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Veganism (also known as strict vegetarianism or pure vegetarianism), as defined by the Vegan Society, is "a philosophy and way of living which seeks to exclude…all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for food, clothing or any other purpose." A vegan (one who practices veganism) doesn't use animal products, such as the flesh and organs of animals, their eggs, animal secretions such as dairy products, and products made from animal bones, hooves, skins or furs. People become vegans for a variety of reasons, including ethical concerns for animal rights or the environment, as well as more personal reasons such as perceived health benefits and spiritual or religious concerns.

A 2002 Time/CNN poll, found that 4% of American adults consider themselves vegetarians, and 5% of self-described vegetarians consider themselves vegans. This suggests that 0.2% of American adults are vegans. Also in 2002, the UK Food Standards Agency reported that 5% of respondents self-identified as vegetarian or vegan. Though 29% of that 5% said they avoided "all animal products" only 5% reported avoiding dairy. Based on these figures, approximately 0.25% of the UK population follow a vegan diet. In 2005, The Times estimated there were 250,000 vegans in Britain, which suggests around 0.4% of the UK population is vegan.

Definition

The word vegan, usually pronounced , was originally derived from "vegetarian" in 1944 when Elsie Shrigley and Donald Watson, frustrated that the term "vegetarianism" had come to include the eating of dairy products, founded the UK Vegan Society. They combined the first three and last two letters of vegetarian to form "vegan," which they saw as "the beginning and end of vegetarian." The British Vegan Society defines veganism in this way:

he word "veganism" denotes a philosophy and way of living which seeks to exclude — as far as is possible and practical — all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for food, clothing or any other purpose; and by extension, promotes the development and use of animal-free alternatives for the benefit of humans, animals and the environment. In dietary terms it denotes the practice of dispensing with all products derived wholly or partly from animals.

— Vegan Society

Other vegan societies use similar definitions.

The term "animal product" in a vegan context refers to material derived from non-human animals for human use or consumption. Human breast milk for example is acceptable when voluntarily used for human babies, but by comparison when a human being drinks a cow's milk, it is regarded as the consumption of an "animal product." Animal products include meat, poultry, seafood, eggs, dairy products, fur, leather, wool, pearls, and nacre (mother of pearl), among other things. By-products include gelatin, lanolin, rennet, and whey. Items derived from insects include items such as silk, honey, beeswax, shellac and cochineal.

Some vegans avoid cane sugar that has been filtered with bone char and will not drink beer or wine clarified with albumen, animal blood, or isinglass, because though these are not present in the final product, they are still used in the process. However, the group Vegan Outreach argues that the rejection of these items because of the process by which they were obtained misses the point of veganism. Vegans also avoid alcohol that contains or is "smoothened" using animal glycerine. Some also avoid food cooked with equipment that has been used to cook non-vegan foods. Vegans also avoid toothpaste with calcium extracted from animal bones, if they are aware of it. Similarly, soap made from animal fat rather than vegetable fats, is avoided.

Most vegans refrain from supporting industries that use animals directly or indirectly, such as circuses, rodeos, and zoos, and will not use products that are tested on animals.

As a strict form of vegetarianism, veganism may be difficult to follow. Evaluating products as vegan or not requires knowledge of food ingredients and production methods which may not be common to the general population. Furthermore, the near ubiquity of non-vegan ingredients in vitamins, supplements, prescription medicine, toiletries and cosmetics can make fully avoiding animal products nearly impossible as these items are not consistently labelled with their ingredients. The extra effort required to replace non-vegan ingredients in traditional recipes, the inadequacy of some vegan substitutes, and the difficulty in eating out at restaurants also contribute to the perception that the diet to which vegans adhere is difficult.

Motivations

In addition to the ethics of avoiding exploitation of animals and cruelty to animals, there are other things that motivate people to go vegan. These include opinions about the esthetics of animal slaughter and butchery, especially the opinion that such activities are "ugly," or that slaughterhouses are "unpleasant neighbors;" health advantages, both proven, and presumed or believed; effects on natural resources and the environment; and spiritual reasons such as facilitating union or yoking with the one, such as are found in Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism, and in some personal beliefs.

Ethics of Veganism

Vegans generally oppose the violence and cruelty involved in the meat, dairy, non-vegan cosmetics, clothing, and other industries. (See draize test, LD₅₀, animal testing, vivisection, and factory farming)

Some utilitarian philosophers, such as Jeremy Bentham and Peter Singer, argue that the suffering of sentient animals is relevant to ethical decisions, though they do not rely on the concept of rights and believe that non-human animals only have an interest in not suffering. Others like Gary L. Francione, believe that all sentient beings have an interest in both not suffering and continuing to live. A common argument is that animals have the ability to feel pleasure so killing them is wrong, because it destroys any hope of future pleasure. He claims that it is therefore unethical to treat them as property or a means to an end (see animal rights). Although these theories draw similar conclusions, they are not wholly compatible with one another.

Health Aspects of Vegan Diet

Health Benefits of Vegan Diet

The American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada state that "well-planned vegan and other types of vegetarian diets are appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including during pregnancy, lactation, infancy, childhood, and adolescence."

Studies have strongly correlated a plant based diet with better health benefits than a meat heavy diet.

Vegan diets tend toward several nutritional benefits, including lower levels of saturated fat, no cholesterol, and higher levels of carbohydrates, fiber, magnesium, potassium, folate, antioxidant vitamins C and E and phytochemicals.

Vegetarians have been reported to have lower body mass indices than nonvegetarians. The Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine says that one small scale study has observed that a vegan diet can reduce blood cholesterol in people with, and significantly reduce the complications of Type 2 diabetes.

Dangers of Industry Livestock Practices

There are also claims that industry livestock feeding practices pose health threats to human consumers. According to Dr. Michael Greger in a January 2004 lecture at MIT (which is the basis for Whistleblower, a 2007 documentary film by Jeff Bellamar) each year more than one million tons of animal excrement are fed back to farm animals raised for human consumption to lower the feed costs. He also says that up to 10% of blood from killed animals is mixed into some cattle feed, and up to 30% of some poultry feed is made up of the blood. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), commonly known as mad cow disease, is believed to be caused by cows being fed with contaminated meat and bone meal, a high-protein substance obtained from the remnants of butchered animals, including cows and sheep. In most parts of the developed world, such remnants are no longer allowed in feed for ruminant animals, and the World Health Organization recommends a complete ban on ruminant-to-ruminant feeding, but the practice persists in a few countries.

Vegan Athletes

There are a number of vegan athletes. Vegan athletes compete in a variety of sports, such as powerlifting, bodybuilding, martial arts, long distance running, and many others. Multiple Olympic gold medallist Carl Lewis has stated that he became vegan in 1990 and achieved his "best year of track competition" when he ate a vegan diet.

Other Comparisons

Some studies have found benefits associated with diets rich in whole plant foods, and risks associated with diets rich in animal-based foods. One of the researchers from the 1990 epidemiological study, "The China Study," said "Even small increases in the consumption of animal-based foods was associated with increased disease risk." A study in Spain includes the comment that "There is a growing body of evidence to show that consumption of fruit and vegetables may protect against development of CVD," and then goes on to provide more evidence. Conversely, studies in Japan found that increased consumption of some animal products coincided with a decrease in risk for some forms of cerebrovascular disease and stroke mortality.

Controversial Health Claims

There are a number of controversial and unproven health claims that have been made for a vegan diet, that have been widely propogated, such as the claim that artificial substances such as growth hormones and antibiotics, which are often given to farmed animals, may be present in animal food products, and may be harmful. While such claims may sound plausible, there doesn't seem to be enough scientific data to support them.

Health risks of Veganism

Vegans are potentially at risk for being deficient in nutrients such as vitamin B12, vitamin D, calcium, iodine and omega-3 fatty acids. These deficiencies can have potentially serious consequences, including anemia, rickets and cretinism in children, and osteomalacia and hyperthyroidism in adults. Supplementation, particularly for vitamin B12, is highly recommended for vegans.

Vitamin B12 not found in plant products

Vitamin B12, a bacterial product, cannot be reliably found in plant foods. While it may take one to five years to exhaust some individual's reserves of vitamin B12, many people do not have such reserves, and serious health consequences are a risk as a result of B12 deficiency. Additionally, mild B12 deficiency can develop even with such reserves. In a 2002 laboratory study, more of the strict vegan participants' B12 and iron levels were compromised than those of lacto- or lacto-ovo-vegetarian participants. The Vegan Society and Vegan Outreach, among others, recommend that vegans either consistently eat foods fortified with B12 or take a daily or weekly B12 supplement. Tempeh, seaweeds, spirulina, organic produce, soil on unwashed vegetables, and intestinal bacteria have not been shown to be reliable sources of B12 for the dietary needs of vegans.

Severe and permanent neurological damage to infants can be caused when mothers do not obtain adequate vitamin B12 in their diet while breastfeeding. However, vitamin B12 is a common ingredient in prenatal vitamins, even vegetarian ones.

One study noted the importance of early recognition of significant maternal vitamin B12 deficiency during pregnancy and lactation in vegetarians is emphasized so that appropriate supplementation can be given and irreversible neurologic damage in the infant prevented.

Another B12 study was conducted in rural Africa, partially backed by the U.S. based National Cattlemen's Beef Association, which demonstrated a dramatic improvement in the health of individuals who had, prior to the study, been on diets completely lacking in animal products. The study concluded that the added nutrients, especially vitamin B12 contained in the meat and milk improved the health of the children in the study. The author of the study, Professor Lindsay Allen of the United States Agricultural Research Service, declared: "There's absolutely no question that it's unethical for parents to bring up their children as strict vegans, unless those who practiced them were well-informed about how to add back the missing nutrients through supplements or fortified foods." However, the British Dietetic Association contended that the findings of the study were not applicable to vegan children in the developed world. They note that B12 (produced by fermenting carbohydrates with specific strains of bacteria) is now included in many fortified foods generally available. Noting that the impoverished children in the study had diets deficient in zinc, B12 and iron, they concluded, "There is no evidence that our vegan and vegetarian children in this country suffer impaired development." They did note, however, that young children, pregnant and nursing women are vulnerable as vegans, urging parents to review their children's diets to be sure that they have a well-balanced diet.

Mineral deficiencies

The US Food and Drug Administration in its report states that vegetarian women of childbearing age have an increased chance of menstrual irregularities, and that vegetarians run the risk of not consuming enough micronutrients like copper, iron and zinc in their diet. The American Dietetic Association recommends vegan mothers supplement for iron, vitamin D, and vitamin B12.

Other nutrients

Adequate amounts of vitamin D may be obtained by spending 15 to 30 minutes every few days in the sunlight, although this may be difficult for vegans in areas with low levels of sunlight during winter.

A 2007 study showed that vegans have an increased risk of bone fractures than both meat eaters and vegetarians, likely due to lower dietary calcium intake, but that vegans consuming more than the UK's estimated average requirements for calcium (525 mg/day) had risk of bone fractures similar to other groups. It is recommended that vegans eat three servings per day of a high calcium food, such as fortified soy milk and take a calcium supplement as necessary.

Soy products and genital defects

A study has shown that boys born to vegetarian mothers were more likely to suffer from hypospadias, a genital defect, possibly as a result of high levels of phytoestrogens found in soya products, nutrient deficiencies, or exposure to pesticide residues.

Effects on gender and multiples

Some studies show that vegetarian women are much more likely to have female babies. A study of 6,000 pregnant women in 1998 "found that while the national average in Britain is 106 boys born to every 100 girls, for vegetarian mothers the ratio was just 85 boys to 100 girls." The high amount of oestrogen balancing chemicals (the majority of which are soya ‘isoflavones’) contributes to this effect, as well as to stimulate early pubescence among females, and delay male pubescence.

A different study found that vegan mothers are five times less likely to have twins than those who eat animal products.

Link with eating disorders

The American Dietetic Association found that vegetarian diets may be more common among adolescents with eating disorders than in the general adolescent population, and that professionals should be aware of adolescents who limit the food choices and exhibit symptoms of eating disorders. The ADA indicates that the evidence suggests that the adoption of a vegetarian diet does not lead to eating disorders, but "vegetarian diets may be selected to camouflage an existing eating disorder." Other studies and statements by dietitians and counselors support this conclusion.

Resources and the environment

People who adopt a vegan diet to reduce resource consumption or ecological footprint extend the idea of environmental vegetarianism to all animal products. The fundamental rationale is that each additional trophic level in a food chain passes on only a fraction of the energy it consumes, so a diet that consists of plant products rather than animal products will generally use significantly less of all resources, and indirectly cause less environmental damage.

A study by Gidon Eshel and Pamela Martin, assistant professors of geophysics at the University of Chicago, compares the CO₂ production resulting from various human diets. They find that a person switching from the typical American diet to a vegan diet would, on average, reduce CO₂ production significantly more than switching to a hybrid vehicle. They go on to recommend a vegan diet for this reason, as well as the potentially adverse health effects of dietary animal fats and proteins. They go on to support their claims by referencing various studies linking animal fats to cardiovascular diseases and animal proteins to cancer.

The United Nations released a groundbreaking report in November 2006 linking animal agriculture to environmental damage. The report, titled "Livestock’s Long Shadow–Environmental Issues and Options," concludes that the livestock sector (primarily cows, chickens, and pigs) emerges as one of the top two or three most significant contributors to our most serious environmental problems, at every scale from local to global. It is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases - responsible for 18% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO₂ equivalents. By comparison, all transportation emits 13.5% of the CO₂. It produces 65% of human-related nitrous oxide (which has 296 times the global warming potential of CO₂) and 37% of all human-induced methane (which is 23 times as warming as CO₂). It also generates 64% of the ammonia, which contributes to acid rain and acidification of ecosystems.

Vegan cuisine

For recipes and further information see the Wikibooks Cookbook article on Vegan Cuisine.

The cuisines of most nations contain dishes that are suitable for a vegan diet, as are specific traditional ingredients such as tofu, tempeh and the wheat product seitan in Asian diets. Many recipes that traditionally contain animal products can be adapted by substituting vegan ingredients, e.g. nut, grain or soy milk used to replace cow's milk; eggs replaced by substitutes such as products made from potato starch. Additionally, artificial "meat" products ("analogs" or "mock meats") made from non-animal derived ingredients such as soya or gluten, including imitation sausages, ground beef, burgers, and chicken nuggets are widely available.

Similar diets and lifestyles

Diets such as raw veganism, freeganism and fruitarianism are related to veganism, but have significant differences from standard veganism. There are also numerous religious groups that regularly or occasionally practice a similar diet, including some Buddhist sects, Jains, Hindus, Rastafarians, and the Seventh-day Adventists.

Ethical criticisms

Steven Davis, professor of animal science at Oregon State University, claims that the number of wild animals killed in crop production is greater than those killed in ruminant-pasture production and therefore eating meat causes less harm to animals than a vegan diet. Gaverick Matheny, a Ph.D. candidate in agricultural economics at the University of Maryland, claims that Davis' reasoning contains several major flaws, including distorting the notion of "harm" to animals, and miscalculating the number of animal deaths based upon areas of land rather than per consumer. Other critics have questioned the validity of the ethical claims put forward by some vegans, stating that "the belief that all life is sacred can lead to absurdities such as allowing mosquitoes to spread malaria, or vipers to run loose on one's premises."

References

• C. de Haan et al. Livestock and the Environment: Finding a Balance FAO, USAID, World Bank, 1998. Provides evidence of environmental damage caused by animal farming, mainly factory farming.
• Keeton, W.T. et al. Biological Science, 5th Ed., Publishers: W. W. Norton & Company, New York and London., ISBN 0-393-96223-7 (hardback)
• Langley, G. Vegan Nutrition: a survey of research, The Vegan Society 1988, ISBN 0-907337-15-5
• Marcus, Erik. (2000) Vegan: The New Ethics of Eating
• Moore Lappe, F. Diet for a Small Planet. Ballantine Books, 1985.
• Moore Lappe, F. & Lappe, A. Hope's Edge: The Next Diet for a Small Planet. Jeremy P. Tarcher Publishing, 2003.
• Saunders, Kerrie (2003) The Vegan Diet As Chronic Disease Prevention: Evidence Supporting the New Four Food Groups
• Smil, V. Rationalizing Animal Food Production, in Feeding the World: A Challenge for the 21st Century, MIT Press, London, 2000. This provides evidence for the amount of grain required to raise livestock.
• Stepaniak, Joanne. (2000) The Vegan Sourcebook
• Torres, B. and Torres, J. Vegan Freak: Being Vegan in a Non-Vegan World. Tofu Hound Press. 2005. ISBN 0-9770804-1-2 (paperback).
• Walsh, S. Plant Based Nutrition and Health, The Vegan Society 2003, ISBN 0-907337-26-0 (paperback), ISBN 0-907337-27-9 (hardback).
• "Non-vegan prescriptions?" by Jo Stepianak, Grassroots Veganism, retrieved October 26, 2005
• "Anger over 'pig' secret of prescribed drug by Martin Shipman, The Western Mail, December 27, 2002, retrieved October 26, 2005
• FAQ, Vegan Resource Group, retrieved October 26, 2005
• Campbell, Colen T. and Campbell, Thommas M. The China Study, page 179, Benbella, 2005, ISBN 1-932100-38-5

Footnotes

1. ^ "MEMORANDUM OF ASSOCIATION OF THE VEGAN SOCIETY" (PDF). About Us. Vegan Society. 1979-11-20. p. 1. Retrieved 2007-02-22. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
2. ^ "Criteria for Vegan food". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-02-17.
3. ^ "Time/CNN Poll: Do you consider yourself a vegetarian?". Time Magazine. 2002-07-07. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
4. ^ "Types and quantities of food consumed: Vegetarian/vegan" (PDF). National Diet & Nutrition Survey: Adults aged 19 to 64, Volume 1 2002. Food Standards Agency. pp. 11, 23. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
5. "Donald Watson". Times Online. Times Newspapers Ltd. 2005-11-16. Retrieved 2006-09-15. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
6. ^ "Vegan Society: History". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-02-17.
7. "Vegetarians in Paradise interview with Donald Watson". Vegetarians in Paradise Web Magazine. Vegetarians in Paradise. 2004-08-11. Retrieved 2006-10-31.
8. "What is Vegan?". American Vegan Society. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
9. "Introduction to Veganism". The Vegan Society of New Zealand. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
10. "About Vegana". The Danish Vegan Society. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
11. Is refined sugar vegan? Vegan Outreach FAQ.
12. "Soap: Is it animal, vegetable, or mineral".
13. "IVU FAQ: Ingredients". International Vegetarian Union FAQ. International Vegetarian Union. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
14. "IVU FAQ: Ingredients 1: Gelatine". International Vegetarian Union FAQ. International Vegetarian Union. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
15. "Is Gelatin Hiding in Your Food? Bone Up on Some Hidden Sources". Vegetarians in Paradise Web Magazine. Vegetarians in Paradise. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
16. "Earthly Origin of Commercial Materials". Retrieved 2007-02-10.
17. "Factory Farms". Why Vegan. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
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21. ^ "China-Cornell-Oxford Project On Nutrition, Environment and Health at Cornell University". Division of Nutritional Sciences. Cornell University. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
22. Henry, Susan O. "Milk: Is it Really Our Best Source for Calcium?". Americal Fitness Professionals & Associates. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
23. Nicholson, Andrew (2005-02-15). "Diabetes: Can a Vegan Diet Reverse Diabetes?". Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine. Retrieved 2006-09-15. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
24. "OrganicAthlete's Pro-Activist Team". Retrieved 2006-10-30.
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26. Lewis, Carl. "Carl Lewis on Being Vegan". Introduction to Very Vegetarian, by Jannequin Bennett. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
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32. Kradjian, Robert. "THE MILK LETTER : A MESSAGE TO MY PATIENTS". Americal Fitness Professionals & Associates. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
33. "Vegan Health: Vitamin B12". veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. 2006-07-26. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
34. ^ "Vegan Health: Bone Health". veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. 2007-01-09. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
35. ^ P Appleby (2007). "Comparative fracture risk in vegetarians and nonvegetarians in EPIC-Oxford". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602659. PMID 17299475. Retrieved 2007-02-25. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
36. "Vegan Health: Iodine". veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. 2006-12-26. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
37. "Vegan Health: Fat". veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. 2007-02-20. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
38. ^ "What every vegan should know about vitamin B12". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-02-22. Vitamin B12, whether in supplements, fortified foods, or animal products, comes from micro-organisms.
39. ^ "Vegans and Vitamin D". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-02-22.
40. ^ Steven Walsh. "Nutrition: Iodine". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
41. "Healthy choices on a vegan diet". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-02-14.
42. ^ Jack Norris, RD (2003-04-18). "Staying a Healthy Vegan". Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-02-22. There are no reliable, unfortified plant sources of vitamin B12; therefore fortified foods and/or supplements are necessary for the optimal health of vegans.
43. ^ "Vitamin B12 Information Sheet". Vegetarian Society. Retrieved 2007-02-22. is exclusively synthesised by bacteria and is found primarily in meat, eggs and dairy products. ... he present consensus is that any B12 present in plant foods is likely to be unavailable to humans and so these foods should not be relied upon as safe sources.
44. ^ Jack Norris, RD (2005-07-22). "Vegan Health: Myth about How Often Someone Needs B12". veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-01-02.
45. "Vitamin B12 (cobalamin)". Merck Manual Home Edition. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
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48. "Don't Vegetarians Have Trouble Getting Enough Vitamin B12?". Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine. Retrieved 2007-02-22.
49. Jack Norris, RD. "Vegan Health: B12 in Tempeh, Seaweeds, Organic Produce, and Other Plant Foods". veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-02-22.
50. Jack Norris, RD. "Vegan Health: Are Intestinal Bacteria a Reliable Source of B12?". veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-02-22.
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53. ^ Michelle Roberts (21 February 2005). "Children 'harmed' by vegan diets". BBC. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
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55. "Former Beatle Paul McCartney Calls GL-CRSP Nutrition Study 'Rubbish'" (PDF). Ruminations Newsletter. Spring 2005. Retrieved 2006-10-31.
56. Left, Sarah (2005-02-21). "Raising children as vegans 'unethical', says professor". Guardian Unlimited. Guardian Newspapers Limited. Retrieved 2006-10-31.
57. Farley, Dixie (1992-05). "Vegetarian Diets: The Plusses and the Pitfalls". FDA Consumer. Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved 2006-10-30. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
58. Lucia Lynn Kaiser (2002-05-03). "Nutrition and lifestyle for a healthy pregnancy outcome". American Dietetic Association. Retrieved 2007-02-14. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
59. ADA’s Public Relations Team (2006-10-03). "The Vegetarian Mom-to-Be". American Dietetic Association. Retrieved 2007-02-14.
60. "Information Sheet: Vegan Nutrition". Vegetarian Society. Retrieved 2007-02-22.
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62. 'More girl babies' for vegetarians
63. sexual development damage due to soya
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65. Dedyna, Katherine (2004-01-30). "Healthy lifestyle, or politically correct eating disorder?". Victoria Times Colonist. CanWest MediaWorks Publications Inc. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
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67. Davis, Brenda. (2002). Becoming Vegan: The Complete Guide to Adopting a Healthy Plant-Based Diet. p.224. ISBN 1-57067-103-6
68. "Meat-Eaters Aiding Global Warming?: New Research Suggests What You Eat as Important as What You Drive" (PDF). pp. 15–18. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
69. "Livestock's Long Shadow–Environmental Issues and Options". Retrieved 2007-01-04.
70. Shurtleff, William. "History of Tofu". LA Tofu Festival. Retrieved 2007-02-18.
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76. Bryanna Clark Grogan. "Vegan Meat Analogs, Dairy Substitutes, and Egg Alternatives". Bryanna's Vegan Feast. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
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78. Jyoti Mehta. "Veganism and Hinduism". The Young Indian Vegetarians. Retrieved 2007-02-22.
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80. Fraser, Gary (1999). "Associations between diet and cancer, ischemic heart disease, and all-cause mortality in non-Hispanic white California Seventh-day Adventists". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 70 (3). 532S-538S. Retrieved 2007-02-22. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
81. Davis, S.L. (2001). "The least harm principle suggests that humans should eat beef, lamb, dairy, not a vegan diet." EurSafe 2001. Food Safety, Food Quality and Food Ethics. Proceedings of the Third Congress of the European Society for Agricultural and Food Ethics. pp 449-450.
82. Davis S.L. (2003) "The least harm principle may require that humans consume a diet containing large herbivores, not a vegan diet". Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics. (16)4. pp. 387-394.
83. Gaverick Matheny (2003). "Least harm: a defense of vegetarianism from Steven Davis's omnivorous proposal". Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics. 16: 505–511. doi:10.1023/A:1026354906892.
84. Why I Am Not a Vegetarian By Dr. William T. Jarvis

See also

• List of vegans
• Raw veganism
• Vegetarianism
• Lacto vegetarianism
• Ovo vegetarianism
• Fruitarianism
• Raw food diet
• Freeganism
• Animal rights
• Farm Sanctuary
• China Study

External links

General

• Vegan Society (UK)
• Vegan Action, US vegan product certification
• Vegan Outreach, creators of the popular "Why Vegan?" pamphlet
• American Vegan Society
• Vegan Society of Australia
• Movement for Compassionate Living (the Vegan Way)

Health/Nutrition

• American Dietetic Association position on vegetarian diet
• The Vegan Society (UK) webpages on nutrition
• Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine
• The Vegetarian and Vegan Foundation

Ethical

• People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals
• ChooseVeg.com, reasons to become vegan
• Farm Sanctuary

• Veganism
• Vegetarianism
• Animal rights
• Intentional living