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{{Infobox_river | river_name = Rhine River {{Infobox_river | river_name = Rhein River
| image_name = Rhein-Karte.png | image_name = Rhein-Karte.png
| caption = The Rhine is one of the most important rivers in ] | caption = The Rhein is one of the most important rivers in ]
| origin = ], ] | origin = ], ]
| mouth = ], ], ] | mouth = ], ], ]
| basin_countries = ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] | basin_countries = ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ]
| length = 1,320 km (820 mi) | length = 1,320 km (820 mi)
| elevation = Vorderrhein: approx. 2,600 m (8,500 ft) <br /> Hinterrhein: approx. 2,500 m (8,200 ft) | elevation = Vorderrhein: approx. 2,600 m (8,500 ft) <br /> Hinterrhein: approx. 2,500 m (8,200 ft)
Line 10: Line 10:
| watershed = 185,000 km² (71,430 mi²) | watershed = 185,000 km² (71,430 mi²)
}} }}
The '''Rhine River''' ({{lang-nl|Rijn}}; {{lang-fr|Rhin}}; {{lang-de|Rhein}}; {{lang-it|Reno}}; {{lang-rm|Rein}}) is one of the longest and most important ]s in ] at ] (820 miles), with an average discharge of more than 2,000 cubic meters per second. The name of the Rhine comes from the archaic ] ''Rhine'', which in turn comes from ]: ''Rin'', ultimately from ] ''Renos'' (cf. ] ''Rhenus''), literally "that which flows", from the ] root *''rei-'' ("to flow, run"), which is also the origin of the English verb "to run". The '''Rhein River''' ({{lang-nl|Rijn}}; {{lang-fr|Rhin}}; {{lang-de|Rhein}}; {{lang-it|Reno}}; {{lang-rm|Rein}}) is one of the longest and most important ]s in ] at ] (820 miles), with an average discharge of more than 2,000 cubic meters per second. The name of the Rhine comes from the from the archaic ] ''Rhine'', which in turn comes from ]: ''Rin'', ultimately from the ] ''Rhein''<ref>http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=rhein&searchmode=none</ref>, literally "that which flows" (compare to ] ''rhoe'':"flow", ''rhoos'': "a stream, a flowing"), from the ] root *''reie-'' ("to flow, run"). It is interesting to note that ''Rhein'' also is derived from the same root word as '']'', both meaning "to flow aqueously".


The Rhine and the ] formed most of the northern frontier of the ], and since those days the Rhine has been a vital navigable waterway, carrying trade and goods deep inland. It has also served as a defensive feature, and been the basis for regional and international borders. The many castles and prehistoric fortifications along the Rhine testify to its importance as a waterway. River traffic could be stopped at these locations, usually for the purpose of collecting tolls, by the state controlling that portion of the river. The Rhein and the ] formed most of the northern frontier of the ], and since those days the Rhein has been a vital navigable waterway, carrying trade and goods deep inland. It has also served as a defensive feature, and been the basis for regional and international borders. The many castles and prehistoric fortifications along the Rhein testify to its importance as a waterway. River traffic could be stopped at these locations, usually for the purpose of collecting tolls, by the state controlling that portion of the river.


== Geography == == Geography ==
] in ]]] ] in ]]]
] ]


] near ] was built in 1231]] ] near ] was built in 1231]]
] near Cologne]] ] near Cologne]]
===Switzerland=== ===Switzerland===
The Rhine's ] are in the Swiss ] in the canton of ], where its two main initial ] are called '']'' and '']''. The Vorderrhein (anterior Rhine) springs from Lake Tuma near the ] and passes the impressive ] (the Swiss Grand Canyon). The Hinterrhein (posterior Rhine) starts from the Paradies glacier near the Rheinquellhorn at the southern border of Switzerland. One of the latter tributaries originates in Val di Lei in Italy. The Rhein's ] are in the Swiss ] in the canton of ], where its two main initial ] are called '']'' and '']''. The Vorderrhein (anterior Rhein) springs from Lake Tuma near the ] and passes the impressive ] (the Swiss Grand Canyon). The Hinterrhein (posterior Rhein) starts from the Paradies glacier near the Rheinquellhorn at the southern border of Switzerland. One of the latter tributaries originates in Val di Lei in Italy.
Both tributaries meet near ], still in Graubünden. From Reichenau, the Rhine flows north as the '']'' passing ] and forming the frontier with ] and then ], and then emptying into ]. Emerging from Lake Constance, flowing west as the '']'' it passes the ] and is joined by the ] river which more than doubles its water discharge to an average of nearly 1,000 cubic meters per second. It forms the boundary with Germany until it turns north at the so-called ] at ]. Both tributaries meet near ], still in Graubünden. From Reichenau, the Rhein flows north as the '']'' passing ] and forming the frontier with ] and then ], and then emptying into ]. Emerging from Lake Constance, flowing west as the '']'' it passes the ] and is joined by the ] river which more than doubles its water discharge to an average of nearly 1,000 cubic meters per second. It forms the boundary with Germany until it turns north at the so-called ] at ].


===Germany and France=== ===Germany and France===
Past Basel, as the ], it forms the southern part of the border between ] and ] in a wide valley, before entering ] exclusively at Rheinstetten, near Karlsruhe. Past Basel, as the ], it forms the southern part of the border between ] and ] in a wide valley, before entering ] exclusively at Rheinstetten, near Karlsruhe.


At over 1000 kilometres in length, the Rhine is the longest river primarily within ]. It is here that the Rhine encounters some of its main tributaries, such as the ], the ] and later the ], which contributes an average discharge of over 300 cubic meters per second. At over 1000 kilometres in length, the Rhein is the longest river primarily within ]. It is here that the Rhein encounters some of its main tributaries, such as the ], the ] and later the ], which contributes an average discharge of over 300 cubic meters per second.


Between ] and ], the ] flows through the ], a formation created by erosion, which happened at about the same rate as an ] in the region, leaving the river at about its original level, and the surrounding lands raised. This gorge is quite deep, and is the stretch of the river known for its many ]s and ]s. It is a ] and known as "the romantic Rhine" with more than 40 castles and fortresses from the ] (see links) and many lovely wine villages. Between ] and ], the ] flows through the ], a formation created by erosion, which happened at about the same rate as an ] in the region, leaving the river at about its original level, and the surrounding lands raised. This gorge is quite deep, and is the stretch of the river known for its many ]s and ]s. It is a ] and known as "the romantic Rhein" with more than 40 castles and fortresses from the ] (see links) and many lovely wine villages.


Though many industries can be found along the Rhine up into ], it is along the ] in the ] that the bulk of them are concentrated, as the river passes the major cities of ], ], and ]. The ], which joins the Rhine at Duisburg, is surprisingly clean, given the amount of industry on its banks, and is used for drinking water. It adds another 70 cubic meters per second to the Rhine. However, other rivers from the ], above all the ], still bring a considerable degree of ]. Approaching the Dutch border, the Rhine now has an average discharge of 2,290 cubic metres per second and an average width of more than 300 metres. Though many industries can be found along the Rhein up into ], it is along the ] in the ] that the bulk of them are concentrated, as the river passes the major cities of ], ], and ]. The ], which joins the Rhein at Duisburg, is surprisingly clean, given the amount of industry on its banks, and is used for drinking water. It adds another 70 cubic meters per second to the Rhein. However, other rivers from the ], above all the ], still bring a considerable degree of ]. Approaching the Dutch border, the Rhein now has an average discharge of 2,290 cubic metres per second and an average width of more than 300 metres.
.


===The Netherlands=== ===Netherlands===
The Rhine then turns west and enters the ], where together with the rivers ] and ] it forms an extensive ]. Crossing the border into the Netherlands at ], close to ] and ] the Rhine is at its widest, but the river then splits into three main ]: the ], ] ("Lower Rhine") and ] branches. The Rhein then turns west and enters the ], where together with the rivers ] and ] it forms an extensive ]. Crossing the border into the Netherlands at ], close to ] and ] the Rhein is at its widest, but the river then splits into three main ]: the ], ] ("Lower Rhein") and ] branches.


From here the situation becomes more complicated, as the name "Rhine" no longer coincides with the main flow of water. Most of the Rhine water (two thirds) flows farther west through the Waal and then via the ] and ] and, merging with the Meuse, through the ] and ] ] into the ]. The ] branches off near ] and continues as the ], to join the ] near the village of ] to form the ], then flows past ] and continues via ] and the ] to the North Sea. The ] branches off near ], farther down rejoining the ] to form ]. From here the situation becomes more complicated, as the name "Rhein" no longer coincides with the main flow of water. Most of the Rhein water (two thirds) flows farther west through the Waal and then via the ] and ] and, merging with the Meuse, through the ] and ] ] into the ]. The ] branches off near ] and continues as the ], to join the ] near the village of ] to form the ], then flows past ] and continues via ] and the ] to the North Sea. The ] branches off near ], farther down rejoining the ] to form ].


The other third portion of the water flows through the ] and redistributes in the IJssel and Nederrijn. The IJssel branch carries one ninth of the water volume north into the ] (a former bay), while the Nederrijn flows west parallel to the Waal and carries approximately two ninths of the flow. However, at ] the Nederrijn changes its name and becomes the ]. It flows farther west to rejoin the ] into the ] and to the North Sea. The other third portion of the water flows through the ] and redistributes in the IJssel and Nederrijn. The IJssel branch carries one ninth of the water volume north into the ] (a former bay), while the Nederrijn flows west parallel to the Waal and carries approximately two ninths of the flow. However, at ] the Nederrijn changes its name and becomes the ]. It flows farther west to rejoin the ] into the ] and to the North Sea.


The name "Rhine" from here on is used only for smaller streams farther to the north which together once formed the main river Rhine in ] times. Though they retained the name, these streams do not carry water from the Rhine anymore, but are used for draining the surrounding land and ]s. From Wijk bij Duurstede, the old north branch of the Rhine is called ] ("Crooked Rhine") and past ], first ] ("Rhine of ]") and then ] ("Old Rhine"). The latter flows west into a ] at ], where its waters can be discharged into the ]. This branch once formed the line along which the ] were built. The name "Rhein" from here on is used only for smaller streams farther to the north which together once formed the main river Rhein in ] times. Though they retained the name, these streams do not carry water from the Rhein anymore, but are used for draining the surrounding land and ]s. From Wijk bij Duurstede, the old north branch of the Rhein is called ] ("Crooked Rhein") and past ], first ] ("Rhein of ]") and then ] ("Old Rhein"). The latter flows west into a ] at ], where its waters can be discharged into the ]. This branch once formed the line along which the ] were built.


== Large cities == == Large cities ==
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*Netherlands (in the delta the river splits and its name changes often) *Netherlands (in the delta the river splits and its name changes often)
**between ] and ] across ] (Rhine delta main branch) **between ] and ] across ] (Rhein delta main branch)
**between ] and ] across ], made famous in a poem by ] **between ] and ] across ], made famous in a poem by ]
**in ] across Nieuwe Maas (joint Rhine-] river mouth), former bridge 'De Hef' - now replaced by a tunnel. Farther to the south, main bridge is at Moerdijk. **in ] across Nieuwe Maas (joint Rhein-] river mouth), former bridge 'De Hef' - now replaced by a tunnel. Farther to the south, main bridge is at Moerdijk.
**between ] and ] across ] (Rhine delta second-largest branch) **between ] and ] across ] (Rhein delta second-largest branch)
**between ] and ] across ] (Rhine delta second-largest branch farther downstream) **between ] and ] across ] (Rhein delta second-largest branch farther downstream)
**at ] across ] (Rhine third-largest branch) **at ] across ] (Rhein third-largest branch)
**at ] across ] **at ] across ]
**at ] across ] **at ] across ]
Line 113: Line 112:
**] **]
**] **]
**] **]
**] **]
**] **]
**] **]
**] **]
**] **]
**] (joins part of the Rhine in the shared delta) **] (joins part of the Rhein in the shared delta)


*Right *Right
Line 128: Line 127:
**] **]
**] **]
**] **]
**] **]
**] **]
**] **]
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==Geologic History== ==Geologic History==
===Alpine Orogeny=== ===Alpine Orogeny===
Since the Rhine flows from the ], a precondition of its existence is the uplifting of the Alps, which began in the ]. The stage was set in the ] Period of the ] Era, with the opening of the ] between the Eurasian and African ], between about 240 ] and 220 MBP. The ] descends from this somewhat larger Tethys sea. Since the Rhein flows from the ], a precondition of its existence is the uplifting of the Alps, which began in the ]. The stage was set in the ] Period of the ] Era, with the opening of the ] between the Eurasian and African ], between about 240 ] and 220 MBP. The ] descends from this somewhat larger Tethys sea.


At about 180 MBP, in the ] Period, the two plates reversed direction and began to compress the Tethys floor, causing it to be subducted under Eurasia and pushing up the edge of the latter plate in the Alpine Orogeny of the ] and ] Periods. Several microplates were caught in the squeeze and rotated or were pushed laterally, generating the individual features of Mediterranean geography: Iberia pushed up the ]; ] the Alps, and ], moving west, the mountains of ] and the islands. The compression and orogeny continue today, as shown by the ongoing raising of the mountains a small amount each year and the active volcanoes. At about 180 MBP, in the ] Period, the two plates reversed direction and began to compress the Tethys floor, causing it to be subducted under Eurasia and pushing up the edge of the latter plate in the Alpine Orogeny of the ] and ] Periods. Several microplates were caught in the squeeze and rotated or were pushed laterally, generating the individual features of Mediterranean geography: Iberia pushed up the ]; ] the Alps, and ], moving west, the mountains of ] and the islands. The compression and orogeny continue today, as shown by the ongoing raising of the mountains a small amount each year and the active volcanoes.


Just to the north of the Alpine Orogeny were highlands resulting from an earlier orogeny (]) along similar lines. These highlands helped to divert the Rhine to the west; however, the Rhine's course is set by the Rhine graben, a rift that opened in the ] and ] periods between the western ] and the central Alps, caused by their moving in slightly different directions. The rift does not seem to be active now. Just to the north of the Alpine Orogeny were highlands resulting from an earlier orogeny (]) along similar lines. These highlands helped to divert the Rhein to the west; however, the Rhein's course is set by the Rhein graben, a rift that opened in the ] and ] periods between the western ] and the central Alps, caused by their moving in slightly different directions. The rift does not seem to be active now.


===Stream Capture=== ===Stream Capture===
The watershed of the Rhine reaches into the ] today, but it did not start out that way (Berendsen & Stouthamer, 2001; Fig. 2.2 ). In the ] period, the watershed of the Rhine reached south only to the ] and ] hills, about 450 km north of the Alps. The Rhine then had the ] as a tributary, but not yet the ]. The northern Alps were drained by the ] then. The watershed of the Rhein reaches into the ] today, but it did not start out that way (Berendsen & Stouthamer, 2001; Fig. 2.2 ). In the ] period, the watershed of the Rhein reached south only to the ] and ] hills, about 450 km north of the Alps. The Rhein then had the ] as a tributary, but not yet the ]. The northern Alps were drained by the ] then.


Through ], the Rhine extended its watershed southward. By the ] period, the Rhine had captured streams down to the ] mountains, including the Mosel, the ], and the ]. The northern Alps were drained by the ] then. Through ], the Rhein extended its watershed southward. By the ] period, the Rhein had captured streams down to the ] mountains, including the Mosel, the ], and the ]. The northern Alps were drained by the ] then. By the early ] period, the Rhein had captured most of its current Alpine watershed from the Rhône, including the ]. Since that time, the Rhein has added the watershed above ] (], ], ]; captured from the Rhône), the upper reaches of the Main (beyond ]), and the Vosges mountains (captured from the ]) to its watershed.

By the early ] period, the Rhine had captured most of its current Alpine watershed from the Rhône, including the ]. Since that time, the Rhine has added the watershed above ] (], ], ]; captured from the Rhône), the upper reaches of the Main (beyond ]), and the Vosges mountains (captured from the ]) to its watershed.


===Ice Age=== ===Ice Age===
The ] (~2.5 million years ago - 10,000 years ago) was the geological period of the Ice Ages. Since approximately 600,000 years ago six major Ice Ages have occurred, in which sea level dropped 120 m, and much of the continental margins became exposed. In the Early Pleistocene, the Rhine followed a course to the northwest, through the present North Sea. During the so-called Elsterien glaciation (~420,000 yr BP, marine oxygen isotope stage 12) the northern part of the present North Sea was blocked by the ice, and a large lake developed that overflowed through the English Channel. This caused the Rhine's course to be diverted through the English Channel. Since then, during glacial times, the river mouth was located near Brest (France), and rivers like the ] and the ] became tributaries to the Rhine. During interglacials, when sea level rose to approximately the present level, the Rhine built a delta in what is now called The Netherlands. The ] (~2.5 million years ago - 10,000 years ago) was the geological period of the Ice Ages. Since approximately 600,000 years ago six major Ice Ages have occurred, in which sea level dropped 120 m, and much of the continental margins became exposed. In the Early Pleistocene, the Rhein followed a course to the northwest, through the present North Sea. During the so-called Elsterien glaciation (~420,000 yr BP, marine oxygen isotope stage 12) the northern part of the present North Sea was blocked by the ice, and a large lake developed that overflowed through the English Channel. This caused the Rhein's course to be diverted through the English Channel. Since then, during glacial times, the river mouth was located near Brest (France), and rivers like the ] and the ] became tributaries to the Rhein. During interglacials, when sea level rose to approximately the present level, the Rhein built a delta in what is now called The Netherlands.


During the last ] (~70,000-10,000 yr BP= Before Present), at the end of the ], the lower Rhine flowed roughly west through the Netherlands and then to the southwest, through the English Channel, and finally to the Atlantic Ocean. The English and Irish Channels, the ] and the ] were still dry land, mainly because sea level was approximately 120 m lower than today. At about 5000 BC, flooding and erosion began to open the English Channel. During the last ] (~70,000-10,000 yr BP= Before Present), at the end of the ], the lower Rhein flowed roughly west through the Netherlands and then to the southwest, through the English Channel, and finally to the Atlantic Ocean. The English and Irish Channels, the ] and the ] were still dry land, mainly because sea level was approximately 120 m lower than today. At about 5000 BC, flooding and erosion began to open the English Channel.
Most of the Rhine's current course was not under the ice during the last Ice Age, although its source must then have been a glacier. A ] with Ice Age flora and fauna stretched across middle Europe from Asia to the Atlantic Ocean. Such was the case during the ], ca. 22,000-14,000 yr BP, when ice covered Scandinavia and the Baltic, Britain and the Alps, but left the space between as open tundra. The ], or wind-blown dust over that tundra settled in and around the Rhine Valley, contributing to its current agricultural usefulness. Most of the Rhein's current course was not under the ice during the last Ice Age, although its source must then have been a glacier. A ] with Ice Age flora and fauna stretched across middle Europe from Asia to the Atlantic Ocean. Such was the case during the ], ca. 22,000-14,000 yr BP, when ice covered Scandinavia and the Baltic, Britain and the Alps, but left the space between as open tundra. The ], or wind-blown dust over that tundra settled in and around the Rhein Valley, contributing to its current agricultural usefulness.


These events were well within the residence of man. Meltwater adding to the ocean and land ] drowned the former coasts of Europe. The water is still rising, at the rate of about 1-3 mm per year. Further drowning is to come. These events were well within the residence of man. Meltwater adding to the ocean and land ] drowned the former coasts of Europe. The water is still rising, at the rate of about 1-3 mm per year. Further drowning is to come.


Rapid warming and change of vegetation to open forest began about 13,000 BP. By 9000 BP, Europe was fully forested. About 7000-5000 BP a general warming encouraged migration up the ] and down the Rhine by peoples to the east, who may also have been encouraged by the sudden massive expansion of the ] as the Mediterranean burst into it through the ] about 7500 BP. At least one unsuccessful search for remains of villages on the floor of the Black Sea has been conducted. Rapid warming and change of vegetation to open forest began about 13,000 BP. By 9000 BP, Europe was fully forested. About 7000-5000 BP a general warming encouraged migration up the ] and down the Rhein by peoples to the east, who may also have been encouraged by the sudden massive expansion of the ] as the Mediterranean burst into it through the ] about 7500 BP. At least one unsuccessful search for remains of villages on the floor of the Black Sea has been conducted.


==Prehistory== ==Prehistory==
===Palaeolithic=== ===Palaeolithic===
During the ], ca 100,000-30,000 BP (the dates vary a great deal) western Europe, including the Rhine and Danube Valleys, was occupied by ], to which belonged the ] culture of stone tools. Mousterian sites are not considered intrusive. It is believed that the Neanderthals may have evolved from the preceding ] in the vicinity of the glaciers, but the question has by no means been settled definitively. During the ], ca 100,000-30,000 BP (the dates vary a great deal) western Europe, including the Rhein and Danube Valleys, was occupied by ], to which belonged the ] culture of stone tools. Mousterian sites are not considered intrusive. It is believed that the Neanderthals may have evolved from the preceding ] in the vicinity of the glaciers, but the question has by no means been settled definitively.


Neanderthal sites are denser to the south, where open forest prevailed and the limestone terrain offered more caves as dwelling. The Rhine ran through an open tundra, where Neanderthals hunted big game, such as the ] and the ]. Accordingly, open air Mousterian sites have been discovered in and around the Rhine valley. Neanderthal sites are denser to the south, where open forest prevailed and the limestone terrain offered more caves as dwelling. The Rhein ran through an open tundra, where Neanderthals hunted big game, such as the ] and the ]. Accordingly, open air Mousterian sites have been discovered in and around the Rhein valley.


===Mesolithic=== ===Mesolithic===
Before about 5600 BC, the Rhine Valley, along with most of Europe, was occupied by ] man in the ] stage of cultural development; that is, they hunted and gathered, but owned a larger and more specialized tool kit than the ] people, knew more about the plants and animals, and even may have kept a few animals. Before about 5600 BC, the Rhein Valley, along with most of Europe, was occupied by ] man in the ] stage of cultural development; that is, they hunted and gathered, but owned a larger and more specialized tool kit than the ] people, knew more about the plants and animals, and even may have kept a few animals.
===Iron Age=== ===Iron Age===
During the early ], both banks of the Rhine were inhabited by ]. However, in the beginning of the ], ca ], the ] tribes crossed the ] and the ], and expanded the whole distance to the banks of the Rhine. This expansion is shown archaeologically in the form of the ]. From ca ] and onwards, the lower Rhine and not the Weser and the Aller would increasingly mark the border between the ] and the ]. During the early ], both banks of the Rhein were inhabited by ]. However, in the beginning of the ], ca ], the ] tribes crossed the ] and the ], and expanded the whole distance to the banks of the Rhein. This expansion is shown archaeologically in the form of the ]. From ca ] and onwards, the lower Rhein and not the Weser and the Aller would increasingly mark the border between the ] and the ].


] ]
== Historic and Military Relevance == == Historic and Military Relevance ==
]]] ]]]
The human history of the Rhine begins with the writers of the late ] and early ]. Nearly all the classical sources mention the Rhine, and the name is always the same: Rhenus in Latin, Greek Rhenos. The Romans viewed the Rhine as the outermost border of civilization and reason, beyond which were mythical creatures and the wild Germanic tribesmen, not far themselves from being beasts of the wilderness they inhabited. As it was a wilderness, the Romans were eager to explore it. This view is typified by '']'', a long public inscription of ] in which he (or his ghost writer) boasts of his exploits, including sending an expeditionary fleet north of the Rhinemouth to ] and ], which no Roman had ever done (he says). The human history of the Rhein begins with the writers of the late ] and early ]. Nearly all the classical sources mention the Rhein, and the name is always the same: Rhenus in Latin, Greek Rhenos. The Romans viewed the Rhein as the outermost border of civilization and reason, beyond which were mythical creatures and the wild Germanic tribesmen, not far themselves from being beasts of the wilderness they inhabited. As it was a wilderness, the Romans were eager to explore it. This view is typified by '']'', a long public inscription of ] in which he (or his ghost writer) boasts of his exploits, including sending an expeditionary fleet north of the Rheinmouth to ] and ], which no Roman had ever done (he says).


Throughout the long history of Rome, the Rhine was considered the border between ] or the ] and the Germanic peoples, even though the border often was violated, as when the Germanics crossed it and joined with the Celts to form the ] (descending to ]). Typical of this point of view is a quote from ], ''Commentary on the Aeneid of Vergil'' (On Book 8 Line 727): Throughout the long history of Rome, the Rhein was considered the border between ] or the ] and the Germanic peoples, even though the border often was violated, as when the Germanics crossed it and joined with the Celts to form the ] (descending to ]). Typical of this point of view is a quote from ], ''Commentary on the Aeneid of Vergil'' (On Book 8 Line 727):
:"''(Rhenus) fluvius Galliae, qui Germanos a Gallia dividit''" :"''(Rhenus) fluvius Galliae, qui Germanos a Gallia dividit''"
:"''(The Rhine is a) river of Gaul, which divides the Germanic people from Gaul.''" :"''(The Rhein is a) river of Gaul, which divides the Germanic people from Gaul.''"


The Rhine in the earlier sources was always a Gallic river. The Rhein in the earlier sources was always a Gallic river.


As the conflict between Rome and the Germanics grew, the Romans found it necessary to station troops along the Rhine. They kept two army groups there (exercitus), the inferior, or "lower", and the superior, or "upper", which is the first distinction between upper Germania and lower Germania. It originally probably only meant upstream and downstream, the Niederrhein and Oberrhein regions of the map included with this article. As the conflict between Rome and the Germanics grew, the Romans found it necessary to station troops along the Rhein. They kept two army groups there (exercitus), the inferior, or "lower", and the superior, or "upper", which is the first distinction between upper Germania and lower Germania. It originally probably only meant upstream and downstream, the Niederrhein and Oberrhein regions of the map included with this article.


The Romans kept eight legions in five bases along the Rhine. The actual number of legions present at any base or in all depended on whether a state or threat of war existed. Between about 14 AD and 180 AD the assignment of legions was as follows. The Romans kept eight legions in five bases along the Rhein. The actual number of legions present at any base or in all depended on whether a state or threat of war existed. Between about 14 AD and 180 AD the assignment of legions was as follows.


For the army of ], two legions at Vetera (]): ] and ] (] troops); two legions at oppidum Ubiorum ("town of the ]"), which was renamed to Colonia Agrippina, descending to ]. The legions were ], a Celtic legion recruited from ], and ], possibly a ] legion from the other side of the empire. For the army of ], two legions at Vetera (]): ] and ] (] troops); two legions at oppidum Ubiorum ("town of the ]"), which was renamed to Colonia Agrippina, descending to ]. The legions were ], a Celtic legion recruited from ], and ], possibly a ] legion from the other side of the empire.
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For the army of ], one legion, ], at Argentoratum (]), and one, ], at Vindonissa (]). Vespasian had commanded II Augusta before his promotion to imperator. In addition were a double legion, XIV and XVI, at Moguntiacum (]). For the army of ], one legion, ], at Argentoratum (]), and one, ], at Vindonissa (]). Vespasian had commanded II Augusta before his promotion to imperator. In addition were a double legion, XIV and XVI, at Moguntiacum (]).


The two originally military districts of ] and ] came to influence the surrounding tribes, who later respected the distinction in their alliances and confederations. For example, the upper Germanic peoples combined into the ]. For a time the Rhine ceased to be a border when a union of all the west Germanics, the ], crossed the river and occupied Roman-dominated Celtic ] as far as ]. The two originally military districts of ] and ] came to influence the surrounding tribes, who later respected the distinction in their alliances and confederations. For example, the upper Germanic peoples combined into the ]. For a time the Rhein ceased to be a border when a union of all the west Germanics, the ], crossed the river and occupied Roman-dominated Celtic ] as far as ].


Subsequently language changes began to play a major political role. ] dissimilated into ], ] and ] roughly along the old lines. Perhaps it had been doing so all along. ] united all the Franks in the ], but he did not rule over a people of uniform language. After his death the empire split more or less along language lines, with the Low Franconian being spoken in the Netherlands and the Low Saxon and High German in what became Germany. The Romanized Franks became the French. The Rhine once again became a political border. Subsequently language changes began to play a major political role. ] dissimilated into ], ] and ] roughly along the old lines. Perhaps it had been doing so all along. ] united all the Franks in the ], but he did not rule over a people of uniform language. After his death the empire split more or less along language lines, with the Low Franconian being spoken in the Netherlands and the Low Saxon and High German in what became Germany. The Romanized Franks became the French. The Rhein once again became a political border.


The Rhine as border has been and is a mystical and political symbol. German authors and composers have written reams about it. During World War II, it was still considered the sacred border of Germany, and was still a defensive barrier. The Germans fought especially hard to defend it. The Rhein as border has been and is a mystical and political symbol. German authors and composers have written reams about it. During World War II, it was still considered the sacred border of Germany, and was still a defensive barrier. The Germans fought especially hard to defend it.


The Rhine is closely linked to many important historical events — particularly military ones — as well as myths. For example: The Rhein is closely linked to many important historical events — particularly military ones — as well as myths. For example:


* The ] which finally established the Rhine as the northern frontier of the ]. * The ] which finally established the Rhein as the northern frontier of the ].


* It was a historic object of frontier trouble between ] and ]. Establishing "]" on the Rhine was a long term goal of French foreign policy since the ]. French leaders such as ] and ] tried with varying degrees of success to annex lands west of the Rhine. In ] the ''Rhine crisis'' evolved, because the French prime minister ] started to talk about the Rhine border. In response, the poem and song '']'' ("The Watch on the Rhine") was composed at that time, calling for the defense of the western bank of the Rhine against France. During the ] it rose to the de-facto status of a national anthem in Germany. The song remained popular in ] and was used in the movie '']'' * It was a historic object of frontier trouble between ] and ]. Establishing "]" on the Rhein was a long term goal of French foreign policy since the ]. French leaders such as ] and ] tried with varying degrees of success to annex lands west of the Rhein. In ] the ''Rhein crisis'' evolved, because the French prime minister ] started to talk about the Rhein border. In response, the poem and song '']'' ("The Watch on the Rhein") was composed at that time, calling for the defense of the western bank of the Rhein against France. During the ] it rose to the de-facto status of a national anthem in Germany. The song remained popular in ] and was used in the movie '']''


* At the end of ] the ] was subject to the ]. This decreed that it would be occupied by the allies until 1935, and after that it would be a demilitarised zone, with the German army forbidden to enter. The Treaty of Versailles in general, and this particular provision, caused much resentment in Germany and are often cited as helping ]'s rise to power. The allies left the Rhineland in 1930, and the German army re-occupied it in 1936, which was enormously popular in Germany. Although the allies could probably have prevented the re-occupation, Britain and France were not inclined to do so, a feature of their policy of ] of Hitler. * At the end of ] the ] was subject to the ]. This decreed that it would be occupied by the allies until 1935, and after that it would be a demilitarised zone, with the German army forbidden to enter. The Treaty of Versailles in general, and this particular provision, caused much resentment in Germany and are often cited as helping ]'s rise to power. The allies left the Rheinland in 1930, and the German army re-occupied it in 1936, which was enormously popular in Germany. Although the allies could probably have prevented the re-occupation, Britain and France were not inclined to do so, a feature of their policy of ] of Hitler.


* In ] it was recognised that the Rhine would present a formidable natural obstacle to the invasion of Germany by the western allies. The Rhine bridge at ], immortalized in the ] and ] ''A Bridge Too Far'', was a central focus of the battle for Arnhem during the failed ] of September 1944. The bridges at Nijmegen over the Waal distributary of the Rhine were also an objective of Market Garden. In a separate operation, the Rhine bridge at ] became famous when U.S. forces were able to capture it intact — much to their own surprise — after the Germans failed to demolish it. This also became the subject of a film, '']''. * In ] it was recognised that the Rhein would present a formidable natural obstacle to the invasion of Germany by the western allies. The Rhein bridge at ], immortalized in the ] and ] ''A Bridge Too Far'', was a central focus of the battle for Arnhem during the failed ] of September 1944. The bridges at Nijmegen over the Waal distributary of the Rhein were also an objective of Market Garden. In a separate operation, the Rhein bridge at ] became famous when U.S. forces were able to capture it intact — much to their own surprise — after the Germans failed to demolish it. This also became the subject of a film, '']''.


*] — this more than 1,000-year-old cathedral is seat to the ]. It holds significant historic value as the seat of the once politically powerful secular prince-archbishop within the ]. It houses historical funerary monuments and religious artifacts. *] — this more than 1,000-year-old cathedral is seat to the ]. It holds significant historic value as the seat of the once politically powerful secular prince-archbishop within the ]. It houses historical funerary monuments and religious artifacts.


* The '']'', an epic poem in Middle High German, tells the saga of Siegfried/], who killed a dragon on the ] ("dragons rock") near ] at the Rhine, of the Burgundians and their court at Worms at the Rhine, and Kriemhild's golden treasure which is thrown into the Rhine by Hagen * The '']'', an epic poem in Middle High German, tells the saga of Siegfried/], who killed a dragon on the ] ("dragons rock") near ] at the Rhein, of the Burgundians and their court at Worms at the Rhein, and Kriemhild's golden treasure which is thrown into the Rhein by Hagen


* '']'' — inspired by the '']'', the Rhine is one of the settings for the first opera of ]'s ]. The action of the epic opens and ends underneath the Rhine, where three Rhinemaidens swim and protect a hoard of ]. * '']'' — inspired by the '']'', the Rhein is one of the settings for the first opera of ]'s ]. The action of the epic opens and ends underneath the Rhein, where three Rheinmaidens swim and protect a hoard of ].


* The ]/Lorelei is a rock on the eastern bank of the Rhine that is associated with several legendary tales, poems and songs. * The ]/Lorelei is a rock on the eastern bank of the Rhein that is associated with several legendary tales, poems and songs.


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Revision as of 02:54, 24 February 2007

River
Rhine
Physical characteristics
MouthNorth Sea, Hoek van Holland, the Netherlands
Length1,320 km (820 mi)

The Rhein River (Template:Lang-nl; Template:Lang-fr; Template:Lang-de; Template:Lang-it; Template:Lang-rm) is one of the longest and most important rivers in Europe at 1,320 kilometres (820 miles), with an average discharge of more than 2,000 cubic meters per second. The name of the Rhine comes from the from the archaic German Rhine, which in turn comes from Middle High German: Rin, ultimately from the Greek Rhein, literally "that which flows" (compare to Late Latin rhoe:"flow", rhoos: "a stream, a flowing"), from the Proto-Indo-European root *reie- ("to flow, run"). It is interesting to note that Rhein also is derived from the same root word as rain, both meaning "to flow aqueously".

The Rhein and the Danube formed most of the northern frontier of the Roman Empire, and since those days the Rhein has been a vital navigable waterway, carrying trade and goods deep inland. It has also served as a defensive feature, and been the basis for regional and international borders. The many castles and prehistoric fortifications along the Rhein testify to its importance as a waterway. River traffic could be stopped at these locations, usually for the purpose of collecting tolls, by the state controlling that portion of the river.

Geography

The Rhein canyon (Ruinaulta) in Graubünden in Switzerland
The Rhein just downstream from Lake Constance
The Marksburg near Koblenz was built in 1231
Rhein with chemical industry at Wesseling near Cologne

Switzerland

The Rhein's origins are in the Swiss Alps in the canton of Graubünden, where its two main initial tributaries are called Vorderrhein and Hinterrhein. The Vorderrhein (anterior Rhein) springs from Lake Tuma near the Oberalp Pass and passes the impressive Ruinaulta (the Swiss Grand Canyon). The Hinterrhein (posterior Rhein) starts from the Paradies glacier near the Rheinquellhorn at the southern border of Switzerland. One of the latter tributaries originates in Val di Lei in Italy. Both tributaries meet near Reichenau, still in Graubünden. From Reichenau, the Rhein flows north as the Alpenrhein passing Chur and forming the frontier with Liechtenstein and then Austria, and then emptying into Lake Constance. Emerging from Lake Constance, flowing west as the Hochrhein it passes the Rhein Falls and is joined by the Aare river which more than doubles its water discharge to an average of nearly 1,000 cubic meters per second. It forms the boundary with Germany until it turns north at the so-called Rhein knee at Basel.

Germany and France

Past Basel, as the Upper Rhein, it forms the southern part of the border between Germany and France in a wide valley, before entering Germany exclusively at Rheinstetten, near Karlsruhe.

At over 1000 kilometres in length, the Rhein is the longest river primarily within Germany. It is here that the Rhein encounters some of its main tributaries, such as the Neckar, the Main and later the Moselle, which contributes an average discharge of over 300 cubic meters per second.

Between Bingen and Bonn, the Middle Rhein flows through the Rhein Gorge, a formation created by erosion, which happened at about the same rate as an uplift in the region, leaving the river at about its original level, and the surrounding lands raised. This gorge is quite deep, and is the stretch of the river known for its many castles and vineyards. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (2002) and known as "the romantic Rhein" with more than 40 castles and fortresses from the Middle Ages (see links) and many lovely wine villages.

Though many industries can be found along the Rhein up into Switzerland, it is along the Lower Rhein in the Ruhr area that the bulk of them are concentrated, as the river passes the major cities of Cologne, Düsseldorf, and Duisburg. The Ruhr, which joins the Rhein at Duisburg, is surprisingly clean, given the amount of industry on its banks, and is used for drinking water. It adds another 70 cubic meters per second to the Rhein. However, other rivers from the Ruhr area, above all the Emscher, still bring a considerable degree of pollution. Approaching the Dutch border, the Rhein now has an average discharge of 2,290 cubic metres per second and an average width of more than 300 metres.

Netherlands

The Rhein then turns west and enters the Netherlands, where together with the rivers Meuse and Scheldt it forms an extensive delta. Crossing the border into the Netherlands at Spijk, close to Nijmegen and Arnhem the Rhein is at its widest, but the river then splits into three main distributaries: the Waal, Nederrijn ("Lower Rhein") and IJssel branches.

From here the situation becomes more complicated, as the name "Rhein" no longer coincides with the main flow of water. Most of the Rhein water (two thirds) flows farther west through the Waal and then via the Merwede and Nieuwe Merwede and, merging with the Meuse, through the Hollands Diep and Haringvliet estuaries into the North Sea. The Beneden Merwede branches off near Hardinxveld-Giessendam and continues as the Noord, to join the Lek near the village of Kinderdijk to form the Nieuwe Maas, then flows past Rotterdam and continues via Het Scheur and the Nieuwe Waterweg to the North Sea. The Oude Maas branches off near Dordrecht, farther down rejoining the Nieuwe Maas to form Het Scheur.

The other third portion of the water flows through the Pannerdens Kanaal and redistributes in the IJssel and Nederrijn. The IJssel branch carries one ninth of the water volume north into the IJsselmeer (a former bay), while the Nederrijn flows west parallel to the Waal and carries approximately two ninths of the flow. However, at Wijk bij Duurstede the Nederrijn changes its name and becomes the Lek. It flows farther west to rejoin the Noord into the Nieuwe Maas and to the North Sea.

The name "Rhein" from here on is used only for smaller streams farther to the north which together once formed the main river Rhein in Roman times. Though they retained the name, these streams do not carry water from the Rhein anymore, but are used for draining the surrounding land and polders. From Wijk bij Duurstede, the old north branch of the Rhein is called Kromme Rijn ("Crooked Rhein") and past Utrecht, first Leidse Rijn ("Rhein of Leiden") and then Oude Rijn ("Old Rhein"). The latter flows west into a sluice at Katwijk, where its waters can be discharged into the North Sea. This branch once formed the line along which the Upper Germanic limes were built.

Large cities

Basel, Strasbourg, Karlsruhe, Mannheim, Ludwigshafen, Wiesbaden, Mainz, Koblenz, Bonn, Cologne, Düsseldorf, Neuss, Krefeld, Duisburg, Arnhem (Nederrijn), Nijmegen (Waal), Utrecht (Kromme Rijn), Rotterdam (Nieuwe Maas).

Smaller cities

Konstanz, Schaffhausen, Breisach, Speyer, Worms, Bingen, Rüdesheim, Neuwied, Andernach, Bad Honnef, Königswinter, Niederkassel, Wesseling, Dormagen, Zons, Monheim, Wesel, Xanten, Emmerich, Zutphen (IJssel), Deventer (IJssel), Zwolle (IJssel), Kampen (IJssel).

Railway bridges

Railway bridges (with nearest train station on the left and right bank):

  • Switzerland
    • Tens of bridges in Graubünden, too numerous to list

Tributaries

Vorderrhein

Tributaries from source to mouth:

Distributaries

Canals include

Geologic History

Alpine Orogeny

Since the Rhein flows from the Alps, a precondition of its existence is the uplifting of the Alps, which began in the Alpine Orogeny. The stage was set in the Triassic Period of the Mesozoic Era, with the opening of the Tethys Sea between the Eurasian and African plates, between about 240 MBP and 220 MBP. The Mediterranean descends from this somewhat larger Tethys sea.

At about 180 MBP, in the Jurassic Period, the two plates reversed direction and began to compress the Tethys floor, causing it to be subducted under Eurasia and pushing up the edge of the latter plate in the Alpine Orogeny of the Oligocene and Miocene Periods. Several microplates were caught in the squeeze and rotated or were pushed laterally, generating the individual features of Mediterranean geography: Iberia pushed up the Pyrenees; Italy the Alps, and Anatolia, moving west, the mountains of Greece and the islands. The compression and orogeny continue today, as shown by the ongoing raising of the mountains a small amount each year and the active volcanoes.

Just to the north of the Alpine Orogeny were highlands resulting from an earlier orogeny (Variscan) along similar lines. These highlands helped to divert the Rhein to the west; however, the Rhein's course is set by the Rhein graben, a rift that opened in the Eocene and Oligocene periods between the western Alps and the central Alps, caused by their moving in slightly different directions. The rift does not seem to be active now.

Stream Capture

The watershed of the Rhein reaches into the Alps today, but it did not start out that way (Berendsen & Stouthamer, 2001; Fig. 2.2 ). In the Miocene period, the watershed of the Rhein reached south only to the Eifel and Westerwald hills, about 450 km north of the Alps. The Rhein then had the Sieg as a tributary, but not yet the Mosel. The northern Alps were drained by the Danube then.

Through stream capture, the Rhein extended its watershed southward. By the Pliocene period, the Rhein had captured streams down to the Vosges mountains, including the Mosel, the Main, and the Neckar. The northern Alps were drained by the Rhône then. By the early Pleistocene period, the Rhein had captured most of its current Alpine watershed from the Rhône, including the Aare. Since that time, the Rhein has added the watershed above Lake Constance (Vorderrhein, Hinterrhein, Alpenrhein; captured from the Rhône), the upper reaches of the Main (beyond Schweinfurt), and the Vosges mountains (captured from the Meuse) to its watershed.

Ice Age

The Pleistocene (~2.5 million years ago - 10,000 years ago) was the geological period of the Ice Ages. Since approximately 600,000 years ago six major Ice Ages have occurred, in which sea level dropped 120 m, and much of the continental margins became exposed. In the Early Pleistocene, the Rhein followed a course to the northwest, through the present North Sea. During the so-called Elsterien glaciation (~420,000 yr BP, marine oxygen isotope stage 12) the northern part of the present North Sea was blocked by the ice, and a large lake developed that overflowed through the English Channel. This caused the Rhein's course to be diverted through the English Channel. Since then, during glacial times, the river mouth was located near Brest (France), and rivers like the Thames and the Seine became tributaries to the Rhein. During interglacials, when sea level rose to approximately the present level, the Rhein built a delta in what is now called The Netherlands.

During the last Ice Age (~70,000-10,000 yr BP= Before Present), at the end of the Pleistocene, the lower Rhein flowed roughly west through the Netherlands and then to the southwest, through the English Channel, and finally to the Atlantic Ocean. The English and Irish Channels, the Baltic Sea and the North Sea were still dry land, mainly because sea level was approximately 120 m lower than today. At about 5000 BC, flooding and erosion began to open the English Channel. Most of the Rhein's current course was not under the ice during the last Ice Age, although its source must then have been a glacier. A tundra with Ice Age flora and fauna stretched across middle Europe from Asia to the Atlantic Ocean. Such was the case during the Last Glacial Maximum, ca. 22,000-14,000 yr BP, when ice covered Scandinavia and the Baltic, Britain and the Alps, but left the space between as open tundra. The loess, or wind-blown dust over that tundra settled in and around the Rhein Valley, contributing to its current agricultural usefulness.

These events were well within the residence of man. Meltwater adding to the ocean and land subsidence drowned the former coasts of Europe. The water is still rising, at the rate of about 1-3 mm per year. Further drowning is to come.

Rapid warming and change of vegetation to open forest began about 13,000 BP. By 9000 BP, Europe was fully forested. About 7000-5000 BP a general warming encouraged migration up the Danube and down the Rhein by peoples to the east, who may also have been encouraged by the sudden massive expansion of the Black Sea as the Mediterranean burst into it through the Bosphorus about 7500 BP. At least one unsuccessful search for remains of villages on the floor of the Black Sea has been conducted.

Prehistory

Palaeolithic

During the Middle Palaeolithic, ca 100,000-30,000 BP (the dates vary a great deal) western Europe, including the Rhein and Danube Valleys, was occupied by Neanderthal Man, to which belonged the Mousterian culture of stone tools. Mousterian sites are not considered intrusive. It is believed that the Neanderthals may have evolved from the preceding Homo erectus in the vicinity of the glaciers, but the question has by no means been settled definitively.

Neanderthal sites are denser to the south, where open forest prevailed and the limestone terrain offered more caves as dwelling. The Rhein ran through an open tundra, where Neanderthals hunted big game, such as the woolly rhinoceros and the mammoth. Accordingly, open air Mousterian sites have been discovered in and around the Rhein valley.

Mesolithic

Before about 5600 BC, the Rhein Valley, along with most of Europe, was occupied by Cro-magnon man in the Mesolithic stage of cultural development; that is, they hunted and gathered, but owned a larger and more specialized tool kit than the Palaeolithic people, knew more about the plants and animals, and even may have kept a few animals.

Iron Age

During the early Iron Age, both banks of the Rhein were inhabited by Celtic tribes. However, in the beginning of the Pre-Roman Iron Age, ca 600 BC, the Proto-Germanic tribes crossed the Weser River and the Aller River, and expanded the whole distance to the banks of the Rhein. This expansion is shown archaeologically in the form of the Jastorf culture. From ca 500 BC and onwards, the lower Rhein and not the Weser and the Aller would increasingly mark the border between the Celtic tribes and the Germanic tribes.

Old Saxony

Historic and Military Relevance

Loreley

The human history of the Rhein begins with the writers of the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. Nearly all the classical sources mention the Rhein, and the name is always the same: Rhenus in Latin, Greek Rhenos. The Romans viewed the Rhein as the outermost border of civilization and reason, beyond which were mythical creatures and the wild Germanic tribesmen, not far themselves from being beasts of the wilderness they inhabited. As it was a wilderness, the Romans were eager to explore it. This view is typified by Res Gestae Divi Augusti, a long public inscription of Augustus in which he (or his ghost writer) boasts of his exploits, including sending an expeditionary fleet north of the Rheinmouth to Old Saxony and Jutland, which no Roman had ever done (he says).

Throughout the long history of Rome, the Rhein was considered the border between Gaul or the Celts and the Germanic peoples, even though the border often was violated, as when the Germanics crossed it and joined with the Celts to form the Belgae (descending to Belgium). Typical of this point of view is a quote from Maurus Servius Honoratus, Commentary on the Aeneid of Vergil (On Book 8 Line 727):

"(Rhenus) fluvius Galliae, qui Germanos a Gallia dividit"
"(The Rhein is a) river of Gaul, which divides the Germanic people from Gaul."

The Rhein in the earlier sources was always a Gallic river.

As the conflict between Rome and the Germanics grew, the Romans found it necessary to station troops along the Rhein. They kept two army groups there (exercitus), the inferior, or "lower", and the superior, or "upper", which is the first distinction between upper Germania and lower Germania. It originally probably only meant upstream and downstream, the Niederrhein and Oberrhein regions of the map included with this article.

The Romans kept eight legions in five bases along the Rhein. The actual number of legions present at any base or in all depended on whether a state or threat of war existed. Between about 14 AD and 180 AD the assignment of legions was as follows.

For the army of Germania Inferior, two legions at Vetera (Xanten): I Germanica and XX Valeria (Pannonian troops); two legions at oppidum Ubiorum ("town of the Ubii"), which was renamed to Colonia Agrippina, descending to Cologne. The legions were V Alaudae, a Celtic legion recruited from Gallia Transalpina, and XXI, possibly a Galatian legion from the other side of the empire.

For the army of Germania superior, one legion, II Augusta, at Argentoratum (Strasbourg), and one, XIII Gemina, at Vindonissa (Windisch). Vespasian had commanded II Augusta before his promotion to imperator. In addition were a double legion, XIV and XVI, at Moguntiacum (Mainz).

The two originally military districts of Germania Inferior and Germania Superior came to influence the surrounding tribes, who later respected the distinction in their alliances and confederations. For example, the upper Germanic peoples combined into the Alemanni. For a time the Rhein ceased to be a border when a union of all the west Germanics, the Franks, crossed the river and occupied Roman-dominated Celtic Gaul as far as Paris.

Subsequently language changes began to play a major political role. West Germanic dissimilated into Low Saxon, Low Franconian languages and High German languages roughly along the old lines. Perhaps it had been doing so all along. Charlemagne united all the Franks in the Holy Roman Empire, but he did not rule over a people of uniform language. After his death the empire split more or less along language lines, with the Low Franconian being spoken in the Netherlands and the Low Saxon and High German in what became Germany. The Romanized Franks became the French. The Rhein once again became a political border.

The Rhein as border has been and is a mystical and political symbol. German authors and composers have written reams about it. During World War II, it was still considered the sacred border of Germany, and was still a defensive barrier. The Germans fought especially hard to defend it.

The Rhein is closely linked to many important historical events — particularly military ones — as well as myths. For example:

  • It was a historic object of frontier trouble between France and Germany. Establishing "natural borders" on the Rhein was a long term goal of French foreign policy since the Middle Ages. French leaders such as Louis XIV and Napoleon Bonaparte tried with varying degrees of success to annex lands west of the Rhein. In 1840 the Rhein crisis evolved, because the French prime minister Adolphe Thiers started to talk about the Rhein border. In response, the poem and song Die Wacht am Rhein ("The Watch on the Rhein") was composed at that time, calling for the defense of the western bank of the Rhein against France. During the Franco-Prussian War it rose to the de-facto status of a national anthem in Germany. The song remained popular in World War I and was used in the movie Casablanca
  • At the end of World War I the Rheinland was subject to the Treaty of Versailles. This decreed that it would be occupied by the allies until 1935, and after that it would be a demilitarised zone, with the German army forbidden to enter. The Treaty of Versailles in general, and this particular provision, caused much resentment in Germany and are often cited as helping Adolf Hitler's rise to power. The allies left the Rheinland in 1930, and the German army re-occupied it in 1936, which was enormously popular in Germany. Although the allies could probably have prevented the re-occupation, Britain and France were not inclined to do so, a feature of their policy of appeasement of Hitler.
  • In World War II it was recognised that the Rhein would present a formidable natural obstacle to the invasion of Germany by the western allies. The Rhein bridge at Arnhem, immortalized in the book and film A Bridge Too Far, was a central focus of the battle for Arnhem during the failed Operation Market Garden of September 1944. The bridges at Nijmegen over the Waal distributary of the Rhein were also an objective of Market Garden. In a separate operation, the Rhein bridge at Remagen became famous when U.S. forces were able to capture it intact — much to their own surprise — after the Germans failed to demolish it. This also became the subject of a film, The Bridge at Remagen.
  • Mainz Cathedral — this more than 1,000-year-old cathedral is seat to the Bishop of Mainz. It holds significant historic value as the seat of the once politically powerful secular prince-archbishop within the Holy Roman Empire. It houses historical funerary monuments and religious artifacts.
  • The Nibelungenlied, an epic poem in Middle High German, tells the saga of Siegfried/Sigurd, who killed a dragon on the Drachenfels (Siebengebirge) ("dragons rock") near Bonn at the Rhein, of the Burgundians and their court at Worms at the Rhein, and Kriemhild's golden treasure which is thrown into the Rhein by Hagen
  • The Loreley/Lorelei is a rock on the eastern bank of the Rhein that is associated with several legendary tales, poems and songs.

References

  • Berendsen, H.J.A. & E. Stouthamer (2001) : Palaeogeographic development of the Rhine-Meuse delta, The Netherlands; Koninklijke van Gorcum, Assen; ISBN 90-232-3695-5

Further reading

  • Blackbourn, David., (2006) The Conquest of Nature: Water, Landscape and the Making of Germany. The transformation of the Rhine since the eighteenth century.

External links

Etymology

Geology

History

Castles

Navigation

Travel Guide

Tributaries of the Rhine
Left
Vorderrhein
Aua da Russein
Schmuèr
Alpine Rhine
Vorderrhein
Tamina
Saar
Alter Rhein
Rheintaler Binnenkanal
Upper Lake Constance
Goldach
Aach (Arbon)
Aach (Romanshorn)
Seerhein
Grenzbach
Dorfbach
Lower Lake Constance
Anderbach
High Rhine
Thur
Töss
Glatt
Aare
Sissle
Möhlinbach
Ergolz
Birs
Upper Rhine
Birsig
Ill
Moder
Sauer
Lauter
Spiegelbach
Queich
Speyerbach
Rehbach
Isenach
Eckbach
Eisbach
Pfrimm
Selz
Middle Rhine
Welzbach
Nahe
Moselle
Nette
Brohlbach
Ahr
Lower Rhine
Erft
Map of the Rhine
Right
Vorderrhein
Rein da Tuma
Rein da Curnera
Rein da Medel
Rein da Sumvitg
Glogn
Rabiusa
Hinterrhein
Ragn da Ferrera
Albula/Alvra
Alpine Rhine
Hinterrhein
Plessur
Landquart
Mülbach
Liechtenstein inland canal
Ill
Frutz
Upper Lake Constance
Dornbirner Ach
Bregenzer Ach
Leiblach
Argen
Schussen
Rotach
Brunnisach
Lipbach
Seefelder Aach
Stockacher Aach
Lower Lake Constance
Radolfzeller Aach
High Rhine
Biber
Durach
Wutach
Alb
Murg
Wehra
Upper Rhine
Wiese
Kander
Elz
Kinzig
Rench
Acher
Murg
Alb
Pfinz
Saalbach
Kraichbach
Leimbach
Neckar
Weschnitz
Modau
Main
Middle Rhine
Wisper
Lahn
Wied
Lower Rhine
Sieg
Wupper
Düssel
Ruhr
Emscher
Lippe
IJssel
Oude IJssel/Issel
Berkel
Schipbeek
  1. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=rhein&searchmode=none
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