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Baidya or Vaidya is a Hindu community of Bengal who have generally claimed Brahmin status. In the pre-colonial era of Bengal, Baidyas were regarded as the highest Hindu castes, along with Bengali Brahmins and Kayasthas. In the colonial era, the Baidyas along with the Bengali Brahmins and Kayasthas formed the elite group of "Bhadraloks".

History

Located far away from North India, Bengal exhibits a convoluted caste-hierarchy where discrimination persists but the praxis of varna significantly deviates from Brahminical theory.

The Baidyas were classed as Sudras across a spectrum of local Brahminic literature but had always occupied a place of pre-eminence in society; over the course of centuries, they successfully mobilized its way up the ladder of social hierarchy to occupy a place right below Brahmins but above other groups which had once held a similar scriptural position. Projit Bihari Mukharji (2017) notes that a detailed history of Baidyas' upward mobility is yet to be produced.

Origins

The terms Baidya literally means a physician in the Bengali and Sanskrit languages; they were (probably) an occupational group of Ayurveds and drew people from various varnas including Brahmins. They had (likely) crystallized into a caste-community (jati) before the Sultanate rule. A wide variety of overlapping and contradictory myths surround their origins — literature apart from genealogies and Upapuraṇas don't discuss them.

Kulanjis

Among the only two extant pre-modern Baidya genealogies, Chandraprabha (c. late 17th century) constructs a descent from Ambasthas. However, it is doubtful if the Ambasthas — mostly held to be of a Kshatriya origin in Hindu scriptures, their inscriptions are typically found in South India where they hold preeminent royal posts — were really the Baidyas of Bengal. These claims of equivalence were not present in the slightly older Sadvaidyakulapnjika. Roughly contemporary genealogies of other castes have claimed them to descend from the Sens and even, migrate from Kannauj.

Upapuraṇas

The Upapuranas played a significant role in the history of Bengal — they propagated and established Brahminic ideals but also accommodated elements of the vernacular culture, to gain acceptance among masses. Bṛhaddharma Puraṇa (Brh. P.; c. 13th century) is the earliest document to chronicle a hierarchy of castes in Bengal. The Brahma Vaivarta Purana (Bv. P.) — notable for a very late Bengali recension (c. 14/15th c.) — names a hierarchy of castes but varies in details from Brh. P. Both mention of Baidyas. No other Hindu scripture mentions the Baidya as a caste group.

Bṛhaddharma Puraṇa

Brh. P. does not mention Baidyas separately but the Ambasthas, deriving from the Venu-Prthu myth. Products of forbidden union among Brahmin fathers and Vaishya mothers, during the reign of Venu, they were classified as Uttama Saṃkaras (highest of mixed classes). After Venu was deposed by the Gods, Prthu was installed as a Vishnu reincarnate and upon a request to restore dharma, proposed to integrate the Saṃkaras into four varnas. Ambasthas were brought under Sudras, purposed (and synonymised) to Baidyas (physicians) in light of preexisting capacities, and conferred a solitary right to Ayurveda with help from Ashvin. Alongside, they had to undergo a second birth to penance for bearing the Svarnakaras from Vaishya mothers - this is noted to be their identifying characteristic. They were then noted as one of the Satsudras (higher Sudras) and endowed with the right of inviting Srotriya Brahmins for rituals as well as accepting service from lower Sudras; one stanza even notes them to be Saṃkarottama (best of Saṃkaras).

Brahma Vaivarta Puran

Bv. P. treats the Baidyas as separate to Ambasthas and note them to be Satsudras. Ashvin, a Kshatriya had raped a Brahmin pilgrim, and she (along with the illegitimate son) were driven out by her husband. This son was then brought up by Ashvin (who taught him Ayurveda) and went on to become the progenitor of Baidyas.

Interpretation

Ryosuke Furui feels that the varṇasaṃkara myth and the subsequent ordaining of Saṃkaras in Brh. P. merely reflected and reinforced the existing social hierarchy of ancient Bengal while allowing the Brahmin authors to understand an alien society and get themselves established at the top — that is, the Ambasthas held a preeminent position in pre-Brahminic Bengal and practiced medicine. Ramaprasad Chanda had supported such a reading as early as 1916. Nripendra Kumar Dutt, who had equated the Baidyas to Ambasthas, hypothesized that these Upapuranas were tools for Brahmin law-makers to reify the Parshuram myth and deprive Vaidyas of its mixed-caste privileges (sacred thread etc).

Medieval Bengal

In medieval Bengal, Baidyas held important social posts and often branched out into fields other than medicine. The Bhatera Copper Plates mention one minister of King Isandeva (c. 1050) to be of the Baidya vamsa. A significant percentage of the elites in Sultanate, Mughal, and Nawabi Bengal were from Baidyas. Around the early fifteenth century, Baidyas became intricately associated with the Chaitanya Cult alongside Brahmins; as the cult shunned doctrines of equality, some Baidyas began enjoying a quasi-Brahminic status as Gaudiya Vasihnava gurus.

Baidyas were reputed for their proficiency in Sanskrit, courtesy the need to read treatises of medicine. Bharatamallika (c. 1650) was a physician by profession but also ran a tol, wrote commentaries on Sanskrit texts like Amarakosha, and produced miscellaneous works on grammar and lexicography. He was responsible for Chandraprabha (1675 C.E.), a detailed clan-history of the Baidyas as well as the Ratnaprabha, a summary of the former. Bharata claimed a mixed-caste/Vaishya status for the Baidyas. Sadvaidyakulapnjika was written by a Ramakanta Dasa Kavikantahara in 1653 C. E.

Overall, the Baidyas incurred significant social mobility and by sixteenth century, were probably occupying the second tier in the local social hierarchy alongside Brahmins and Kayasthas of Bengal. Marriages with Bengali Kayasthas were commonplace.

However, Brahminic literature continued to regard them as Sudras. The Vallal Charita of Ānanda Bhaṭṭa reiterates a different version of the Brh. P. myth, where Vaidyas are held to be the son of an Ambastha father and a Vaisya mother; they are classed among the Satsudras, of whom Kayastha is held to be the highest. In contrast, the Chandimangal of Mukundaram Chakrabarti (c. mid 16th century CE) places the Baidyas below Vaisyas and accords a Sudra status but notes the Kayasthas to be below them. Works by Vācaspati Miśra and Raghunandana hold Baidyas to be Sudras.

Colonial Bengal

The eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth centuries would witness acrimonious debates about their caste status. C. 1750, Raja Rajballabh wished to have Brahmins officiate at his rituals; he sought Vaishya status for the Baidyas and claimed a right of wearing sacred thread. On facing opposition from other Baidya zamindars (who thought this to be an attempt at gaining trans-samaj acceptance as a Baidya leader) and Brahmin scholars of Vikrampur, he invited 131 Brahmins from Benaras, Kanauj, Navadwip and other regions with expertise in Nyaya Shastra. All of them adjudicated in his favor. Genealogies written around these times would claim the mythical Adisura and Senas to be Baidyas.

However, with more lower castes infiltrating into the order of Vaishyas, Baidyas now sought equality with the Brahmins and claimed themselves to be "Gauna (secondary) Brahmins" leveraging the recently conferred right to upanayana. Beginning 1822, Brahmin and Baidya scholars produced a series of polemical pamphlets against one another and in 1831, the Baidya Samaj was formed by Khudiram Bisharad, a teacher at the Native Medical Institution to defend class interests. Under his advocacy, Baidyas were granted the right to study Sanskrit texts alongside Brahmins. Gangadhar Ray produced voluminous literature to put forward partisan claims on Baidyas descending from Brahmins. Soon, Binodlal Sen would publish Bharatamallika's genealogies having (apparently) obtained the original manuscript with great difficulty. A rivalry with the Kayasthas (who are now considered as inferior) would now be an integral part of this discourse and matrimonial alliances were discouraged, fomenting the rise of a rigid endogamous caste-group.

All these maneuvers at attaining mobility were enmeshed with another nineteenth-century Baidya project of modernizing Ayurveda — Sen declared the genealogical works to be free for anyone who purchased above a certain value of medications and Baidya medicine distributors frequently sold revisionist caste-histories. Notwithstanding these contestations, the dominance of Baidyas continued unabated into the colonial rule when they took to Western forms of education proactively and held a disproportionate share of government jobs, elite professions, and landholding. Unquestionably established as among the "upper castes" by mid nineteenth century, they would be the building block of Bhadralok Samaj alongside Brahmins and Kayasthas.

In 1901, colonial ethnographer Herbert Hope Risley noted the Baidyas to be above Sudras but below the Brahmins. In early twentieth century, Gananath Sen, the first dean of the Faculty of Ayurveda at the Banaras Hindu University opened a "Baidya Brahman Samiti" in Kolkata; he contended that the Baidyas were not merely equal to Brahmins but identical to them and suggested that all Baidyas change their surnames to Sharma, a Brahmin patronymic! In 1915/16, Kuladakinkara Ray published Vaidyakulapanjika to advocate that not only were the Baidyas same as Brahmins but the highest of them — the text proposed that the word Vaidya was constructed either from Veda or Vidya, redefined the word Ambastha as meaning the father (of patients incl. Brahmins), quoted from the Dharmaśāstra cannon about caste-groups exhibiting potential social mobility as a result of virtuous deeds, and highlighted from Veda and Smritis about products of mixed marriages being entitled to carry the caste of their father. Pascale Haag however notes that Brahmin response to these Baidya tactics remain yet to be studied.

The Bhadraloks would be instrumental in demanding democratic reforms across the early twentieth century but refuse to part with their own privilege at the cost of middle and lower castes. A majority of "revolutionary terrorists" from Bengal who partook in the Indian independence movement came from this class.

Modern Bengal

Baidyas continue to wield significant socio-economic power in modern Bengal as part of Bhadraloks — in absence of rigorous data, the precise extents are difficult to determine.

A report produced by the Government of West Bengal for the 1951 census found claims of a Brahmin origin to lay on "slender" grounds. Their current place in social hierarchy comes after Brahmins — Baidyas wear the sacred thread, have access to scriptures and use the surname of Sharma (among others) but cannot conduct priestly services. As of 1960, inter-marriages between Brahmins, Baidyas and Kayasthas were quite common and increasing.

Notes

1. The Puranas as well as Mahabharata hold them to be Kshatriyas. Smriti and Shastra texts regard them as a mixed caste - of a Brahmin father and a lower caste wife. The Jatakas mention them as Vaishyas. Ambastha Sutta, a Buddhist text regards them as Brahmins. Also, see the next section on Upapuranas.
2. Nripendra K. Dutt, Pascale Haag as well as Poonam Bala concur that the terms were synonymous. Jyotirmoyee Sarma hypothesizes that both the groups might have followed the same profession and eventually merged into one. Dineshchandra Sircar as well as Annapurna Chattopadhyay express skepticism on the connection but considers Sarma's hypothesis to be plausible. In contrast, Projit Bihari Mukharji downright rejects such an equivalence and notes that "Ambastha" had meant different things in different contexts across the history of India; it was always a ''post-facto'' label claimed by different groups in their reinvention of themselves. R. C. Majumdar rejected such an identification, too.
3. Sadvaidyakulapnjika does not invoke any such connection. Chandraprabha mentions Bharatamallika's father to be a Vaidya as well as an Ambastha; additionally, it quotes from Hindu scriptures to prove why Ambasthas and Baidyas are equable. Annapurna Chattopadhyaya noted the "genuineness and historical bearing" of these passages to be "questionable". R. C. Majumdar, D. C. Ganguly, and R. C. Hazra reiterate concerns of genuineness but note that Bharatamallika must have reflected contemporary views.
4. Refer Chakrabarti, Kunal (2001). Religious Process: The Puranas and the Making of a Regional Tradition. Oxford University Press. for an overview. The conclusion is worth noting: "The Brahmanization of Bengal seems to have engulfed most of the indigenous local cultures by the time the last redactions to the Puranas were made, and succeeded in forging a common religious cultural tradition, flexible enough to accommodate sub-regional variations and indifference to the emerging consensus on the dominant cultural mode among some social groups, and strong enough to take dissent in its stride."
5. Ludo Rocher however notes the text to contain multiple layers (like all other Puranas) making any dating impossible. However, he agrees with R. C. Hazra that a significant part was composed as a response to the Islamic conquest of Bengal.
6. Older sources on social setup include inscriptions of the Gupta and the Pala periods but Baidyas don't find a mention.
7. Baidya authors of 19th and 20th century claimed Skanda Purana to have a description of the Baidya caste. They can't be located in currently available manuscripts.
8. The myth is very popular across a large set of Indian scriptures. It probably has Indo-European origins.
9. Prthu had these mixed-castes further reproduce with other mixed-castes and four pure varnas. Those offspring were classed under Madhyama Saṃkaras and Saṃkaras.
10. All the Saṃkaras were classed under Sudras, true to the tradition of Bengal having only two varnas: Brahmins and Sudras.
11. Furui senses the express prohibitions on Ambastha/Baidyas to read the Puranas (despite granting them the Ayurveda) as indicative of a fear of encroachment upon Brahmin intellectual domain and a tacit acknowledgement of groups trained in alternate forms of knowledge; the deeming of Ambastha/Baidyas as Saṃkarottamawere concessional transactions where Brahmins entered into co operational agreements with other groups but commanded nominal authority.
12. In any case, whether the Bṛhaddharma Puraṇa succeeded in materializing and sustaining the Brahminical visions of Bengali society is doubtful; the medieval law commentary Dāyabhāga shares few things in common with Bṛhaddharma Purana.
13. See Mitra, Rajendralal (August 1880). "Copper-Plate Inscriptions from Sylhet". Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. LIV: 141–151. for details.
14. However, it must be borne in mind that the Baidya jati was not a homogeneous unit. The community was divided into numerous endogamous samajes (societies) who exhibited strict conformation in rituals and social behavior. There were Shaivite Baidya samajes, with a marked antipathy for Vaishnava cult. Often these samajes were further divided into sthans (places) which had variable degree of autonomy.
15. See Meulenbeld, G. Jan (2000). "Seventeenth-Century authors and works". A History of Indian Medical Literature. Vol. II A. Egbert Forsten. p. 278. ISBN 9069801248. for an overview of his works.
16. Both Kavikantahara and Bharatamallika mentioned of several older genealogies, which are now-lost or (unlikely) yet to be retrieved.
17. Ambastha was born of a Maula father and a Vaisya mother. Maula was created of a Brahmin father and a Kshatriya mother.
18. Kumkum Chatterji notes that Mangalkavyas were penned by Baidyas too. Their detailing of the social hierarchy is not described.
19. Mukharji notes that movements to gain social mobility actively sought to safeguard their earned dominance by making sure that lower ranked castes remained lower. Vaidyas were no exception.
20. For an instance, Calcutta Sanskrit College barred Shudras from admission, initially allowing only Brahmins and Baidyas to enroll until Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar introduced admission for Kayasthas.
21. Kayasthas would however reject the mobility claims by Baidyas (to the extent of bribing Brahmins) and instead choose to assert themselves as Kshatriyas.
22. In the 1921 census, they were the most literate community in Bengal. To quote David L. Curley, Baidyas were "serving in local revenue administrations, managing rent and revenue collections for zamindars, obtaining or providing short-term agrarian and mercantile credit, engaging in trade as agents or partners of the English and French East India Companies and acquiring zamindari estates."
23. Jyotirmoyee Sarma notes that the Baidyas already had the highest of "secular rank" (bhadralok) but yet strove (to the fascination of external observers) for the highest of "ceremonial/scriptural rank" (brahmin).
24. Alongside, it was highlighted how Baidyas even taught the Vedas unlike Brahmins who were apparently allowed to only recite them. Also, Baidyas exhibited sacrificatory values in the preparation of pakayajna and utterance of mantras during the making of a medical remedy.
25. In 1960, Chattopdhyay noted that Baidyas were still treated as Sudras in all orthodox religious occasions.

See also

• Vaidya

References

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v t e Bengali Hindus
Society	Groups Babu Bangal Bhadralok Ghoti Castes Aguri Bagdi Baidya Baishya Kapali Baishya Saha Barujibi Bauri Brahmin Chunaru Dom Gandhabanik Suvarna Banik Hari Kaibartya Kansabanik Karmakar Kayastha Kulin Maulika Mahishya Malla Namasudra Namassej Avarna Sadgop Shunri Yogi
Religion	Books Bhagavad Gita Chandi Panchali Matuasmritokotha Sects Brahmo Kartabhaja Shaiva Shakta Vaishnava Orders Adi Brahmo Samaj Ananda Marga Bharat Sevashram Sangha Brahmo Conference Organisation Brahmo Samaj Gaudiya Math Gaudiya Mission International Society for Krishna Consciousness Matua Mahasangha Ramakrishna Order Self-Realization Fellowship Sri Aurobindo Ashram Vedanta Society Yogoda Satsanga Society of India Festivals Poila Baisakh Rabindra Jayanti Akshaya Tritiya Buddho Purnima Shashthi Savitri Brata Ambubachi Mela Dhamrai Jagannath Roth Jhulan Purnima Janmashtami Bhadu Ganesh Chaturthi Vishwakarma Puja Durga Puja Lakshmi Puja Diwali Kali Puja Bhai Phonta Shakta Rash Nabanna Jagaddhatri Puja Kalpataru Day Swami Vivekananda's Birthday Makar Sankranti Maghotsab Saraswati Puja Maha Shivaratri Dol Purnima Holi Gajan
Culture	Music Rabindra Sangeet Shyama Sangeet Kirtan Bishnupur gharana Dance Gaudiya Nritya Rabindra Nritya Natya Literature Vaishnava Padavali Mangal-Kavya Panchali Kallol Hungry generation
Folk culture	Folk art Dhokra Sholapith Folk dance Raibenshe Chhau Paika Dhamail Alkap Gombhira Kavigan
Others	Bengali Hindu mythology and culture Bengali Hindu diaspora

• Social groups of West Bengal
• Bengali Hindu castes