBennett2011" class="citation book cs1">Bennett, G. H. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rlhOD1V1jVsC"><i>The RAF's French Foreign Legion: De Gaulle, the British and the Re-emergence of French Airpower 1940-45</i></a>. London; New York: Continuum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781441189783" title="Special:BookSources/9781441189783"><bdi>9781441189783</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+RAF%27s+French+Foreign+Legion%3A+De+Gaulle%2C+the+British+and+the+Re-emergence+of+French+Airpower+1940-45&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Continuum&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781441189783&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=G.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrlhOD1V1jVsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 16">: 16 </span></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-learningsite-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-learningsite_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/france_pilots_battle_britain.htm">History Learning Site</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121003014827/http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/france_pilots_battle_britain.htm">Archived</a> 3 October 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved October 2012</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hastings, Max, p. 74</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Pitts_Afropean-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pitts_Afropean_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPitts2019" class="citation book cs1">Pitts, Johny (6 June 2019). <i>Afropean: Notes from Black Europe</i>. Penguin Books. p. 307.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afropean%3A+Notes+from+Black+Europe&rft.pages=307&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2019-06-06&rft.aulast=Pitts&rft.aufirst=Johny&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClayton199421-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClayton199421_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClayton1994">Clayton 1994</a>, p. 21.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tony Chafer, "Forgotten Soldiers: Tony Chafer examines the paradoxes and complexities that underlie belated recognition of the contribution of African soldiers to the liberation of France in 1944" <i>History Today</i> 58#11 (November 2008): 35–37.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Panivong Norindr, "Incorporating Indigenous Soldiers in the Space of the French Nation: Rachid Bouchareb's Indigènes." <i>Yale French Studies</i> 115 (2009): 126–140 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25679759">online</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sébastien Laurent, "The free French secret services: Intelligence and the politics of republican legitimacy." <i>Intelligence and National Security</i> 15.4 (2000): 19–41.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGrant2019" class="citation web cs1">Grant, Lachlan (6 June 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aspistrategist.org.au/the-australian-contribution-to-d-day/">"The Australian contribution to D–Day"</a>. <i>The Strategist</i>. Australian Security Policy Institute<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Strategist&rft.atitle=The+Australian+contribution+to+D%E2%80%93Day&rft.date=2019-06-06&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Lachlan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aspistrategist.org.au%2Fthe-australian-contribution-to-d-day%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harrison, Gordon A., <i>Cross-Channel Attack</i>, pages 206–207. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1989, and Pogue, Forrest C., <i>The Supreme Command</i>, page 236. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1996.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.112gripes.com/17.html">"Gripe 17" from the 1945 U.S. forces booklet "112 Gripes about the French"</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Blumenson" title="Martin Blumenson">Blumenson, Martin</a>. <i>Breakout and Pursuit</i>, pages 363–364 and 674. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1989.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pogue, Forrest C., <i>The Supreme Command</i>, page 238. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1996.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sumner, Ian. <i>The French Army 1939–45 (2)</i>, Osprey Publishing, London, 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85532-707-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-85532-707-4">1-85532-707-4</a>. page 37. </span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vernet, J. <i>Le réarmement et la réorganisation de l'armée de terre Française (1943–1946)</i>, pages 86 and 89. Ministere de la Defense, Château de Vincennes, 1980. Vernet lists 10 divisions that were formed with FFI manpower. Ultimately, some 103 light infantry battalions and six labor battalions were formed with FFI personnel prior to VE Day.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Olson, Lynn (2017), Last Hope Island, New York: Random House, p. 289.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koreman, Megan (2018), <i>The Escape Line: How the Ordinary Heroes of Dutch-Paris Resisted the Nazi Occupation of Western Europe</i>, New York: Oxford University Press</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gildea, Robert and Ismee Tames, eds. (2020), Fighters Across Frontiers: Transnational Resistance in Europe, 1936–1948, Manchester: Manchester University Press, pp. 90–108</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshdown2015113-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshdown2015113_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAshdown2015">Ashdown 2015</a>, p. 113.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshdown2015152–153-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshdown2015152–153_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAshdown2015">Ashdown 2015</a>, pp. 152–153.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshdown2015176–178-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshdown2015176–178_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAshdown2015">Ashdown 2015</a>, pp. 176–178.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFFillet2017" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Fillet, Pierre-Louis (May 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vercors-resistance.fr/le-vercors-resistant/">"Le Vercors résistant"</a>. <i>vercors-resistance.fr</i> (in French). Association nationale des pionniers et combattants volontaires du Vercors<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=vercors-resistance.fr&rft.atitle=Le+Vercors+r%C3%A9sistant&rft.date=2017-05&rft.aulast=Fillet&rft.aufirst=Pierre-Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vercors-resistance.fr%2Fle-vercors-resistant%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFOffice_of_the_Historian" class="citation web cs1">Office of the Historian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/war-time-conferences">"Wartime Conferences, 1941–1945"</a>. United States Department of State.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Wartime+Conferences%2C+1941%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=United+States+Department+of+State&rft.au=Office+of+the+Historian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.state.gov%2Fmilestones%2F1937-1945%2Fwar-time-conferences&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William Hardy McNeill, <i>America, Britain and Russia: Their Cooperation and Conflict 1941–1946</i> (1953) pp 90–118</span>
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<li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrew Roberts, <i>Masters and Commanders: How Four Titans Won the War in the West, 1941–1945</i> (2010) pp 86–87.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/Dip/FRUS41/FRUS41-Intro.html">"HyperWar: FRUS--The Conferences at Washington and Casablanca [Introduction]"</a>. <i>www.ibiblio.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ibiblio.org&rft.atitle=HyperWar%3A+FRUS--The+Conferences+at+Washington+and+Casablanca+%5BIntroduction%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Fhyperwar%2FDip%2FFRUS41%2FFRUS41-Intro.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dod.defense.gov/Portals/1/features/2016/0516_dday/docs/d-day-fact-sheet-the-beaches.pdf">"D-Day: The Beaches"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=D-Day%3A+The+Beaches&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdod.defense.gov%2FPortals%2F1%2Ffeatures%2F2016%2F0516_dday%2Fdocs%2Fd-day-fact-sheet-the-beaches.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-WSC_Closing_the_Ring-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WSC_Closing_the_Ring_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFChurchill1951" class="citation book cs1">Churchill, Winston Spencer (1951). <i>The Second World War: Closing the Ring</i>. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. p. 642.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Second+World+War%3A+Closing+the+Ring&rft.pages=642&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Company%2C+Boston&rft.date=1951&rft.aulast=Churchill&rft.aufirst=Winston+Spencer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rodogno, Davide. <i>Il nuovo ordine mediterraneo – Le politiche di occupazione dell'Italia fascista in Europa (1940–1943)</i> Chapter: France</span>
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<li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDillon2006" class="citation book cs1">Dillon, Paddy (2006). <i>Gr20 – Corsica: The High-level Route</i>. Cicerone Press Limited. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1852844779" title="Special:BookSources/1852844779"><bdi>1852844779</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gr20+%E2%80%93+Corsica%3A+The+High-level+Route&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Cicerone+Press+Limited&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1852844779&rft.aulast=Dillon&rft.aufirst=Paddy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120728100311/http://www.cg06.fr/cms/cg06/upload/decouvrir-les-am/fr/files/recherchesregionales187.pdf">"Marco Cuzzi: <i>La rivendicazione fascista della Corsica (1938–1943)</i> p. 57 (in Italian)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cg06.fr/cms/cg06/upload/decouvrir-les-am/fr/files/recherchesregionales187.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 28 July 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 September</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Marco+Cuzzi%3A+La+rivendicazione+fascista+della+Corsica+%281938%E2%80%931943%29+p.+57+%28in+Italian%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cg06.fr%2Fcms%2Fcg06%2Fupload%2Fdecouvrir-les-am%2Ffr%2Ffiles%2Frecherchesregionales187.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Chaubin-2003-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chaubin-2003_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHélène_ChaubinSylvain_GregoryAntoine_Poletti2003" class="citation audio-visual cs1">Hélène Chaubin; Sylvain Gregory; Antoine Poletti (2003). <i>La résistance en Corse</i> (CD-ROM). Histoire en mémoire, 1939–1945. Paris: Association pour des Études sur la Résistance Intérieure. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/492457259">492457259</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=La+r%C3%A9sistance+en+Corse&rft.place=Paris&rft.series=Histoire+en+m%C3%A9moire%2C+1939%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=Association+pour+des+%C3%89tudes+sur+la+R%C3%A9sistance+Int%C3%A9rieure&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F492457259&rft.au=H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne+Chaubin&rft.au=Sylvain+Gregory&rft.au=Antoine+Poletti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081207024405/http://www.esercito.difesa.it/root/storia/CIL_nembo.asp">"Esercito Italiano: Divisione "Nembo" (184)"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esercito.difesa.it/root/storia/CIL_nembo.asp">the original</a> on 7 December 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Esercito+Italiano%3A+Divisione+%22Nembo%22+%28184%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.esercito.difesa.it%2Froot%2Fstoria%2FCIL_nembo.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAmbrose1997" class="citation book cs1">Ambrose, Stephen (1997). <i>D-Day, June 6, 1944: the Battle for the Normandy Beaches</i>. London: Simon & Schuster. p. 34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7434-4974-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7434-4974-6"><bdi>0-7434-4974-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=D-Day%2C+June+6%2C+1944%3A+the+Battle+for+the+Normandy+Beaches&rft.place=London&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-7434-4974-6&rft.aulast=Ambrose&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">[Behind Enemy Lines
French-Canadian spies outfox the Nazis to save Allied airmen in preparation for D-Day <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.canadashistory.ca/explore/military-war/behind-enemy-lines">https://www.canadashistory.ca/explore/military-war/behind-enemy-lines</a>]. Tom Douglas. Canada's History Society, May 14, 2014</span>
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<li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.radiofrance.fr/reportage/cahiers/cahiers.php?rid=235000257">"<i>Les Cahiers Multimédias: Il y a 60 ans : la Libération de Paris</i>"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071014173359/http://www.radiofrance.fr/reportage/cahiers/cahiers.php?rid=235000257">Archived</a> 14 October 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (in French). Gérard Conreur/Mémorial du Maréchal Leclerc et de la Libération de Paris. <a href="/wiki/Radio_France" title="Radio France">Radio France</a>. 6 July 2004.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070816141409/http://www.humanite.fr/2004-08-23_Politique_Balises-1944"><i>Libération de Paris: Balises 1944</i></a>, L'Humanité, 23 August 2004.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFThorton1962" class="citation book cs1">Thorton, Willis (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Wld0AAAAIAAJ&q=800+and+1000+killed+"><i>The Liberation of Paris</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 August</span> 2011</span> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Liberation+of+Paris&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Thorton&rft.aufirst=Willis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWld0AAAAIAAJ%26q%3D800%2Band%2B1000%2Bkilled%2B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCholtitz,_von1950" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Choltitz, von, Dietrich (1950). <i>Brennt Paris? Adolf Hitler ... Tatsachenbericht d. letzten deutschen Befehlshabers in Paris</i> [<i>Factual report of the last German commander in Paris</i>] (in German). Mannheim: UNA Weltbücherei. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1183798630">1183798630</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brennt+Paris%3F+Adolf+Hitler+...+Tatsachenbericht+d.+letzten+deutschen+Befehlshabers+in+Paris&rft.place=Mannheim&rft.pub=UNA+Weltb%C3%BCcherei&rft.date=1950&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1183798630&rft.aulast=Choltitz%2C+von&rft.aufirst=Dietrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Uk8EAAAAMBAJ&dq=while+de+Gaulle+marched+down+the+boulevard+and+entered+the+Place+de+la+Concorde&pg=PA25">"Paris is Free Again"</a>. <i>Life</i>. Time Life. 11 September 1944<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Life&rft.atitle=Paris+is+Free+Again&rft.date=1944-09-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUk8EAAAAMBAJ%26dq%3Dwhile%2Bde%2BGaulle%2Bmarched%2Bdown%2Bthe%2Bboulevard%2Band%2Bentered%2Bthe%2BPlace%2Bde%2Bla%2BConcorde%26pg%3DPA25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanton, Shelby L. (Captain U.S. Army, Retired), <i>World War II Order of Battle</i>, The encyclopedic reference to all U.S. Army ground force units from battalion through division, 1939–1945, Galahad Books, New York, 1991, p. 105. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88365-775-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-88365-775-9">0-88365-775-9</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-charles1-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-charles1_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070615090446/http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/article.php3?id_article=23">"1944–1946: La Libération"</a> (in French). Charles <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span> foundation official website. 15 June 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/article.php3?id_article=23&var_recherche=lib%E9ration">the original</a> on 15 June 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1944%E2%80%931946%3A+La+Lib%C3%A9ration&rft.pub=Charles+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3Ede+Gaulle%3C%2Fspan%3E+foundation+official+website&rft.date=2007-06-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.charles-de-gaulle.org%2Farticle.php3%3Fid_article%3D23%26var_recherche%3Dlib%25E9ration&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYeide200713-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYeide200713_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYeide2007">Yeide (2007)</a>, p. 13.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaloga20096–8-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZaloga20096–8_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZaloga2009">Zaloga (2009)</a>, pp. 6–8.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker-Jones201069-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETucker-Jones201069_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTucker-Jones2010">Tucker-Jones (2010)</a>, p. 69.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPogue1986227-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPogue1986227_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPogue1986">Pogue (1986)</a>, p. 227.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogel1983588–598-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogel1983588–598_123-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogel1983588–598_123-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVogel1983">Vogel 1983</a>, pp. 588–598.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarkeSmith199363-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClarkeSmith199363_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClarkeSmith1993">Clarke & Smith 1993</a>, p. 63.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaloga200916–19-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZaloga200916–19_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZaloga2009">Zaloga 2009</a>, pp. 16–19.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker-Jones201078-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETucker-Jones201078_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTucker-Jones2010">Tucker-Jones 2010</a>, p. 78.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaloga20098,_29-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZaloga20098,_29_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZaloga2009">Zaloga (2009)</a>, pp. 8, 29.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogel1983584–586-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogel1983584–586_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVogel1983">Vogel (1983)</a>, pp. 584–586.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaloga200936–41-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZaloga200936–41_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZaloga2009">Zaloga 2009</a>, pp. 36–41.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogel1983597-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogel1983597_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVogel1983">Vogel 1983</a>, p. 597.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHamilton1996" class="citation book cs1">Hamilton, Charles (1996). <i>Leaders & Personalities of the Third Reich, Vol. 2</i>. San Jose, CA: R. James Bender Publishing. pp. 285, 286. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-912138-66-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-912138-66-4"><bdi>978-0-912138-66-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leaders+%26+Personalities+of+the+Third+Reich%2C+Vol.+2&rft.place=San+Jose%2C+CA&rft.pages=285%2C+286&rft.pub=R.+James+Bender+Publishing&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-912138-66-4&rft.aulast=Hamilton&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAnn_Mah2018" class="citation magazine cs1">Ann Mah (6 June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://time.com/5303229/women-after-d-day/">"This Picture Tells a Tragic Story of What Happened to Women After D-Day"</a>. <i>Time</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=This+Picture+Tells+a+Tragic+Story+of+What+Happened+to+Women+After+D-Day&rft.date=2018-06-06&rft.au=Ann+Mah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftime.com%2F5303229%2Fwomen-after-d-day%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFFaur2013" class="citation news cs1">Faur, Fabienne (26 May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140303160004/https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hY3cUraWo4fVJqWbA34Fd2IeTFOQ?docId=CNG.26cca045d911d64d66269c72328f270e.b11">"GIs were liberators yes, but also trouble in Normandy"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Agence_France-Presse" title="Agence France-Presse">Agence France-Presse</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hY3cUraWo4fVJqWbA34Fd2IeTFOQ?docId=CNG.26cca045d911d64d66269c72328f270e.b11">the original</a> on 3 March 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 June</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=GIs+were+liberators+yes%2C+but+also+trouble+in+Normandy&rft.date=2013-05-26&rft.aulast=Faur&rft.aufirst=Fabienne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fhostednews%2Fafp%2Farticle%2FALeqM5hY3cUraWo4fVJqWbA34Fd2IeTFOQ%3FdocId%3DCNG.26cca045d911d64d66269c72328f270e.b11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrissaud1965504–505-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrissaud1965504–505_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrissaud1965">Brissaud 1965</a>, pp. 504–505.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaxton-fr1997382–383-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPaxton-fr1997382–383_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPaxton-fr1997">Paxton-fr 1997</a>, pp. 382–383.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKupferman2006520–525-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKupferman2006520–525_136-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKupferman2006520–525_136-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKupferman2006">Kupferman 2006</a>, pp. 520–525.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrissaud1965491–492-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrissaud1965491–492_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrissaud1965">Brissaud 1965</a>, pp. 491–492.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJäckel-fr1968495-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJäckel-fr1968495_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJäckel-fr1968">Jäckel-fr 1968</a>, p. 495.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKupferman2006527–529-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKupferman2006527–529_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKupferman2006">Kupferman 2006</a>, pp. 527–529.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAron196240,_45-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAron196240,_45_140-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAron196240,_45_140-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAron1962">Aron 1962</a>, pp. 40, 45.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAron196241–45-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAron196241–45_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAron1962">Aron 1962</a>, pp. 41–45.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAron196281–82-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAron196281–82_142-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAron196281–82_142-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAron1962">Aron 1962</a>, pp. 81–82.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESautermeister201313-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESautermeister201313_143-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSautermeister2013">Sautermeister 2013</a>, p. 13.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERousso199951–59-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERousso199951–59_144-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRousso1999">Rousso 1999</a>, pp. 51–59.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBéglé2014-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBéglé2014_145-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBéglé2014_145-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBéglé2014">Béglé 2014</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2001567–568-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2001567–568_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson2001">Jackson 2001</a>, pp. 567–568.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAron196248–49-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAron196248–49_148-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAron1962">Aron 1962</a>, pp. 48–49.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECointet2014426-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECointet2014426_149-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCointet2014">Cointet 2014</a>, p. 426.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2003577-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2003577_150-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2003577_150-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2003577_150-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2003577_150-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2003577_150-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson2003">Jackson 2003</a>, p. 577.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in French)</span> <a href="/wiki/Henri_Amouroux" title="Henri Amouroux">Henri Amouroux</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asmp.fr/travaux/communications/2006/amouroux.htm">'La justice du Peuple en 1944'</a> (Justice of the People in 1944) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070423205311/http://www.asmp.fr/travaux/communications/2006/amouroux.htm">Archived</a> 2007-04-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences_Morales_et_Politiques" title="Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques">Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques</a>, 9 Jan 2006.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2001580-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2001580_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson2001">Jackson 2001</a>, p. 580.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2001581-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2001581_153-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson2001">Jackson 2001</a>, p. 581.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeitz1995276–277-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeitz1995276–277_154-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeitz1995">Weitz 1995</a>, pp. 276–277.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGildea200269-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGildea200269_155-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGildea2002">Gildea 2002</a>, p. 69.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1992272–273-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1992272–273_156-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilliams1992">Williams 1992</a>, pp. 272–273.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Conan, Eric; Rousso, Henry (1998). Vichy: An Ever-Present Past. Sudbury, Massachusetts: Dartmouth. ISBN 978-0-87451-795-8.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConanRousso19989-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConanRousso19989_158-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConanRousso19989_158-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFConanRousso1998">Conan & Rousso 1998</a>, p. 9.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson2003608-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson2003608_159-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson2003">Jackson 2003</a>, p. 608.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuddleston1955299-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuddleston1955299_160-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuddleston1955">Huddleston 1955</a>, p. 299.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCowans1991" class="citation journal cs1">Cowans, Jon (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/286279">"French Public Opinion and the Founding of the Fourth Republic"</a>. <i>French Historical Studies</i>. <b>17</b> (1): 62–95. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F286279">10.2307/286279</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/286279">286279</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=French+Historical+Studies&rft.atitle=French+Public+Opinion+and+the+Founding+of+the+Fourth+Republic&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=62-95&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F286279&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F286279%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Cowans&rft.aufirst=Jon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F286279&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBersteinMilza" class="citation book cs1">Berstein, Serge; <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Milza" title="Pierre Milza">Milza, Pierre</a>. <i>Histoire de la France au XXe siècle</i> [<i>History of 20th Century France</i>]. Brussels: Editions Complexe. pp. 662–663.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+de+la+France+au+XXe+si%C3%A8cle&rft.place=Brussels&rft.pages=662-663&rft.pub=Editions+Complexe&rft.aulast=Berstein&rft.aufirst=Serge&rft.au=Milza%2C+Pierre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGeoffrey_C._Cook1950" class="citation journal cs1">Geoffrey C. Cook (September 1950). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2145251">"De Gaulle and the R.P.F."</a> <i>Political Science Quarterly</i>. <b>65</b> (3). The Academy of Political Science: 335–352. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2145251">10.2307/2145251</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2145251">2145251</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Political+Science+Quarterly&rft.atitle=De+Gaulle+and+the+R.P.F.&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=335-352&rft.date=1950-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2145251&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2145251%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Geoffrey+C.+Cook&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2145251&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Frumkin-1939-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Frumkin-1939_165-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFFrumkin1951" class="citation book cs1">Frumkin, Gregory (1951). <i>Population Changes in Europe Since 1939</i>. Geneva. pp. 44–45. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/83196162">83196162</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Population+Changes+in+Europe+Since+1939&rft.place=Geneva&rft.pages=44-45&rft.date=1951&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F83196162&rft.aulast=Frumkin&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Clodfelter_582-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Clodfelter_582_166-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFClodfelter2002" class="citation book cs1">Clodfelter, Micheal (2002). <i>Warfare and Armed Conflicts – A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–2000</i> (2nd ed.). Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co. p. 582. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7864-1204-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7864-1204-6"><bdi>0-7864-1204-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/48003215">48003215</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+and+Armed+Conflicts+%E2%80%93+A+Statistical+Reference+to+Casualty+and+Other+Figures%2C+1500%E2%80%932000&rft.place=Jefferson%2C+N.C.&rft.pages=582&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=McFarland+%26+Co.&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F48003215&rft.isbn=0-7864-1204-6&rft.aulast=Clodfelter&rft.aufirst=Micheal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMarrus1995" class="citation book cs1">Marrus, Michael Robert in 1995 (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q7ORlIpHKLEC&pg=PA243"><i>Vichy France and the Jews</i></a>. Stanford University Press. pp. XV, 243–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780804724999" title="Special:BookSources/9780804724999"><bdi>9780804724999</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vichy+France+and+the+Jews&rft.pages=XV%2C+243-5&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9780804724999&rft.aulast=Marrus&rft.aufirst=Michael+Robert+in+1995&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ7ORlIpHKLEC%26pg%3DPA243&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-bseditions.fr-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bseditions.fr_168-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedie.bseditions.fr/article.php?pArticleId=158&pChapitreId=23982&pArticleLib=Le+Bilan+de+la+Shoah+en+France+%5BLe+r%E9gime+de+Vichy%5D">"Le Bilan de la Shoah en France [Le régime de Vichy]"</a> [The Toll of the Holocaust in France [Vichy Regime]]. <i>bseditions.fr</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=bseditions.fr&rft.atitle=Le+Bilan+de+la+Shoah+en+France+%5BLe+r%C3%A9gime+de+Vichy%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedie.bseditions.fr%2Farticle.php%3FpArticleId%3D158%26pChapitreId%3D23982%26pArticleLib%3DLe%2BBilan%2Bde%2Bla%2BShoah%2Ben%2BFrance%2B%255BLe%2Br%25E9gime%2Bde%2BVichy%255D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-YV-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-YV_169-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Yad_Vashem" title="Yad Vashem">Yad Vashem</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.yad-vashem.org.il/yv/en/education/languages/dutch/pdf/article_croes.pdf">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171011041206/http://www.yad-vashem.org.il/yv/en/education/languages/dutch/pdf/article_croes.pdf">Archived</a> 11 October 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Milward-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Milward_170-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Milward_170-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMilward1987" class="citation book cs1">Milward, Alan (1987). <i>The Reconstruction of Western Europe: 1945–1951</i>. Taylor and Francis Group.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reconstruction+of+Western+Europe%3A+1945%E2%80%931951&rft.pub=Taylor+and+Francis+Group&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Milward&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Monnet-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Monnet_171-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Monnet_171-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Monnet_171-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMonnet1978" class="citation book cs1">Monnet, Jean (1978). <i>Memoirs</i>. Translated by Mayne, Richard. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-385-12505-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-385-12505-4"><bdi>0-385-12505-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memoirs&rft.place=Garden+City%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Doubleday+%26+Company%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-385-12505-4&rft.aulast=Monnet&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Duchene-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Duchene_172-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Duchene_172-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDuchêne1994" class="citation book cs1">Duchêne, François (1994). <i>Jean Monnet: The First Statesman of Interdependence</i>. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-03497-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-03497-6"><bdi>0-393-03497-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jean+Monnet%3A+The+First+Statesman+of+Interdependence&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-393-03497-6&rft.aulast=Duch%C3%AAne&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7ois&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFYerginStanislaw1998" class="citation web cs1">Yergin, Daniel; Stanislaw, Joseph (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/shared/minitext/prof_jeanmonnet.html">"Commanding Heights: Jean Monnet"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a></i>. pp. 29–32.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PBS&rft.atitle=Commanding+Heights%3A+Jean+Monnet&rft.pages=29-32&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Yergin&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=Stanislaw%2C+Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Fcommandingheights%2Fshared%2Fminitext%2Fprof_jeanmonnet.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_Cavendish2001" class="citation web cs1">Richard Cavendish (July 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historytoday.com/archive/months-past/death-marshal-pétain">"Death of Marshal Pétain: Philippe Pétain died on 23 July 1951, aged 95"</a>. History Today. <q>...he was found guilty of treason and conspiracy to overthrow the Republic</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Death+of+Marshal+P%C3%A9tain%3A+Philippe+P%C3%A9tain+died+on+23+July+1951%2C+aged+95.&rft.pub=History+Today&rft.date=2001-07&rft.au=Richard+Cavendish&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historytoday.com%2Farchive%2Fmonths-past%2Fdeath-marshal-p%C3%A9tain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/oct/16/fromthearchives">"The execution of Pierre Laval"</a>. <i>From the archives</i>. The Guardian. 15 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=From+the+archives&rft.atitle=The+execution+of+Pierre+Laval&rft.date=2008-10-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fcommentisfree%2F2008%2Foct%2F16%2Ffromthearchives&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDakin_Andone2021" class="citation web cs1">Dakin Andone (20 February 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/world/u-s-deports-former-nazi-concentration-camp-guard-to-germany-1.5317233">"US deports former Nazi concentration camp guard to Germany"</a>. CTV.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=US+deports+former+Nazi+concentration+camp+guard+to+Germany&rft.pub=CTV&rft.date=2021-02-20&rft.au=Dakin+Andone&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ctvnews.ca%2Fworld%2Fu-s-deports-former-nazi-concentration-camp-guard-to-germany-1.5317233&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFSaxon1991" class="citation news cs1">Saxon, Wolfgang (26 September 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1991/09/26/world/klaus-barbie-77-lyons-gestapo-chief.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm">"Klaus Barbie, 77, Lyons Gestapo Chief"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Klaus+Barbie%2C+77%2C+Lyons+Gestapo+Chief&rft.date=1991-09-26&rft.aulast=Saxon&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1991%2F09%2F26%2Fworld%2Fklaus-barbie-77-lyons-gestapo-chief.html%3Fpagewanted%3Dall%26src%3Dpm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Horn-2020-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Horn-2020_178-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGerd-Rainer_Horn2020" class="citation book cs1">Gerd-Rainer Horn (19 March 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2EfWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA256"><i>The Moment of Liberation in Western Europe: Power Struggles and Rebellions, 1943–1948</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 255–256. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-958791-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-958791-9"><bdi>978-0-19-958791-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1160072047">1160072047</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Moment+of+Liberation+in+Western+Europe%3A+Power+Struggles+and+Rebellions%2C+1943%E2%80%931948&rft.pages=255-256&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020-03-19&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1160072047&rft.isbn=978-0-19-958791-9&rft.au=Gerd-Rainer+Horn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2EfWDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA256&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFNoiriel2019" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Noiriel" class="extiw" title="fr:Gérard Noiriel">Noiriel, Gérard</a> <span class="cs1-format">[in French]</span> (19 November 2019) [1st pub. 2018:Agone]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xXJvDwAAQBAJ"><i>Une histoire populaire de la France : De la guerre de Cent Ans à nos jours</i></a> [<i>A Popular History of France: from the 100 Years War to the Present Day</i>]. Mémoires sociales (in French). Agone. p. 547. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7489-0301-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7489-0301-0"><bdi>978-2-7489-0301-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1057326362">1057326362</a>. <q>[Le livre] fit l'effet d'une bombe, car il montrait, preuves à l'appui, que l'État français avait participé à la déportation des Juifs dans les camps de concentration nazis, ce qui avait été occulté par les historiens jusque-là.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Une+histoire+populaire+de+la+France+%3A+De+la+guerre+de+Cent+Ans+%C3%A0+nos+jours&rft.series=M%C3%A9moires+sociales&rft.pages=547&rft.pub=Agone&rft.date=2019-11-19&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1057326362&rft.isbn=978-2-7489-0301-0&rft.aulast=Noiriel&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A9rard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxXJvDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Lagarde-2018-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lagarde-2018_180-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFLagarde2018" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lagarde, Yann (2 July 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.franceculture.fr/histoire/comment-la-revolution-paxtonienne-a-bouleverse-notre-regard-sur-loccupation">"Quand l'histoire fait scandale : La France de Vichy"</a> [When History Becomes Scandal : Vichy France]. La Fabrique de l'histoire [Making History] (in French). <a href="/wiki/France_Culture" title="France Culture">France Culture</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Quand+l%27histoire+fait+scandale+%3A+La+France+de+Vichy&rft.series=La+Fabrique+de+l%27histoire+%5BMaking+History%5D&rft.pub=France+Culture&rft.date=2018-07-02&rft.aulast=Lagarde&rft.aufirst=Yann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.franceculture.fr%2Fhistoire%2Fcomment-la-revolution-paxtonienne-a-bouleverse-notre-regard-sur-loccupation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman2018[httpsbooksgooglecombooksida2VEDwAAQBAJpgPT7_Intro._PT7]-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman2018[httpsbooksgooglecombooksida2VEDwAAQBAJpgPT7_Intro._PT7]_181-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman2018[httpsbooksgooglecombooksida2VEDwAAQBAJpgPT7_Intro._PT7]_181-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman2018[httpsbooksgooglecombooksida2VEDwAAQBAJpgPT7_Intro._PT7]_181-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChapman2018">Chapman 2018</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a2VEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT7">Intro. PT7</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHarshav2004" class="citation book cs1">Harshav, Benjamin (2004). <i>Chagall and His Times: A Documentary Narrative</i>. Stanford University Press. p. 497.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chagall+and+His+Times%3A+A+Documentary+Narrative&rft.pages=497&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Harshav&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theparisreview.org/blog/2020/10/14/the-death-of-max-jacob/">The Death of Max Jacob</a>, Rosanna Warren, Paris Review October 14, 2020</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2018/05/14/the-vulnerable-ferocity-of-chaim-soutine">The Vulnerable Ferocity of Chaim Soutine: His painting process could seem like something between a mud-wrestling match and a fight to the death.</a> Peter Schjeldahl, The New Yorker, May 07, 2018</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-eh-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-eh_185-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eh_185-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2018/jul/11/left-bank-agnes-poirier-review-existentialism-jazz-paris-1940s">Left Bank by Agnès Poirier – existentialism, jazz and the miracle of Paris in the 1940s: A gushing love letter to the French capital features De Beauvoir, Sartre, Samuel Beckett and wave after and wave of oversexed, overpaid Americans</a>, Stuart Jeffries. The Guardian, Wed 11 Jul 2018</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ngv.vic.gov.au/picasso/education/ed_JTE_TWY.html">Picasso Love & War 1935-1945: A Journey Through the Exhibition: The War Years</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/treasuresoftheworld/guernica/glevel_1/4_exile.html">Guernica</a> PBS</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andre-Malraux">André Malvaux</a>, Encyclopædia Britannica</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFÉBOUÉ" class="citation web cs1">ÉBOUÉ, Félix. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cvce.eu/s/ow.">"La nouvelle politique indigène pour l'Afrique équatoriale française"</a>. <i>cvce.eu by uni.lu</i>. Toulon: Office Français d'Édition. 08-11-1941<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cvce.eu+by+uni.lu&rft.atitle=La+nouvelle+politique+indig%C3%A8ne+pour+l%27Afrique+%C3%A9quatoriale+fran%C3%A7aise&rft.aulast=%C3%89BOU%C3%89&rft.aufirst=F%C3%A9lix&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cvce.eu%2Fs%2Fow.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i>]</span></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMartin_Evans1991" class="citation web cs1">Martin Evans (July 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historytoday.com/archive/french-resistance-and-algerian-war">"French Resistance and the Algerian War"</a>. History Today.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=French+Resistance+and+the+Algerian+War&rft.pub=History+Today&rft.date=1991-07&rft.au=Martin+Evans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historytoday.com%2Farchive%2Ffrench-resistance-and-algerian-war&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-TedMorgan-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TedMorgan_191-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMorgan2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ted_Morgan_(writer)" title="Ted Morgan (writer)">Morgan, Ted</a> (31 January 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mybattleofalgier00morg/page/26"><i>My Battle of Algiers</i></a>. HarperCollins. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mybattleofalgier00morg/page/26">26</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-085224-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-085224-5"><bdi>978-0-06-085224-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=My+Battle+of+Algiers&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2006-01-31&rft.isbn=978-0-06-085224-5&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=Ted&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmybattleofalgier00morg%2Fpage%2F26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Works_cited">Works cited</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section's source code: Works cited"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAron1962" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Aron" title="Robert Aron">Aron, Robert</a> (1962). "Pétain : sa carrière, son procès" [Pétain: his career, his trial]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L88fAAAAMAAJ"><i>Grands dossiers de l'histoire contemporaine</i></a> [<i>Major issues in contemporary history</i>] (in French). Paris: Librairie Académique Perrin. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1356008">1356008</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=P%C3%A9tain+%3A+sa+carri%C3%A8re%2C+son+proc%C3%A8s&rft.btitle=Grands+dossiers+de+l%27histoire+contemporaine&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Librairie+Acad%C3%A9mique+Perrin&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1356008&rft.aulast=Aron&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL88fAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBéglé2014" class="citation magazine cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Béglé, Jérôme (20 January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lepoint.fr/livres/rentree-litteraire-avec-pierre-assouline-sigmaringen-c-est-la-vie-de-chateau-20-01-2014-1782076_37.php">"Rentrée littéraire – Avec Pierre Assouline, Sigmaringen, c'est la vie de château !"</a> [Autumn publishing season launch – With Pierre Assouline, Sigmaringen, That's life in the castle]. <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Point" title="Le Point">Le Point</a></i> (in French). Le Point Communications.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Point&rft.atitle=Rentr%C3%A9e+litt%C3%A9raire+%E2%80%93+Avec+Pierre+Assouline%2C+Sigmaringen%2C+c%27est+la+vie+de+ch%C3%A2teau+%21&rft.date=2014-01-20&rft.aulast=B%C3%A9gl%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lepoint.fr%2Flivres%2Frentree-litteraire-avec-pierre-assouline-sigmaringen-c-est-la-vie-de-chateau-20-01-2014-1782076_37.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAshdown2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paddy_Ashdown" title="Paddy Ashdown">Ashdown, Paddy</a> (2015). <i>The Cruel Victory: The French Resistance, D-Day and the Battle for the Vercors 1944</i>. London: William Collins. p. 97. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0007520817" title="Special:BookSources/978-0007520817"><bdi>978-0007520817</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cruel+Victory%3A+The+French+Resistance%2C+D-Day+and+the+Battle+for+the+Vercors+1944&rft.place=London&rft.pages=97&rft.pub=William+Collins&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0007520817&rft.aulast=Ashdown&rft.aufirst=Paddy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBernard1984" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bernard" class="extiw" title="fr:Henri Bernard">Bernard, Henri</a> <span class="cs1-format">[in French]</span> (1984) [1st pub: <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">Collins</a> (1981)]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/rbph_0035-0818_1984_num_62_2_3467_t1_0374_0000_1">"Kersaudy (François). Churchill and <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span> [compte-rendu]"</a>. <i>Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire</i> (book review) (in French). <b>62</b> (2)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+belge+de+philologie+et+d%27histoire&rft.atitle=Kersaudy+%28Fran%C3%A7ois%29.+Churchill+and+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3Ede+Gaulle%3C%2Fspan%3E+%5Bcompte-rendu%5D&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=2&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Bernard&rft.aufirst=Henri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fdoc%2Frbph_0035-0818_1984_num_62_2_3467_t1_0374_0000_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBoissoneault2017" class="citation web cs1">Boissoneault, Lorraine (9 November 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/vichy-government-france-world-war-ii-willingly-collaborated-nazis-180967160/">"Was Vichy France a Puppet Government or a Willing Nazi Collaborator?"</a>. <i>Smithsonian Magazine</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Magazine&rft.atitle=Was+Vichy+France+a+Puppet+Government+or+a+Willing+Nazi+Collaborator%3F&rft.date=2017-11-09&rft.aulast=Boissoneault&rft.aufirst=Lorraine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fhistory%2Fvichy-government-france-world-war-ii-willingly-collaborated-nazis-180967160%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBrissaud1965" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Brissaud, André (1965), <i>La Dernière année de Vichy (1943–1944)</i> [<i>The Last Year of Vichy</i>] (in French), Paris: Librairie Académique Perrin, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/406974043">406974043</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Derni%C3%A8re+ann%C3%A9e+de+Vichy+%281943%E2%80%931944%29&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Librairie+Acad%C3%A9mique+Perrin&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F406974043&rft.aulast=Brissaud&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBuckley2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Buckley_(historian)" title="John Buckley (historian)">Buckley, John</a> (2006) [1st pub. 2004]. <i>British Armour in the Normandy Campaign 1944</i>. Abingdon, Oxfordshire: Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-40773-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-40773-7"><bdi>0-415-40773-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+Armour+in+the+Normandy+Campaign+1944&rft.place=Abingdon%2C+Oxfordshire&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-415-40773-7&rft.aulast=Buckley&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCantier2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Cantier, Jacques (2002). <i>L'Algérie sous le régime de Vichy</i> [<i>Algeria Under the Vichy Regime</i>] (in French). Odile Jacob. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2738-11057-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-2738-11057-2"><bdi>978-2738-11057-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27Alg%C3%A9rie+sous+le+r%C3%A9gime+de+Vichy&rft.pub=Odile+Jacob&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-2738-11057-2&rft.aulast=Cantier&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFChapman2018" class="citation book cs1">Chapman, Herrick (8 January 2018). "Introduction". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a2VEDwAAQBAJ"><i>France's Long Reconstruction : in search of the modern republic</i></a>. Boston: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674-97641-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674-97641-2"><bdi>978-0674-97641-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/984973630">984973630</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 February</span> 2021</span>. p. PT7: <q>Many an ordinary citizen was more concerned with getting life back to a stable routine and rebuilding a home or a local school exactly as it had been—"a l'identique", as people put it. But French leaders agreed that France had to modernize. ... 'We will remake France,' the Resistance exhorted in its underground press. Just what this new France should be, however, was hardly self-evident, and as a consequence the question of reconstruction—what it should be and how to do it—remained at the heart of French political combat for more than a decade after the war, and as I will argue, until the end of the Algerian war in 1962.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=France%27s+Long+Reconstruction+%3A+in+search+of+the+modern+republic&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=PT7&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2018-01-08&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F984973630&rft.isbn=978-0674-97641-2&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=Herrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da2VEDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFChoisnel2007" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Choisnel, Emmanuel (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9fZnAAAAMAAJ"><i>L'Assemblée consultative provisoire (1943-1945) Le sursaut républicain</i></a> [<i>The Provisional Consultative Assembly (1943-1945) The Republican Leap</i>] (in French). Harmattan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-296-03898-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-296-03898-1"><bdi>978-2-296-03898-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/301791978">301791978</a>. <q>En fait les 49 sièges dévolus à la résistance intérieure ne furent jamais intégralement pourvus</q> [In fact, the 49 seats allocated to the internal resistance were never fully filled]</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27Assembl%C3%A9e+consultative+provisoire+%281943-1945%29+Le+sursaut+r%C3%A9publicain&rft.pub=Harmattan&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F301791978&rft.isbn=978-2-296-03898-1&rft.aulast=Choisnel&rft.aufirst=Emmanuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9fZnAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span> --></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFClarkeSmith1993" class="citation book cs1">Clarke, Jeffrey J. & Smith, Robert Ross (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/CMHPub7101RivieraToTheRhine-nsia"><i>Riviera To The Rhine</i></a>. United States Army in World War II: European Theater of Operations. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, United States Army. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-16-025966-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-16-025966-1"><bdi>978-0-16-025966-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Riviera+To+The+Rhine.&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.series=United+States+Army+in+World+War+II%3A+European+Theater+of+Operations&rft.pub=Center+of+Military+History%2C+United+States+Army&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-16-025966-1&rft.aulast=Clarke&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+J.&rft.au=Smith%2C+Robert+Ross&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FCMHPub7101RivieraToTheRhine-nsia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFClayton1994" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Clayton, Anthony (1994). <i>Histoire de l'Armée française en Afrique 1830-1962</i> (in French). Paris: Albin Michel. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-28-600869-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-28-600869-7"><bdi>978-2-28-600869-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+de+l%27Arm%C3%A9e+fran%C3%A7aise+en+Afrique+1830-1962&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Albin+Michel&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-2-28-600869-7&rft.aulast=Clayton&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCointet2014" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Cointet" title="Jean-Paul Cointet">Cointet, Jean-Paul</a> (2014). <i>Sigmaringen</i>. Tempus (in French). Paris: Perrin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-262-03300-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-262-03300-2"><bdi>978-2-262-03300-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sigmaringen&rft.place=Paris&rft.series=Tempus&rft.pub=Perrin&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-2-262-03300-2&rft.aulast=Cointet&rft.aufirst=Jean-Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFConanRousso1998" class="citation book cs1">Conan, Eric; Rousso, Henry (1998). <i>Vichy: An Ever-Present Past</i>. Sudbury, Massachusetts: Dartmouth. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87451-795-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87451-795-8"><bdi>978-0-87451-795-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vichy%3A+An+Ever-Present+Past&rft.place=Sudbury%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Dartmouth&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-87451-795-8&rft.aulast=Conan&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft.au=Rousso%2C+Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDanan1972" class="citation journal cs1">Danan, Yves-Maxime (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.u-picardie.fr/curapp-revues/root/3/danan.pdf">"La nature juridique du Conseil de défense de l'empire (Brazzaville, October 1940) Contribution à la Théorie des Gouvernements Insurrectionnels"</a> [The legal nature of the Empire Defense (October 1940) Contribution to the Theory of Insurrectionnal Governments] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Publications de la faculté de droit et des sciences politiques et sociales d'Amiens</i> (4): 145–149.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Publications+de+la+facult%C3%A9+de+droit+et+des+sciences+politiques+et+sociales+d%27Amiens&rft.atitle=La+nature+juridique+du+Conseil+de+d%C3%A9fense+de+l%27empire+%28Brazzaville%2C+October+1940%29+Contribution+%C3%A0+la+Th%C3%A9orie+des+Gouvernements+Insurrectionnels&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=145-149&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Danan&rft.aufirst=Yves-Maxime&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.u-picardie.fr%2Fcurapp-revues%2Froot%2F3%2Fdanan.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFEllisAllenWarhurst2004" class="citation book cs1">Ellis, L.F.; Allen, G.R.G.; Warhurst, A.E. (2004) [1st pub. 1962]. <a href="/wiki/James_Ramsay_Montagu_Butler" class="mw-redirect" title="James Ramsay Montagu Butler">Butler, J.R.M</a> (ed.). <i>Victory in the West, Volume I: The Battle of Normandy</i>. History of the Second World War United Kingdom Military Series. London: Naval & Military Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84574-058-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-84574-058-0"><bdi>1-84574-058-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Victory+in+the+West%2C+Volume+I%3A+The+Battle+of+Normandy&rft.place=London&rft.series=History+of+the+Second+World+War+United+Kingdom+Military+Series&rft.pub=Naval+%26+Military+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-84574-058-0&rft.aulast=Ellis&rft.aufirst=L.F.&rft.au=Allen%2C+G.R.G.&rft.au=Warhurst%2C+A.E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGilbert1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Gilbert" title="Martin Gilbert">Gilbert, Martin</a> (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/secondworldwar00gilb"><i>The Second World War: A Complete History</i></a>. New York: H. Holt. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-1788-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-1788-5"><bdi>978-0-8050-1788-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Second+World+War%3A+A+Complete+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=H.+Holt&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-1788-5&rft.aulast=Gilbert&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsecondworldwar00gilb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGildea2002" class="citation book cs1">Gildea, Robert (2002). <i>France since 1945</i>. USA: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280131-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280131-9"><bdi>978-0-19-280131-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=France+since+1945&rft.place=USA&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-280131-9&rft.aulast=Gildea&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGildea2019" class="citation book cs1">Gildea, Robert (28 February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KB2GDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA52">"2 Empires in Crisis: Two World Wars"</a>. <i>Empires of the Mind: The Colonial Past and the Politics of the Present</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 52–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-62940-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-62940-9"><bdi>978-1-108-62940-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1089913483">1089913483</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2+Empires+in+Crisis%3A+Two+World+Wars&rft.btitle=Empires+of+the+Mind%3A+The+Colonial+Past+and+the+Politics+of+the+Present&rft.pages=52-&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2019-02-28&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1089913483&rft.isbn=978-1-108-62940-9&rft.aulast=Gildea&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKB2GDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHuddleston1955" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sisley_Huddleston" title="Sisley Huddleston">Huddleston, Sisley</a> (1955). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/francethetragicy006833mbp#page/n13/mode/2up"><i>France; The Tragic Years 1939-1947</i></a>. New York: The Devin-Adair Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=France%3B+The+Tragic+Years+1939-1947&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+Devin-Adair+Company&rft.date=1955&rft.aulast=Huddleston&rft.aufirst=Sisley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Ffrancethetragicy006833mbp%23page%2Fn13%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFJäckel-fr1968" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Jäckel, Eberhard (1968) [1st pub. 1966: Deutsche Verlag-Anstalg GmbH (in German) as "Frankreich in Hitlers Europa – Die deutsche Frankreichpolitik im Zweiten Weltkrieg"]. <i>La France dans l'Europe de Hitler</i> [<i>France in Hitler's Europe – Germany's France foreign policy in the Second World War</i>]. Les grandes études contemporaines (in French). Paris: Fayard.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+France+dans+l%27Europe+de+Hitler&rft.place=Paris&rft.series=Les+grandes+%C3%A9tudes+contemporaines&rft.pub=Fayard&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=J%C3%A4ckel&rft.aufirst=Eberhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFJackson2001" class="citation book cs1">Jackson, Julian (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/france00juli"><i>France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-820706-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-820706-1"><bdi>978-0-19-820706-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=France%3A+The+Dark+Years%2C+1940%E2%80%931944&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-820706-1&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Julian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffrance00juli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFJackson2003" class="citation book cs1">Jackson, Julian (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/france00juli"><i>France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944</i></a>. US: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199254576" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199254576"><bdi>978-0199254576</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=France%3A+The+Dark+Years%2C+1940%E2%80%931944&rft.place=US&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0199254576&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Julian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffrance00juli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFJOFF" class="citation book cs1"><i>Journal officiel de la France libre</i> [<i>Official Journal of Free France</i>].</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Journal+officiel+de+la+France+libre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFKupferman2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Fred_Kupferman" title="Fred Kupferman">Kupferman, Fred</a> (2006) [1st pub: Balland (1987)]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.persee.fr/doc/polit_0032-342x_1988_num_53_2_3786_t1_0526_0000_4"><i>Laval</i></a> (in French) (2 ed.). Paris: Tallandier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-84734-254-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-84734-254-3"><bdi>978-2-84734-254-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Laval&rft.place=Paris&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Tallandier&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-2-84734-254-3&rft.aulast=Kupferman&rft.aufirst=Fred&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fdoc%2Fpolit_0032-342x_1988_num_53_2_3786_t1_0526_0000_4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFLacouture1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Lacouture" title="Jean Lacouture">Lacouture, Jean</a> (1993) [1st pub. <a href="/wiki/Seuil" title="Seuil">Seuil</a>:1984]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o-0gPwAACAAJ"><i>De Gaulle: The Rebel, 1890-1944</i></a>. Translated by O'Brian, Patrick. London: Harvill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-271288-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-271288-0"><bdi>978-0-00-271288-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/27942042">27942042</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+Gaulle%3A+The+Rebel%2C+1890-1944&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Harvill&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F27942042&rft.isbn=978-0-00-271288-0&rft.aulast=Lacouture&rft.aufirst=Jean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do-0gPwAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMaury2006" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Maury, Jean-Pierre (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mjp.univ-perp.fr/france/co1944-1.htm">"Gouvernement de la Libération"</a> (in French). Perpignan: Digithèque MJP, University of Perpignan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gouvernement+de+la+Lib%C3%A9ration&rft.place=Perpignan&rft.pub=Digith%C3%A8que+MJP%2C+University+of+Perpignan&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Maury&rft.aufirst=Jean-Pierre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmjp.univ-perp.fr%2Ffrance%2Fco1944-1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMaury2010" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Maury, Jean-Pierre (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mjp.univ-perp.fr/france/co1944-1.htm">"Le Commandement en chef civil et militaire"</a> (in French). Perpignan: Digithèque MJP, University of Perpignan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Le+Commandement+en+chef+civil+et+militaire&rft.place=Perpignan&rft.pub=Digith%C3%A8que+MJP%2C+University+of+Perpignan&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Maury&rft.aufirst=Jean-Pierre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmjp.univ-perp.fr%2Ffrance%2Fco1944-1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFMontagnon1990" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Montagnon, Pierre (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3732Y--CKI4C"><i>La France coloniale : Retour à l'Hexagone</i></a> [<i>Colonial France: Return to the Hexagon</i>] (in French). Vol. 2. Pygmalion. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7564-0938-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7564-0938-2"><bdi>978-2-7564-0938-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+France+coloniale+%3A+Retour+%C3%A0+l%27Hexagone&rft.pub=Pygmalion&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-2-7564-0938-2&rft.aulast=Montagnon&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3732Y--CKI4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFNyrop1965" class="citation book cs1">Nyrop, Richard; American University (Washington, D.C.). Foreign Areas Studies Division United States. Army (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bgq8xwHlCpoC&pg=PA28"><i>U.S. Army Area Handbook for Algeria</i></a>. Division, Special Operations Research Office, American University. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1085291500">1085291500</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 July</span> 2020</span>. <q>Most of the European colonial population of Algeria wholeheartedly supported the Vichy government. ... Even after the Allies under General Dwight D. Eisenhower liberated Algeria in November 1942, General Henri Giraud, appointed by Eisenhower as civil and military commander in chief, only slowly rescinded the Vichy legislation. It was almost a year before the Crémieux decrees were reactivated, against the virulent opposition of the European colonialists.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=U.S.+Army+Area+Handbook+for+Algeria&rft.pub=Division%2C+Special+Operations+Research+Office%2C+American+University&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1085291500&rft.aulast=Nyrop&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=American+University+%28Washington%2C+D.C.%29.+Foreign+Areas+Studies+Division+United+States.+Army&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dbgq8xwHlCpoC%26pg%3DPA28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPaxton-fr1997" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Paxton, Robert O. (1997) [1st pub: 1972: <a href="/wiki/Knopf" class="mw-redirect" title="Knopf">Knopf</a> (in English) as "Vichy France: old guard and new order, 1940–1944" (978-0394-47360-4)], <i>La France de Vichy – 1940–1944</i>, Points-Histoire (in French), translated by Bertrand, Claude, Paris: Éditions du Seuil, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-02-039210-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-02-039210-5"><bdi>978-2-02-039210-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+France+de+Vichy+%E2%80%93+1940%E2%80%931944&rft.place=Paris&rft.series=Points-Histoire&rft.pub=%C3%89ditions+du+Seuil&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-2-02-039210-5&rft.aulast=Paxton&rft.aufirst=Robert+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPogue1986" class="citation book cs1">Pogue, Forrest C. (1986) [1st pub. 1954]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-E-Supreme/index.html"><i>The Supreme Command</i></a>. United States Army in World War II: European Theater of Operations. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, United States Army. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-16-001916-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-16-001916-6"><bdi>978-0-16-001916-6</bdi></a> – via Hyperwar Foundation.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Supreme+Command&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.series=United+States+Army+in+World+War+II%3A+European+Theater+of+Operations&rft.pub=Center+of+Military+History%2C+United+States+Army&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-16-001916-6&rft.aulast=Pogue&rft.aufirst=Forrest+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Fhyperwar%2FUSA%2FUSA-E-Supreme%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFReeves2016" class="citation book cs1">Reeves, Mark (2016). "M'Fam goes home : African soldiers in the Gabon Campaign of 1940". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BCklDwAAQBAJ"><i>Dissent, Protest and Dispute in Africa</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1315-41308-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1315-41308-2"><bdi>978-1315-41308-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=M%27Fam+goes+home+%3A+African+soldiers+in+the+Gabon+Campaign+of+1940&rft.btitle=Dissent%2C+Protest+and+Dispute+in+Africa&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1315-41308-2&rft.aulast=Reeves&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBCklDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRousso1999" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Rousso" title="Henry Rousso">Rousso, Henry</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nCE_2I4vyZkC"><i>Pétain et la fin de la collaboration : Sigmaringen, 1944-1945</i></a> [<i>Pétain and the end of collaboration: Sigmaringen, 1944–1945</i>] (in French). Paris: Éditions Complexe. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-87027-138-7" title="Special:BookSources/2-87027-138-7"><bdi>2-87027-138-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=P%C3%A9tain+et+la+fin+de+la+collaboration+%3A+Sigmaringen%2C+1944-1945&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=%C3%89ditions+Complexe&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=2-87027-138-7&rft.aulast=Rousso&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnCE_2I4vyZkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFSautermeister2013" class="citation book cs1">Sautermeister, Christine (6 February 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RQPZBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT15"><i>Louis-Ferdinand Céline à Sigmaringen : réalité et fiction dans "D'un château l'autre</i></a>. Ecriture. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-35905-098-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-35905-098-1"><bdi>978-2-35905-098-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/944523109">944523109</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 August</span> 2020</span>. <q><i>De septembre 1944 jusque fin avril 1945, Sigmaringen constitue donc une enclave française. Le drapeau français est hissé devant le château. Deux ambassades et un consulat en cautionnent la légitimité : l'Allemagne, le Japon et l'Italie.</i></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Louis-Ferdinand+C%C3%A9line+%C3%A0+Sigmaringen+%3A+r%C3%A9alit%C3%A9+et+fiction+dans+%22D%27un+ch%C3%A2teau+l%27autre&rft.pub=Ecriture&rft.date=2013-02-06&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F944523109&rft.isbn=978-2-35905-098-1&rft.aulast=Sautermeister&rft.aufirst=Christine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRQPZBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFSinger2008" class="citation book cs1">Singer, Barnett (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0VZeIHEv3FkC&pg=PA111"><i>Maxime Weygand: A Biography of the French General in Two World Wars</i></a>. McFarland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-3571-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-3571-5"><bdi>978-0-7864-3571-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151101104418/https://books.google.com/books?id=0VZeIHEv3FkC&pg=PA111">Archived</a> from the original on 1 November 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maxime+Weygand%3A+A+Biography+of+the+French+General+in+Two+World+Wars&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7864-3571-5&rft.aulast=Singer&rft.aufirst=Barnett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0VZeIHEv3FkC%26pg%3DPA111&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFTucker-Jones2010" class="citation book cs1">Tucker-Jones, Anthony (2010). <i>Operation Dragoon: The Liberation of Southern France 1944</i>. Pen and Sword. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84884-140-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84884-140-6"><bdi>978-1-84884-140-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Operation+Dragoon%3A+The+Liberation+of+Southern+France+1944&rft.pub=Pen+and+Sword&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-84884-140-6&rft.aulast=Tucker-Jones&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFVogel1983" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Vogel, Detlef (1983). "Deutsche und Alliierte Kriegsführung im Westen [German and Allied warfare in the West]". In Boog, Horst; Krebs, Gerhard; Vogel, Detlef (eds.). <i>Das Deutsche Reich in der Defensive</i> [<i>The German Reich on the Defense: The Strategic Air War in Europe and the War in the West and East Asia 1943–1944/5</i>]. <a href="/wiki/Germany_and_the_Second_World_War" title="Germany and the Second World War">Germany and the Second World War</a> (in German). Vol. VII. <a href="/wiki/Military_History_Research_Office_(Germany)" title="Military History Research Office (Germany)"><i>Militärgeschichtliches Forschungsamt</i></a>. Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt. pp. 419–642. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-421-05507-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-421-05507-1"><bdi>978-3-421-05507-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Deutsche+und+Alliierte+Kriegsf%C3%BChrung+im+Westen+%5BGerman+and+Allied+warfare+in+the+West%5D&rft.btitle=Das+Deutsche+Reich+in+der+Defensive&rft.series=Germany+and+the+Second+World+War&rft.pages=419-642&rft.pub=Deutsche+Verlags-Anstalt&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-3-421-05507-1&rft.aulast=Vogel&rft.aufirst=Detlef&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWeinberg1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Weinberg" title="Gerhard Weinberg">Weinberg, Gerhard</a> (1995) [1st pub. 1993]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AJj1glSfifgC"><i>A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55879-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55879-2"><bdi>978-0-521-55879-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+World+at+Arms%3A+A+Global+History+of+World+War+II&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-521-55879-2&rft.aulast=Weinberg&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAJj1glSfifgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWeitz1995" class="citation book cs1">Weitz, Margaret Collins (1995). <i>Sisters in the Resistance – How Women Fought to Free France 1940–1945</i>. New York: John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-19698-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-19698-3"><bdi>978-0-471-19698-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sisters+in+the+Resistance+%E2%80%93+How+Women+Fought+to+Free+France+1940%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-471-19698-3&rft.aulast=Weitz&rft.aufirst=Margaret+Collins&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWhite1964" class="citation book cs1">White, Dorothy Shipley (1964). "XI The French Empire Rises". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PowduQEACAAJ"><i>Seeds of Discord: De Gaulle, Free France and the Allies</i></a>. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/876345256">876345256</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=XI+The+French+Empire+Rises&rft.btitle=Seeds+of+Discord%3A+De+Gaulle%2C+Free+France+and+the+Allies&rft.place=Syracuse%2C+NY&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F876345256&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Dorothy+Shipley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPowduQEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWhitmarsh2009" class="citation book cs1">Whitmarsh, Andrew (2009). <i>D-Day in Photographs</i>. Stroud: History Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-5095-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-5095-7"><bdi>978-0-7524-5095-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=D-Day+in+Photographs&rft.place=Stroud&rft.pub=History+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7524-5095-7&rft.aulast=Whitmarsh&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1992" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Alan (1992). <i>Republic of Images: A History of French Filmmaking</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-76268-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-76268-8"><bdi>978-0-674-76268-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Republic+of+Images%3A+A+History+of+French+Filmmaking&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-674-76268-8&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFYeide2007" class="citation book cs1">Yeide, Harry (2007). <i>First to the Rhine: The 6th Army Group In World War II</i>. Zenith Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7603-3146-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7603-3146-0"><bdi>978-0-7603-3146-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=First+to+the+Rhine%3A+The+6th+Army+Group+In+World+War+II&rft.pub=Zenith+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7603-3146-0&rft.aulast=Yeide&rft.aufirst=Harry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFZaloga2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Zaloga" class="mw-redirect" title="Steven Zaloga">Zaloga, Steven J.</a> (2009). <i>Operation Dragoon 1944: France's other D-Day</i>. Campaign No. 210. Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-367-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-367-4"><bdi>978-1-84603-367-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Operation+Dragoon+1944%3A+France%27s+other+D-Day&rft.series=Campaign+No.+210&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-84603-367-4&rft.aulast=Zaloga&rft.aufirst=Steven+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_France&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section's source code: Further reading"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li>Aron, Robert. <i>France reborn; the history of the liberation, June 1944 – May 1945</i> (1964) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/francerebornhist00aron_0">online</a></li>
<li>Diamond, Hanna, and Simon Kitson, eds. <i>Vichy, resistance, liberation: new perspectives on wartime France</i> (Bloomsbury, 2005).</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFDoughty2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Doughty" title="Robert A. Doughty">Doughty, Robert A.</a> (15 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MpXEBAAAQBAJ"><i>The Breaking Point: Sedan and the Fall of France, 1940</i></a>. Stackpole military history series. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8117-1459-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8117-1459-4"><bdi>978-0-8117-1459-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/869908029">869908029</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Breaking+Point%3A+Sedan+and+the+Fall+of+France%2C+1940&rft.place=Mechanicsburg%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.series=Stackpole+military+history+series.&rft.pub=Stackpole+Books&rft.date=2014-09-15&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F869908029&rft.isbn=978-0-8117-1459-4&rft.aulast=Doughty&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMpXEBAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Gordon, Bertram M. <i>Historical Dictionary of World War II France: The Occupation, Vichy, and the Resistance, 1938–1946 </i> (1998).</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAnnex-Alger" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gouriou, Anne-Marie; Salmon, Roseline (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archivesnationales.culture.gouv.fr/chan/chan/pdf/sm/C_15247_15281_annexe_Alger.pdf">"Annexe du répertoire, Assemblée consultative provisoire (Alger)"</a> [Appendix to the Directory, Provisional Consultative Assembly (Algiers)] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in French).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Annexe+du+r%C3%A9pertoire%2C+Assembl%C3%A9e+consultative+provisoire+%28Alger%29&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Gouriou&rft.aufirst=Anne-Marie&rft.au=Salmon%2C+Roseline&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.archivesnationales.culture.gouv.fr%2Fchan%2Fchan%2Fpdf%2Fsm%2FC_15247_15281_annexe_Alger.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAnnex-Paris2008" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gouriou, Anne-Marie; Salmon, Roseline (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archivesnationales.culture.gouv.fr/chan/chan/pdf/sm/C_15247_15281_annexe_Paris.pdf">"Annexe du répertoire, Assemblée consultative provisoire (Paris)"</a> [Appendix to the Directory, Provisional Consultative Assembly (Paris)] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in French). Paris: Archives nationales [National Archives].</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Annexe+du+r%C3%A9pertoire%2C+Assembl%C3%A9e+consultative+provisoire+%28Paris%29&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Archives+nationales+%5BNational+Archives%5D&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Gouriou&rft.aufirst=Anne-Marie&rft.au=Salmon%2C+Roseline&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.archivesnationales.culture.gouv.fr%2Fchan%2Fchan%2Fpdf%2Fsm%2FC_15247_15281_annexe_Paris.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHermiston2016" class="citation book cs1">Hermiston, Roger (2016). <i>All Behind You, Winston – Churchill's Great Coalition, 1940–45</i>. London: Aurum Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-17-81316-64-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-17-81316-64-1"><bdi>978-17-81316-64-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=All+Behind+You%2C+Winston+%E2%80%93+Churchill%27s+Great+Coalition%2C+1940%E2%80%9345&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Aurum+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-17-81316-64-1&rft.aulast=Hermiston&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Jackson, Julian<i>. France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944</i> (Oxford UP, 2004).</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd2003" class="citation book cs1">Lloyd, Christopher (16 September 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CoyDDAAAQBAJ&pg=PR9"><i>Collaboration and Resistance in Occupied France: Representing Treason and Sacrifice</i></a>. Basingstoke, Hants.: Palgrave Macmillan UK. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-50392-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-50392-2"><bdi>978-0-230-50392-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/69330013">69330013</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Collaboration+and+Resistance+in+Occupied+France%3A+Representing+Treason+and+Sacrifice&rft.place=Basingstoke%2C+Hants.&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft.date=2003-09-16&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F69330013&rft.isbn=978-0-230-50392-2&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCoyDDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Paxton, Robert. <i>Vichy France: Old Guard, New Order, 1940–1944</i> (Knopf, 1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/vichyfranceoldgu00paxt_0">online</a></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPogue1989" class="citation book cs1">Pogue, Forrest C. (1989) [1954]. "II The Coalition Command". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history.army.mil/html/books/007/7-1/CMH_Pub_7-1.pdf"><i>The Supreme Command</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. United States Army in World War II., European Theater of Operations. Washington, D. C.: Center of Military History United States Army. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/53-61717">53-61717</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1013540453">1013540453</a>. CMH pub. 7-1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=II+The+Coalition+Command&rft.btitle=The+Supreme+Command&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.+C.&rft.series=United+States+Army+in+World+War+II.%2C+European+Theater+of+Operations&rft.pub=Center+of+Military+History+United+States+Army&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1013540453&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F53-61717&rft.aulast=Pogue&rft.aufirst=Forrest+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistory.army.mil%2Fhtml%2Fbooks%2F007%2F7-1%2FCMH_Pub_7-1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFPotterNimitz1960" class="citation book cs1">Potter, E.B. & Nimitz, Chester W. (1960). <i>Sea Power</i>. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-796870-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-796870-1"><bdi>978-0-13-796870-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sea+Power&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1960&rft.isbn=978-0-13-796870-1&rft.aulast=Potter&rft.aufirst=E.B.&rft.au=Nimitz%2C+Chester+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFTelfer2015" class="citation book cs1">Telfer, Kevin (2015). <i>The Summer of '45</i>. Islington: Aurum Press Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-17-81314-35-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-17-81314-35-7"><bdi>978-17-81314-35-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Summer+of+%2745&rft.place=Islington&rft.pub=Aurum+Press+Ltd&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-17-81314-35-7&rft.aulast=Telfer&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberation+of+France" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<p><b>Allies</b>
</p>
<ul><li>Berthon, Simon. <i>Allies at War: The Bitter Rivalry among Churchill, Roosevelt, and <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span></i>. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alliesatwarbitte0000bert">online</a></li>
<li>Bourque, Stephen Alan. <i>Beyond the Beach: The Allied War Against France</i> (Naval Institute Press, 2018).</li>
<li>Dodd, Lindsey, and Andrew Knapp. "'How many Frenchmen did you kill?' British bombing policy towards France (1940–1945)" <i>French History</i> (2008) 22#4 pp 469–492.</li>
<li>Dougherty, James. <i>The Politics of Wartime Aid: American Economic Assistance to France and French Northwest Africa, 1940–1946</i> (Greenwood, 1978).</li>
<li>Funk, Arthur L. "Churchill, Eisenhower, and the French Resistance." <i>Journal of Military History</i> 45.1 (1981): 29+.</li>
<li>Hurstfield, Julian G. <i>America and the French Nation 1939–1945</i> (U North Carolina Press, 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americafrenchna00hurs">online</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Kersaudy" title="François Kersaudy">Kersaudy, Francois</a>. <i>Churchill and De Gaulle</i> (2nd ed 1990) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/churchilldegaull00fran">online</a></li>
<li>Pratt, Julius W. "De Gaulle and the United States: How the Rift Began," <i>History Teacher</i> (1968) 1#4 pp. 5–15 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3054237">in JSTOR</a></li>
<li>Rossi, Mario. <i>Roosevelt and the French</i> (Praeger, 1994).</li>
<li>Rossi, Mario. "United States Military Authorities and Free France, 1942–1944," <i>Journal of Military History</i> (1997) 61#1 pp. 49–64 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2953914">in JSTOR</a></li></ul>
<p><b>Biographical</b>
</p>
<ul><li>Clayton, Anthony. <i>Three Marshals of France: Leadership After Trauma</i> (Brassey's, 1992) on Alphonse Juin, Jean de Lattre de Tassigny and Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Fenby" title="Jonathan Fenby">Fenby, Jonathan</a>. <i>The General: Charles <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span> and the France He Saved.</i> (Simon and Schuster. 2011), popular history; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/generalcharlesde0000fenb">online</a></li>
<li>Funk, Arthur Layton. <i>Charles <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span>: The Crucial Years, 1943–1944</i> (1959) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110628215323/http://www.questia.com/read/58600747">online edition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Julian_T._Jackson" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian T. Jackson">Jackson, Julian</a>, <i>A Certain Idea of France: The Life of Charles <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span></i> (2018) 887pp; the latest biography</li>
<li>Weinberg, Gerhard L. <i>Visions of Victory: The Hopes of Eight World War II Leaders.</i> (2005). 292 pp. chapter on <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span></li></ul>
<p><b>Collaboration</b>
</p>
<ul><li>Hirschfeld, Gerhard, and Patrick Marsh, eds. <i>Collaboration in France: Politics and Culture during the Nazi Occupation, 1940–1944</i> (Berg, 1989).</li>
<li>Novick, Peter. <i>The Resistance versus Vichy: the Purge of Collaborators in Liberated France.</i> (Columbia UP, 1968).</li></ul>
<p><b>Colonial military units</b>
</p>
<ul><li>Jennings, Eric C. <i>Free French Africa in World War II: The African Resistance.</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2015) (9781107696976)</li>
<li>Driss Maghraoui (2014) [The goumiers in the Second World War: history and colonial representation <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13629387.2014.948309?journalCode=fnas20">https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13629387.2014.948309?journalCode=fnas20</a>], The Journal of North African Studies, 19:4, 571–586, DOI: 10.1080/13629387.2014.948309</li></ul>
<p><b>Daily Life</b>
</p>
<ul><li>Gildea, Robert. <i>Marianne in Chains: Daily Life in the Heart of France During the German Occupation</i> (Metropolitan Books, 2002).</li>
<li>Vinen, Richard. <i>The Unfree French: Life Under the Occupation</i> (Yale UP, 2006).</li></ul>
<p><b>Economy</b>
</p>
<ul><li>Broch, Ludivine. <i>Ordinary workers, Vichy and the Holocaust: French railwaymen and the Second World War</i> (Cambridge UP, 2016).</li>
<li>Broch, Ludivine. “Professionalism in the Final Solution: French Railway Workers and the Jewish Deportations, 1942–1944” <i>Contemporary European History</i> (2014) 23:3.</li>
<li>Brunet, Luc-André. "The new industrial order: Vichy, steel, and the origins of the Monnet Plan, 1940–1946" (PhD. Diss. The London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE), 2014) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/1028/1/Brunet_The_New_Industrial_Order.pdf">online</a>.</li>
<li>Imlay, Talbot C., Martin Horn, and Talbot Imlay. <i>The Politics of Industrial Collaboration During World War II: Ford France, Vichy and Nazi Germany</i> (Cambridge UP, 2014).</li></ul>
<p><b>Germans</b>
</p>
<ul><li>Imlay, Talbot. "The German Side of Things: Recent Scholarship on the German Occupation of France." <i>French Historical Studies</i> 39.1 (2016): 183–215.</li>
<li>U Laub, Thomas J. <i>After the fall: German policy in occupied France, 1940–1944</i> (Oxford UP, 2010).</li></ul>
<p><b>Invasions</b>
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Caddick-Adams" title="Peter Caddick-Adams">Caddick-Adams, Peter</a>. <i>Sand and Steel: The D-Day Invasion and the Liberation of France</i> (Oxford UP, 2019).</li>
<li>Cross, Robin. <i>Operation Dragoon: The Allied Liberation of the South of France: 1944</i> (Pegasus Books, 2019).</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/James_Holland_(author)" title="James Holland (author)">Holland, James</a>. <i>Normandy ’44: D-Day and the Epic 77-Day Battle for France. A New History</i> (2019)</li>
<li>Keegan, John <i>Six Armies in Normandy: From D-Day to the Liberation of Paris</i> (1994) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sixarmiesinnorma00keeg">online</a></li>
<li>Tucker-Jones, Anthony. <i>Operation Dragoon: The Liberation of Southern France 1944</i> (Casemate, 2010).</li>
<li>Wilkins, Thomas Stow. "Analysing coalition warfare from an intra-alliance politics perspective: the Normandy campaign 1944." <i>Journal of Strategic Studies</i> 29#6 (2006): 1121–1150.</li>
<li>Wilt, Alan F. "The Summer of 1944: A comparison of Overlord and Anvil/Dragoon." <i>Journal of Strategic Studies</i> 4.2 (1981): 187–195.</li></ul>
<p><b>Jews and minorities</b>
</p>
<ul><li>Echenberg, Myron. "'Morts Pour la France'; The African Soldier in France During the Second World War." <i>Journal of African History</i> (1985): 363–380 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/181655">online</a>.</li>
<li>Marrus, Michael R. and Robert O. Paxton. <i>Vichy France and the Jews</i> (1981) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/vichyfrancejews00marr/page/n9/mode/2up">online</a></li>
<li>Woodfork, Jacqueline. "'It Is a Crime To Be a Tirailleur in the Army': The Impact of Senegalese Civilian Status in the French Colonial Army during the Second World War." <i>Journal of Military History</i> 77.1 (2013).</li>
<li>Zuccotti, Susan. <i>The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews</i> (Basic Books. 1993).</li></ul>
<p><b>Regions and localities</b>
</p>
<ul><li>Cipko, Serge. "Sacred Ground: The Liberation of Alsace-Lorraine, 1944–1946." <i>Past Imperfect</i> (1994), Vol. 3, pp 159–184. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ejournals.library.ualberta.ca/index.php/pi/article/view/1378/923">online</a></li>
<li>Diamond, Hanna. "The Return of the Republic: Crowd Photography and the Liberation in Toulouse, 1944–1945." <i>French Politics, Culture & Society</i> 37.1 (2019): 90–116.</li>
<li>Kedward, Harry Roderick. <i>In Search of the Maquis: Rural Resistance in Southern France 1942–1944</i> (Clarendon Press, 1993).</li>
<li>Knutson, Elizabeth, and Michael MacQueen. "Regional Identity and German Policy in Alsace 1940–1944." <i>Contemporary French Civilization</i> 18.2 (1994): 151–166.</li>
<li>Moorehead, Caroline. <i>Village of secrets: defying the Nazis in Vichy France</i> (Random House, 2014), a village in eastern France</li>
<li>Reid, Donald. "Un village français: Imagining lives in occupied France." <i>French Cultural Studies</i> 30.3 (2019): 220–231.</li>
<li>Sica, Emanuele. <i>Mussolini's Army in the French Riviera: Italy's Occupation of France</i> (U of Illinois Press, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.h-france.net/vol16reviews/vol16no241varley.pdf">online review</a></li>
<li>Smith, Jean Edward. <i>The Liberation of Paris: How Eisenhower, De Gaulle, and Von Choltitz Saved the City of Light</i> (Simon & Schuster), 2020.</li>
<li>Zaretsky, Robert. <i>Nîmes at war: religion, politics, and public opinion in the Gard, 1938–1944</i> (1995) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nimesatwarreligi0000zare">online</a></li></ul>
<p><b>The Resistance</b>
</p>
<ul><li>Ehrlich, Blake. <i>Resistance; France 1940–1945</i> (1965) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/resistancefrance0000unse">online</a></li>
<li>Kedward, H. R. and Roger Austin, eds. <i>Vichy France and the Resistance: Culture & Ideology</i> (Croom Helm, 1985).</li>
<li>Kedward, H. R. <i>Resistance in Vichy France: a study of ideas and motivation in the Southern Zone, 1940–1942</i> (Oxford UP, 1978).</li>
<li>Kedward, H. R. "Patriots and Patriotism in Vichy France." <i>Transactions of the Royal Historical Society</i> 32 (1982): 175–192 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3679022">online. (subscription required)</a></li>
<li>Kedward, H. R. "Mapping the Resistance: An Essay on Roots and Routes." <i>Modern & Contemporary France</i> 20.4 (2012): 491–503.</li></ul>
<p><b>Women, family, gender</b>
</p>
<ul><li>Diamond, Hannah. <i>Women and the Second World War in France 1939–1948</i> (1999); argues that it was not a liberation for women.</li>
<li>Dodd, Lindsey. <i>French children under the Allied bombs, 1940–45: An oral history</i> (Manchester UP, 2016).</li>
<li>Gorrara, Claire. <i>Women's Representations of the Occupation in Post-'68 France</i> (Macmillan, 1998).</li>
<li>Jakes, Kelly. "Songs of Our Fathers: Gender and Nationhood at the Liberation of France." <i>Rhetoric & Public Affairs</i> 20.3 (2017): 385–420 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.14321/rhetpublaffa.20.3.0385">online</a>.</li>
<li>Rossiter, Margaret L. <i>Women in the Resistance</i> (Praeger, 1986).</li>
<li>Schwartz, Paula. "The politics of food and gender in occupied Paris." <i>Modern & Contemporary France</i> 7.1 (1999): 35–45. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/09639489908456468">online</a></li>
<li>Vigili, Fabrice. <i>Shorn Women: Gender and Punishment in Liberation France</i> (Berg, 2002).</li>
<li>Weitz, Margaret Collins. <i>Sisters in the Resistance: how women fought to free France, 1940–1945</i> (Wiley, 1995).</li>
<li>Weitz, Margaret Collins. "As I was then: Women in the French Resistance." <i>Contemporary French Civilization</i> 10.1 (1986): 1–19.</li></ul>
<p><b>Historiography, memory and commemoration</b>
</p>
<ul><li>Berkvam, Michael L. <i>Writing the Story of France in World War II: Literature and Memory, 1942–1958</i> (University Press of the South, 2000).</li>
<li>Fishman, Sarah. <i>France at War: Vichy and the Historians</i> (Berg Publishers, 2000).</li>
<li>Footitt, Hilary. <i>War and Liberation in France: Living with the Liberators</i> (Springer, 2004).</li>
<li>Golsan, Richard. <i>Vichy's Afterlife: History and Counterhistory in Postwar France</i> (U of Nebraska Press, 2000).</li>
<li>Herman, Gerald, and Claude Bouygues. "The liberation of France, as reflected in philately." <i>Contemporary French Civilization</i> (1988) 12#1 pp 108–128.</li>
<li>Kedward, H.R. and Nancy Wood, eds. <i>The Liberation of France: Image and Event</i> (Berg Publishers, 1995).</li>
<li>Kedward, H. R. "Resisting French Resistance." <i>Transactions of the Royal Historical Society</i> 9 (1999): 271–282. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/17183/1/ResitingFrenchResistance.pdf">online</a></li>
<li>Knapp, Andrew. "The destruction and liberation of Le Havre in modern memory." <i>War in History</i> 14.4 (2007): 476–498.</li>
<li>Peschanski, Denis. "Legitimacy/Legitimation/Delegitimation: France in the Dark Years, a Textbook Case." <i>Contemporary European History</i> (2004): 409–423 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20081230">online</a>.</li>
<li>Rousso, Henry. <i>The Vichy Syndrome :History and Memory in France since 1944</i> (Harvard UP, 1991).</li>
<li>Wood, Nancy. "Memorial Militancy in France: 'Working-Through' or the Politics of Anachronism?" <i>Patterns of Prejudice</i>. (1995), Vol. 29 Issue 2/3, pp 89–103.</li></ul>
<p><b>Primary sources</b>
</p>
<ul><li>De Gaulle, Charles. <i>War Memoirs: Call to Honour, 1940–1942</i> (<i>L'Appel</i>). Tr. by Jonathan Griffin. Collins, London, 1955 (2 volumes). Viking Press, New York, 1955.
<ul><li>De Gaulle, Charles. <i>War Memoirs: Unity, 1942–1944</i> (<i>L'Unité</i>). Tr. by Richard Howard (narrative) and Joyce Murchie and Hamish Erskine (documents). Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1959 (2 volumes). Simon & Schuster, New York, 1959 (2 volumes).</li>
<li>De Gaulle, Charles. <i>War Memoirs: Salvation, 1944–1946</i> (<i>Le Salut</i>). Tr. by Richard Howard (narrative) and Joyce Murchie and Hamish Erskine (documents). Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1960 (2 volumes). Simon & Schuster, New York, 1960 (2 volumes).
<ul><li>Cairns, John C. "General <span class="nowrap">de Gaulle</span> and the Salvation of France, 1944–46," <i>Journal of Modern History</i> (1960) 32#3 pp. 251–259 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1872428">in JSTOR</a> review of <i>War Memoirs</i></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li>Giangreco, D. M., Kathryn Moore, and Norman Polmar, eds. <i>Eyewitness D-Day: Firsthand Accounts from the Landing at Normandy to the Liberation of Paris</i> (2005) 260pp.</li>
<li>de Tassigny, Jean de Lattre. <i>The History of the French 1st Army</i> (Translated by Malcolm Barnes) (G. Allen and Unwin, 1952).</li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Belgium" title="Liberation of Belgium">Belgium</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Italian_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Italian campaign (World War II)">Italy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_in_World_War_II#Liberation" title="Luxembourg in World War II">Luxembourg</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_in_World_War_II#Liberation" title="Netherlands in World War II">Netherlands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Norway#Liberation" title="German occupation of Norway">Norway</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;vertical-align:center; text-align:center"><span style="padding:0 4.5em">Forces</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Africa_(France)" title="Army of Africa (France)">Army of Africa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/1er_Bataillon_de_Fusiliers_Marins_Commandos" title="1er Bataillon de Fusiliers Marins Commandos">Commando Kieffer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/1st_Army_(France)" title="1st Army (France)">First Army</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_Corps_(France)" title="Cavalry Corps (France)">Cavalry Corps</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/3rd_Army_Corps_(France)" title="3rd Army Corps (France)">3rd Army Corps</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/4th_Army_Corps_(France)" title="4th Army Corps (France)">4th</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/5th_Army_Corps_(France)" title="5th Army Corps (France)">5th</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/1st_Armored_Division_(France)" title="1st Armored Division (France)">1st Armored</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/32nd_Infantry_Division_(France)" title="32nd Infantry Division (France)">32nd Infantry</a></li></ul></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Francs-Tireurs_et_Partisans" title="Francs-Tireurs et Partisans">Francs-Tireurs et Partisans</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/French_Forces_of_the_Interior" title="French Forces of the Interior">French Forces of the Interior</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/French_Liberation_Army" title="French Liberation Army">French Liberation Army</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/French_Expeditionary_Corps_(1943%E2%80%9344)" title="French Expeditionary Corps (1943–44)">French Expeditionary Corps</a> Divisions:
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/1st_Free_French_Division" title="1st Free French Division">1st Free French</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/2nd_Moroccan_Infantry_Division" title="2nd Moroccan Infantry Division">2nd Moroccan Infantry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/3rd_Algerian_Infantry_Division" title="3rd Algerian Infantry Division">3rd Algerian Infantry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/4th_Moroccan_Mountain_Division" title="4th Moroccan Mountain Division">4th Moroccan Mountain</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/2nd_Army_(France)" title="2nd Army (France)">Second Army</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/French_Forces_of_the_West" title="French Forces of the West">French Forces of the West</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Free_France_(1940-1944).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg/125px-Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg/188px-Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg/250px-Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;vertical-align:center; text-align:center"><span style="padding:0 4.23em">Leaders</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Moulin" title="Jean Moulin">Jean Moulin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Montgomery" title="Bernard Montgomery">Bernard Montgomery</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Giraud" title="Henri Giraud">Henri Giraud</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_O._Barton" title="Raymond O. Barton">Raymond O. Barton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/George_S._Patton" title="George S. Patton">George S. Patton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Leclerc_de_Hauteclocque" title="Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque">Philippe Leclerc</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Lattre_de_Tassigny" title="Jean de Lattre de Tassigny">Jean de Lattre de Tassigny</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Kieffer" title="Philippe Kieffer">Philippe Kieffer</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;vertical-align:center; text-align:center"><span style="padding:0 2.6em">Administration</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empire_Defense_Council" title="Empire Defense Council">Empire Defense Council</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/French_Civil_and_Military_High_Command" title="French Civil and Military High Command">French Civil and Military High Command</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/French_National_Committee" title="French National Committee">French National Committee</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/French_Committee_of_National_Liberation" title="French Committee of National Liberation">French Committee of National Liberation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Consultative_Assembly" title="Provisional Consultative Assembly">Provisional Consultative Assembly</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;vertical-align:center; text-align:center"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">French<br />campaign</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Nov <a href="/wiki/1940_in_France" title="1940 in France">1940</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gabon" title="Battle of Gabon">Battle of Gabon</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Jun <a href="/wiki/1941_in_France" title="1941 in France">1941</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_campaign" title="Syria–Lebanon campaign">Syria–Lebanon campaign</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Dec 1941</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon" title="Capture of Saint Pierre and Miquelon">Capture of Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Nov <a href="/wiki/1942_in_France" title="1942 in France">1942</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Operation Torch</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_campaign" title="Tunisian campaign">Tunisian campaign</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_R%C3%A9union" title="Battle of Réunion">Battle of Réunion</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Sept <a href="/wiki/1943_in_France" title="1943 in France">1943</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_occupation_of_Corsica#Liberation" title="Italian occupation of Corsica">Liberation of Corsica</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Jan <a href="/wiki/1944_in_France" title="1944 in France">1944</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vercors" title="Battle of Vercors">Battle of Vercors</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maquis_des_Gli%C3%A8res" title="Maquis des Glières">Battle of Glières</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">March 1944</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maquis_du_Limousin" title="Maquis du Limousin">Liberation of Limousin</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">May 1944</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maquis_du_Mont_Mouchet" title="Maquis du Mont Mouchet">Battle of Mont Mouchet</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Jun 1944</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Operation Overlord</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carentan" title="Battle of Carentan">Battle of Carentan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cherbourg" title="Battle of Cherbourg">Battle of Cherbourg</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_for_Caen" title="Battle for Caen">Battle for Caen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maquis_du_Limousin" title="Maquis du Limousin">Liberation of Limousin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tulle_massacre" title="Tulle massacre">Tulle massacre</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_Gu%C3%A9ret&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Liberation of Guéret (page does not exist)">Liberation of Guéret</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lib%C3%A9ration_de_Gu%C3%A9ret" class="extiw" title="fr:Libération de Guéret">fr</a>]</sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Oradour-sur-Glane_massacre" title="Oradour-sur-Glane massacre">Oradour-sur-Glane massacre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maquis_de_Saint-Marcel" title="Maquis de Saint-Marcel">Maquis de Saint-Marcel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maquis_de_Saffr%C3%A9" title="Maquis de Saffré">Maquis de Saffré</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ushant_(1944)" title="Battle of Ushant (1944)">Battle of Ushant</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">July 1944</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Saint-L%C3%B4" title="Battle of Saint-Lô">Liberation of Saint-Lô</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Mont_Gargan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Mont Gargan (page does not exist)">Battle of Mont Gargan</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bataille_du_Mont_Gargan" class="extiw" title="fr:Bataille du Mont Gargan">fr</a>]</sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Cobra" title="Operation Cobra">Operation Cobra</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Aug 1944</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_for_Brittany" title="Battle for Brittany">Battle for Brittany</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Rennes" title="Liberation of Rennes">Rennes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Saint-Malo" title="Battle of Saint-Malo">Saint-Malo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_for_Brest" title="Battle for Brest">Liberation of Brest</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_pockets" title="Atlantic pockets">Atlantic pockets</a>:
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lorient#World_War_II" title="Lorient">Lorient</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saint-Nazaire_pocket" title="Saint-Nazaire pocket">Saint-Nazaire</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Lioran&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Lioran (page does not exist)">Lioran</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bataille_du_Lioran" class="extiw" title="fr:Bataille du Lioran">fr</a>]</sup></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_%C3%89gletons&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Égletons (page does not exist)">Égletons</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bataille_d%27%C3%89gletons" class="extiw" title="fr:Bataille d'Égletons">fr</a>]</sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Port_Cros" title="Battle of Port Cros">Battle of Port Cros</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_La_Ciotat" title="Battle of La Ciotat">Battle of La Ciotat</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon">Provence landings</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Toulon_(1944)" title="Battle of Toulon (1944)">Liberation of Toulon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marseille" title="Battle of Marseille">Liberation of Marseille</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris" title="Liberation of Paris">Liberation of Paris</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maill%C3%A9_massacre" title="Maillé massacre">Maillé massacre</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_Gu%C3%A9ret&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Liberation of Guéret (page does not exist)">Liberation of Guéret</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lib%C3%A9ration_de_Gu%C3%A9ret" class="extiw" title="fr:Libération de Guéret">fr</a>]</sup></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Mont%C3%A9limar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Montélimar (page does not exist)">Battle of Montélimar</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bataille_de_Mont%C3%A9limar" class="extiw" title="fr:Bataille de Montélimar">fr</a>]</sup></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_Nice&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Liberation of Nice (page does not exist)">Liberation of Nice</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lib%C3%A9ration_de_Nice" class="extiw" title="fr:Libération de Nice">fr</a>]</sup></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Sept 1944</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nancy_(1944)" title="Battle of Nancy (1944)">Liberation of Nancy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Astonia" title="Operation Astonia">Operation Astonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Undergo" title="Operation Undergo">Operation Undergo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_pockets" title="Atlantic pockets">Atlantic pockets</a>:
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_siege_of_La_Rochelle" title="Allied siege of La Rochelle">La Rochelle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Royan_pocket" title="Royan pocket">Royan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Dunkirk_(1944%E2%80%9345)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Dunkirk (1944–45)">Dunkirk</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arracourt" title="Battle of Arracourt">Battle of Arracourt</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Meximieux&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Meximieux (page does not exist)">Battle of Meximieux</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bataille_de_Meximieux" class="extiw" title="fr:Bataille de Meximieux">fr</a>]</sup></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Nov 1944 -<br />March 1945</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alsace" title="Battle of Alsace">Battle of Alsace</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Strasbourg" title="Liberation of Strasbourg">Liberation of Strasbourg</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Colmar_Pocket" title="Colmar Pocket">Colmar Pocket</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Liberation_of_Bitche&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Liberation of Bitche (page does not exist)">Bitche</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lib%C3%A9ration_de_Bitche_en_1945" class="extiw" title="fr:Libération de Bitche en 1945">fr</a>]</sup></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Apr <a href="/wiki/1945_in_France" title="1945 in France">1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_pockets" title="Atlantic pockets">Atlantic pockets</a>:
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royan_pocket" title="Royan pocket">Royan</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">May 1945</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_pockets" title="Atlantic pockets">Atlantic pockets</a>:
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Dunkirk_(1944%E2%80%9345)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Dunkirk (1944–45)">Dunkirk</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Allied_siege_of_La_Rochelle" title="Allied siege of La Rochelle">La Rochelle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lorient#World_War_II" title="Lorient">Lorient</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saint-Nazaire_pocket" title="Saint-Nazaire pocket">Saint-Nazaire</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;vertical-align:center; text-align:center"><span style="padding:0 3.8em">Aftermath</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sigmaringen_enclave" title="Sigmaringen enclave">End of Vichy</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Elections_of_May_1945">1945 municipal elections</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Siegfried_Line_campaign" title="Siegfried Line campaign">Advance to the Rhine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_Allied_invasion_of_Germany" title="Western Allied invasion of Germany">Invasion of Germany</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="End of World War II in Europe">End of World War II in Europe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Victory_in_Europe_Day" title="Victory in Europe Day">Victory in Europe Day</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Victory_Day_(9_May)" title="Victory Day (9 May)">Victory Day</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/%C3%89puration_l%C3%A9gale" title="Épuration légale">Épuration légale</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Pursuit_of_Nazi_collaborators#France" title="Pursuit of Nazi collaborators">Épuration sauvage</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Tripartisme" title="Tripartisme">Tripartisme</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/June_1946_French_legislative_election" title="June 1946 French legislative election">1946 legislative election</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">Fourth Republic</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Trente_Glorieuses" title="Trente Glorieuses">Trente Glorieuses</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_P%C3%A9tain#Trial_in_High_Court" title="Philippe Pétain">Trial of Philippe Pétain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Klaus_Barbie_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Klaus Barbie trial">Klaus Barbie trial</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_theaters_and_campaigns_of_World_War_II" title="List of theaters and campaigns of World War II">WW II theatres</a>:</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Atlantic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Western Front (World War II)">Western Front</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_and_Middle_East_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II">Mediterranean and Middle East</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Sino Japanese</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
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<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Albanian_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian resistance">Albania</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Austrian_resistance" title="Austrian resistance">Austria</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Resistance" title="Belgian Resistance">Belgium</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulgarian resistance">Bulgaria</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Czech_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Czech resistance">Czech</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Danish_resistance_movement" title="Danish resistance movement">Denmark</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_resistance" title="Dutch resistance">Netherlands</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Estonian_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Estonian resistance">Estonia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="German resistance to Nazism">Germany</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Greek_Resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek Resistance">Greece</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">Italy</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Latvian_anti-Nazi_resistance_movement_1941%E2%80%931945" title="Latvian anti-Nazi resistance movement 1941–1945">Latvia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_resistance_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian resistance during World War II">Lithuania</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_Resistance" title="Luxembourg Resistance">Luxembourg</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Partisans" title="Macedonian Partisans">Macedonia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_resistance_movement" title="Norwegian resistance movement">Norway</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II" title="Polish resistance movement in World War II">Poland</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Romanian_resistance_movement_during_World_War_II" title="Romanian resistance movement during World War II">Romania</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Slovak_National_Uprising" title="Slovak National Uprising">Slovakia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Partisans" title="Yugoslav Partisans">Yugoslavia</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top; text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">Creation<br />and control</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle_during_World_War_II" title="Charles de Gaulle during World War II">Charles de Gaulle during World War II</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Appeal_of_18_June" title="Appeal of 18 June">Appeal of 18 June</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Departmental_Committee_of_Liberation" title="Departmental Committee of Liberation">Departmental Committee of Liberation</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Empire_Defense_Council" title="Empire Defense Council">Empire Defense Council</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/French_National_Committee" title="French National Committee">French National Committee</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/French_Committee_of_National_Liberation" title="French Committee of National Liberation">French Committee of National Liberation</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_the_Resistance" title="National Council of the Resistance">National Council of the Resistance</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Consultative_Assembly" title="Provisional Consultative Assembly">Provisional Consultative Assembly</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bureau_Central_de_Renseignements_et_d%27Action" title="Bureau Central de Renseignements et d'Action">BCRA</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Direction_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale_des_%C3%A9tudes_et_recherches" title="Direction générale des études et recherches">DGER</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Resistance.jpg/125px-Resistance.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Resistance.jpg/188px-Resistance.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Resistance.jpg/250px-Resistance.jpg 2x" data-file-width="513" data-file-height="372" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top; text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Free_French_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Free French Forces">Free French Forces</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Free_French_Air_Forces" title="Free French Air Forces">Air Force</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Africa_(France)" title="Army of Africa (France)">Army of Africa</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Free_French_Naval_Forces" title="Free French Naval Forces">Navy</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/French_Liberation_Army" title="French Liberation Army">French Liberation Army</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap">Battles</span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Kufra" title="Capture of Kufra">Koufra</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bir_Hakeim" title="Battle of Bir Hakeim">Bir Hakeim</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gazala" title="Battle of Gazala">Gazala</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1st_Free_French_Division" title="1st Free French Division">1st Free French Division</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Companions_of_Liberation" title="Companions of Liberation">Companions of Liberation</a><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Companions_of_the_Liberation" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Companions of the Liberation">List</a>)</span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Radio_Londres" title="Radio Londres">Radio Londres</a></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Free_French_Africa" title="Free French Africa">Free French Africa</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top; text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/List_of_networks_and_movements_of_the_French_Resistance" title="List of networks and movements of the French Resistance">Domestic<br />operations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/French_Resistance_movements" class="mw-redirect" title="French Resistance movements"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="a Resistance 'movement' was for educating and organizing the population">Movements</span></a>:</span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Combat_(French_Resistance)" title="Combat (French Resistance)">Combat</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Franc-Tireur_(movement)" title="Franc-Tireur (movement)">Franc-Tireur</a></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Francs-Tireurs_et_Partisans" title="Francs-Tireurs et Partisans">Francs-Tireurs et Partisans</a></i></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Main-d%27%C5%93uvre_immigr%C3%A9e" title="Main-d'œuvre immigrée">FTP–Foreign Labour Force</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/French_Forces_of_the_Interior" title="French Forces of the Interior">French Forces of the Interior</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lib%C3%A9ration-nord&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Libération-nord (page does not exist)">Libération-nord</a></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Lib%C3%A9ration-sud" title="Libération-sud">Libération-sud</a></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Mouvements_unis_de_la_R%C3%A9sistance" title="Mouvements unis de la Résistance">Mouvements unis</a></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Groupe_du_mus%C3%A9e_de_l%27Homme" title="Groupe du musée de l'Homme">Musée de l'Homme</a></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/National_Front_(French_Resistance)" title="National Front (French Resistance)">National Front</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Ceux_de_la_Lib%C3%A9ration" title="Ceux de la Libération">Ceux de la Libération</a></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Ceux_de_la_R%C3%A9sistance" title="Ceux de la Résistance">Ceux de la Résistance</a></i></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/French_Resistance_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="French Resistance networks"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="a Resistance 'network' had specific military goals: intelligence, sabotage, etc.">Networks</span></a>:</span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alliance_network_(French_resistance)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alliance network (French resistance)">Alliance</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Organisation_de_r%C3%A9sistance_de_l%27arm%C3%A9e" title="Organisation de résistance de l'armée">Organisation de résistance de l'armée</a></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Brutus_Network" title="Brutus Network">Brutus</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Comet_Line" title="Comet Line">Comet Line</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Comit%C3%A9_de_lib%C3%A9ration_du_cin%C3%A9ma_fran%C3%A7ais" title="Comité de libération du cinéma français">CdL Cinéma</a></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Comit%C3%A9_d%C3%A9partemental_de_lib%C3%A9ration" class="mw-redirect" title="Comité départemental de libération">CLD</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9sistance-Fer" title="Résistance-Fer">Fer</a></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mithridate_Network&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mithridate Network (page does not exist)">Mithridate</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9seau_Mithridate" class="extiw" title="fr:Réseau Mithridate">fr</a>]</sup></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9seau_Morhange" title="Réseau Morhange">Morhange</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Confr%C3%A9rie_Notre-Dame" title="Confrérie Notre-Dame">Confrérie Notre-Dame</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap">Others:</span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Arm%C3%A9e_secr%C3%A8te" title="Armée secrète">Armée secrète</a></i></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Organisation_civile_et_militaire" title="Organisation civile et militaire">Organisation civile et militaire</a></i></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jade-Amicol_network" title="Jade-Amicol network">Jade-Amicol</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jade-Fitzroy_network" title="Jade-Fitzroy network">Jade-Fitzroy</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Maquis_(World_War_II)" title="Maquis (World War II)">Maquis</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Maquis_du_Vercors" class="mw-redirect" title="Maquis du Vercors">Vercors</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_French_Resistance" title="Women in the French Resistance">Women</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Housewives%27_demonstrations" class="mw-redirect" title="Housewives' demonstrations">Housewives' demonstrations</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Union_des_femmes_fran%C3%A7aises" class="mw-redirect" title="Union des femmes françaises">Union des femmes françaises</a></i></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top; text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Underground_media_in_German-occupied_France" title="Underground media in German-occupied France">Underground<br />media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bir-Hakeim_(newspaper)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bir-Hakeim (newspaper) (page does not exist)">Bir-Hakeim</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bir-Hakeim_(journal_clandestin)" class="extiw" title="fr:Bir-Hakeim (journal clandestin)">fr</a>]</sup></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bulletin_(clandestine_press)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bulletin (clandestine press) (page does not exist)">Bulletin</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulletin_(r%C3%A9sistance)" class="extiw" title="fr:Bulletin (résistance)">fr</a>]</sup></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Combat_(newspaper)" title="Combat (newspaper)">Combat</a></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9fense_de_la_France" title="Défense de la France">Défense de la France</a></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Les_%C3%89ditions_de_Minuit" title="Les Éditions de Minuit">Les Éditions de Minuit</a></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=L%27Espoir_(newspaper)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="L'Espoir (newspaper) (page does not exist)">L'Espoir</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Espoir_(journal)" class="extiw" title="fr:L'Espoir (journal)">fr</a>]</sup></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Franc-Tireur_(movement)" title="Franc-Tireur (movement)">Franc-Tireur</a></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/National_Front_(French_Resistance)" title="National Front (French Resistance)">Front National</a></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/L%27Humanit%C3%A9" title="L'Humanité">L'Humanité</a></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Les_Lettres_Fran%C3%A7aises" title="Les Lettres Françaises">Les Lettres Françaises</a></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lib%C3%A9ration_(nord,_newspaper)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Libération (nord, newspaper) (page does not exist)">Libération (nord)</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lib%C3%A9ration_(journal_de_Lib%C3%A9ration-Nord)" class="extiw" title="fr:Libération (journal de Libération-Nord)">fr</a>]</sup></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Lib%C3%A9ration_(newspaper,_1941%E2%80%931964)" title="Libération (newspaper, 1941–1964)">Libération (sud)</a></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=R%C3%A9sistance_(journal)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Résistance (journal) (page does not exist)">Résistance</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9sistance_(journal)" class="extiw" title="fr:Résistance (journal)">fr</a>]</sup></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A9moignage_chr%C3%A9tien" class="mw-redirect" title="Témoignage chrétien">Témoignage chrétien</a></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=La_V%C3%A9rit%C3%A9_fran%C3%A7aise&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="La Vérité française (page does not exist)">La Vérité française</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_V%C3%A9rit%C3%A9_fran%C3%A7aise" class="extiw" title="fr:La Vérité française">fr</a>]</sup></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/La_Voix_du_Nord" title="La Voix du Nord">La Voix du Nord</a></i></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top; text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Free_French_Africa" title="Free French Africa">Free<br />French<br />Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Brazzaville_Conference" title="Brazzaville Conference">Brazzaville Conference</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Brazzaville_manifesto" class="mw-redirect" title="Brazzaville manifesto">Brazzaville manifesto</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/French_Chad" title="French Chad">French Chad</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Empire_Defense_Council" title="Empire Defense Council">Empire Defense Council</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Free_French_Africa" title="Free French Africa">Free French Africa</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/French_Cameroon" title="French Cameroon">French Cameroon</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/French_Congo" title="French Congo">French Congo</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/French_Gabon" class="mw-redirect" title="French Gabon">French Gabon</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marching_Battalions&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marching Battalions (page does not exist)">Marching Battalions</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bataillon_de_marche" class="extiw" title="fr:Bataillon de marche">fr</a>]</sup></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Second_Marching_Battalion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Second Marching Battalion (page does not exist)">Second</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bataillon_de_marche_n%C2%B0_2" class="extiw" title="fr:Bataillon de marche n° 2">fr</a>]</sup></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Third_Marching_Battalion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Third Marching Battalion (page does not exist)">Third</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_bataillon_de_marche_n%C2%B0_3" class="extiw" title="fr:Le bataillon de marche n° 3">fr</a>]</sup></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Marie" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Marie">Operation Marie</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ubangi-Shari" title="Ubangi-Shari">Ubangi-Shari</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top; text-align:center"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Liberation<br />of France</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1er_Bataillon_de_Fusiliers_Marins_Commandos" title="1er Bataillon de Fusiliers Marins Commandos">Kieffer commandos</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/French_Liberation_Army" title="French Liberation Army">French Liberation Army</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1st_Army_(France)" title="1st Army (France)">1st Army</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2nd_Armored_Division_(France)" title="2nd Armored Division (France)">2nd DB</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Lattre_de_Tassigny" title="Jean de Lattre de Tassigny">General de Lattre</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Leclerc_de_Hauteclocque" title="Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque">General Leclerc</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Liberation of France</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris" title="Liberation of Paris">Liberation of Paris</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Strasbourg" title="Liberation of Strasbourg">Liberation of Strasbourg</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top; text-align:center">Leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a> </span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Moulin" title="Jean Moulin">Jean Moulin</a> </span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_d%27Astier_de_La_Vigerie" title="Emmanuel d'Astier de La Vigerie">Emmanuel d'Astier</a> </span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Brossolette" title="Pierre Brossolette">Pierre Brossolette</a> </span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Delestraint" title="Charles Delestraint">Charles Delestraint</a> </span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Henri_Frenay" title="Henri Frenay">Henri Frenay</a> </span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Marie-Madeleine_Fourcade" title="Marie-Madeleine Fourcade">Marie-Madeleine Fourcade</a> </span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Pierre_L%C3%A9vy_(French_Resistance)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean-Pierre Lévy (French Resistance) (page does not exist)">Jean-Pierre Lévy</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Pierre_L%C3%A9vy_(r%C3%A9sistant)" class="extiw" title="fr:Jean-Pierre Lévy (résistant)">fr</a>]</sup> </span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Villon" title="Pierre Villon">Pierre Villon</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top; text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_Resistance_museums_and_memorials" title="List of French Resistance museums and memorials">Museums and<br />Memorials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Order_of_Liberation" title="Order of Liberation">Order of Liberation</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Companions_of_the_Liberation" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Companions of the Liberation">Companions</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Resistance_Medal" title="Resistance Medal">Resistance Medal</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Righteous_Among_the_Nations" title="Righteous Among the Nations">Medal of the Righteous</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9morial_de_la_France_combattante" title="Mémorial de la France combattante">Mémorial de la France combattante</a></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_National_Resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Museum of National Resistance">Museum of National Resistance</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_R%C3%A9sistance_nationale" class="extiw" title="fr:Musée de la Résistance nationale">fr</a>]</sup></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_Resistance_museums_and_memorials" title="List of French Resistance museums and memorials">Museums and memorials</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_de_l%27Ordre_de_la_Lib%C3%A9ration" title="Musée de l'Ordre de la Libération">Musée de l'Ordre de la Libération</a></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Free_France_Foundation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Free France Foundation (page does not exist)">Free France Foundation</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fondation_de_la_France_libre" class="extiw" title="fr:Fondation de la France libre">fr</a>]</sup></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;"><div><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:France" title="Portal:France">Portal</a></li><li>Categories: (<a href="/wiki/Category:French_Resistance" title="Category:French Resistance">French Resistance</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Films_about_the_French_Resistance" title="Category:Films about the French Resistance">Films</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:French_Resistance_members" title="Category:French Resistance members">Members</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:French_Resistance_networks_and_movements" title="Category:French Resistance networks and movements">Networks and movements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:French_Righteous_Among_the_Nations" title="Category:French Righteous Among the Nations">Righteous Among the Nations</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Occupation_of_France_and_its_colonies_by_the_Axis_powers" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Occupation_of_France" title="Template:Occupation of France"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Occupation_of_France" title="Template talk:Occupation of France"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Occupation_of_France" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Occupation of France"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Occupation_of_France_and_its_colonies_by_the_Axis_powers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Occupation of <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">its colonies</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis powers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">German occupation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_military_administration_in_occupied_France_during_World_War_II" title="German military administration in occupied France during World War II">Military Administration in France</a>
<ul><li><i>zone occupée/nord</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1940–4)</span></li>
<li><i>zone sud</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1942–4)</span></li></ul></li>
<li>Belgium and Northern France
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_Administration_in_Belgium_and_Northern_France" title="Military Administration in Belgium and Northern France">Military Administration</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1940–4)</span></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Reichskommissariat_of_Belgium_and_Northern_France" title="Reichskommissariat of Belgium and Northern France">Reichskommissariat</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1944)</span></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alsace%E2%80%93Lorraine#World_War_II" title="Alsace–Lorraine">Alsace-Lorraine</a>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gau_Westmark" title="Gau Westmark">Gau Westmark</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reichsgau_Oberrhein&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Reichsgau Oberrhein (page does not exist)">Reichsgau Oberrhein</a></i></li></ul></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Zone_interdite" title="Zone interdite">Zone interdite</a></i>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Wall" title="Atlantic Wall">Atlantic Wall</a> coastal zone</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zone_interdite#Zone_of_intended_German_settlement" title="Zone interdite">settlement zone</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_campaign" title="Tunisian campaign">French Tunisia</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Italian occupation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_occupation_of_France" title="Italian occupation of France">Mainland France</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Italian_occupation_of_Corsica" title="Italian occupation of Corsica">Corsica</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_campaign" title="Tunisian campaign">French Tunisia</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Japanese occupation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II" title="French Indochina in World War II">French Indochina</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Cambodia" title="Japanese occupation of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Thai occupation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Thai_War" title="Franco-Thai War">Battambang and Sisophon (Cambodia)
* Luang Prabang and Champasak (Laos)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Zone_libre" title="Zone libre">Zone libre</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |