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Somali Dervish movementDhaqdhaqaaqii Daraawiishta
1899–1920
Capital	Eyl (1905-1909) Taleh (1913-1920)
Religion	Islam with Sufism-orientation
Leader
• 1899-1920	Mohammed Abdullah Hassan
History
• Established	1899
• Disestablished	9 February 1920
Preceded by Succeeded by British Somaliland Italian Somaliland British Somaliland
Today part of	Somalia  Somaliland  Ethiopia

The Somali Dervish movement (Template:Lang-so) was a popular movement that developed in eastern Somaliland between 1899 and 1920, which was led by the Salihiyya Sufi Muslim poet and militant leader Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, also known as Sayyid Mohamed, who called for independence from the British and Italian colonies on the Somali peninsula, the defeat of Ethiopian forces, the expulsion of Christianity and the establishment of a state in Nugaal. Hassan established a ruling council called the Khususi consisting of Islamic clan leaders and elders, added an adviser from the Ottoman Empire named Muhammad Ali and thus created a multi-clan Islamic movement in what led to the eventual creation of the state of Somalia.

The Dervish movement attracted between 5,000 and 6,000 youth from different clans over 1899 and 1900, acquired firearms and then attacked the Ethiopian army in the Jigjiga region. The Ethiopians retreated and then gave the Dervishes their first military victory. The Dervish movement then declared the colonial administration in British Somaliland as their enemy. To end the movement, the British sought out the competing Somali clans as coalition partners against the Dervish movement. The British provided these clans with firearms and supplies to fight against the Dervishes. Punitive attacks were launched against Dervish strongholds in 1904. The Dervish movement suffered losses in the field, regrouped into smaller units and resorted to guerrilla warfare. Hasan and his loyalist Dervishes moved into the Italian-controlled Somaliland in 1905, where Hasan signed the Illig treaty and thereafter strengthened his movement. In 1908, the Dervishes entered the British Somaliland again and began inflicting major losses to the British in the interior regions of the Horn of Africa. The British retreated to the coastal regions, leaving the chaotic interior regions in the hands of the Dervishes. The First World War shifted the attention of the British elsewhere, although upon its conclusion, in 1920 the British launched a massive combined arms offensive on the Taleh fortress (Dhulbahante garesa) strongholds of the Dervish movement. The offensive caused significant casualties among the Dervishes, although the Dervish leader Mohammed Abdullah Hassan managed to escape. His death in 1921 due to either malaria or influenza ended the Dervish movement.

The Dervish movement temporarily created a mobile Somali "proto-state" in early 20th-century with fluid boundaries and fluctuating population. It was one of the bloodiest and longest militant movements in sub-Saharan Africa during the colonial era, one that overlapped with World War I. The battles between various sides over two decades killed nearly a third of Somaliland's population and ravaged the local economy. Scholars variously interpret the emergence and demise of the militant Dervish movement in Somalia. Some consider the "Sufi Islamic" ideology as the driver, others consider economic crisis to the nomadic lifestyle triggered by the occupation and "colonial predation" ideology as the trigger for the Dervish movement, while post-modernists state that both religion and nationalism created the Dervish movement.

History

Origins

According to Abdullah A. Mohamoud, traditional Somali society followed a decentralized structure and a nomadic lifestyle dependent on livestock and pastureland. It was also predominantly Muslim. As the European colonial powers expanded their reach in the Horn of Africa, the region of Somalia came under the influence of the Ethiopians, the British and the Italians. Ethiopia on its part, focused more on the Ogaden region as their forces were ambushed and defeated by the Geledi in the battle of luuq despite having a large force of riflemen,artillery and horsemen. This caused Ethiopia to rethink its strategy of conquering the coastal southern region and focused on the hinterlands of the Ogaden. With foreign rule came the centralization of the economy, which greatly upset the traditional lifestock and pastureland based livelihood of the Somalis. The foreign powers were also all Christians, which created additional suspicions amongst the Somali religious elite. The Ethiopian troops had already proved to be a bane for the Somalis as they were the traditional raiders and plunderers of their grazing herds due to the Dervish raids. The arrival of the colonial powers and the consequent partitioning of Africa greatly affected the Somalis, with Sufi poets such as Faarax Nuur writing poems expressing his opposition to foreign rule. The Dervish movement can thus be seen as a reaction against the establishment of foreign control in Ethiopia.

The Dervish movement was led by a Sufi poet and religious nationalist leader named Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, also known as Sayid Maxamad Cabdulle Xasan. According to Said M. Mohamed, he was born in Sacmadeeqo sometime between 1856 and 1864 to a father who was a religious teacher. He studied in Somali Islamic seminaries and later went on Hajj to Mecca where he met Shaykh Muhammad Salah of the Salihiya Islamic Tariqah, which states The Encyclopedia Britannica was a "militant, reformist, and puritanical Sufi order". The preachings of Salah to Hasan had roots in Saudi Wahhabism, and it considered it a religious duty "to wage a holy war (jihad) against all other forms of Islam, the Western and Christian presence in the Muslim world, and a religious revival", state Richard Shultz and Andrea Dew. When Hasan returned to the Horn of Africa, the Somali tradition states that he saw Somali children being converted to Christianity by missionaries in the British colony. Hasan began preaching against this religious conversion and the British presence. He earned the ire of the British colonial administration who termed him the 'mad mullah', and his Sufi teachings were also opposed by the rival Qadiriya Tariqah – another traditional Sufi group of the region, states Said M. Mohamed. Another version of the early events link the illegal sale of a gun to Hasan by a corrupt Somali officer in 1899, who reported his gun as stolen rather than purchased by Hasan. The British authorities demanded the gun's return, while Hasan replied that the British should leave the country, a sentiment he had previously claimed in 1897 when he declared himself "the leader of a sovereign nation". Hasan continued to preach against the British introduction of Christianity to Somalia, stating that the "British infidels have destroyed our religion and made our children their children".

Hasan left the urban settlement and moved to preach in the countryside. His influence spread in the rural parts and many elders, as well as youth, became his followers. Hasan converted the influenced youth from different clans into a Muslim brotherhood, rallying to protect Islam from the influence of the Christian missionaries. These formed the Hasan's armed resistance group to confront the colonial powers, and came to be known as Dervishes or Daraawiish, states Said M. Mohamed.

Movement

The Dervish movement temporarily created a Somali "proto-state", according to Markus Hoehne. It was a mobile state with fluid boundaries and fluctuating population given the guerilla style militant approach of Dervishes and their practice of retreating to sparsely inhabited hinterland whenever the colonial forces with superior firearms overwhelmed them. At the head of this state was the Sufi leader Hasan with the power of final decision. Hasan surrounded himself with a group of commanders for the militant operations supported by the khusuusi or the Dervish council. Islamic judges settled disputes and enforced the Islamic law in this Dervish state. According to Robert Hess, two of Hasan's chief advisors were Sultan Nur – previously Habr Yunis chief, and Haji Sudi Shabeel also known as Ahmad Warsama from Adan Madoba Habr Je'lo who was fluent in English.

The constituent clans of the Dervish during the formative years belonged to sections of the Ogaden, Dhulbahante, Habr Je'lo and Habr Yunis clans:

He acquired some notoriety by seditious preaching in Berbera in 1895, after which he returned to his tariga in Kob Faradod, in the Dolbahanta. Here he gradually acquired influence by stopping inter-tribal warfare, and eventually started a religious movement in which the Rer Ibrahim (Mukahil Ogaden), Ba Hawadle (Miyirwalal Ogaden) and the Ali Gheri (Dolbahanta) were the first to join. His emissaries also soon succeeded in winning over the Adan Madoba, notable amongst whom was Haji Sudi, his trusted lieutenant, and the Ahmed Farih and Rer Yusuf, all Habr Toljaala, and the Musa Ismail of the Eastern Habr Yunis, Habr Gerhajis, with Sultan Nur.

Between 1900 and 1913, they operated from temporary local centers such as Aynabo and Illig in Somaliland.

The Dervishes wore white turban and its army utilized horses for movement. They assassinated opposing clan leaders. Dervish soldiers used the dhaanto and geeraar traditional dance-song to raise their esprit de corps and sometimes sang it on horseback. Hasan commanded the Dervish movement soldiers in a martial manner, ensuring that they were religiously committed, powered up for warfare and men of character sworn with an oath of allegiance. To ensure unity among his troops, instead of letting them identify themselves by their different tribes, he made them identify themselves uniformly as Dervish. The movement obtained firearms from various sources such as Sultan Boqor Osman Mahmud of Majerteen Sultanate, as well as the Ottoman Empire and Sudan. They were also supplied with arms and munitions by two Habr Yunis men of the Musa Arreh clan, namely, Haji Hirsi of Maydh and Bulhan Ali, they both operated with in Yemen, the former being stationed at Mukalla and the latter at Aden. In addition, the Dervishes also obtained significant armaments' from the Adan Madoba section of the Habr Je'lo clan where, according to the contemporary source Official History of the Operations in Somaliland: "Of the former the Adan Madoba were not only responsible for supplying him Abdullah Hassan with arms, but also assisted him on all his raids." The Dervish fought many battles starting in 1899 against the Ethiopian troops. In 1904, the Dervishes were almost annihilated in Jidbaley. Hasan retreated into the Italian Somaliland and entered into a treaty with them, who accepted the control of Eyl port by the Dervishes. This port served as the Dervish headquarters between 1905 and 1909. During this period, Hasan rebuilt the Dervish movement army, the Dervishes raided and plundered their neighboring clans, and in 1909 assassinated their archrival Sufi leader Uways al-Barawi and burnt his settlement, according to Mohamed Mukhtar.

In 1913, after the British withdrawal to the coast, the Dervishes created a walled fortress with fourteen fortresses (Dhulbahante garesa) in Taleh by importing masons from Yemen. This served as their headquarters. The main fortress, Silsilat, included conical tower granaries that opened only at the top, wells with sulfurous water, cattle watering stations, a guard tower, walled garden, and tombs. It became the residence of Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, his wives and family. The Taleh structures also included the Hed Kaldig (literally, "place of blood"), where those whom Hasan disliked were executed with or without torture and their bodies left to the hyenas. According to Muktar, Hasan's execution orders also targeted dozens of his former friends and allies. The town of Taleh was mostly destroyed after a RAF aerial bombardment in early February 1920, though Hasan had already left his compound by then.

The Dervish movement aimed to remove the British and Italian influence from the region and restore the "Islamic system of government with Islamic education as its foundation", according to Mohamed-Rahis Hasan and Salada Robleh.

Banadir Resistance

In southern Somalia, there was another resistance, the Bimal or Banadir Resistance. This was a large resistance lead by the Bimal clan spanning 3 decades of war. The Bimal being the main element, eventually neighboring adjacent tribes also joined the Bimal their struggle against the Italians. The Italians feared that the Banadir Resistance would join hands with the Somali Dervish Movement in the north. The Sayyid and leader of the Dervishes even sent an extensive letter to the Bimal.

Risala lil-Bimal

His letter to the Bimal was documented as the most extended exposition of his mind as a Muslim thinker and religious figure. The letter is till this day still preserved. It is said that the Bimal thanks to their size being numerically powerful, traditionally and religiously devoted fierce warriors and having possession of much resources have intrigued Mahamed Abdulle Hassan. But not only that the Bimal themselves mounted an extensive and major resistance against the Italians, especially in the first decade of the 19th century. The Italians carried many expeditions against the powerful Bimal to try and pacify them. Because of this the Bimal had all the reasons to join the Dervish struggle and by doing so to win their support over the Sayyid wrote a detailed theological statement to put forward to the Bimal tribe who dominated the strategic Banaadir port of Merca and its surroundings.

One of the Italian's greatest fears was the spread of 'Dervishism' ( had come to mean revolt) in the south and the strong Bimaal tribe of Benadir whom already were at war with the Italians, while not following the religious message or adhering to the views of Muhammad Abdullah Hassan, understood greatly his goal and political tactics. The dervishes in this case were engaged in supplying arms to the Bimaal. The Italians wanted to bring in an end to the Bimaal revolt and at all cost prevent a Bimal-Dervish alliance, which lead them to use the forces of Obbia and the Mijertein as prevention.

Wars against the British Empire, Italy and Ethiopia

In August 1898, the Dervish army occupied Burao, an important centre of British Somaliland, giving Muhammad Abdullah Hassan control over the city's watering places. Hassan also succeeded in making peace between the local clans and initiated a large assembly, where the population was urged to join the war against the British. His forces were supplied with the simple uniforms consisting of "a white cotton outer garment (worn by most Somali men of the time anyway), a white turban, a tasbih (or rosary), and a rifle."

In March 1900, Hassan along with his dervish forces attacked an Ethiopian outpost near Jijiga. Capt. Malcolm McNeill who commanded the Somali Field Force against Hassan reported that the Dervish were completely defeated, and that they have suffered a heavy loss amounting to 2,800 killed, according to the Ethiopians. Similar raids by the dervish would continue despite the losses across the Somali peninsula until 1920. McNeill notes that by June 1900, Hassan made his position even stronger than before his March 1900 defeat and had “practically dominated the whole of the southern portion of our Protectorate”.

The British administration started to coordinate with the Italians and Ethiopians, and by 1901 a joint Anglo-Ethiopian force began to coordinate plans to eradicate the jihadists or limit their reach farther west to the Ogaden or borderland of northern Kenya. Lack of supplies and access to fresh drinking water in the large expanse of flat land made this a challenging feat for the British and their allies. In contrast, Hassan and his dervishes adapted harsh conditions of the land by eating carcasses of beasts and drinking water from the dead bellies of animals. Despite possessing superior weapons, including Maxim machine guns, until 1905, the Anglo-Ethiopian forces were still struggling to gain hold on the dervish movement.

Britain launched at least two major offensives aimed at either killing or capturing Hassan between 1913 and 1920. Though they almost succeeded, Hassan proved elusive. Finally, the British Cabinet approved of air operations against the Dervish movement. It is said that the challenge of the Dervishes presented the British with a suitable environment to trial its new doctrine of warfare, which stressed "the use of aircraft as the primary arm, usually supplemented by ground forces, according to particular requirements."

In the Somaliland campaign of 1920, 12 Airco DH.9A aircraft were used to support the British forces. Within a month, the British had occupied the capital of the Dervish State and Hassan had retreated to the west.

Dhulbahante garesa

In the Dervish-written letter's description of the fall of Taleh in February 1920, in an April 1920 letter transcribed from the original Arabic script into Italian by the incumbent Governatori della Somalia, the various Darawiish-built installations are described as garesas taken from the Dhulbahante clan by the British, numbering twenty-seven:

Demise

Many Dervish allied clans became disillusioned with the movement towards the end. After the Bombing campaign of the Taleh fortress (Dhulbahante garesa) and the Dervish retreat into Ethiopia, Tribal Chief Haji Mohammad Bullaleh (Haji the Hyena) who hailed from the Rer Ainanshe clan of the Habr Yunis, commanded a 3000 strong army that consisted of Habr Yunis, Habr Je'lo and Dhulbahante warriors and pursued the fleeing Dervishes. They attacked Muhammad Abdallah Hassan and his army in the Ogaden region and swiftly defeated them, causing Muhammad to flee to the town of Imi. Haji and his army looted 60,000 livestock and 700 rifles from the Dervishes, which dealt a severe blow to them economically, a blow from which they did not recover.

Territory

The 1905 treaty between the Italians and Darawiish, which was terminated within a year, concurred that Darawiish territory was limited to the Nugaal, specifically from Ras Garad to Ras Gabbe (in modern-day Puntland), to Xudun (Hudun) to Tifafleh, and from Tifafleh to Docmo (in modern-day Bookh district of Ethiopia). The intermediary Dervish capital, Illig, was "situated at the mouth of the Nogal", whilst the subsequent permanent Dervish capital, Taleh, was described by Noriyuki Katagiri as being the "heart of the Nugaal".

An official letter from the Dervishes to Eric Swayne states the Dervish objective was the Nugaal and Buuhoodle:

this letter comes from ... the Dervishes to General Swayne ... They also informed us that you said you would leave the country , I mean the country of the Nugaal and Buuhoodle and its neighborhoods. This news made us extremely joyous.

— Dervish state on their demarcation

Notes by H. E Stanton, a British Chief of Staff officer states the following about territories in anti-Dervish expedition:

It was obvious from the first that the main operations would be conducted in the Nogal district. This tract of country was very badly and inaccurately shown on existing maps.

— H. E Stanton on Dervish positions

According to British lieutenant-colonel G.T Forestier Walker, the maps for anti-Darawiish expeditions were called individually Nogal no. 1 map, Nogal no. 2 map, and Nogal no. 3 map, and included the Gumburu locality:

All demands for maps were met with great promptitude, and, in the case of the three Nogal maps, which were compiled in the field and sent home for reproduction,... Nogal No. 1 was compiled in the field and sent home for rapid production ... I had Nogal No. 2 compiled from all the above sources, with the addition of Wellby's route, which had been accidentally omitted from No. 1. ... I had no hesitation in making his work the basis of the new map, Nogal No. 3, and the work previously compiled in No. 2 was fitted on to it. ... They went to Gumburu (see Nogal sketch) ...

— lieutenant-colonel G.T Forestier Walker on Darawiish territorial boundaries & jurisdiction

According to Secretary for War H. O. Arnold-Forster, the suspension of hostilities against Dervishes pragmatically meant withdrawing from the Nogal: Neville Lyttelton's War Office, and General Egerton described the Nugaal as the "base of operations" against Dervishes, and by Dervishes, respectively. The 1900s British media industry stated that a surprise ambush by British colonial troops into the Nugaal could end the colonial versus Dervish war, whilst the British parliament was anxious for a "damaging blow" into the Nugaal. John Spencer described Nugaal Valley natives as the Dervish leaders' people, Ahmed Ismail Samatar stated that Dervish rule was wedged in the Nugaal between Italian and British colonies,, and Harold Nelson that Darawiish (Dervish) gained an "autonomous protected status" in the Nugaal. Other authors who have stated the Dervish state settled in the Nugaal include Cassanelli, Pilaszewicz and B. W. Andrzejewski Raphael Chijioke Njoku, professor Francesca Declich.

Native Somali sources concur with British colonial sources on Darawiish / Dervish jurisdiction being the Nugaal and Ciid regions, such as the 3rd line of the poem Haddaan waayey:

An interview with Darawiish veteran Cabdi-Yaar Cali Guuleed in 1954:

The sister of the Sayid Mohammed, Caasha, in a 1973 interview:

Legacy

According to the Somali historian and novelist Farah Awl the Sayyid had a significant influence on Sheikh Bashir through listening to his poetry and conversations, an influence that impelled him to a "war with the British". After studying in the markaz in Beer he opened a Sufi tariqa (order) sometime in the 1930s, where he preached his ideology of anti-imperialism, stressing the evil of colonial rule and the bringing of radical change through war. His ideology was shaped by a millennial bent, which according to Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm is the "hope of a complete and radical change in the world shorn of all its present deficiencies". The Dervish movement would subsequently inspire Sheikh Bashir, the nephew of Mohammed Abdullah Hassan who was named by him, to wage his own 1945 Sheikh Bashir Rebellion together with Habr Je'lo tribesmen against the British authorities in Somaliland.

Modern legacy

The Dervish legacy in Somalia and Somaliland has been influential. It was the "most important revivalist Islamic movements" in Somalia, state Hasan and Robleh. The movement and particularly its leader has been controversial among Somalis. Some cherish it as the founder of modern Somali nationalism, while some others view it as an ambitious Muslim brotherhood militancy that destroyed Somalia's opportunity to move towards modernization and progress in favor of a puritanical Islamic state embedded with Islamic education – ideas enshrined in the contemporary constitution of Somalia. Yet others such as Aidid consider the Dervish legacy was one of cruelty and violence against those Somalis who disagreed with or refused to submit to Hasan. These Somalis were "declared infidels" and Dervish soldiers were ordered by Hasan to "kill them, their children and women and snatch all their property", according to Shultz and Dew. Another legacy that came out of the prolonged struggle and violence between the colonial powers and the Dervish movement, according to Abdullah A. Mohamoud, was the arming of the Somali clans followed by decades of destructive clan-driven militarism, violent turmoil, and high human costs well after the demise of the Dervish movement.

Hasan and his Dervish movement have inspired a nationalistic following in contemporary Somalia. The military government of Somalia led by Mohamed Siad Barre, for example, erected statues visible between Makka Al Mukarama and Shabelle Roads in the heart of Mogadishu. These were for three major Somali History icons: Mohammed Abdullah Hassan of the Dervish movement, Stone Thrower and Hawo Tako. The castles and fortress built by the Dervishes were included in a list of Somalia's national treasures. The Dervish period spawned many war poets and peace poets involved in a struggle known as the Literary war which had a profound effect on Somali poetry and Literature, with Mohammed Abdullah Hassan featuring as the most prominent poet of that Age. Many of these poems continue to be taught in Somali schools and have been recited by several Presidents of Somalia in speeches as well as in poetry competitions. In Somali Studies, the Dervish period is an important chapter in Somalia's history and its brief period of European hegemony, the latter of which inspired the resistance movement. The flag of Khatumo, designed by Rooda Xassan features a Dervish cavalryman.

Part of a series on the
History of Somalia
Prehistory Laas Geel (3,500-2,500 BCE ) Land of Punt (2,500–1,500 BCE)
Ancient Macrobians Ancient Somali City-States (c. 1st century) Azania city-states (c. 1st century)
Middle Ages Sultanate of Ifat (940–1415) Adal Sultanate (1415–1577) Ajuran Sultanate (13th–17th c.) Sultanate of Mogadishu (13th–16th c.)
Early modern Sultanate of the Geledi (17th–1911) Isaaq Sultanate (1750–1884) Habr Yunis Sultanate (1769–1907) Hiraab Imamate (17th–1890) Khedivate's Somali Coast (1874–1884) Majeerteen Sultanate (18th–1924) Sultanate of Hobyo (1876–1926)
Colonial period (1884–1960) Italian Somaliland (1889–1941) British Somaliland (1888–1960) Dervish State (1895–1920) Trust Territory (1941–1960)
Modern Somalia (since 1960) Somali Republic (1960-1969) Mohamed Siad Barre regime (1969–1991) Somaliland independence (1981–1991) Interim Government (1991–1997) Transitional National Government (2000–2004) Transitional Federal Government (2004–2012) Federal Government (2012–)
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Part of a series on the
History of Somaliland
Prehistory Caves in Somaliland Laas Gaal (10,000 BC) Dhambalin (5,000 BC) Dhaymoole (5,000~3,500 BC)
Ancient Land of Punt (2500~2000 BC) Macrobians (525 BC) Land of the Berbers Malao  • Mosylon
Middle Ages Kingdom of Adal (9th-12th c.) Ifat Sultanate (12th-15th c.) Adal Sultanate (15th-16th c.) Ethiopian–Adal war
Early modern Isaaq Sultanate (17th-19th c.) Habr Yunis Sultanate (18th-19th c.) Zeila • Berbera • Bulhar
Colonial period (1884–1960) British Somaliland (1884-1960) Dervish movement (1884-1920) Somaliland campaign (1901-1910) Somaliland campaign (1920) Burao Tax Revolt (1922) Italian invasion (1941) Sheikh Bashir Rebellion (1945)
Modern Somaliland (since 1960) State of Somaliland (1960) Somali Republic (1960-1969) 1961 revolt in Somalia Somali Democratic Republic (1969-1991) Somaliland War of Independence (1981-1991) Isaaq genocide (1982-1990) Peace process (1991) Declaration of Independence (1991) Somaliland (1991) Peace treaties of the Somaliland War of Independence (1991-1997) Constitutional referendum (2001)
Somaliland portal
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See also

• Hasna Doreh
• Nur Ahmed Aman
• Abdullahi Sadiq
• Haji Sudi
• History of Somalia
• Somali aristocratic and court titles

Notes

1. ^ *To see the discussion for the Italian-language wiki community on the Caroselli garesa quote, see this link
   *The Caroselli source ascribes "garesa" to British captured forts; for a quote that Taleh fort was British captured, see quote "It was most fortunate that Tale was so easily captured" (Douglas Jardine, 1923).
2. ^ For 113 peer reviews on Jama Omar Issa, see the spelling "jaamac cumar ciise" on google scholar.

References

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2. ^ Diiwaanka gabayadii, 1856-1921 , Maxamad Cabdulle Xasan · 1999 , PAGE 219
3. ^ Emmanuel Kwaku Akyeampong; Mr. Steven J. Niven (2012). Dictionary of African Biography. Oxford University Press. pp. 35–37. ISBN 978-0-19-538207-5.
4. ^ Abdullah A. Mohamoud (2006). State Collapse and Post-conflict Development in Africa: The Case of Somalia (1960-2001). Purdue University Press. pp. 60–61, 70–72 with footnotes. ISBN 978-1-55753-413-2.
5. ^ Samatar, Said (1992). In the Shadow of Conquest:. The Red Sea Press. p. 68. this letter comes from ... the Dervishes to General Swayne ... They also informed us that you said you would leave the country , I mean the country of the Nugaal and Buuhoodle and its neighborhoods. This news made us extremely joyous.
6. Mukhtar, Mohamed (2003). Historical Dictionary of Somalia. p. 27.
7. ^ Abdi Ismail Samatar (1989). The State and Rural Transformation in Northern Somalia, 1884-1986. Univ of Wisconsin Press. pp. 38–39. ISBN 978-0-299-11994-2.
8. Abdullah A. Mohamoud (2006). State Collapse and Post-conflict Development in Africa: The Case of Somalia (1960-2001). Purdue University Press. p. 71 with footnote 81. ISBN 978-1-55753-413-2.
9. ^ Ferro e Fuoco in Somalia, da Francesco Saverio Caroselli, Rome, 1931; p. 272. "i Dulbohanta nella maggior parte si sono arresi agli inglesi e han loro consegnato ventisette garese (case) ricolme di fucili, munizioni e danaro." (English: the Dhulbahante surrendered for the most part to the British and handed twenty-seven garesas (houses) full of guns, ammunition and money over to them."
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25. The scramble in the Horn of Africa:History of Somalia (1827-1877), By Mohamed Osman Omar, p.453.
26. Official History of the Operations in Somaliland, 1901-04. H. M. Stationery office. p. 41.
27. ^ Mohamed Haji Mukhtar (2003). Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Scarecrow Press. pp. 196–197. ISBN 978-0-8108-6604-1.
28. ^ W. A. MacFadyen (1931), Taleh, The Geographical Journal, Vol. 78, No. 2, pp. 125–128
29. Robert L. Hess (1968). Norman Robert Bennett (ed.). Leadership in Eastern Africa: Six Political Biographies. Boston University Press. pp. 90–97.
30. Michael Napier (2018). The Royal Air Force: A Centenary of Operations. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 33–34. ISBN 978-1-4728-2539-1.
31. Hasan, Mohamed-Rashid S., and Salada M. Robleh (2004), "Islamic revival and education in Somalia", Educational Strategies Among Muslims in the Context of Globalization: Some National Case Studies, Volume 3, BRILL Academic, page 147
32. Samatar, Said S. (1992). In the Shadow of Conquest: Islam in Colonial Northeast Africa. The Red Sea Press. ISBN 978-0-932415-70-7.
33. ^ Hess, Robert L. (1964-01-01). "The 'Mad Mullah' and Northern Somalia". The Journal of African History. 5 (3): 415–433, page 422. doi:10.1017/s0021853700005107. JSTOR 179976.
34. Martin, B. G. (2003-02-13). Muslim Brotherhoods in Nineteenth-Century Africa. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521534512.
35. ^ Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2013). The History of Somalia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313378577.
36. ^ Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2013). The History of Somalia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313378577.
37. Irons, Roy (4 November 2013). Churchill and the Mad Mullah of Somaliland, p. 209. ISBN 9781783463800.
38. Nicolosi, Gerardo (2002). Imperialismo e resistenza in corno d'Africa: Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, P.305. ISBN 9788849803846.
39. "King's College London, King's collection: Ismay's summary as Intelligence Officer (1916-1918) of Mohammed Abdullah Hassan".
40. Beachey, R. W. (1990). The warrior mullah: the Horn aflame, 1892-1920, by R.W Beachey, p.153. ISBN 9780947792435.
41. Commonwealth office, Foreign and (1911). British and Foreign State Papers -. p. 548. a fixed residence at the point most convenient for communication with the sea, between Ras Garad and Ras Gabbe ... The territory assigned to Seyyid Mohammed and his followers is that of the Nogal ... to enter their territories ( those of the English ) in the country of the Nogal to feed their cattle there according to their former custom ... the said cattle shall not be permitted to pass beyond the pasturage of the walls enumerated hereafter .. they are the wells or Halin, and from these to those of Hudin, and from Hudin to Tifafleh, and from Tifafleh to Danot
42. War Office, British. Official History of the operations in Somaliland. Harrison and Sons. Mullah had seized Illig, then a small fishing village situated at the mouth of the Nogal River and ... commenced to construct a formidable fortified camp there
43. Katagiri, Noriyuki (2015). Adapting to Win: How Insurgents Fight and Defeat Foreign States in War. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 125. Two years later they moved to Dameero and later to Taleex, the heart of the Nugaal Valley, and built garrisons.
44. ^ War Office, British (1907). "Volume Two". Official history of the operations in Somaliland, 1901-04 (Volume 2 ed.). Harrison and Sons. p. 402-412. (anti-dervish expedition) "It was obvious from the first that the main operations would be conducted in the Nogal district. This tract of country was very badly and inaccurately shown on existing maps" ... "All demands for maps were met with great promptitude, and, in the case of the three Nogal maps, which were compiled in the field and sent home for reproduction,... Nogal No. 1 was compiled in the field and sent home for rapid production ... I had Nogal No. 2 compiled from all the above sources, with the addition of Wellby's route, which had been accidentally omitted from No. 1. ... I had no hesitation in making his work the basis of the new map, Nogal No. 3, and the work previously compiled in No. 2 was fitted on to it." ... "They went to Gumburu (see Nogal sketch)" ...
45. War Office, British (1907). Official history of the operations in Somaliland, 1901-04. p. 604. the Secretary of State for War stated in the House of Commons that it had been decided to discontinue the military operations ... orders were sent to the Officer Commmanding 1st Brigade to withdraw from the Nogal by the 8th May
46. War Office, British (1907). Official History of the Operations in Somaliland, 1901-04. p. 315. situated in every way for a base of operations in the Nogal which it was evident must form the theatre of war
47. Jardine, Douglas (1923). Mad Mullah of Somaliland. p. 128. tract of country known as Nogal, which forms the principal summer grazing ground of the Dolbahanta, and the Mullah's base of operations against the western and north-eastern tribes of the Protectorate. It is well known that the Dolbahanta tribe are adherents of the Mullah
48. Jardine, Douglas (1923). Mad Mullah of Somaliland. p. 124. Press at home urged General Egerton to make a sudden dash at once for the Nogal with mounted troops. This, they maintained, was all that was necessary now to terminate the Somali war ... His Majesty's Government, however, expressed themselves as ... being anxious to strike an immediate and damaging blow at the Mullah in the Nogal
49. Spencer, John (1978). Horn of Africa, Volume 1, Issue 2. University of Michigan. p. 65. impregnable fortifications the Sayyid had constructed for his people in the Nugaal Valley
50. Smtar, Ahmed (1988). Socialist Somalia: Rhetoric and Reality. Zed Books. p. 32. the allocation of part of the Nugaal valley - in between the British and Italian Somalilands – to Dervish rule
51. Nelson, Harold (1982). Somalia, a Country Study. Library of Congress. p. 18. an Italian subsidy and autonomous protected status in the Nugaal ( Nogal ) Valley ... some clans there declared themselves dervishes
52. Cassanelli, Lee (2016). The Shaping of Somali Society. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 247. This granted him and his dervish followers a tract of land in the Nugaal in exchange for his promise to keep the peace.
53. Andrzejewski, B.W. (1985). Literatures in African Languages: Theoretical Issues and Sample Surveys. Cambridge University Press. p. 353. Dervish forces ... besieged in their two forts ... repulsed against enourmous odds the Italian forces ... A mad cleric has come upon us from the heartland of Nugaal
54. Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2013). The History of Somalia. ABC-Clio. following the lllig Treaty of 1904, for instance, the entire Nugaal Valley, a large shallow ... was conceded ... The hope was that this concession would make the Dervishes turn their interest away from the rest of the Italian Somaliland
55. Declich, Francesca (2018). Translocal Connections across the Indian Ocean: Swahili Speaking Networks on the Move. Brill Publishers. p. 75. the Salihiyya Dervish movement ... spread in northern Somalia in the late 1890s ... and first called for jihad in the Nugaal Valley, among Somali pastoral clans
56. Hobsbawm, Eric (2017-06-01). Primitive Rebels. Little, Brown Book Group. ISBN 978-0-349-14300-2.
57. Jama Mohamed, ‘The Evils of Locust Bait’: Popular Nationalism During the 1945 Anti‐Locust Control Rebellion in Colonial Somaliland, Past & Present, Volume 174, Issue 1, February 2002, Pages 201–202
58. of Rodd, Lord Rennell (1948). British Military Administration in Africa 1941-1947. HMSO. p. 481.
59. ^ Hasan, Mohamed-Rashid S., and Salada M. Robleh (2004), "Islamic revival and education in Somalia", Educational Strategies Among Muslims in the Context of Globalization: Some National Case Studies, Volume 3, BRILL Academic, pages 143, 146-148, 150-152
60. Kimberly A. Huisman (2011). Kimberly A. Huisman; Mazie Hough; et al. (eds.). Somalis in Maine: Crossing Cultural Currents. North Atlantic Books. pp. 12–13. ISBN 978-1-55643-926-1.
61. Rebecca Richards (2016). Understanding Statebuilding: Traditional Governance and the Modern State in Somaliland. Routledge. pp. 76–77. ISBN 978-1-317-00466-0.
62. Lotje de Vries; Pierre Englebert; Mareike Schomerus (2018). Secessionism in African Politics: Aspiration, Grievance, Performance, Disenchantment. Springer International. pp. 96–97. ISBN 978-3-319-90206-7.
63. Said S. Samatar (1982). Oral Poetry and Somali Nationalism: The Case of Sayid Mahammad 'Abdille Hasan. Cambridge University Press. pp. 20–24, 72–73. ISBN 978-0-521-23833-5.
64. SOMALIA: A Nation's Literary Death Tops Its Political Demise by Said S Samatar
65. https://www.ceegaag.com/calanka-khaatumo-ha-dhicin-oo-ha-dheeliyin/

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