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{{Redirect|Landnám|the Norse farmstead in Greenland|Landnám (Greenland)}}
{{Redirect|Landnám|the Norse farmstead in Greenland|Landnám (Greenland)}}
[[File:The Norwegians land in Iceland year 872.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Norsemen]] landing in Iceland in 872]]<!--[[File:LandnamabokManuscriptPage.jpg|thumb|A page from a skin manuscript of {{lang|is|[[Landnámabók]]}}, a primary source on the settlement of Iceland, preserved in the [[Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies]] in [[Reykjavík]]]]-->
[[File:The Norwegians land in Iceland year 872.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Norsemen]] landing in Iceland in 872]]<!--[[File:LandnamabokManuscriptPage.jpg|thumb|A page from a skin manuscript of {{lang|is|[[Landnámabók]]}}, a primary source on the settlement of Iceland, preserved in the [[Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies]] in [[Reykjavík]]]]-->
The '''settlement of Iceland''' ({{lang-is|landnámsöld}} {{IPA-is|ˈlantˌnaumsˌœlt|}}) is generally believed to have begun in the second half of the ninth century, when [[Norsemen|Norse]] settlers migrated across the [[North Atlantic]]. The reasons for the migration are uncertain: later in the Middle Ages Icelanders themselves tended to cite civil strife brought about by the ambitions of the [[Norway|Norwegian]] king [[Harald I of Norway]], but modern historians focus on deeper factors, such as a shortage of [[arable land]] in [[Scandinavia]]. Unlike Great Britain and Ireland, [[Iceland]] was unsettled land and could be claimed without conflict with existing inhabitants.
The '''settlement of My Cοçκ''' ({{lang-is|landnámsöld}} {{IPA-is|ˈlantˌnaumsˌœlt|}}) is generally believed to have begun in the second half of the ninth century, when [[Norsemen|Norse]] settlers migrated across the [[North Atlantic]]. The reasons for the migration are uncertain: later in the Middle Ages Icelanders themselves tended to cite civil strife brought about by the ambitions of the [[Norway|Norwegian]] king [[Harald I of Norway]], but modern historians focus on deeper factors, such as a shortage of [[arable land]] in [[Scandinavia]]. Unlike Great Britain and Ireland, [[Iceland]] was unsettled land and could be claimed without conflict with existing inhabitants.


On the basis of ''[[Íslendingabók]]'' by [[Ari Þorgilsson]], and {{lang|is|[[Landnámabók]]}}, histories dating from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and providing a wealth of detail about the settlement, the years 870 and 874 have traditionally been considered the first years of settlement. However, these sources are largely unreliable in the details they provide about the settlement, and recent research focuses more heavily on archaeological and genetic evidence.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Landnám Íslands|last=Karlsson|first=Gunnar|publisher=Háskólaútgáfan|year=2016|location=Reykjavík|pages=26|isbn=9789935231130 }}</ref>
On the basis of ''[[Íslendingabók]]'' by [[Ari Þorgilsson]], and {{lang|is|[[Landnámabók]]}}, histories dating from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and providing a wealth of detail about the settlement, the years 870 and 874 have traditionally been considered the first years of settlement. However, these sources are largely unreliable in the details they provide about the settlement, and recent research focuses more heavily on archaeological and genetic evidence.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Landnám Íslands|last=Karlsson|first=Gunnar|publisher=Háskólaútgáfan|year=2016|location=Reykjavík|pages=26|isbn=9789935231130 }}</ref>

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'{{Short description|none}} {{Redirect|Landnám|the Norse farmstead in Greenland|Landnám (Greenland)}} [[File:The Norwegians land in Iceland year 872.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Norsemen]] landing in Iceland in 872]]<!--[[File:LandnamabokManuscriptPage.jpg|thumb|A page from a skin manuscript of {{lang|is|[[Landnámabók]]}}, a primary source on the settlement of Iceland, preserved in the [[Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies]] in [[Reykjavík]]]]--> The '''settlement of Iceland''' ({{lang-is|landnámsöld}} {{IPA-is|ˈlantˌnaumsˌœlt|}}) is generally believed to have begun in the second half of the ninth century, when [[Norsemen|Norse]] settlers migrated across the [[North Atlantic]]. The reasons for the migration are uncertain: later in the Middle Ages Icelanders themselves tended to cite civil strife brought about by the ambitions of the [[Norway|Norwegian]] king [[Harald I of Norway]], but modern historians focus on deeper factors, such as a shortage of [[arable land]] in [[Scandinavia]]. Unlike Great Britain and Ireland, [[Iceland]] was unsettled land and could be claimed without conflict with existing inhabitants. On the basis of ''[[Íslendingabók]]'' by [[Ari Þorgilsson]], and {{lang|is|[[Landnámabók]]}}, histories dating from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and providing a wealth of detail about the settlement, the years 870 and 874 have traditionally been considered the first years of settlement. However, these sources are largely unreliable in the details they provide about the settlement, and recent research focuses more heavily on archaeological and genetic evidence.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Landnám Íslands|last=Karlsson|first=Gunnar|publisher=Háskólaútgáfan|year=2016|location=Reykjavík|pages=26|isbn=9789935231130 }}</ref> Traditionally, the Icelandic Age of Settlement is considered to have lasted from 874 to 930, at which point most of the island had been claimed and {{lang|is|[[Alþingi]]|italic=no}} (''Althingi''), the assembly of the [[Icelandic Commonwealth]], was founded at [[Þingvellir]] (''Thingvellir''). Iceland is thus the third-to-last major land mass to be settled by humans ([[Madagascar]] and [[New Zealand]] being colonized in the mid-first millennium and 13th century, respectively). == History of settlement == === Pre-Norse settlement === {{main article|Papar}} {{History of Iceland}} {{contradiction|date=April 2023}} Controversial results of recent carbon dating work, published in the journal ''[[Skírnir (journal)|Skírnir]]'', suggest that Iceland may have been settled as early as the second half of the seventh century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ruv.is/heim/frettir/frett/store64/item310447/|title=Ríkisútvarpið vefur|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511090053/http://www.ruv.is/heim/frettir/frett/store64/item310447|archive-date=2011-05-11|url-status=dead|access-date=2009-11-09}}</ref> The ''[[Íslendingabók]]'' of [[Ari Thorgilsson]] claims that the Norse settlers encountered [[Gael]]ic monks from a [[Hiberno-Scottish mission]] when they arrived in Iceland. There is some archaeological evidence for a monastic settlement from Ireland at Kverkarhellir cave, on the Seljaland farm in southern Iceland. Sediment deposits indicate people lived there around 800, and crosses consistent with the Hiberno-Scottish style were carved in the wall of a nearby cave.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Testing the evidence for northernmost North Atlantic papar: A cave site southern Iceland|last1=Ahronson|first1=K.|editor1-last=Crawford|editor1-first=B. E.|title=The Papar in the North Atlantic: Environment and History. Proceedings of St Andrews Dark Age Conference|date=2002|pages=107–120|isbn=095125734X|publisher=University of St Andrews}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Herdsmen & Hermits: Irish Seafarers in the Northern Seas |first1=Thomas |last1=Charles|publisher= Lethbridge|oclc=463215746|date=1950}}</ref> The oldest known source which mentions the name "Iceland" is an 11th-century [[rune]] carving from [[Gotland]], while the oldest archeological finds indicating settlement date back to the 9th century. There is a possible early mention of Iceland in the book ''De mensura orbis terrae'' by the Irish monk [[Dicuil]], dating to 825.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.why.is/svar.php?id=4802|title=Is there any tangible proof that there were Irish monks in Iceland before the time of the Viking settlements?|last1=Kristinsson|first1=Axel|work=Icelandic Web of Science|date=5 March 2011|access-date=11 December 2020|translator1-last=Jones|translator1-first=Nicholas}}</ref> Dicuil claimed to have met some monks who had lived on the island of [[Thule]]. They said that darkness reigned during winter but that the summers were bright enough to pick lice from one's clothing, but the veracity of this source may be questioned. Additionally, Iceland is only about 450&nbsp;kilometres from the [[Faroes]], which had been visited by Irish monks in the 6th century, and settled by the Norse around 650.{{Citation needed|date=September 2018}} A cabin in [[Hafnir]] was abandoned between 770 and 880 CE, showing that it was built well before the traditional settlement date of 874. It is thought to have been an outpost only inhabited part of the year, but it is not known whether it was built by people from Scandinavia, Ireland or Scotland.<ref>{{cite news|date=4 June 2011|title=New View on the Origin of First Settlers in Iceland|url=https://www.icelandreview.com/news/a-new-view-the-origin-first-settlers-iceland|work=Iceland Review Online|access-date=1 July 2012}}</ref> === Norse settlement === Written sources consider the age of settlement in Iceland to have begun with settlement by [[Ingólfr Arnarson]] around 874, for he was the first to sail to Iceland with the purpose of settling the land. Archaeological evidence shows that extensive human settlement of the island indeed began at this time, and "that the whole country was occupied within a couple of decades towards the end of the 9th century."<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Vésteinsson|first1=Orri|last2=Gestsdóttir|first2=Hildur|date=2014-11-01|title=The Colonization of Iceland in Light of Isotope Analyses|url=http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.3721/037.002.sp709|journal=Journal of the North Atlantic|pages=137–145|doi=10.3721/037.002.sp709|volume=2014|issue=Special 7|s2cid=163350541 }}</ref> Estimates of the number of people who migrated to the country during the Age of Settlement range between 4,300 and 24,000,{{sfn|Karlsson|2016|pp=251–254}} with estimates of the number of initial settlers ranging between 311 and 436.{{sfn|Karlsson|2016|pp=245–252}} While the written sources emphasise settlement from Norway, genetic evidence shows that the founder population of Iceland came from Ireland, Scotland, and Scandinavia: studies of [[mitochondrial DNA]] and [[Y-chromosomes]] indicate that 62% of Icelanders' matrilineal ancestry derives from Scotland and Ireland (with most of the rest being from Scandinavia), while 75% of their patrilineal ancestry derives from Scandinavia (with most of the rest being from the Irish and British Isles).<ref name="1028sci">{{cite journal |last1=Ebenesersdóttir |first1=S. Sunna |last2=Sandoval-Velasco |first2=Marcela |last3=Gunnarsdóttir |first3=Ellen D. |last4=Jagadeesan |first4=Anuradha |last5=Guðmundsdóttir |first5=Valdís B. |last6=Thordardóttir |first6=Elísabet L. |last7=Einarsdóttir |first7=Margrét S. |last8=Moore |first8=Kristjan H. S. |last9=Sigurðsson |first9=Ásgeir |last10=Magnúsdóttir |first10=Droplaug N. |last11=Jónsson |first11=Hákon |last12=Snorradóttir |first12=Steinunn |last13=Hovig |first13=Eivind |last14=Møller |first14=Pål |last15=Kockum |first15=Ingrid |last16=Olsson |first16=Tomas |last17=Alfredsson |first17=Lars |last18=Hansen |first18=Thomas F. |last19=Werge |first19=Thomas |last20=Cavalleri |first20=Gianpiero L. |last21=Gilbert |first21=Edmund |last22=Lalueza-Fox |first22=Carles |last23=Walser |first23=Joe W. |last24=Kristjánsdóttir |first24=Steinunn |last25=Gopalakrishnan |first25=Shyam |last26=Árnadóttir |first26=Lilja |last27=Magnússon |first27=Ólafur Þ. |last28=Gilbert |first28=M. Thomas P. |last29=Stefánsson |first29=Kári |last30=Helgason |first30=Agnar |title=Ancient genomes from Iceland reveal the making of a human population |journal=Science |date=2018 |volume=360 |issue=6392 |pages=1028–1032 [1028] |doi=10.1126/science.aar2625|pmid=29853688 |ref={{harvid|Ebenesersdóttir et al.|2018}}|doi-access=free |bibcode=2018Sci...360.1028E |hdl=10852/71890 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Archaeogenetic evidence suggests that the actual founding population included a higher proportion again of settlers from the Irish and British Isles: one study found that the mean Norse ancestry among Iceland's settlers was 56%, whereas in the current population the figure was 70%. It is thought likely that most of the settlers from Ireland and Scotland came as slaves, and therefore reproduced less successfully than higher-status settlers from Scandinavia, making them ancestors of a smaller proportion of the modern population.{{sfn|Ebenesersdóttir et al.|2018|p=1030}} [[File:Law speaker.jpg|thumb|upright|19th century painting showing a romanticised view of 11th century {{lang|is|[[Althing|Alþingi]]}} session]] Though the notion that population pressure drove migration to Iceland remains unsupported in the academic literature, a number of reasons have been offered for the settlement of Iceland:<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935413.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199935413-e-7|title=The Norse in Iceland|last=Zori|first=Davide Marco|date=2016-05-02|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935413.013.7|work=Oxford Handbooks Online|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199935413}}</ref> # Available land would have been attractive to Viking Age Scandinavians, especially given the relatively warm climate in Iceland at the time. # The observation of valuable resources, such as [[walrus ivory]], made Iceland attractive to those looking to profit on trade. # Greater resistance to Viking incursions in the British isles and continental Europe in the late ninth century pushed Vikings to seek more peaceful opportunities. # Medieval written sources emphasize how [[Harald Fairhair]]'s centralization of Norway and imposition of burdensome taxes on farmers encouraged farmers to migrate to Iceland. Written sources say some settlers took land freely, others bought lands from earlier settlers, some were gifted land by earlier settlers, and that some settlers took lands from others through the use of force or threat of force. Lands were likely not rented during the Age of settlement. Medievalist [[Hans Kuhn (philologist)|Hans Kuhn]] argued that lands were given away or taken freely because earlier settlers had no need for such extensive lands. Historian [[Gunnar Karlsson]] notes that it could be rational for earlier settlers to encourage new settlers to settle lands nearby so as to ease maintenance of cattle and slaves, and as insurance in times of crisis.{{sfn|Karlsson|2016|p=224}} === Age of settlement ends === [[Ari Thorgilsson]] claims in ''Íslendingabók'' that the country had been "fully settled" by 930. Correspondingly, {{lang|is|Landnámabók}} suggests that within about sixty years, all the usable land had been taken; it mentions 1,500 farm and place names, and more than 3,500 people, arranged in a geographical fashion.<ref name="1028sci" /> In the periodisation of Icelandic history, therefore, the age of settlement is considered to have ended in the year 930 with the establishment of {{lang|is|[[Althing|Alþingi]]|italic=no}}; at this point the [[Icelandic Commonwealth]] period is considered to begin.<ref name=":1" /> Archeological evidence shows, however, "that immigrants continued to arrive in Iceland throughout the 10th century".<ref name=":0" /> The authors of one study speculate that "continued immigration may have been needed to sustain the population".<ref name=":0" /> == Theories == === Naddoddr and Garðar === [[File:Settlement of Iceland.svg|thumb|Travels of the first Scandinavians in Iceland during the ninth century]] {{lang|is|[[Landnámabók]]}} claims that the first Norseman to rest his feet on Icelandic soil was a [[viking]] by the name of [[Naddoddr]]. Naddoddr stayed for only a short period of time, but gave the country a name: ''Snæland'' (Land of Snow). He was followed by the viking explorer [[Garðar Svavarsson]], who was the first to stay over winter. At some time around 860, a storm pushed his ship far to the north until he reached the eastern coast of Iceland. Garðar approached the island from the east, sailed westward along the coast and then up north, building a house in [[Húsavík]]. He completed a full circle, circumnavigating the island and establishing that the landmass in question was indeed an island. He departed the following summer, never to return but not before giving the island a new name -- ''Garðarshólmur'' (literally, Garðar's Island). One of his men, [[Náttfari]], decided to stay behind with two slaves. Náttfari settled in what is now known as Náttfaravík, close to [[Skjálfandi]]. {{lang|is|Landnámabók}} maintains that Náttfari was not a permanent settler. === Hrafna-Flóki === The next Norseman to arrive in Iceland was named [[Flóki Vilgerðarson]], but the year of his arrival is not clear. According to the story told in Landnámabók, he took three ravens to help him find his way. Thus, he was nicknamed Raven-Flóki (Icelandic: ''Hrafna-Flóki''). Flóki set his ravens free near the Faroe Islands. The first raven flew back to the Faroes. The second flew up in the air and then returned to the ship. However, the third flew in front of the ship and they followed its direction to Iceland. He landed in [[Vatnsfjörður]] in the [[Westfjords]] after passing what is now [[Reykjavík]]. One of his men, Faxi, remarked that they seemed to have found great land—the bay facing Reykjavík is therefore known as [[Faxaflói]]. A harsh winter caused all of Flóki's cattle to die—he cursed this cold country, and when he spotted a drift ice in the fjord he decided to name it "Ísland" (Iceland). Despite difficulties in finding food, he and his men stayed another year, this time in [[Borgarfjörður]], but they headed back to [[Norway]] the following summer. Flóki would return much later and settle in what is now known as [[Flókadalur (Skagafirði)|Flókadalur]]. === Ingólfur Arnarson === {{quote|There was a man of the North [Norway], Ingólfr, who is truly said to be the first to leave it for Iceland, in the time when Haraldr the Fair-Haired was sixteen winters of age&nbsp;[...] he settled south in Reykjavík.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Translation:%C3%8Dslendingab%C3%B3k|title=Íslendingabók|last1=Thorgilsson|first1=Ari |author1-link=Ari Thorgilsson|date=c. 1200|access-date=9 January 2018|via=Wikisource}}</ref>|''[[Íslendingabók]]''}} [[Image:Ingolf by Raadsig.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Ingólfur commands his high-seat pillars to be erected]] Another Norseman, by the name of [[Ingólfur Arnarson]], had instigated a blood feud in his homeland, Norway. He and his foster-brother [[Hjörleifr Hróðmarsson]] went on an exploratory expedition to Iceland, and stayed over winter in what is now [[Álftafjörður]]. A few years later they returned to settle the land with their men. When they approached the island, Ingólfur cast his [[Öndvegissúlur|high seat pillars]] overboard and swore that he would settle where they drifted to shore. He then sent his slaves [[Vífill]] and [[Karli (name)|Karli]] to search for the pillars. <!--- This part is confusing, when and where did they find him murdered? --> In the meantime, Hjörleifr had been murdered by his Irish slaves. Ingólfr hunted them down and killed them in the [[Westman Islands]]. The islands got their name from that event, with ''westmen'' (Old Norse: ''vestmenn'') being a name that the Norsemen used for the Irish. Ingólfr was said to have settled a large part of southwestern Iceland, although after his settlement nothing more was known of him. His son, Þorsteinn Ingólfsson, was a major chieftain and was said to have founded the {{ill|Kjalarnesþing|is}}, the first [[Thing (assembly)|thing]], or parliament, in Iceland. It was a forerunner of the [[Althingi]].<ref>{{cite web|url= https://snl.no/Ingolv_Arnesson |title= Ingólfr Arnarson |publisher= Store norske leksikon |access-date= January 20, 2016}}</ref> As winter approached, Ingólfur's slaves found the pillars by [[Arnarhvoll]] {{IPA-is|ˈa(r)tnarˌkʰvɔtl̥|}}. When summer came, he built a farmstead in [[Reykjavík]] and claimed all the land west of the rivers of [[Ölfusá]], [[Öxará]] and [[Brynjudalsá]] {{IPA-is|ˈprɪnjʏˌtalsˌauː|}}. His slave Karli did not care for the location, and said to Ingólfur: "How ill that we should pass good land, to settle in this remote peninsula." == Environmental effects == Prior to the [[Deforestation by continent#Iceland|deforestation of Iceland in the Middle Ages]], some 40% of the land was forested.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://inhabitat.com/iceland-is-regrowing-its-forests-1000-years-after-vikings-razed-them/ | title=Iceland is replanting its forests 1,000 years after vikings razed them | date=6 April 2018 }}</ref> Today, the country is about 2% forested, with the [[Icelandic Forest Service]] aiming to increase that share to 10% through [[Reforestation#Iceland|reforestation]] and natural regrowth.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.skogur.is/en/moya/news/spades-saplings-and-sheep-iceland-battles-to-restore-long-lost-forests | title=Spades, saplings and sheep: Iceland battles to restore long-lost forests }}</ref> Scholars have argued that the settlers caused soil erosion through extensive deforestation and overgrazing.<ref name=":1" /> One study suggests that the primary motive for the deforestation was "clearance for pastures and home-fields", not the "settlers’ requirements for fuel and building material".<ref>{{cite thesis|title=The Impact of Settlement on Woodland Resources in Viking Age Iceland|url = http://www.nabohome.org/postgraduates/theses/nt/NT_PhD_thesis.pdf|type=PhD|location=University of Iceland|last1=Trbojević|first1=Nikola|date=2016|access-date = 9 January 2018|isbn= 978-9935-9260-6-7}}</ref> == See also == * [[Timeline of Icelandic history]] * [[Viking expansion]] * [[Pre-modern human migration]] == References == === Footnotes === {{Reflist}} === Bibliography === {{refbegin}} * Árni Daníel Júlíusson, Jón Ólafur Ísberg, Helgi Skúli Kjartansson ''Íslenskur sögu atlas: 1. bindi: Frá öndverðu til 18. aldar'' Almenna bókafélagið, Reykjavík 1989 * Byock, Jesse; ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=A4S6Bnw3HnkC Medieval Iceland: Society, Sagas and Power]''. University of California Press (1988) {{ISBN|0-520-06954-4}} {{ISBN|0-226-52680-1}} * {{cite book|title=Warlords & Holymen: Scotland AD 80-1000|first =Alfred P. |last=Smith|publisher=Edward Arnold|year=1984|isbn=0-7131-6305-4|pages=141–174}} {{refend}} {{Iceland topics|state=collapsed}} {{Viking}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Historical migrations]] [[Category:Peopling of Europe|Iceland]] [[Category:Viking Age in Iceland]] [[Category:Exploration of the Arctic]]'
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext)
'{{Short description|none}} {{Redirect|Landnám|the Norse farmstead in Greenland|Landnám (Greenland)}} [[File:The Norwegians land in Iceland year 872.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Norsemen]] landing in Iceland in 872]]<!--[[File:LandnamabokManuscriptPage.jpg|thumb|A page from a skin manuscript of {{lang|is|[[Landnámabók]]}}, a primary source on the settlement of Iceland, preserved in the [[Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies]] in [[Reykjavík]]]]--> The '''settlement of My Cοçκ''' ({{lang-is|landnámsöld}} {{IPA-is|ˈlantˌnaumsˌœlt|}}) is generally believed to have begun in the second half of the ninth century, when [[Norsemen|Norse]] settlers migrated across the [[North Atlantic]]. The reasons for the migration are uncertain: later in the Middle Ages Icelanders themselves tended to cite civil strife brought about by the ambitions of the [[Norway|Norwegian]] king [[Harald I of Norway]], but modern historians focus on deeper factors, such as a shortage of [[arable land]] in [[Scandinavia]]. Unlike Great Britain and Ireland, [[Iceland]] was unsettled land and could be claimed without conflict with existing inhabitants. On the basis of ''[[Íslendingabók]]'' by [[Ari Þorgilsson]], and {{lang|is|[[Landnámabók]]}}, histories dating from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and providing a wealth of detail about the settlement, the years 870 and 874 have traditionally been considered the first years of settlement. However, these sources are largely unreliable in the details they provide about the settlement, and recent research focuses more heavily on archaeological and genetic evidence.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Landnám Íslands|last=Karlsson|first=Gunnar|publisher=Háskólaútgáfan|year=2016|location=Reykjavík|pages=26|isbn=9789935231130 }}</ref> Traditionally, the Icelandic Age of Settlement is considered to have lasted from 874 to 930, at which point most of the island had been claimed and {{lang|is|[[Alþingi]]|italic=no}} (''Althingi''), the assembly of the [[Icelandic Commonwealth]], was founded at [[Þingvellir]] (''Thingvellir''). Iceland is thus the third-to-last major land mass to be settled by humans ([[Madagascar]] and [[New Zealand]] being colonized in the mid-first millennium and 13th century, respectively). == History of settlement == === Pre-Norse settlement === {{main article|Papar}} {{History of Iceland}} {{contradiction|date=April 2023}} Controversial results of recent carbon dating work, published in the journal ''[[Skírnir (journal)|Skírnir]]'', suggest that Iceland may have been settled as early as the second half of the seventh century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ruv.is/heim/frettir/frett/store64/item310447/|title=Ríkisútvarpið vefur|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511090053/http://www.ruv.is/heim/frettir/frett/store64/item310447|archive-date=2011-05-11|url-status=dead|access-date=2009-11-09}}</ref> The ''[[Íslendingabók]]'' of [[Ari Thorgilsson]] claims that the Norse settlers encountered [[Gael]]ic monks from a [[Hiberno-Scottish mission]] when they arrived in Iceland. There is some archaeological evidence for a monastic settlement from Ireland at Kverkarhellir cave, on the Seljaland farm in southern Iceland. Sediment deposits indicate people lived there around 800, and crosses consistent with the Hiberno-Scottish style were carved in the wall of a nearby cave.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Testing the evidence for northernmost North Atlantic papar: A cave site southern Iceland|last1=Ahronson|first1=K.|editor1-last=Crawford|editor1-first=B. E.|title=The Papar in the North Atlantic: Environment and History. Proceedings of St Andrews Dark Age Conference|date=2002|pages=107–120|isbn=095125734X|publisher=University of St Andrews}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Herdsmen & Hermits: Irish Seafarers in the Northern Seas |first1=Thomas |last1=Charles|publisher= Lethbridge|oclc=463215746|date=1950}}</ref> The oldest known source which mentions the name "Iceland" is an 11th-century [[rune]] carving from [[Gotland]], while the oldest archeological finds indicating settlement date back to the 9th century. There is a possible early mention of Iceland in the book ''De mensura orbis terrae'' by the Irish monk [[Dicuil]], dating to 825.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.why.is/svar.php?id=4802|title=Is there any tangible proof that there were Irish monks in Iceland before the time of the Viking settlements?|last1=Kristinsson|first1=Axel|work=Icelandic Web of Science|date=5 March 2011|access-date=11 December 2020|translator1-last=Jones|translator1-first=Nicholas}}</ref> Dicuil claimed to have met some monks who had lived on the island of [[Thule]]. They said that darkness reigned during winter but that the summers were bright enough to pick lice from one's clothing, but the veracity of this source may be questioned. Additionally, Iceland is only about 450&nbsp;kilometres from the [[Faroes]], which had been visited by Irish monks in the 6th century, and settled by the Norse around 650.{{Citation needed|date=September 2018}} A cabin in [[Hafnir]] was abandoned between 770 and 880 CE, showing that it was built well before the traditional settlement date of 874. It is thought to have been an outpost only inhabited part of the year, but it is not known whether it was built by people from Scandinavia, Ireland or Scotland.<ref>{{cite news|date=4 June 2011|title=New View on the Origin of First Settlers in Iceland|url=https://www.icelandreview.com/news/a-new-view-the-origin-first-settlers-iceland|work=Iceland Review Online|access-date=1 July 2012}}</ref> === Norse settlement === Written sources consider the age of settlement in Iceland to have begun with settlement by [[Ingólfr Arnarson]] around 874, for he was the first to sail to Iceland with the purpose of settling the land. Archaeological evidence shows that extensive human settlement of the island indeed began at this time, and "that the whole country was occupied within a couple of decades towards the end of the 9th century."<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Vésteinsson|first1=Orri|last2=Gestsdóttir|first2=Hildur|date=2014-11-01|title=The Colonization of Iceland in Light of Isotope Analyses|url=http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.3721/037.002.sp709|journal=Journal of the North Atlantic|pages=137–145|doi=10.3721/037.002.sp709|volume=2014|issue=Special 7|s2cid=163350541 }}</ref> Estimates of the number of people who migrated to the country during the Age of Settlement range between 4,300 and 24,000,{{sfn|Karlsson|2016|pp=251–254}} with estimates of the number of initial settlers ranging between 311 and 436.{{sfn|Karlsson|2016|pp=245–252}} While the written sources emphasise settlement from Norway, genetic evidence shows that the founder population of Iceland came from Ireland, Scotland, and Scandinavia: studies of [[mitochondrial DNA]] and [[Y-chromosomes]] indicate that 62% of Icelanders' matrilineal ancestry derives from Scotland and Ireland (with most of the rest being from Scandinavia), while 75% of their patrilineal ancestry derives from Scandinavia (with most of the rest being from the Irish and British Isles).<ref name="1028sci">{{cite journal |last1=Ebenesersdóttir |first1=S. Sunna |last2=Sandoval-Velasco |first2=Marcela |last3=Gunnarsdóttir |first3=Ellen D. |last4=Jagadeesan |first4=Anuradha |last5=Guðmundsdóttir |first5=Valdís B. |last6=Thordardóttir |first6=Elísabet L. |last7=Einarsdóttir |first7=Margrét S. |last8=Moore |first8=Kristjan H. S. |last9=Sigurðsson |first9=Ásgeir |last10=Magnúsdóttir |first10=Droplaug N. |last11=Jónsson |first11=Hákon |last12=Snorradóttir |first12=Steinunn |last13=Hovig |first13=Eivind |last14=Møller |first14=Pål |last15=Kockum |first15=Ingrid |last16=Olsson |first16=Tomas |last17=Alfredsson |first17=Lars |last18=Hansen |first18=Thomas F. |last19=Werge |first19=Thomas |last20=Cavalleri |first20=Gianpiero L. |last21=Gilbert |first21=Edmund |last22=Lalueza-Fox |first22=Carles |last23=Walser |first23=Joe W. |last24=Kristjánsdóttir |first24=Steinunn |last25=Gopalakrishnan |first25=Shyam |last26=Árnadóttir |first26=Lilja |last27=Magnússon |first27=Ólafur Þ. |last28=Gilbert |first28=M. Thomas P. |last29=Stefánsson |first29=Kári |last30=Helgason |first30=Agnar |title=Ancient genomes from Iceland reveal the making of a human population |journal=Science |date=2018 |volume=360 |issue=6392 |pages=1028–1032 [1028] |doi=10.1126/science.aar2625|pmid=29853688 |ref={{harvid|Ebenesersdóttir et al.|2018}}|doi-access=free |bibcode=2018Sci...360.1028E |hdl=10852/71890 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Archaeogenetic evidence suggests that the actual founding population included a higher proportion again of settlers from the Irish and British Isles: one study found that the mean Norse ancestry among Iceland's settlers was 56%, whereas in the current population the figure was 70%. It is thought likely that most of the settlers from Ireland and Scotland came as slaves, and therefore reproduced less successfully than higher-status settlers from Scandinavia, making them ancestors of a smaller proportion of the modern population.{{sfn|Ebenesersdóttir et al.|2018|p=1030}} [[File:Law speaker.jpg|thumb|upright|19th century painting showing a romanticised view of 11th century {{lang|is|[[Althing|Alþingi]]}} session]] Though the notion that population pressure drove migration to Iceland remains unsupported in the academic literature, a number of reasons have been offered for the settlement of Iceland:<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935413.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199935413-e-7|title=The Norse in Iceland|last=Zori|first=Davide Marco|date=2016-05-02|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935413.013.7|work=Oxford Handbooks Online|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199935413}}</ref> # Available land would have been attractive to Viking Age Scandinavians, especially given the relatively warm climate in Iceland at the time. # The observation of valuable resources, such as [[walrus ivory]], made Iceland attractive to those looking to profit on trade. # Greater resistance to Viking incursions in the British isles and continental Europe in the late ninth century pushed Vikings to seek more peaceful opportunities. # Medieval written sources emphasize how [[Harald Fairhair]]'s centralization of Norway and imposition of burdensome taxes on farmers encouraged farmers to migrate to Iceland. Written sources say some settlers took land freely, others bought lands from earlier settlers, some were gifted land by earlier settlers, and that some settlers took lands from others through the use of force or threat of force. Lands were likely not rented during the Age of settlement. Medievalist [[Hans Kuhn (philologist)|Hans Kuhn]] argued that lands were given away or taken freely because earlier settlers had no need for such extensive lands. Historian [[Gunnar Karlsson]] notes that it could be rational for earlier settlers to encourage new settlers to settle lands nearby so as to ease maintenance of cattle and slaves, and as insurance in times of crisis.{{sfn|Karlsson|2016|p=224}} === Age of settlement ends === [[Ari Thorgilsson]] claims in ''Íslendingabók'' that the country had been "fully settled" by 930. Correspondingly, {{lang|is|Landnámabók}} suggests that within about sixty years, all the usable land had been taken; it mentions 1,500 farm and place names, and more than 3,500 people, arranged in a geographical fashion.<ref name="1028sci" /> In the periodisation of Icelandic history, therefore, the age of settlement is considered to have ended in the year 930 with the establishment of {{lang|is|[[Althing|Alþingi]]|italic=no}}; at this point the [[Icelandic Commonwealth]] period is considered to begin.<ref name=":1" /> Archeological evidence shows, however, "that immigrants continued to arrive in Iceland throughout the 10th century".<ref name=":0" /> The authors of one study speculate that "continued immigration may have been needed to sustain the population".<ref name=":0" /> == Theories == === Naddoddr and Garðar === [[File:Settlement of Iceland.svg|thumb|Travels of the first Scandinavians in Iceland during the ninth century]] {{lang|is|[[Landnámabók]]}} claims that the first Norseman to rest his feet on Icelandic soil was a [[viking]] by the name of [[Naddoddr]]. Naddoddr stayed for only a short period of time, but gave the country a name: ''Snæland'' (Land of Snow). He was followed by the viking explorer [[Garðar Svavarsson]], who was the first to stay over winter. At some time around 860, a storm pushed his ship far to the north until he reached the eastern coast of Iceland. Garðar approached the island from the east, sailed westward along the coast and then up north, building a house in [[Húsavík]]. He completed a full circle, circumnavigating the island and establishing that the landmass in question was indeed an island. He departed the following summer, never to return but not before giving the island a new name -- ''Garðarshólmur'' (literally, Garðar's Island). One of his men, [[Náttfari]], decided to stay behind with two slaves. Náttfari settled in what is now known as Náttfaravík, close to [[Skjálfandi]]. {{lang|is|Landnámabók}} maintains that Náttfari was not a permanent settler. === Hrafna-Flóki === The next Norseman to arrive in Iceland was named [[Flóki Vilgerðarson]], but the year of his arrival is not clear. According to the story told in Landnámabók, he took three ravens to help him find his way. Thus, he was nicknamed Raven-Flóki (Icelandic: ''Hrafna-Flóki''). Flóki set his ravens free near the Faroe Islands. The first raven flew back to the Faroes. The second flew up in the air and then returned to the ship. However, the third flew in front of the ship and they followed its direction to Iceland. He landed in [[Vatnsfjörður]] in the [[Westfjords]] after passing what is now [[Reykjavík]]. One of his men, Faxi, remarked that they seemed to have found great land—the bay facing Reykjavík is therefore known as [[Faxaflói]]. A harsh winter caused all of Flóki's cattle to die—he cursed this cold country, and when he spotted a drift ice in the fjord he decided to name it "Ísland" (Iceland). Despite difficulties in finding food, he and his men stayed another year, this time in [[Borgarfjörður]], but they headed back to [[Norway]] the following summer. Flóki would return much later and settle in what is now known as [[Flókadalur (Skagafirði)|Flókadalur]]. === Ingólfur Arnarson === {{quote|There was a man of the North [Norway], Ingólfr, who is truly said to be the first to leave it for Iceland, in the time when Haraldr the Fair-Haired was sixteen winters of age&nbsp;[...] he settled south in Reykjavík.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Translation:%C3%8Dslendingab%C3%B3k|title=Íslendingabók|last1=Thorgilsson|first1=Ari |author1-link=Ari Thorgilsson|date=c. 1200|access-date=9 January 2018|via=Wikisource}}</ref>|''[[Íslendingabók]]''}} [[Image:Ingolf by Raadsig.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Ingólfur commands his high-seat pillars to be erected]] Another Norseman, by the name of [[Ingólfur Arnarson]], had instigated a blood feud in his homeland, Norway. He and his foster-brother [[Hjörleifr Hróðmarsson]] went on an exploratory expedition to Iceland, and stayed over winter in what is now [[Álftafjörður]]. A few years later they returned to settle the land with their men. When they approached the island, Ingólfur cast his [[Öndvegissúlur|high seat pillars]] overboard and swore that he would settle where they drifted to shore. He then sent his slaves [[Vífill]] and [[Karli (name)|Karli]] to search for the pillars. <!--- This part is confusing, when and where did they find him murdered? --> In the meantime, Hjörleifr had been murdered by his Irish slaves. Ingólfr hunted them down and killed them in the [[Westman Islands]]. The islands got their name from that event, with ''westmen'' (Old Norse: ''vestmenn'') being a name that the Norsemen used for the Irish. Ingólfr was said to have settled a large part of southwestern Iceland, although after his settlement nothing more was known of him. His son, Þorsteinn Ingólfsson, was a major chieftain and was said to have founded the {{ill|Kjalarnesþing|is}}, the first [[Thing (assembly)|thing]], or parliament, in Iceland. It was a forerunner of the [[Althingi]].<ref>{{cite web|url= https://snl.no/Ingolv_Arnesson |title= Ingólfr Arnarson |publisher= Store norske leksikon |access-date= January 20, 2016}}</ref> As winter approached, Ingólfur's slaves found the pillars by [[Arnarhvoll]] {{IPA-is|ˈa(r)tnarˌkʰvɔtl̥|}}. When summer came, he built a farmstead in [[Reykjavík]] and claimed all the land west of the rivers of [[Ölfusá]], [[Öxará]] and [[Brynjudalsá]] {{IPA-is|ˈprɪnjʏˌtalsˌauː|}}. His slave Karli did not care for the location, and said to Ingólfur: "How ill that we should pass good land, to settle in this remote peninsula." == Environmental effects == Prior to the [[Deforestation by continent#Iceland|deforestation of Iceland in the Middle Ages]], some 40% of the land was forested.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://inhabitat.com/iceland-is-regrowing-its-forests-1000-years-after-vikings-razed-them/ | title=Iceland is replanting its forests 1,000 years after vikings razed them | date=6 April 2018 }}</ref> Today, the country is about 2% forested, with the [[Icelandic Forest Service]] aiming to increase that share to 10% through [[Reforestation#Iceland|reforestation]] and natural regrowth.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.skogur.is/en/moya/news/spades-saplings-and-sheep-iceland-battles-to-restore-long-lost-forests | title=Spades, saplings and sheep: Iceland battles to restore long-lost forests }}</ref> Scholars have argued that the settlers caused soil erosion through extensive deforestation and overgrazing.<ref name=":1" /> One study suggests that the primary motive for the deforestation was "clearance for pastures and home-fields", not the "settlers’ requirements for fuel and building material".<ref>{{cite thesis|title=The Impact of Settlement on Woodland Resources in Viking Age Iceland|url = http://www.nabohome.org/postgraduates/theses/nt/NT_PhD_thesis.pdf|type=PhD|location=University of Iceland|last1=Trbojević|first1=Nikola|date=2016|access-date = 9 January 2018|isbn= 978-9935-9260-6-7}}</ref> == See also == * [[Timeline of Icelandic history]] * [[Viking expansion]] * [[Pre-modern human migration]] == References == === Footnotes === {{Reflist}} === Bibliography === {{refbegin}} * Árni Daníel Júlíusson, Jón Ólafur Ísberg, Helgi Skúli Kjartansson ''Íslenskur sögu atlas: 1. bindi: Frá öndverðu til 18. aldar'' Almenna bókafélagið, Reykjavík 1989 * Byock, Jesse; ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=A4S6Bnw3HnkC Medieval Iceland: Society, Sagas and Power]''. University of California Press (1988) {{ISBN|0-520-06954-4}} {{ISBN|0-226-52680-1}} * {{cite book|title=Warlords & Holymen: Scotland AD 80-1000|first =Alfred P. |last=Smith|publisher=Edward Arnold|year=1984|isbn=0-7131-6305-4|pages=141–174}} {{refend}} {{Iceland topics|state=collapsed}} {{Viking}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Historical migrations]] [[Category:Peopling of Europe|Iceland]] [[Category:Viking Age in Iceland]] [[Category:Exploration of the Arctic]]'
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'@@ -2,5 +2,5 @@ {{Redirect|Landnám|the Norse farmstead in Greenland|Landnám (Greenland)}} [[File:The Norwegians land in Iceland year 872.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Norsemen]] landing in Iceland in 872]]<!--[[File:LandnamabokManuscriptPage.jpg|thumb|A page from a skin manuscript of {{lang|is|[[Landnámabók]]}}, a primary source on the settlement of Iceland, preserved in the [[Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies]] in [[Reykjavík]]]]--> -The '''settlement of Iceland''' ({{lang-is|landnámsöld}} {{IPA-is|ˈlantˌnaumsˌœlt|}}) is generally believed to have begun in the second half of the ninth century, when [[Norsemen|Norse]] settlers migrated across the [[North Atlantic]]. The reasons for the migration are uncertain: later in the Middle Ages Icelanders themselves tended to cite civil strife brought about by the ambitions of the [[Norway|Norwegian]] king [[Harald I of Norway]], but modern historians focus on deeper factors, such as a shortage of [[arable land]] in [[Scandinavia]]. Unlike Great Britain and Ireland, [[Iceland]] was unsettled land and could be claimed without conflict with existing inhabitants. +The '''settlement of My Cοçκ''' ({{lang-is|landnámsöld}} {{IPA-is|ˈlantˌnaumsˌœlt|}}) is generally believed to have begun in the second half of the ninth century, when [[Norsemen|Norse]] settlers migrated across the [[North Atlantic]]. The reasons for the migration are uncertain: later in the Middle Ages Icelanders themselves tended to cite civil strife brought about by the ambitions of the [[Norway|Norwegian]] king [[Harald I of Norway]], but modern historians focus on deeper factors, such as a shortage of [[arable land]] in [[Scandinavia]]. Unlike Great Britain and Ireland, [[Iceland]] was unsettled land and could be claimed without conflict with existing inhabitants. On the basis of ''[[Íslendingabók]]'' by [[Ari Þorgilsson]], and {{lang|is|[[Landnámabók]]}}, histories dating from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and providing a wealth of detail about the settlement, the years 870 and 874 have traditionally been considered the first years of settlement. However, these sources are largely unreliable in the details they provide about the settlement, and recent research focuses more heavily on archaeological and genetic evidence.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Landnám Íslands|last=Karlsson|first=Gunnar|publisher=Háskólaútgáfan|year=2016|location=Reykjavík|pages=26|isbn=9789935231130 }}</ref> '
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[ 0 => 'The '''settlement of My Cοçκ''' ({{lang-is|landnámsöld}} {{IPA-is|ˈlantˌnaumsˌœlt|}}) is generally believed to have begun in the second half of the ninth century, when [[Norsemen|Norse]] settlers migrated across the [[North Atlantic]]. The reasons for the migration are uncertain: later in the Middle Ages Icelanders themselves tended to cite civil strife brought about by the ambitions of the [[Norway|Norwegian]] king [[Harald I of Norway]], but modern historians focus on deeper factors, such as a shortage of [[arable land]] in [[Scandinavia]]. Unlike Great Britain and Ireland, [[Iceland]] was unsettled land and could be claimed without conflict with existing inhabitants.' ]
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[ 0 => 'The '''settlement of Iceland''' ({{lang-is|landnámsöld}} {{IPA-is|ˈlantˌnaumsˌœlt|}}) is generally believed to have begun in the second half of the ninth century, when [[Norsemen|Norse]] settlers migrated across the [[North Atlantic]]. The reasons for the migration are uncertain: later in the Middle Ages Icelanders themselves tended to cite civil strife brought about by the ambitions of the [[Norway|Norwegian]] king [[Harald I of Norway]], but modern historians focus on deeper factors, such as a shortage of [[arable land]] in [[Scandinavia]]. Unlike Great Britain and Ireland, [[Iceland]] was unsettled land and could be claimed without conflict with existing inhabitants.' ]
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