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'''] history''' is the history of ]. The ] were the first state established under the name of Turk. '''] history''' is the history of ]. The ] were the first state established under the name of Turk.
] of a ] ]]]
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== Origins == == Origins ==
Turks were an important political identity of ]. They first appeared at ] ] and migrated to many various regions (such as ], ], ], and ]), and participated in many local civilizations there. It is not yet known when, where, and how the Turks formed as a population identity. However, it is predicted that ] have inhabited regions in which they could pursue ], ], ], and ] lifestyles.<ref>{{Citation |title=Historical Backgrounds |date=2021 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/turkic/historical-backgrounds/B5A0223FE8F5078EF190F3F788E18BD7 |work=Turkic |pages=114–142 |editor-last=Johanson |editor-first=Lars |series=Cambridge Language Surveys |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-86535-7 |access-date=2022-07-16}}</ref> Turks were an important political identity of ]. They first appeared at ] ] and migrated to many various regions (such as ], ], ], and ].) and participated in many local civilizations there. It is not yet known when, where, and how the Turks formed as a population identity. However, its predicted that ] have inhabited regions that they could have the lifestyle of ] ] ] ].<ref>{{Citation |title=Historical Backgrounds |date=2021 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/turkic/historical-backgrounds/B5A0223FE8F5078EF190F3F788E18BD7 |work=Turkic |pages=114–142 |editor-last=Johanson |editor-first=Lars |series=Cambridge Language Surveys |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-86535-7 |access-date=2022-07-16}}</ref>


''Türk'' was first used as a political identity in history during the ] period.<ref>{{Cite book |last=West |first=Barbara A. |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania |date=19 May 2010 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-1913-7 |page=829 |quote=The first people to use the ethnonym ''Turk'' to refer to themselves were the Turuk people of the Gokturk Khanate in the mid sixth-century}}</ref> The ] was invented by ] as well.<ref>Sigfried J. de Laet, Joachim Herrmann, (1996), ''History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D., p. 478''</ref> The ruling ] origins are disputed.{{sfn|Christian|1998|p=249}} ''Türk'' was first used as a political identity in history during the ] period.<ref>{{Cite book |last=West |first=Barbara A. |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania |date=19 May 2010 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-1913-7 |page=829 |quote=The first people to use the ethnonym ''Turk'' to refer to themselves were the Turuk people of the Gokturk Khanate in the mid sixth-century}}</ref> The ] was invented by ] as well.<ref>Sigfried J. de Laet, Joachim Herrmann, (1996), ''History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D., p. 478''</ref> The ruling ] origins are disputed.{{sfn|Christian|1998|p=249}}


] mural, ], 7th century CE, Mongolia.]] ] mural, ], 7th century CE, Mongolia.]]
Although there are debates about its inception, the history of the Turks is an important part of ]. The history of all people that emerged in ] and ] has been affected by the movements of the Turks to some degree. Turks have also played an important role in bringing ] to the ], and ] to the ]. Their own religion became the pioneer and defender of the foreign religions they adopted after ], which they helped spread and develop (examples being the ], ], ], ], ], and ]). Although there are debates about its inception, the history of the Turks is an important part of ]. The history of all people that emerged in ] and ] has been affected by the movements of the Turks to some degree. Turks also played an important role in bringing ] to the ] and ] to the ]. Their own religion became the pioneer and defender of the foreign religions they adopted after ], and they helped their spread and development (], ], ], ], ] and ]).


== The beginning of Turkic history ==
== Early historical affiliations ==
=== ] ===
* '''240 BC''': Great Wall of China built to protect the nation against ].
* '''c. 202 BC''': ] ] ] conquered the Hunyu (渾庾), Qushe (屈射), ] (丁零), Gekun (鬲昆), and Xinli (薪犁);<ref>] '']'' "後北服渾庾、屈射、丁零、鬲昆、薪犁之國。…… 是時漢初定中國，……。" translation: "Later in the North subdued the Hunyu, Qushe, Dingling, Gekun, and Xinli. It was when the ] had just stabilized the Central Region, . "</ref> The Gekun and Xinli would later appear among the Turkic-speaking ], respectively, as ]<ref>Pulleyblank, E. G. "The Name of the Kirghiz." Central Asiatic Journal 34, no. 1/2 (1990). p. 99</ref> and ].<ref>Pulleyblank, "Central Asia and Non-Chinese Peoples of Ancient China", p. VII 21-26.</ref><ref>Duan, "Dingling, Gaoju and Tiele", p. 370.</ref> The ] were also proposed to be early Proto-]<ref>
Hyun Jin Kim: . Cambridge University Press, 2013. pp.175-176.</ref><ref>
Peter B. Golden: in ''Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World''. Ed. Victor H. Mair. University of Hawaii Press, 2006. p.140</ref> or ancestors of ] among the ].{{efn|Shiwei were stated in most Chinese sources (e.g. ] 100, ] 84, ] 199) to be relatives to para-Mongolic-speaking ]; the sub-tribe Mengwu Shiwei 蒙兀室韋 were identitied as ancestors and namesakes of the ]<ref>Xu (2005) p. 175-176, 184</ref>}}<ref>] " txt: "室韋, 契丹别種, 東胡之北邊, 蓋丁零苗裔也" translation by Xu (2005:176) "The Shiwei, who were a collateral branch of the Khitan inhabited the northern boundary of the Donghu, were probably the descendants of the Dingling ... Their language was the same as that of the Mohe."</ref><ref>Xu Elina-Qian, , University of Helsinki, 2005. p. 176. quote: "The Mohe were descendants of the Sushen and ancestors of the Jurchen, and identified as Tungus speakers."</ref> or related to ] and ] speakers,<ref>Werner, Heinrich ''Zur jenissejisch-indianischen Urverwandtschaft''. Harrassowitz Verlag. 2004 . </ref>


]
=== Xiongnu affiliation ===
{{Main|Xiongnu}}It was even claimed in Chinese ] records that the Xiongnu spoke a Proto-Turkic language.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hucker |first=Charles O. |title=China's Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1975 |isbn=0-8047-2353-2 |quote="The proto-Turkic Hsiung-nu were now challenged by other alien groups — proto-Tibetans, proto-Mongol tribes called the Hsien-pi, and separate proto-Turks called To-pa (Toba)."}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Savelyev |first1=Alexander |last2=Jeong |first2=Choongwon |date=May 10, 2020 |title=Early nomads of the Eastern Steppe and their tentative connections in the West |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/ehs.2020.18 |journal=Evolutionary Human Sciences |volume=2 |doi=10.1017/ehs.2020.18 |quote=The predominant part of the Xiongnu population is likely to have spoken Turkic (Late Proto-Turkic, to be more precise). |s2cid=218935871}}</ref><ref>Silk-Road:</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=An Introduction to the Turkic Tribes |url=http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesFarEast/TurkicIntro.htm |access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref> It is likely that a significant amount of Xiongnu tribes spoke ].<ref>Lebedynsky (2006), p. 59.</ref> It is also a popular thought among scholars that Xiongnu is most likely to be a confederation of different ethnic and linguistic groups.<ref>Nicola di Cosmo, Ancient China and its Enemies, S. 163ff.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ebrey |first=Patricia Buckley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vr81YoYK0c4C&q=%22Xiongnu+Confederation%22&pg=PA69 |title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of China |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-521-12433-1 |edition=2nd |page=69}}</ref> Genetic researches also have discoveries about genetic affiliation of Xiongnu to Turkic nations.
According to a genetic research conducted in 2003, DNA sequences similar to many modern Turkic groups (particularly Turkish samples) were found from 62 samples from the Xiongnu ] at ] between the 3rd century and the 2nd century AD, suggesting that at least some of the Xiongnu were from Turkic origin.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Keyser-Tracqui |first1=C. |last2=Crubezy |first2=E. |last3=Ludes |first3=B. |year=2003 |title=Nuclear and mitochondrial DNA analysis of a 2,000-year-old necropolis in the Egyin Gol Valley of Mongolia |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=73 |issue=2 |pages=247–260 |doi=10.1086/377005 |pmc=1180365 |pmid=12858290}}</ref>


=== Hun affiliation === === ] ===
{{Main|Huns}}] armies led by ], who had conquered most of Europe, may have been at least partially of Turkic and Xiongnu origin.<ref name="Findley 2005, p. 29">Findley (2005), p. 29.</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Ulrich Theobald |title=Chinese History – Xiongnu 匈奴 (www.chinaknowledge.de) |url=http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Altera/xiongnu.html |access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref><ref name="pulleyblank">G. Pulleyblank, "The Consonantal System of Old Chinese: Part II", Asia Major n.s. 9 (1963) 206–65</ref> Huns were also considered as ] and/or ] by some scholars.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Origins of the Huns |url=http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesEurope/BarbarianHuns.htm |access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref><ref>VAJDA, Edward J. (2008). "Yeniseic" a chapter in the book ''Language isolates and microfamilies of Asia'', Routledge, to be co-authored with Bernard Comrie; 53 pages.</ref>


]
== Turkic states in Central Asia ==

=== ] ===
]

=== ] ===

=== ] ===

=== ] ===

=== ] ===
* '''395''': ]

=== ] ===
* '''480''': ] between the ] and the ]

== ]/Turks ==

=== ] ===
]


* '''540''': The re-emergence of the lost ] Turks mentioned in the ]<ref>{{Cite web|date=18 December 2020|title=Geçmişten Günümüze Türk Tarihi|url=https://www.storyandhistory.org/turk-tarihi/|access-date=18 December 2020|website=Story And History|language=tr}}</ref>
* '''552''': ] revolt against ] domination. Establishment of the ].
* '''565''': Defeat of the ] on their war with ].
* '''582''': Separation of the ].

]

== ] ==

=== ] ===

* '''630''': ] came under Chinese domination, ] came under Chinese influence.
* '''639''': ] prince ]'s attempt on a Turkic revolt in the Chinese emperor's palace.
* '''659''': ] came under Chinese rule.
* '''674''': The appearance of Turkic mercenaries (]) in ] armies.
* '''681''': ] established.
* '''699''': The establishment of the ] (in present-day ])

=== ] ===

* '''626-627''': ] ]' request for help from the ], the ]' invasion of the ] by defeating the ]
* '''630''': ]' settlement in the ]-] basin, which was affiliated to the ], and the establishment of the ] in the north of the ].
* '''651-652''': War of the ] and the ], who overthrew the ] and captured all of ]
* '''678''': The division of the ] by the westward pressure of the ]

== ] ==

=== ] ===
]'s memorial complex in ].]] ]'s memorial complex in ].]]
* '''705-715''': Arabs take ]
=== First Turkic Khaganate ===
* '''720-735''': ] in ]
{{Main|First Turkic Khaganate}}
* '''721-737''': ] attack against Arabs
* '''744''': The destruction of the ] by the rebellious ], ] and ]
* '''745''': Establishment of the ], independent khanate of ] in what is today ]
* '''750''': The strengthening of ]-] relations after the ] came to the head of the Arab Empire
* '''751''': The entry of the ] into ], the defeat of the Chinese by the Arabs with the help of the ] in the ], the conversion of the ] to ]
* '''762''': ] aided ] in China in suppressing the ]
* '''765''': Adoption of the ] by the ]
* '''766''': The dissolution of the ] by the ] of the ], the establishment of the autonomous ], the laying of the foundations of the ] by the ] who escaped from the ] and migrated to the vicinity of the ] and ] lakes.
* '''789-795''': Fight for the throne and decline in the ]


The '''Turkic Khaganate''' ''(𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰰/Türük)'', or the '''Göktürk Khaganate''' ''(𐰜𐰇𐰛 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰰/Kök Türük)'', was founded in the ] in the year ]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kradin |first=Nikolay N. |date=2005 |title=FROM TRIBAL CONFEDERATION TO EMPIRE: THE EVOLUTION OF THE ROURAN SOCIETY |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23658732 |journal=Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=149–169 |issn=0001-6446}}</ref><ref name="Zhou50">] et al., '']'', ] {{in lang|zh}}</ref> after the ] rebelled against the ] in ]. It was founded as a ], and turned into a steppe hegemon a short while after its foundation. The ], a nomadic tribe which pioneered the foundation of the Khaganate, and also became the most dominant tribe within it, identified itself as “''Türk''”, “''Türük''” or “''Kök Türük''”.<ref name=":0" /> The Göktürks were the first state to officially use the name "Türk" politically.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Infobase Publishing| isbn = 978-1-4381-1913-7| last = West| first = Barbara A.| title = Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania| quote=The first people to use the ethnonym ''Turk'' to refer to themselves were the Turuk people of the Gokturk Khanate in the mid sixth-century | page=829 |date = 19 May 2010}}</ref> The term “Kök Türük” has passed into literature as “''Kök-Türk''” or “''Göktürk''”.


=== ] ===
], who created a confederacy of nomadic tribes, led a rebellion against the Rouran state. This resulted in the establishment of a new empire which used dual administration in the ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Drompp |first=Michael R. |date=1999 |title=Breaking the Orkhon Tradition: Kirghiz Adherence to the Yenisei Region after A. D. 840 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/605932 |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=119 |issue=3 |pages=390–403 |doi=10.2307/605932 |issn=0003-0279}}</ref> In the dual administrative system used by the ], the leader who held the title of “Emperor”, used the title “Khagan” to rule the eastern half of the empire, whereas the western part of the empire was ruled by the “]”, who was subordinate to the ruler of the east. ], who held the title ],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Golden |first=Peter B. |date=2007 |title=IRANO-TURCICA: THE KHAZAR SACRAL KINGSHIP REVISITED |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23659267 |journal=Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=161–194 |issn=0001-6446}}</ref> ruled the Khaganate with his brother Bumin. Bumin Qaghan died the same year the empire was founded, and was succeeded by ]. After a year of reign, İssik was replaced by ], Bumin’s second son.


* '''713-737''': ], ] loss of ]
During his reign, Mukan conquered vast chunks of land as the empire stretched frim ] in the south to the ] in the north. The Khaganate held a huge proportion of the ], as well as strategic ] routes which were significant for trade in Eurasia. The Turks expanded their territory until the ] conquered ]. The Turks allied with the Iranian ] to conquer the ]. After their successful conquest, the Sassanids broke their alliance with the Turks, who went on to form a military alliance with the ] against the Sassanids in 568 AD.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Geopolitics on the Silk Road: Resurveying the Relationship of the Western Türks with Byzantium through Their Diplomatic Communications |url=http://www.medievalworlds.net/medieval_worlds?frames=yes |access-date=2022-07-18 |website=www.medievalworlds.net}}</ref> As a result of their consecutive conquests and expansion, the Turks met the ], a settled nation, who they would later form a positive relationship with. Sogds were noteworthy actors in the Silk Road trade, which was under Turkic hegemony. Turks protected the trading activity of Sogds in the Silk Road, and Sogds carried out ] for Turks in exchange. The First Turkic Khaganate was divided into east and west in 582 AD. The east, the core part of the Khaganate, was conquered by the ] of ] in 630 AD. Turkic tribes in ], on the other hand, had been under the ] for a while, and then set free.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Historical Backgrounds |date=2021 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/turkic/historical-backgrounds/B5A0223FE8F5078EF190F3F788E18BD7 |work=Turkic |pages=114–142 |editor-last=Johanson |editor-first=Lars |series=Cambridge Language Surveys |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-86535-7 |access-date=2022-07-17}}</ref>
* '''716''': The first written agreement of the ] with the ] and the start of taxation
* '''717-718''': Aid of the ] to ] against the ]
* '''740''': Adoption of ] as the official religion of the ]
* '''745-775''': Bulgarian-Byzantine relations tense
* '''764''': Invasion of the ] and ] by the ], defeating the ]
* '''780''': Founding of ]
* '''792''': After the ], ] began to pay taxes to the ] again.


=== Kangar Union ===
{{Main|Kangar union}}


== ] ==
The '''Kangar Union''' ('''Qanghar Odaghu''') was a pre-Göktürk Turkic state in the former territory of the ] (today belonging to ]). The capital of the Kangar union was located in the ] mountains.
] at its greatest extent.]]
] that is being considered as an Avar lamellar helmet from ], Dated 560-600 AD.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kubik |first1=Adam |title=The Kizil Caves as an terminus post quem of the Central and Western Asiatic pear-shape spangenhelm type helmets The David Collection helmet and its place in the evolution of multisegmented dome helmets, Historia i Świat nr 7/2018, 141-156. |page=151 |url=https://www.academia.edu/36969235 |language=en|journal=Histïria I Swiat|date=2008|volume=7}}</ref>]]
=== ] ===


* '''821''': ] repulse ]
=== Second Turkic Khaganate ===
* '''832''': The ] plunged into turmoil
{{Main|Second Turkic Khaganate}}
* '''840''': The collapse of the ] as a result of the attack of the ], the establishment of the ], the escape of the ] to the southwest, the ], who did not recognize the ] sovereignty, declared their independence and laid the foundation of the ].
]]]
* '''848''': The establishment of the ] of the ] who migrated to the South West
The '''Second Turkic Khaganate''' was a ] khaganate established by the Ashina clan. The khaganate was centered at the ], just like its predecessors. The '''First Turkic Khaganate''', later known as the ], preceeded the Second Khaganate.
* '''856''': The establishment of the ] by another ] branch that migrated to the southwest.


=== ] ===
In 679, Turks of the collapsed Eastern Khaganate, which was now under ], attempted to regain independence through the revolt initiated and led by ]. The revolt was put down by Tang general ]. Following Nishufu's failure, another member of the Ashina clan, Ashina Funian, galvanized Turks to revolt against the Chinese rule. The revolt was promising at first. However, it ended with failure, just like Nishufu's attempt.


Following the several failed attempts to regain independence in 679–681, ], together with ], and his brother ], managed to earn the support of the Turks, and once again revolted against the Chinese rule in 682. The Turks managed to secure significant victories against Tang imperial forces in ], between 682 and 687. Later, Ilterish Qaghan and his armies left the region and marched into the Göktürk heartlands, and defeated Toquz Oghuz and the ] there. The Second Khaganate then moved its center to the city of ] shortly after conquering it.


* '''860''': The Russians, who expanded to the south, reached ] in the ].
Ilterish Khagan died in 691, and his brother Qapghan Khagan became the next ruler of the state. Qapghan Khagan allied with the ] (Kumo Xi) and the subjugated ]. Turks defeated the Bayirku tribe in 706–707, which resulted in the expansion of the Khaganate to the ] and ]. Turks crossed the ] by subjugating regional tribes, and secured a decisive victory against ]. The Kyrgyz ruler, ], was killed during the battle, and the ] remained a Göktürk subject for decades.
* '''861''': Migration of ] around ] to the north of the ] under the pressure of ], ] and ]
* '''889''': The advance of the ] in the north of the ] to the west under the pressure of the ] and ]
* '''892''': The ] advancing to the west forced the ] from the ] to migrate beyond the ], forming an agreement with the ].


=== Uyghur Khaganate === === ] and ] ===
{{Main|Uyghur Khaganate}}{{Expand section|date=July 2022}}
The '''Uyghur Khaganate''', or Toquz-Oghuz Khaganate, was a Turkic khaganate centered at the city of ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tekedergisi.com/Makaleler/1928440944_1kar%c4%b1%20%c3%a7or%20aly%c4%b1lmaz.pdf |title=Data |publisher=www.tekedergisi.com |access-date=2020-01-19}}</ref> and later ]. The khaganate was established by ] in 744, right after the Uyghur, ], and ] revolts against the Chinese in 742.


* '''833-842''': The increasing influence of ] in the ] palace during ]'s reign
=== Oghuz Yabgu State ===
* '''836''': The relocation of the ] capital from ] to ], where the ] was located
{{Main|Oghuz Yabgu State}}'''Oghuz Yabgu''' was a Turkic state established by Oghuz Turkic tribes in 766, centered at the city of ]. The religion of Oghuz Yabgu was ]. {{Expand section|date=July 2022}}
* '''868''': ] sovereignty over ], ], ] and the north of ] but still remain within the ]


== Early Turkic migrations == == ] ==
] at its greatest extent.]]
=== Volga-Bulgars ===
{{Main|Bulgars}}


=== ] ===
The '''Volga-Bulgars''' were people of Turkic origin who lived in the northern regions of the ].


* '''923''': The establishment of the ] by the ], descended from the ], in the north of China
After the founding of the ], which they founded following their successful wars with the ], a notable part of the Bulgars had to migrate to the West and settle the region of the ]. The rest migrated North to the ] – Kama basin, and established a Bulgar state there. That Bulgar state declared its allegiance to the Khazars, and paid tribute to them. Nevertheless, they were also negotiating with other states independently of the Khazars. After the collapse of the Khazars, they refused to pay tribute to any state, and became completely independent, with the inhabitants of the Bulgar state converting to Islam in 922 AD.<ref>{{Citation |title=BULGAR |date=1986 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/treasure-of-the-land-of-darkness/bulgar/27680A78EA0216C1D98F71AACE4E9B5D |work=Treasure of the Land of Darkness: The Fur Trade and its Significance for Medieval Russia |pages=5–34 |editor-last=Martin |editor-first=Janet |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-54811-3 |access-date=2022-07-18}}</ref>
* '''924''': The destruction of the ] by the ], the end of the Turkic rule in ], the migration of the ] to their present homeland.
* '''934''': With ]'s acceptance of ], the ] adopt the religion of ]
* '''979''': The ] came under the domination of the Northern ], the Turkic presence in the north of China melted.
* '''990-999''': The ] destroyed the ], ] came under Turkic rule after 300 years.


=== Khazars === === ] ===
{{Main|Khazars}}


* '''920''': Russo-Pecheneg War
The '''Khazars''' are considered as the continuation of the ] tribes. Before the disbanding of the Göktürk Khaganate, they formed the western branch of the state. After the collapse of the Göktürks, they settled in the region between the ] and the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whittow |first=Mark |url=https://books.google.com.tr/books?id=22NNIjrpd20C&pg=PA226&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=The Making of Byzantium, 600-1025 |date=1996-08-05 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-20497-3 |language=en}}</ref>
* '''922''': Visit of ] as ] to the ], which converted to Islam
* '''940''': Russian-Byzantine alliance against ], ] lose ]
* '''943''': ] allied with the ] against the ]
* '''965''': ]'s alliance with the ] against the ]
* '''968-972''': ]' attacks on the ]
* '''969''': The capture of the ] capital by the ] king ], the withdrawal of the ] to the north of the ]
* '''985''': ]'s alliance with the ] against the ]
* '''986''': Settlements of the ] in the south of ] by breaking away from the ]


=== ] and ] ===
The Khazars, who controlled a notable area in the ] and the ], interfered in the regional political events as well. They made a series of raids on ] and allied with the Sassanids to fight the Byzantines. However, with the Sassanids getting overpowered by the Byzantines, the Khazars allied with the latter to preserve the balance of power in the region.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Khazar {{!}} Origin, History, Religion, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Khazar |access-date=2022-07-19 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Following this, the Sassanids provoked several tribes against the Khazars in the regions, triggering the Khazar – Sassanid Wars. The ] invaded the Sassanids with great force in 632, and immediately declared war on the Khazars. The Arab armies under the command of ] advanced to Belencer, the capital of the Khazars, but the Khazars stopped this advance. The ] and ] Muslim Civil Wars prevented Arab attacks on the Khazars, and even led to a series of attacks on the Arabs by the Khazars. The ] ended inconclusively.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mako |first=Gerald |title=The Possible Reasons for the Arab-Khazar Wars |url=https://www.academia.edu/638371/The_Possible_Reasons_for_the_Arab_Khazar_Wars}}</ref>


* '''905''': The end of the ] dynasty in ] by the ]
A powerful Khazar presence in the region posed a threat to both the other Turkic tribes, the Byzantines, and the Russians. The Khazars started declining following the rise of the Russians, and dissolved after a while.
* '''935''': Another ] dynasty, the ], seized power in ] and dominated ], ], ] and northern ].
* '''977''': Sabuktigin establishs ] in Khorasan(modern-day )
* '''969''': Termination of the rule of the ] by the ]


== ] ==
It is known that the Khazars are Turkic and ] people.<ref>{{Citation |title=THE EMPIRE OF THE KHAZARS AND THE PEOPLES OF THE NORTH |date=2015 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/history-of-the-eastern-roman-empire/empire-of-the-khazars-and-the-peoples-of-the-north/E7CC1A3BBD19CDDBC3C97E8FA93D4391 |work=A History of the Eastern Roman Empire: From the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (A.D. 802–867) |pages=402–426 |editor-last=Bury |editor-first=J. B. |series=Cambridge Library Collection - Medieval History |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-08321-8 |access-date=2022-07-19}}</ref>
].]]
]
] during its greatest extent under the reign of ].]]
=== ] ===


* '''1030''': Ghaznavid Empire reaches to its greatest extent under ].
== Iranian, Indian and Anatolian expansion ==
* '''1036''': The ] came under the rule of the Mongolian ].
* '''1042''': The division of the ] into East and West
* '''1050''': The destruction of the ] by the invasion of the ]
* '''1089''': ]-centered Western Karakhanid State entered the ] nationality
* '''1091''': The Eastern Karakhanid State, based in ], became subject to the ].
* '''1092''': As a result of the ] being dragged into internal turmoil, the two Karakhanid states became independent again.


=== Iranian expansion === === ] ===
{{Main|Turko-Iranian}}
].|275x275px]]


* '''1016''': The destruction of the ] by the ] and the ]
==== Great Seljuk Empire ====
* '''1037''': Settlement of ] defeated by the ] in ]
{{Main|Great Seljuk Empire}}
* '''1061-1068''': The ], who defeated the ], captured the north of the ] and ]
* '''1091''': After the ], the ], who attacked the ], which was in turmoil, were destroyed by the Byzantine-Kipchak alliance around ].
* '''1093''': ] decisive defeat of the ] at the ].{{efn|Curta states "The Cumans defeated Sviatopolk II, grand prince of Kiev in 1093 and took Torchesk."{{sfn|Curta|2019|p=176}}}}{{sfn|Guimon|2021|p=362}}


=== ] ===
The '''Seljuk Empire''' was a Turkic<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rise of the Turks |url=https://www.studentsofhistory.com/rise-of-the-turks |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=www.studentsofhistory.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Borges |first=Jason |date=2019-03-04 |title=The Seljuk Empire |url=https://www.cappadociahistory.com/post/the-seljuk-empire |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=Cappadocia History |language=en}}</ref> ] empire that dominated much of the ] and ] - in particular, modern ], ], ], ], ], and northern ] – in the 11th and 12th centuries.
* '''1038''': Establishment of the ] in ].
* '''1040''': In the ], the ] defeated the ] and spread towards ].
* '''1048''': The ], who defeated the Byzantine-Georgian alliance at the ], entered ].
* '''1055''': ] conquer ] and seize the ].
* '''1064''': ] conquer ] Castle and break the Armenian-Georgian resistance
* '''1071''': The ] ] who have defeated the ] at the ], started settlements at ].{{cn|date=July 2022}}
* '''1072''': Establishment of ] in ] as subordinate to ]
* '''1077''': Establishment of the ] whose capital is ] as subordinate to the ].
* '''1081''': The construction of the navy on the ] coast of the Çaka Principality and the establishment of the ]
* '''1085''': Establishment of the Syrian Seljuk State.
* '''1092''': As a result of the murder of ] by the ], the ] was dragged into internal turmoil
* '''1096''': The destruction of the pioneers of the ] by the ] in ]
* '''1096-1099''': As a result of the ], ] and ] were taken back by ], and ] were formed on the ]n and ] coasts.
=== ] ===


* '''1001-1027''': The expeditions of ], the ] of the ], to India, resulted in the spread of Turkish sovereignty and ] to the north of ] and ]
The state, which was named after the founder of the ], Seljuk, was ethnically Turkic, and had been brought to power by invasions of ] ] from ] who had recently converted to Islam. Seljuks later ] in terms of culture and language.
* '''1037-1059''': The struggle of the ] with the ], ] and ] being dominated by the ]
The Seljuks were the main rival in the ] and ] ]. From the second half of the 11th century, the Seljuk Empire began to fragment into constituent parts ruled by branches of the dynasty in ], ], and southeastern Iran (]). The ] in Iran, ], and ], is known as the Great Seljuk Empire to distinguish it from the smaller states to which it gave birth. However, from the early 12th century, the great Seljuk lands were themselves further divided between the Great Seljuk sultan based in Central Asia and eastern Iran, and his vassal the Seljuk sultan of Iraq.
* '''1059''': ] between ] and ]
* '''1079-1080''': ]'s defeat of the ], who gained power in ]
== ] ==
=== ] ===
* '''1100''': The ] defeated the ] in ] and definitively stopped the ]' advance to ].
* '''1101''': The defeat of the ] and the ] by the Crusaders in ] and ]
* '''1104''': The ] defeated the Crusaders in ] and blocked their advance to the ].
* '''1104''': Establishment of ] in ]
* '''1105-1128''': Seljuks struggle against the Crusaders in ], the resistance of ] and ] to the Crusader sieges
* '''1127''': Establishment of ] in ]
* '''1127-1174''': The struggle of the ]'s with the Crusaders
* '''1144''': The conquest of ] by the ]'s
* '''1144''': Establishment of Beytegin Atabeylik in ]
* '''1147-1149''': Organized after the fall of ], in the ], the ] defeated the Crusaders' German army in ] and ], the ]'s repelled the Crusaders' ]
* '''1150''': The elimination of the ], one of the four Crusader states, by the ]
* '''1154''': Elimination of the ] by the ]
* '''1173-1178''': The ] became the only power in ] by capturing all the lands of the ].
* '''1174-1183''': ]'s Ending ] sovereignty in ]
* '''1176''': The defeat of the ] by the ] in the ], the finalization of the ] sovereignty in ]
* '''1190''': The invasion of ] by the German arm of the Crusaders in the ], the disintegration of the German army after the drowning of the German Emperor ] in ]


=== ] and ] ===
The Great Seljuk Empire collapsed in the mid-12th century, and its successor, the Seljuk sultanate of Iraq, finally disappeared in 1194.<ref>{{Citation |title=The Turks |date=1988 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/geography-technology-and-war/turks/16529124E4980C6B8533A83CFF7DEB39 |work=Geography, Technology, and War: Studies in the Maritime History of the Mediterranean, 649–1571 |pages=165–192 |editor-last=Pryor |editor-first=John H. |series=Past and Present Publications |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-42892-7 |access-date=2022-07-26}}</ref>


* '''1092-1118''': Internal turmoil and emergence of semi-independent atabeyliks within the ]
==== Khwarazmian Empire ====
* '''1132''': The Mongolian ] started to move towards Turkic lands by eliminating the ].
{{Main|Khwarazmian Empire}} The '''Khwarazmian Empire''' was a ] state located in present-day Iran and some parts of Central Asia, ruled by the ], which was of Turkic origin. The Khwarazmian state was established as a vassal of the Seljuk Empire<ref>Rene Grousset, ''The Empire of the Steppes:A History of Central Asia'', Transl. Naomi Walford, Rutgers University Press, 1991, page 159.</ref> in 1077, and gained its independence in the following years. It is one of the largest empires by land in history as it held an area between 2.3 – 3.6 million square kilometres.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Turchin |first=Peter |last2=Adams |first2=Jonathan M. |last3=Hall |first3=Thomas D. |date=2006-08-26 |title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires and Modern States |url=http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/jwsr/article/view/369 |journal=Journal of World-Systems Research |language=en |pages=219–229 |doi=10.5195/jwsr.2006.369 |issn=1076-156X}}</ref>
* '''1134''': ] overthrow the Eastern Karakhanids
* '''1137''': ] overthrow the Western Karakhanids and demolish their dominance in ]
* '''1141''': The collapse of the ], which was defeated by the ] in the ]
* '''1154-1157''': Dissolution of the ] after the rebellion of the ], the independence of the ]
* '''1182-1194''': The ] conquered ] by defeating ], ] and ]
* '''1188''': The elimination of the ], one of the successors of the ], by the ]
* '''1194''': The abolition of the Iraqi Seljuk State, one of the successors of the ], by the ].


=== ] ===
], a Turkic Seljuk commander,{{sfn|Bosworth|1986}} was the namesake of the dynasty as he was the first person to rule Khwarazm in his family, thus making Khwarazm-Shahs a Turkic dynasty. As a result of its Turkic structure, the Khwarazmian army was composed of cavalrymen of ] origin, much like other Turkic states.


* '''1117''': The entry of the ] army into ] and the taxation of the ]
Khwarazms attempted multiple times in revolts under the rule of ] to gain independence, but failed each time. His successor, ], was the one to break from the Seljuk ] due to chaos and domestic instability brought by the death of Seljuk Sultan ] in 1156. He started expanding towards Central Asia after ] sought II Arslan’s help against the Karakhanids who oppressed them.
* '''1119''': Consolidation of the ]'s dominance in northern ]
* '''1135''': The Great Seljuk army re-entering ] and taxing the ] again
* '''1148-1151''': Great destruction caused by the ] after capturing ]
* '''1152''': ] liberation of ] from ]
* '''1157-1163''': With the disintegration of the ], ] and ] fell back into the hands of the ].
* '''1186''': The collapse of the ], which continued to dominate ], with ] as its capital, caused by the ].


=== ] ===
] succeeded II Arslan and continued his father’s expansionist policies. Caliph ] accepted Tekish as the sultan of Iran, Khorasan, and Turkestan in 1198.


* '''1111-1116''': ] tribes defeated by the ]
The state was weakened as the ] strengthened and started reaching Khwarazmian lands. Mongols conquered the entirety of the Khwarazm empire in less than two years as they exploited the domestic instability plaguing the empire.
* '''1123''': ] supported by ] expel ] from Tbilisi
* '''1150''': The Kipchaks regain their strength in the ].
* '''1154''': The Kipchaks, who repulsed the ], re-established their dominance around ].
* '''1157-1174''': Conflicts between ] and ]
* '''1174-1185''': Military successes of the ] against the ]


==== Timurid Empire ==== == ] ==
] in the ]]]
{{Main|Timurid Empire}}
] of Timurids, Modern day ], ]]] ] in ], Turkey|359x359px]]
'''Timurids''' were ] ] empire established by Timur, a ] Turkic warlord with ] heritage.


=== ] and the ] ===
Timur started expanding his state by conquering various remnants of the Ilkhanate. He captured Isfahan at 1387 and made his first step on the Iran. He conquered Kartids at 1389, expanding his dominion over Iran and southern Central Asia. He later destroyed ] at 1393, therefore took over the control of ], and conquered ] from ].


* '''1202''': The expansion of the ] to ] by eliminating the ]
Timur had rivalry with ], Khan of ]. He had multiple assaults operated against Tokhtamysh and finally having a decisive victory at 1395 on the ]. Timur supported ] for dethroning Tokhtamysh and Jochi became the next Khan of the Golden Horde.
* '''1207''': The opening of the ] to the ] with the conquest of ]
* '''1214''': The opening of the ] to the ] with the conquest of ]
* '''1228''': Elimination of the ] by the ]
* '''1230''': The ], who escaped from the ] and advanced to ], were stopped by the ] in the ]
* '''1239''': The ] weakened the ].
* '''1243''': The defeat of the ] by the ] in the ]
* '''1250''': The seizure of power by the Turkish-origin ] in ], putting an end to the ]
* ] laid the foundations of the principality in ]
* '''1299''': Founding of the ]


=== ] ===
Timur later turned his face on the west and invaded ] by victory of the ] at 1402 together with the support of Turkish beyliks. This extended the Anatolian Beyliks period and Karamanids managed to re-collect its losen strength against Ottomans.


* '''1212''': The elimination of the ], who ruled in ], by the ].
Timurids lost its capital ] at 1505, and its second capital ] at 1507. The empire collapsed around a century later Timur's death. However, ], descendant of Timur and therefore member of Timurid dynasty, established ] at 1526.


=== ] ===
Timurids played an important role on history not only in terms of conquering, but also science, education and art aswell. Timur cared about science and arts, so he collected many scientists from various places that he conquered and united all these at the capital, resulting with a renaissance. ] played a significant role on regional development. The renaissance of Timurids covered its consequences up to late Mughal era. it effected many empires including ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.davidmus.dk/en/collections/islamic/dynasties/timurids-and-turkmen|title=The Timurids and the Turkmen - The David Collection|website=www.davidmus.dk|language=en|access-date=2017-11-16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/timu/hd_timu.htm|title=The Art of the Timurid Period (ca. 1370–1507) {{!}} Essay {{!}} Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History {{!}} The Metropolitan Museum of Art|last=Komaroff|first=Authors: Suzan Yalman, Linda|website=The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History|access-date=2017-11-16}}</ref>


* '''1206''': Establishment of ] by Turkish-origin slave commanders
Timurid sultan, astronomer and mathematician ] was a significant figure of the Timurid Renaissance.
* '''1236''': ]'s domination of all of ], ] and ]
* '''1290''': Turkish-origin ] seized power in the ]
The ] has been completely ] since ].


==== Afsharid Empire ==== === ] ===
{{Main|Afsharid Empire}}
]
'''Afsharid Empire,''' also referred as '''Afsharid Iran''' was an Iranian empire established in 1736 by ] and his ] ]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mikaberidze |first1=Alexander |title=Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia, Vol.1 |date=2011 |publisher=ABC Clio, LLC |isbn=978-1-59884-336-1 |page=408}}"This event marked the twilight of the Safavid power but also served as a launching pad for an '''Afshar Turkoman''' commander named Nadir Shah."</ref> dynasty. The dynasty was named after the Afshar clan located in ] that Nader shah belonged. He belonged to the Qereqlu branch of the Afshars. Nader took over Iran after the short living rule of ].


* '''1320-1424''': ] in ] established and ruled most of the India.
Nader Shah, unlike his Iranian predecessors of Turkoman origin, was interested in common Turkic identity, describing it with the identity of "Turkmen". His Turkmen identity included not only ] Turkomans, ] ] and descendants of ] was under that classification aswell. Nader's concept of common Turkmen descendancy had the purpose of establishing a common political entity and was mainly directed at Ottomans and Mughals.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Foundation |first=Encyclopaedia Iranica |title=NĀDER SHAH |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/nader-shah |access-date=2022-07-23 |website=iranicaonline.org |language=en-US}}</ref>
* '''1346''': The ] entered ].
* '''1361''': ] by the ] occurred.
* '''1370''': ]'s seizure of power, establishment of ].
* '''1382''': ] leads the ]'s Army and sets ].
* '''1389''': ]: ] ]
* '''1389-1403''': Reign of ]
* '''1398''': ]'s ]


=== ] ===
Despite Nader Shah's Turkmen policy, Afsharids fought many battles against Mughals and Ottomans. Nader took advantage at most of these battles. As a Safavid commander before establishing his own state, Nader expelled Ottomans from ], ], and ] and took over the control of Caucasus. Nader also ], mainly parts of Mughal Empire, Afshars sacked and looted Delhi.
==== ] ====


* '''1402''': ] between ] and ]
After death of Nader Shah, empire lost most of his territories on Iran and later collapsed at 1796.
* '''1406''': Re-emergence of ] and ] people on the stage of history
* '''1453''': ] by ]
* '''1453-1504''': The golden age of the ].


==== Qajar Empire ==== ==== ] ====
{{Main|Qajar Empire}}The '''Qajars''' were a Persianate Turkic royal dynasty, ] to be specific, who ruled ] from 1789 to 1925. Qajars came into power by reunifying the divided Persian lands following the death of the ] of the ] in 1779. Their accession to the Persian throne was like every dynasty that ruled Persia since the 11th century, Qajars came to power with together with the support of Turkic clans while having Persians in their bureaucracy".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Keddie |first=Nikki R. |date=January 1971 |title=The Iranian Power Structure and Social Change 1800–1969: An Overview1 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/abs/iranian-power-structure-and-social-change-18001969-an-overview1/FD8FEF7FF510D206089B0B8E51F70FCD |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |language=en |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=3–20 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800000842 |issn=1471-6380}}</ref>
They took full control by deposing ] in 1794 who belonged to the ]. Qajars reconquered ] and the rest of the Caucasus as new de facto states emerged in the area during the domestic instability in Iran. However, despite the fact that this region constituted an integral part of Iran, it was lost to the ]. Qajars were able to maintain political independence to a certain extent for a while but they faced major sovereignty issues due to increasing Russian and ] influence. These two even partitioned Iran into two influence zones in the ]. Qajar Iran transformed into a constitutional monarchy after the ] but some reforms were cancelled and reversed by the Russian involvement in Iran. Qajar Iran was further weakened during World War I and Qajars were eventually replaced by the ] in 1925, four years after the ].


* '''1405''': ]'s death
=== Indian expansion ===
* '''1405-1447''': Arrival of ] in ]
] and his court.|255x255px]]
* '''1447-1449''': ]
], built by Mughal emperor ] at 1631.|281x281px]]
* '''1456''': Establishment of the ]


==== Ghaznavid Dynasty ==== ==== ] ====
{{Main|Ghaznavids}}


* '''1414-1517''': Delhi Sultanate's Turkic dynasty Iranianized
The '''Ghaznavid dynasty''' was a Persianate{{source needed|date=July 2022}} Muslim Turkic<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ghaznavid dynasty {{!}} Turkic dynasty {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ghaznavid-dynasty |access-date=2022-07-22 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Foundation |first=Encyclopaedia Iranica |title=GHAZNAVIDS |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/ghaznavids |access-date=2022-07-25 |website=iranicaonline.org |language=en-US}}</ref> dynasty of ] origin, at their greatest extent ruling large parts of ], ], much of ] and the northwest ] (part of ]) from 977 to 1186. The dynasty was founded by ] upon his succession to rule of the ] after the death of his father-in-law, ], who was a breakaway ex-general of the ] from ], north of the ] in ]. It was also first Turkic rule in India.


==== Mughal Empire ==== ==== ] ====
{{Main|Mughal Empire}}


* '''1430''': ] formed
'''Mughal Empire''' was an early-modern Persianate empire with Turkic origins that had significant amount of control over ] between the 16th and 19th centuries.
* '''1445''': Establishment of the ]
* '''1462-1505''': ] created
* '''1473''': ]: ]


== New Age ==
], the founder of the ] was a ] warrior chieftain<ref name="Richards1995">{{Citation |last=Richards |first=John F. |title=The Mughal Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC |page=6 |year=1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-56603-2}}</ref> from what today is Uzbekistan. He formed an huge army for defeat the ], ] and to sweep down the plains of Upper India. After death of Lodhi and a decisive victory at the ], Babur successfuly occupied all ] and initiated a new phase of his establishment of the long-lasting Mughal Empire in the heart of the ].
] at ]]]


=== ] ===
Although the Mughal empire was created and sustained by military warfare, it did not vigorously suppress the cultures and peoples it came to rule; rather it equalized and placated them through new administrative practices and diverse ruling elites, leading to more efficient, centralised, and standardized rule. The base of the empire's collective wealth was agricultural taxes, instituted by the third Mughal emperor, ]. These taxes, which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator, were paid in the well-regulated silver currency and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richards |first=John F. |url=https://books.google.com.tr/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&redir_esc=y |title=The Mughal Empire |date=1993 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-56603-2 |language=en}}</ref>


=== Anatolian expansion === ==== ] ====
] in ], Turkey|284x284px]]
==== Seljuk Sultanate of Rum ====
{{Main|Seljuk Sultanate of Rum}}


* '''1502''': The ]'s destruction of the ] State
'''Seljuk Sultanate of Rum''' was a Turkish state founded by ] following Turks’ entrance to Anatolia after the ] in 1071,<ref name=":1">{{Citation |last=Turan |first=Osman |title=Anatolia in the period of the Seljuks and the Beyliks |date=1977 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-islam/anatolia-in-the-period-of-the-seljuks-and-the-beyliks/059743D19A52A0E0453FDFA3C970E81F |work=The Cambridge History of Islam: Volume undefined: The Central Islamic Lands from Pre-Islamic Times to the First World War |pages=248 - 249 |editor-last=Lambton |editor-first=Ann K. S. |series=The Cambridge History of Islam |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-29135-4 |access-date=2022-07-26 |editor2-last=Lewis |editor2-first=Bernard |editor3-last=Holt |editor3-first=P. M.}}</ref> founded by ] as a vassal state to ] in 1077, six years after the Battle of Manzikert.
* '''1552''': ]'s annexation of the ]
* '''1556''': The annexation of the ] by ]
* '''1557''': ]'s annexation of the ]
* '''1571''': ] burns ]
* '''1580-1598''': Russia's elimination of the ]


==== ] ====
Suleyman Shah benefitted from the domestic instability in the ] to conquer ], which later became the capital city.<ref>Sicker, Martin, ''The Islamic world in ascendancy: from the Arab conquests to the siege of Vienna '', (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000), 63-64.</ref> The capital was moved to Konya by ] after the loss of Nicaea during the ]. Although the capital was, Kilij Arslan’s defeat did not lead to any significant damage to the state structure itself. After a period of reorganisation, the armies of the Sultanate of Rum defeated the crusaders in ] annihilating the crusader army. ] defeated crusader armies in ] and ] during the second Crusade. The conflict between the Byzantine Empire and the Sultanate of Rum continued after the Crusades. The ] (1176) was the last attempt of the Byzantines to regain the lost Anatolian lands. Such hopes of the Byzantine Empire were abandoned after the decisive victory of the Turks.


* '''1500''': ] and ] in ]
] following the internal strife for power between the religious sects and the government weakened the state structure at significant levels.<ref name=":1" /> Sultanate was then occupied by the Mongols after the ] in 1243 and later the Sultanate was divided into Beyliks as a result of the pressure of the ] starting the ].
* '''1510''': The defeat of ] by ]


==== Beyliks era ==== ==== ] ====
{{Main|Anatolian beyliks}}
The ] era, also known as the second beyliks era, is the period when the Turkish beys, dukes, broke away from the weakened Seljuk Sultanate of Rum and established their own Beyliks, duchies. One of these Beyliks is the ], which later evolved into the ] that became a regional and even a global power for a while seizing ], the ], and ].


* '''1502''': ]'s establishment of the ] in ]
Seljuk Sultanate of Rum which was established as a result of the Seljuk victory in Manzikiert appointed "Beys" (that is equavelant to the title of ]) to the border regions to protect them from hostile neighbours. These beys consisted of Turkmen tribes who migrated to these regions and fought against the Byzantines to perform their duty.
* '''1514''': The ], the settlement of the ] in ]
* '''1516''': ], ] taking ] and ] from the ]
* '''1517''': ] domination in ]
* '''1534''': ] taking ] from ]
* '''1538''': ] domination in ]
* '''1551''': ] rule reaching ] and ]
* '''1578''': ] reaching the ]
* '''1590''': ] conquest of the entire ] and ]


==== ] ====
The central authority in the Sultanate of Rum got weakened by the ] and the ] which led to the formation of these Beyliks.<ref name=":1" /> Although sharing the Turkish heritage, each Beylik had its own agenda and set of policies. For instance, Karamanids claimed the legacy and inheritance of the Sultanate of Rum whereas Ottomans meddled with the domestic conflicts and intrigues within the Byzantine Empire.


* '''1526''': Establishment of the ]
The Ottoman state spread to the west and seized many of the Beyliks as time passed but after the Ottoman defeat in Ankara in 1402, Timurids encouraged Beys leading to the re-establishment of many of the Beyliks.


==== ] ====
Karamanids were the biggest obstacle to Ottoman expansion. The Beyliks era came to an official end with the annexation of the ] in 1608.


* '''1516''': Establishment of ] administration in ]
==== Ottoman Empire ====
* ] domination in ]
{{Main|Ottoman Empire}}{{Expand section|date=July 2022}}
* '''1551''': Beginning of ] rule in ]
'''Ottoman Empire''', also referred as '''Turkish Empire<ref>{{Cite journal |last=P. |first=E. A. |date=1916 |title=Review of The Caliph's Last Heritage: A Short History of the Turkish Empire |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1779249 |journal=The Geographical Journal |volume=47 |issue=6 |pages=470–472 |doi=10.2307/1779249 |issn=0016-7398 |jstor=1779249}}</ref>''' officially '''Sublime Ottoman State''' was an empire that controlled significant parts of ], ] and ].
* '''1557''': Establishment of the ] by the ]
* '''1574''': Beginning of ] rule in ]
* '''1577''': The spread of ] rule in ]
* '''1576-1580''': ] influence in ]


=== ] ===
The empire was established by ] and his ] ] clan at the end of the 18th century, being centered at ]. ] took over the control of Bursa at 1327 and moved the Beylik's center to there.


== Modern history == ==== ] ====
]
The Ottoman Empire gradually grew weaker in the face of poor administration, repeated wars with ] and ], and the ], and it finally gave way after the ] to the present-day ].


* '''1600''': The defeat of the ].
The Turkic peoples of ] were not organized in ] during most of the 20th century, after the collapse of the Russian Empire living either in the ] or (after a short-lived ]) in the ]. In the 20th century, Turkey was the only independent Turkic country most of the time. In 1991, after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, five Turkic states gained their independence. These were ], ], ], ], and ]. Other Turkic regions such as ], ], and ] remained in the ]. ] remained part of the ].
* '''1606''': The ], which symbolized the ]'s peak
* '''1683''': ] by the ].
* '''1699''': ]. The decline of the ].


==== ] ====
After the independence of the Turkic states, Turkey began seeking diplomatic relations with them. Over time political meetings between the Turkic countries increased and led to the establishment of ] in 1993 and the Turkic Council in 2009, which later was renamed ] in 2021.


==== ] ====


* '''1605''': ] invasion of ]
==References==
* '''1615-1650''': The struggle of the ] people against the ]
{{Reflist}}
* '''1620''': Russia's annexation of ] lands
* '''1628''': ] domination by ]
* '''1628-1630''': Another ] tribe, the ], who were defeated by the Eastern Mongols, trampled on ] and settled in the ] region.
* '''1634-1642''': ]'s suppression of the ] revolts
* '''1639''': ]'s Reaching the ]
* '''1680''': ] capture ], end of ]


==== ] ====
]

* '''1628-1658''': ], ] of ].
* '''1658-1707''': ], ] of ].

=== ] ===
], a member of the Turkic ], who established ].]]

==== ] ====

* '''1742-1775''': ] in ] (Tatar uprising)
* '''1783''': Annexation of ] by the ].

==== ] ====

* '''1717-1730''': ] of the ].
* '''1736-1747''': ] of ] origin established ], owning the identity of Turkic ].
* '''1794''': ] founded in ] by a ].
==== ] ====

* '''1709''': Establishment of ]
* '''1709-1718''': The ]-] Conflict
* '''1718''': The division of the ] into three kingdoms.
* '''1721''': ]'s annexation of ]
* '''1731''': The minor part of the ] came under ] protection.
* '''1740-1747''': ] domination in the ]
* '''1755-1759''': The ], which took over the administration in ], seized ] which was in the hands of the ]
* '''1755''': ] under the rule of the ], which seized power in ]
* '''1756''': ]'s capture of the ] region
* '''1785''': ] takeover of the ]

==== ] ====

* '''1705''': The ] appointed in ], which was a part of the ]
* '''1798-1799''': ] expedition of ]. Turkish-French conflicts.

=== ] ===

==== ] ====

* '''1829''': ]'s independence
* '''1878''': ], ], ], ] gaining their independence, ] gaining autonomy
* '''1881''': Greek annexation of ]
* '''1881''': ]'s birth
* '''1885''': ]'s annexation of ]

* '''1813''': ]'s annexation of ] and ]
* '''1827''': ] domination of the ]
* '''1828''': ]' entry into ] domination
* '''1828''': ]'s annexation of ] and ]
* '''1829''': Russia's annexation of ]
* '''1839''': ] in the ]
* '''1876''': The first constitution of the ] legislated.

==== ] ====

* '''1820''': The ] of the ] came under the rule of the ]
* '''1847''': The lands of the ] completely passed into the hands of ]
* '''1851-1854''': The defeat of the ] to the ]
* '''1864''': The start of ] expeditions to ]
* '''1865''': Establishment of Kashgar Khanate in ]
* '''1866''': The ] came under ] rule
* '''1868''': The ] came under ] rule
* '''1871''': ] occupation of ]
* '''1873''': The ] came under ] rule
* '''1876''': Russia's annexation of the ]
* '''1877-1878''': ]'s elimination of the Khanate of Kashgar
* '''1881-1884''': ]'s annexation of ]

==== ] ====

* '''1805''': The ] came under the auspices of the ] who defeated the ]
* '''1857''': The ] overthrow the ], the end of nine centuries of Turkish rule/existence in ]

==== ] ====

* '''1807''': ] abolish ], ] patrol around ] to intercept slave ships
* '''1822''': ]'s entry into ] rule
* '''1830-1842''': ] invasion of ]
* '''1831-1840''': Ottoman-Egyptian struggle, ] gaining autonomy
* '''1869''': Opening of the ]
* '''1881''': Second ]
* '''1882''': ] invasion of ]
* '''1885''': ] invasion of ]
* '''1885''': End of Turkish rule in ]
* '''1888''': ] invasion of ], end of Turkish presence in ]

=== ] ===
* '''1905''': Beginning of ].
* '''1910-1920''': ] of ] and ]
* '''1911-1912''': Invasion of ] by ]
* '''1912''': Balkan wars
* '''1915-1916''': ]
* '''1917''': ]'s declaration of autonomy
* '''1918''': The ] was signed between ] and the ].
* '''1919-1922''': The ] took place.
* '''1919-1928''': ] against the ]
* '''1921-1944''': ]
* '''1922''': ] victory over ]
* '''1923''': ] proclaimed to be a ]
* '''1932-1934''': ] of ] in ]
* '''1938''': ]'s death
* '''1944''': Short-lived ] established with the help of the ] army
* '''1955''': ]: Declaring ] (]) an autonomous region
* '''1971''': ] withdrawal from ]
* '''1974''': ]
* '''1983''': The declaration of independence of the ]
* '''1988''': The beginning of the Azeri-Armenian conflict
* '''1990''': Soviet invasion of ]
* '''1991''': The collapse of the ] and the emergence of the ]
* '''1992''': Admission of the ] Turkic republics to the ]:
** ]
** ]
** ]
** ]
** ]
* '''1992''': The first Turkic Speaking Countries Summit was held in ] on 30 October 1992.
* '''1993''': The occupation of a region of ] by the ].
* '''1993''': In 1993, the Turkish Culture and Arts Joint Administration was established in ], which provides cooperation in the fields of culture and arts of Turkic Speaking Countries.
* '''1993''': The first Turkic Congress, which was a cultural, economic and political forum and was attended by all ] and communities and related communities.

=== ] ===

* '''2005:''' ] in ].
* '''2005:''' Kazakh leader ]'s proposal to establish a common market in ] in his address to the nation.
* '''2005''': ] in Uzbekistan
* '''2006:''' ] put into service.
* '''2007:''' The first meeting of ] countries to determine the status of the ].
* '''2008:''' Establishment of the ] between ], ], ] and ] on 21 November 2008.
* '''2009:''' Establishment of ].
* '''2013:''' ]
* '''2016:''' ] by ]

== Books ==
] showing the march of ] to ].]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

=== Turkish books ===

* İbrahim Kafesoğlu, ''Türk Millî Kültürü'', Ankara, 1983.
* Zeki. Velidi Togan, ''Umumi Türk Tarihine Giriş'', İstanbul, 1970.
* Faruk Sümer, ''Oğuzlar'', İstanbul, 1980.
* Bahaeddin Ögel, ''İslamiyetten Önce Türk Kültür Tarihi'', Ankara, 1962.
* Bahaeddin Ögel, ''Türk Kültür Tarihine Giriş'', İstanbul, 1978.
* Bahaeddin Ögel, ''Büyük Hun İmparatorluğu Tarihi'', Ankara, 1981.
* Çeçen Anıl, ''Tarihte Türk Devletleri'', İstanbul, 1986.
* O. Esad Arseven, ''Türk Sanat Tarihi'', İstanbul, 1955.
* Muharrem Ergin, ''Orhun Abideleri'', İstanbul, 1977.
* Erol Güngör, ''Tarihte Türkler'', İstanbul, 1989.
* Abdülkadir İnan, ''Eski Türk Dini Tarihi'', İstanbul, 1976.
* A. Nimet Kurat, ''Karadeniz Kuzeyindeki Türk Kavimleri ve Devletleri'', Ankara, 1972.
* Hüseyin Namık Orkun, ''Eski Türk Yazıtları'', İstanbul, 1986.
* Hüseyin Namık Orkun, ''Türk Tarihi'', Ankara, 1946.
* Osman Turan, ''Türk Cihan Hakimiyeti Mefrukesi Tarihi'', İstanbul, 1978.
* Bahaeddin Ögel, ''Türk Mitolojisi'', Ankara, 1971.
* Yusuf Hikmet Bayur, ''Hindistan Tarihi'', Ankara, 1946.
* İbrahim Kafesoğlu, ''Selçuklu Tarihi'', İstanbul, 1972.
* İbrahim Kafesoğlu, ''Harzemşahlar Devleti Tarihi'', Ankara, 1956.
* M. Altay Köymen, ''Büyük Selçuklu İmparatorluğu Tarihi'', Ankara, 1954.
* Çağatay Uluçay, ''İlk Müslüman Türk Devletleri'', İstanbul, 1977.
* Faruk Sümer, ''Karakoyunlular'', Ankara, 1984.
* A.N. Kurat, ''Peçenek Tarihi'', İstanbul, 1937.
* B. Yenilmez, ''Yenilmez'', Rize, 2002.

=== English and foreign books ===

* R. Grousset, ''L'Empire des steppes'', Paris, 1960 (Türkçe çevirisi: Reşat Uzmen-Bozkır İmparatorluğu, 1996.)
* DE. Guignes, ''Histoire generale des Huns des Turcs et des Mongols'', Paris, 1756.
* Jean-Paul Roux, ''Historie des Turcs'', 1984.
* Jean-Paul Roux, ''Timur'', 1994.
* Fayard Paris, ''Historie des Turcs'', 1984.
* D.Sinor, ''Aspects of Altaic Civilization'', 1963.
* M. Barthold, ''Turkestan down to the Mongol Invansıon'', Londra, 1968.
* E. Berl, ''Historie de l'Europe d'Attila a Tamerlan'', Paris, 1946.
* M.A. Czaplıcka, ''The Turks of Central Asia in History and at the Present Day'', Oxford, 1918.
* W. Eberhard, ''Kultur und Siedlung der Randvölker China'', 1942.
* L. Hambis, ''La Haute-Asie'', Paris, 1953.
* Hammer-Purgstall, Von, ''Historie de l'Empire ottoman depuis son origine jusqu!a nos jours'', Paris, 1835.
* H.H. Howorth, ''History of the Mongols'', Londra, 1876.
* Jean-Paul Roux, Türklerin Tarihi - Pasifikten Akdenize 2000 Yıl, 2004


== See also == == See also ==
* ] * ]
* ] * ]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Sources ==
* {{cite book |last=Adas |first=Michael |year=2001 |title=Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History |publisher=American Historical Association/Temple University Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Bailey |first=Harold W. |author-link=Harold Walter Bailey |year=1985 |title=Indo-Scythian Studies: being Khotanese Texts'', VII |url=https://archive.org/details/EtymologyOfXiongnuNamesByTheLateH.w.Bailey |publisher=Cambridge University Press |jstor=312539 |access-date=30 May 2015 }}
* {{cite book |last=Beckwith |first=Christopher I. |author-link=Christopher I. Beckwith |date=16 March 2009 |title=Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5jG1eHe3y4EC |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-691-13589-2 |access-date=30 May 2015 }}
* {{cite book |last=Christian |first=David |title=A history of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia |volume=1: Inner Eurasia from prehistory to the Mongol Empire |publisher=Blackwell |year=1998}}
* {{cite book |title=Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages (500-1300) |volume=1 |chapter=Oghuz, Pechenegs, and Cumans: Nomads of Medieval Eastern Europe? |pages=152-178 |first=Florin |last=Curta |publisher=Brill |year=2019 }}
* {{cite book |last=Di Cosmo |first=Nicola |year=2004 |title=Ancient China and its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History |publisher=Cambridge University Press}} (First paperback edition)
* {{cite journal|last=Geng|first=Shimin |journal=Yu Yan Yu Fan Yi|script-title=zh:阿尔泰共同语、匈奴语探讨|trans-title=On Altaic Common Language and Xiongnu Language|script-journal=zh:语言与翻译（汉文版）|trans-journal=Language and Translation|year=2005|issue=2|issn=1001-0823|oclc=123501525|url=http://scholar.ilib.cn/A-QCode~yyyfy200502001.html|archive-date=25 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225170056/http://scholar.ilib.cn/A-QCode~yyyfy200502001.html}}
* {{cite book |title=Historical Writing of Early Rus (c. 1000–c. 1400) in a Comparative Perspective |first=Timofey V. |last=Guimon |publisher=Brill |year=2021 }}
* {{cite book |last=Harmatta |first=János |author-link=János Harmatta |chapter=Conclusion |editor1-last=Harmatta |editor1-first=János |editor1-link=János Harmatta |date=1 January 1994 |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations, 700 B. C. to A. D. 250 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9U6RlVVjpakC |publisher=] |pages=485–492 |isbn=978-9231028465 |access-date=29 May 2015 }}
* {{cite book |last=Hucker |first=Charles O. |year=1975 |title=China's Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=0-8047-2353-2|quote="The proto-Turkic Hsiung-nu were now challenged by other alien groups — proto-Tibetans, proto-Mongol tribes called the Hsien-pi, and separate proto-Turks called To-pa (Toba)."}}
* {{cite book |last=Jankowski |first=Henryk |author-link=:pl:Henryk Jankowski (turkolog) |date=2006 |title=Historical-Etymological Dictionary of Pre-Russian Habitation Names of the Crimea|series=Handbuch der Orientalistik , 8: Central Asia; 15. |publisher=] |isbn=978-90-04-15433-9 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Lee |first=Joo-Yup |date=2016 |title=The Historical Meaning of the Term Turk and the Nature of the Turkic Identity of the Chinggisid and Timurid Elites in Post-Mongol Central Asia |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13173/centasiaj.59.1-2.0101 |journal=Central Asiatic Journal |volume=59 |issue=1-2 |pages=101–132 |doi=10.13173/centasiaj.59.1-2.0101 |issn=0008-9192}}

]

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History of the Turkic peoples
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Turkic history is the history of Turkic peoples. The Göktürks were the first state established under the name of Turk.

Origins

Turks were an important political identity of Eurasia. They first appeared at Inner Eurasian steppes and migrated to many various regions (such as Central Asia, West Asia, Siberia, and Eastern Europe.) and participated in many local civilizations there. It is not yet known when, where, and how the Turks formed as a population identity. However, its predicted that Proto-Turkic populations have inhabited regions that they could have the lifestyle of Eurasian equestrian pastoral nomadic culture.

Türk was first used as a political identity in history during the Göktürk Khaganate period. The old Turkic script was invented by Göktürks as well. The ruling Ashina clan origins are disputed.

Shoroon Bumbagar tomb mural, Göktürk, 7th century CE, Mongolia.

Although there are debates about its inception, the history of the Turks is an important part of world history. The history of all people that emerged in Eurasia and North Africa has been affected by the movements of the Turks to some degree. Turks also played an important role in bringing Eastern cultures to the West and Western cultures to the East. Their own religion became the pioneer and defender of the foreign religions they adopted after Tengrism, and they helped their spread and development (Mani religion, Judaism, Buddhism, Orthodox, Nestorian Christianity and Islam).

The beginning of Turkic history

3rd century BC

Map of Asia, 200 BC

2nd century BC

Map of Asia, 100 BC

1st century BC

Map of the Afro-Eurasia, 50 BC

1st century

2nd century

3rd century

4th century

5th century

Middle Ages/Turks

6th century

Map of the Asia, 565 AD


Map of the Asia, 600 AD

7th century

Central Asia

Eastern Europe

8th century

Central Asia

Replica of Bilge Khagan's memorial complex in Turkey.


Eastern Europe


9th century

Map of the Khazar Khanate at its greatest extent.
Colour photograph of a reconstruction of the Lamellenhelm from Niederstotzingen
Reconstruction of a lamellar helmet that is being considered as an Avar lamellar helmet from Niederstotzingen, Dated 560-600 AD.

Central Asia

Eastern Europe

Asia and Africa

10th century

Central Asia

Eastern Europe

Asia and Africa

11th century

Ghaznavid Empire at its greatest extent in 1030 CE under Mahmud.
Mahmud of Ghazni and his court.
Map of the Great Seljuk Empire during its greatest extent under the reign of Malik Shah I.

Central Asia

Eastern Europe

Asia

South Asia

12th century

Asia

Iran and Central Asia

South Asia

Eastern Europe

13th century

Spread of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century
Statue of Kayqubad I in Alanya, Turkey

Asia and the Middle East

Central Asia

South Asia

The Chagatai Khanate has been completely Turkified since 1350.

14th century

15th century

Asia

Central Asia

South Asia

  • 1414-1517: Delhi Sultanate's Turkic dynasty Iranianized

Eastern Europe

New Age

Map of Ottomans at 16th century

16th century

Eastern Europe

Central Asia

Asia

South Asia

Africa

17th century

Eastern Europe

Asia

Central Asia

South Asia

18th century

A contemporary court portrait of Nader Shah, a member of the Turkic Afshar tribe, who established Afsharid Iran.

Eastern Europe

Asia

Central Asia

Africa

19th century

Eastern Europe

Central Asia

South Asia

Africa

20th century

21st century

Books

A miniature showing the march of Suleiman the Magnificent to Nakhchivan.

Notes

  1. Shiwei were stated in most Chinese sources (e.g. Weishu 100, Suishu 84, Jiu Tangshu 199) to be relatives to para-Mongolic-speaking Khitans; the sub-tribe Mengwu Shiwei 蒙兀室韋 were identitied as ancestors and namesakes of the Mongols
  2. Curta states "The Cumans defeated Sviatopolk II, grand prince of Kiev in 1093 and took Torchesk."

Turkish books

  • İbrahim Kafesoğlu, Türk Millî Kültürü, Ankara, 1983.
  • Zeki. Velidi Togan, Umumi Türk Tarihine Giriş, İstanbul, 1970.
  • Faruk Sümer, Oğuzlar, İstanbul, 1980.
  • Bahaeddin Ögel, İslamiyetten Önce Türk Kültür Tarihi, Ankara, 1962.
  • Bahaeddin Ögel, Türk Kültür Tarihine Giriş, İstanbul, 1978.
  • Bahaeddin Ögel, Büyük Hun İmparatorluğu Tarihi, Ankara, 1981.
  • Çeçen Anıl, Tarihte Türk Devletleri, İstanbul, 1986.
  • O. Esad Arseven, Türk Sanat Tarihi, İstanbul, 1955.
  • Muharrem Ergin, Orhun Abideleri, İstanbul, 1977.
  • Erol Güngör, Tarihte Türkler, İstanbul, 1989.
  • Abdülkadir İnan, Eski Türk Dini Tarihi, İstanbul, 1976.
  • A. Nimet Kurat, Karadeniz Kuzeyindeki Türk Kavimleri ve Devletleri, Ankara, 1972.
  • Hüseyin Namık Orkun, Eski Türk Yazıtları, İstanbul, 1986.
  • Hüseyin Namık Orkun, Türk Tarihi, Ankara, 1946.
  • Osman Turan, Türk Cihan Hakimiyeti Mefrukesi Tarihi, İstanbul, 1978.
  • Bahaeddin Ögel, Türk Mitolojisi, Ankara, 1971.
  • Yusuf Hikmet Bayur, Hindistan Tarihi, Ankara, 1946.
  • İbrahim Kafesoğlu, Selçuklu Tarihi, İstanbul, 1972.
  • İbrahim Kafesoğlu, Harzemşahlar Devleti Tarihi, Ankara, 1956.
  • M. Altay Köymen, Büyük Selçuklu İmparatorluğu Tarihi, Ankara, 1954.
  • Çağatay Uluçay, İlk Müslüman Türk Devletleri, İstanbul, 1977.
  • Faruk Sümer, Karakoyunlular, Ankara, 1984.
  • A.N. Kurat, Peçenek Tarihi, İstanbul, 1937.
  • B. Yenilmez, Yenilmez, Rize, 2002.

English and foreign books

  • R. Grousset, L'Empire des steppes, Paris, 1960 (Türkçe çevirisi: Reşat Uzmen-Bozkır İmparatorluğu, 1996.)
  • DE. Guignes, Histoire generale des Huns des Turcs et des Mongols, Paris, 1756.
  • Jean-Paul Roux, Historie des Turcs, 1984.
  • Jean-Paul Roux, Timur, 1994.
  • Fayard Paris, Historie des Turcs, 1984.
  • D.Sinor, Aspects of Altaic Civilization, 1963.
  • M. Barthold, Turkestan down to the Mongol Invansıon, Londra, 1968.
  • E. Berl, Historie de l'Europe d'Attila a Tamerlan, Paris, 1946.
  • M.A. Czaplıcka, The Turks of Central Asia in History and at the Present Day, Oxford, 1918.
  • W. Eberhard, Kultur und Siedlung der Randvölker China, 1942.
  • L. Hambis, La Haute-Asie, Paris, 1953.
  • Hammer-Purgstall, Von, Historie de l'Empire ottoman depuis son origine jusqu!a nos jours, Paris, 1835.
  • H.H. Howorth, History of the Mongols, Londra, 1876.
  • Jean-Paul Roux, Türklerin Tarihi - Pasifikten Akdenize 2000 Yıl, 2004

See also

References

  1. Johanson, Lars, ed. (2021), "Historical Backgrounds", Turkic, Cambridge Language Surveys, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 114–142, ISBN 978-0-521-86535-7, retrieved 2022-07-16
  2. West, Barbara A. (19 May 2010). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing. p. 829. ISBN 978-1-4381-1913-7. The first people to use the ethnonym Turk to refer to themselves were the Turuk people of the Gokturk Khanate in the mid sixth-century
  3. Sigfried J. de Laet, Joachim Herrmann, (1996), History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D., p. 478
  4. Christian 1998, p. 249.
  5. Sima Qian Records of the Grand Historian Vol. 110 "後北服渾庾、屈射、丁零、鬲昆、薪犁之國。…… 是時漢初定中國，……。" translation: "Later in the North subdued the Hunyu, Qushe, Dingling, Gekun, and Xinli. It was when the Han had just stabilized the Central Region, . "
  6. Pulleyblank, E. G. "The Name of the Kirghiz." Central Asiatic Journal 34, no. 1/2 (1990). p. 99
  7. Pulleyblank, "Central Asia and Non-Chinese Peoples of Ancient China", p. VII 21-26.
  8. Duan, "Dingling, Gaoju and Tiele", p. 370.
  9. Hyun Jin Kim: The Huns, Rome and the Birth of Europe. Cambridge University Press, 2013. pp.175-176.
  10. Peter B. Golden: Some Thoughts on the Origins of the Turks and the Shaping of the Turkic Peoples in Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World. Ed. Victor H. Mair. University of Hawaii Press, 2006. p.140
  11. Xu (2005) p. 175-176, 184
  12. Xin Tangshu vol. 219 "Shiwei" txt: "室韋, 契丹别種, 東胡之北邊, 蓋丁零苗裔也" translation by Xu (2005:176) "The Shiwei, who were a collateral branch of the Khitan inhabited the northern boundary of the Donghu, were probably the descendants of the Dingling ... Their language was the same as that of the Mohe."
  13. Xu Elina-Qian, Historical Development of the Pre-Dynastic Khitan, University of Helsinki, 2005. p. 176. quote: "The Mohe were descendants of the Sushen and ancestors of the Jurchen, and identified as Tungus speakers."
  14. Werner, Heinrich Zur jenissejisch-indianischen Urverwandtschaft. Harrassowitz Verlag. 2004 abstract. p. 25
  15. "Geçmişten Günümüze Türk Tarihi". Story And History (in Turkish). 18 December 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
  16. Kubik, Adam (2008). "The Kizil Caves as an terminus post quem of the Central and Western Asiatic pear-shape spangenhelm type helmets The David Collection helmet and its place in the evolution of multisegmented dome helmets, Historia i Świat nr 7/2018, 141-156". Histïria I Swiat. 7: 151.
  17. Curta 2019, p. 176.
  18. Guimon 2021, p. 362.

Sources

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