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| '''Mythology''' or ''']''' refers variously to the collected ] of a group of people<ref>''Oxford English Dictionary'', {{nowrap|3rd ed.}} "myth, ''n.'' Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2003.</ref> or to the study of such myths.{{sfn|Kirk|1973|p=8}} Myths are the ] people tell to explain nature, ], and ]. | |||
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| Myth is a feature of every ]. Many sources for myths have been proposed, ranging from personification of nature or ], to ] or ] accounts of ] to ]<nowiki/>s. A culture's collective mythology helps convey ], shared and religious experiences, behavioral models, and ]. | |||
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| The study of myth began in ]. Rival classes of the ] by ], ] and ] were developed by the ] and later revived by ] mythographers. The nineteenth-century ] reinterpreted myth as a primitive and failed counterpart of ] (]), a "disease of language" (]), or a misinterpretation of ] ] (]). | |||
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| Recent approaches often view myths as manifestations of psychological, cultural, or societal truths, rather than as inaccurate historical accounts. | |||
| ==Etymology== | |||
| {{Mythology}} | |||
| The term ''mythology'' predates the word ''myth'' by centuries.{{refn|]'s '']'', for example, has entries for mythology,<ref>Johnson, Samuel. W. Strahan (London), 1755.</ref> ], mythologize, mythological, and mythologically but none for myth.<ref>Johnson, Samuel. . W. Strahan (London), 1755. Accessed 20 Aug 2014.</ref>}} It first appeared in the fifteenth century,{{refn|{{nowrap|"...I ] ] was ravisched in-to paradys.}}<br>{{nowrap|"And ]us ]is god ]<nowiki>],</nowiki> diuers of liknes,}}<br>"More wonderful ]an I can expresse,<br>"Schewed hym silf in his appearance,<br>"Liche as he is discriued in Fulgence,<br>"In ]e book of his '''methologies'''..."<ref>Lydgate, John. ''Troyyes Book'', {{nowrap|Vol. II}}, {{nowrap|ll. 2487}}. {{enm icon}} Reprinted in Henry Bergen's . Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, & Co. (London), 1906. Accessed 20 Aug 2014.</ref>}} borrowed from the ] term ''mythologie''. The word ''mythology'', ("exposition of myths"), comes from ] ''mythologie'', from ] ''mythologia'', from ] μυθολογία ''mythología'' ("legendary lore, a telling of mythic legends; a legend, story, tale") from μῦθος ''mythos'' ("myth") and -λογία ''-logia'' ("study").<ref>. '']''</ref><ref name=oedmlogy>''Oxford English Dictionary'', 3rd ed. "mythology, ''n.''" 2003. Accessed 20 Aug 2014.</ref> Both terms translated the subject of Latin author ]' fifth-century ''Mythologiæ'', which was concerned with the explication of Greek and Roman stories about their gods, commonly referred to as ]. Although Fulgentius' conflation with the contemporary African ] is now questioned,<ref>Hays, Gregory. "The date and identity of the mythographer Fulgentius" in ''Journal of Medieval Latin'', {{nowrap|Vol. 13}}, {{nowrap|pp. 163 ff.}} 2003.</ref> the ''Mythologiæ'' explicitly treated its subject matter as ] requiring interpretation and not as true events.<ref>{{cite book|first=Fabius Planciades |last=Fulgentius|title=Fulgentius the Mythographer|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=73mJIuYfmzEC}}|year=1971|publisher=Ohio State University Press|isbn=978-0-8142-0162-6}}</ref> | |||
| The word ''mythología'' appears in ], but was used as a general term for "fiction" or "story-telling" of any kind,<ref name="oedmlogy" /> combining ''mỹthos'' and ''-logía'' .<ref name="oedlogy">''Oxford English Dictionary'', {{nowrap|1st ed.}} "-logy, ''comb. form''". Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1903.</ref> From ] until the seventeenth or eighteenth-century, ''mythology'' was similarly used to mean a ], ], ] or a ].<ref name="oedmlogy" /> From its earliest use in reference to a collection of traditional stories or beliefs,{{refn|All which ]'s support of ]'s claims] may still be received in some acceptions of morality, and to a pregnant invention, may afford commendable '''mythologie'''; but in a natural and proper exposition, it containeth impossibilities, and things inconsistent with truth.<ref>]. Edward Dod (London), 1646. Reprinted 1672.</ref>}} mythology implied the falsehood of the stories being described. It came to be applied by analogy with similar bodies of ] among other ] cultures around the world.<ref name="oedmlogy" /> The Greek loanword ''mythos''{{refn|"That ''Mythology'' came in upon this Alteration of their {{nowrap|<nowiki>]s'}} ''Theology'', is obviouſly evident: for the mingling the Hiſtory of theſe Men when Mortals, with what came to be aſcribed to them when Gods, would naturally occaſion it. And of this Sort we generally find the '''''Mythoi''''' told of them..."<ref>Shuckford, Samuel. {{nowrap|J. &}} R. Tonson & S. Draper (London), 1753. Accessed 20 Aug 2014.</ref>}} (pl. ''mythoi'') and Latinate ''mythus''{{refn|"Long before the entire separation of metaphysics from poetry, that is, while yet poesy, in all its several species of verse, music, statuary, &c. continued mythic;—while yet poetry remained the union of the sensuous and the philosophic mind;—the efficient presence of the latter in the ''synthesis'' of the two, had manifested itself in the sublime ''mythus'' ''περὶ γενέσεως τοῦ νοῦ ἐν ἀνθρωποῖς'' concerning the ''genesis'', or birth of the νοῦς or reason in man."<ref>Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. "On the ''Prometheus'' of Æschylus: An Essay, preparatory to a series of disquisitions respecting the Egyptian, in connection with the sacerdotal, theology, and in contrast with the mysteries of ancient Greece." Royal Society of Literature (London), 18 May 1825. Reprinted in {{cite book|first=Henry Nelson |last=Coleridge|title=The Literary Remains of Samuel Taylor Coleridge: Shakespeare, with introductory matter on poetry, the drama, and the stage. Notes on Ben Jonson; Beaumont and Fletcher; On the Prometheus of Æschylus [and others|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=IA8LAAAAYAAJ|page=335}}|year=1836|publisher=W. Pickering|pages=335–}}</ref>}} (pl. ''mythi'') both appeared in English before the first example of ''myth'' in 1830.{{refn|"According to the rabbi ], ], discoursing on the splendor of the heavenly bodies, insisted that, since God had thus exalted them above the other parts of creation, it was but reasonable that we should praise, extol, and honour them. The consequence of this exhortation, says the rabbi, was the building of temples to the stars, and the establishment of idolatry throughout the world. By the Arabian divines however, the imputation is laid upon the patriarch ]; who, they say, on coming out from the dark cave in which he had been brought up, was so astonished at the sight of the stars, that he worshipped Hesperus, the Moon, and the Sun successively as they rose.<ref>{{cite book |authorlink=Abrahamus Ecchellensis |last=Abraham of Hekel|title=Chronicon orientale, nunc primum Latinitate donatum ab Abrahamo Ecchellensi Syro Maronita e Libano, linguarum Syriacae, ... cui accessit eiusdem Supplementum historiae orientalis (The Oriental Chronicles|chapter=Historia Arabum(History of the Arabs)|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=APDxSjZkOS8C|page=175}}|year=1651|publisher=e Typographia regia|pages=175–}} {{la icon}} Translated in paraphrase in {{cite book|first=Thomas |last=Blackwell|title=Letters Concerning Mythology|chapter=Letter Seventeenth|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=QdNbAAAAQAAJ|page=269}}|year=1748|publisher=printed in the year|pages=269–}}</ref> These two stories are good illustrations of the origin of '''''myths''''', by means of which, even the most natural sentiment is traced to its cause in the circumstances of fabulous history.<ref>] review of {{cite book|first=Edward |last=Upham|title=The History and Doctrine of Budhism: Popularly Illustrated: with Notices of the Kappooism, Or Demon Worship, and of the Bali, Or Planetary Incantations, of Ceylon|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=BoJEAAAAcAAJ}}|year=1829|publisher=R. Ackermann}} In . Rob't Heward (London), 1829.<!--sic--> Accessed 20 Aug 2014.</ref>}} | |||
| ==Terminology== | |||
| {{See also|Legend|Folklore}} | |||
| ] | |||
| In present use, ''mythology'' usually refers to the collected myths of a group of people, but may also mean the study of such myths.{{sfn|Kirk|1973|p=8}} For example, ], ] and ] all describe the body of myths retold among those cultures. ] defined myth as a ] ] that explains how the world and humanity evolved into their present form. Dundes classified a sacred narrative as "a story that serves to define the fundamental worldview of a culture by explaining aspects of the natural world and delineating the psychological and social practices and ideals of a society".<ref name=grassie/> ] defined ''myth'' as "ideology in narrative form."<ref>{{cite journal |last= Lincoln |first= Bruce |year= 2006 |title= An Early Moment in the Discourse of "Terrorism": Reflections on a Tale from Marco Polo |jstor= 3879351 |journal= ] |volume= 48 |issue= 2 |pages= 242–259 |quote= More precisely, mythic discourse deals in master categories that have multiple referents: levels of the cosmos, terrestrial geographies, plant and animal species, logical categories, and the like. Their plots serve to organize the relations among these categories and to justify a hierarchy among them, establishing the rightness (or at least the necessity) of a world in which heaven is above earth, the lion the king of beasts, the cooked more pleasing than the raw. |doi=10.1017/s0010417506000107}}</ref> Scholars in other fields use the term ''myth'' in varied ways.{{sfn|Dundes|1984|p=147}}{{sfn|Doty|2004|pp= 11–12}}{{sfn|Segal|2015|p= 5}} In a broad sense, the word can refer to any ],{{sfn|Kirk|1984|p=57}}{{sfn|Kirk|1973|p= 74}}{{sfn|Apollodorus|1976|p= 3}} ] or ] entity.<ref>{{cite book|title=]'s Collegiate Dictionary|chapter=myth|page=770|edition=10th|publisher=], Inc|location=]|year=1993}}</ref> Due to this pejorative sense, some scholars opted for the term ''mythos.''<ref name=grassie>{{cite journal |last1=Grassie |first1=William |date=March 1998 |title=Science as Epic? Can the modern evolutionary cosmology be a mythic story for our time? |journal=Science & Spirit |volume=9 |issue=1 |quote=The word 'myth' is popularly understood to mean idle fancy, fiction, or falsehood; but there is another meaning of the word in academic discourse .... Using the original Greek term ''mythos'' is perhaps a better way to distinguish this more positive and all-encompassing definition of the word.}}</ref> Its use was similarly pejorative and now more commonly refers to its ] sense as a "plot point" or to a collective mythology,<ref name=oedmthos>''Oxford English Dictionary'', {{nowrap|3rd ed.}} "mythos, ''n.''" Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2003.</ref> as in the ] of ]. | |||
| The term is often distinguished from ] literature such as fables, but its relationship with other traditional stories, such as ]s and ]s, is more nebulous.{{sfn|Bascom|1965|p= 7}} Main characters in myths are usually ], ]s or ] humans,{{sfn|Bascom|1965|p= 9}}<ref name="mythfolk">"myths", ''A Dictionary of English Folklore''</ref><ref>O'Flaherty, p.78: "I think it can be well argued as a matter of principle that, just as 'biography is about chaps', so mythology is about gods."</ref> while legends generally feature humans as their main characters.{{sfn|Bascom|1965|p= 9}} However, many exceptions or combinations exist, as in the '']'', '']'' and '']''.{{sfn|Kirk|1973|pp=22, 32}}{{sfn|Kirk|1984|p= 55}} Myths are often endorsed by rulers and priests and are closely linked to religion or spirituality.{{sfn|Bascom|1965|p= 9}} In fact, many societies group their myths, legends and history together, considering myths to be true accounts of their remote past.{{sfn|Bascom|1965|p= 9}}<ref name="mythfolk"/>{{sfn|Eliade|1998|p= 23}}{{sfn|Pettazzoni|1984|p= 102}} ]s particularly, take place in a primordial age when the world had not achieved its later form.{{sfn|Bascom|1965|p= 9}}{{sfn|Dundes|1984|p= 1}}{{sfn|Eliade|1998|p= 6}} Other myths explain how a society's ], ]s and ]s were established and sanctified.{{sfn|Bascom|1965|p= 9}}{{sfn|Eliade|1998|p= 6}} A separate space is created for folktales,{{sfn|Bascom|1965|p= 17}}{{sfn|Eliade|1998|p= 10–11}}{{sfn|Pettazzoni|1984|pp= 99–101}} which are not considered true by anyone.{{sfn|Bascom|1965|p= 9}} As stories spread to other cultures or as faiths change, myths can come to be considered folktales.{{sfn|Doty|2004|p=114}}{{sfn|Bascom|1965|p= 13}} Its divine characters are recast as either as humans or demihumans such as ]s, ] and ]s.<ref name="mythfolk"/> | |||
| ==Origins== | |||
| ]]] | |||
| ===Euhemerism=== | |||
| {{Main article|Euhemerism}} | |||
| {{See also|Herodotus}} | |||
| One theory claims that myths are distorted accounts of historical events.{{sfn|Bulfinch|2004|p= 194}}{{sfn|Honko|1984|p= 45}} According to this theory, storytellers repeatedly elaborate upon historical accounts until the figures in those accounts gain the status of gods.{{sfn|Bulfinch|2004|p= 194}}{{sfn|Honko|1984|p= 45}} For example, the myth of the wind-god ] may have evolved from a historical account of a king who taught his people to use sails and interpret the winds.{{sfn|Bulfinch|2004|p= 194}} ] (fifth-century BC) and ] made claims of this kind.{{sfn|Honko|1984|p= 45}} This theory is named ''euhemerism'' after mythologist ] (c.320 BC), who suggested that Greek gods developed from legends about human beings.{{sfn|Honko|1984|p= 45}}<ref>"Euhemerism", ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions''</ref> | |||
| ===Allegory=== | |||
| Some theories propose that myths began as allegories for natural phenomena: ] represents the sun, ] represents water, and so on.{{sfn|Honko|1984|p= 45}} According to another theory, myths began as allegories for philosophical or spiritual concepts: ] represents wise judgment, ] desire, and so on.{{sfn|Honko|1984|p= 45}} ] supported an allegorical theory of myth. He believed myths began as allegorical descriptions of nature and gradually came to be interpreted literally. For example, a poetic description of the sea as "raging" was eventually taken literally and the sea was then thought of as a raging god.{{sfn|Segal|2015|p= 20}} | |||
| ===Personification=== | |||
| {{See also|Mythopoeic thought}} | |||
| Some thinkers claimed that myths result from the ] of objects and forces. According to these thinkers, the ancients worshiped natural phenomena, such as fire and air, gradually deifying them.{{sfn|Bulfinch|2004|p= 195}} For example, according to this theory, ancients tended to view things as gods, not as mere objects.{{sfn|Frankfort|Frankfort|Wilson|Jacobsen|2013|p= 4}} Thus, they described natural events as acts of personal gods, giving rise to myths.{{sfn|Frankfort|Frankfort|Wilson|Jacobsen|2013|p= 15}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ===Myth-ritual theory=== | |||
| {{See also|Myth and ritual}} | |||
| According to the myth-ritual theory, myth is tied to ritual.{{sfn|Segal|2015|p= 61}} In its most extreme form, this theory claims myths arose to explain rituals.{{sfn|Graf|1996|p= 40}} This claim was first put forward by ],{{sfn|Meletinsky|2014| pp=19–20}} who claimed that people begin performing rituals for reasons not related to myth. Forgetting the original reason for a ritual, they account for it by inventing a myth and claiming the ritual commemorates the events described in that myth.{{sfn|Segal|2015|p= 63}} ] claimed that humans started out with a belief in magical rituals; later, they began to lose faith in magic and invented myths about gods, reinterpreting their rituals as religious rituals intended to appease the gods.{{sfn|Frazer|1913|p= 711}} | |||
| {{clear}} | |||
| ==Functions== | |||
| ] digital art part of ].]] | |||
| ] argued that one of the foremost functions of myth is to establish models for behavior{{sfn|Eliade|1998|p= 8}}{{sfn|Honko|1984|p= 51}} and that myths may provide a religious experience. By telling or reenacting myths, members of traditional societies detach themselves from the present, returning to the mythical age, thereby coming closer to the divine.{{sfn|Eliade|1998|p= 23}}{{sfn|Honko|1984|p= 51}}{{sfn|Eliade|1998|p= 19}} | |||
| ] asserted that, in some cases, a society reenacts a myth in an attempt to reproduce the conditions of the mythical age. For example, it might reenact the healing performed by a god at the beginning of time in order to heal someone in the present.{{sfn|Honko|1984| p=49}} Similarly, ] argued that modern culture explores religious experience. Since it is not the job of science to define human morality, a religious experience is an attempt to connect with a perceived moral past, which is in contrast with the technological present.{{sfn|Barthes|1972}} | |||
| ] writes: | |||
| :"In the long view of the history of mankind, four essential functions of mythology can be discerned. The first and most distinctive – vitalizing all – is that of eliciting and supporting a sense of awe before the mystery of being."{{sfn|Campbell|1991|p=519}} | |||
| :"The second function of mythology is to render a cosmology, an image of the universe that will support and be supported by this sense of awe before the mystery of the presence and the presence of a mystery."{{sfn|Campbell|1991|p=519}} | |||
| :"A third function of mythology is to support the current social order, to integrate the individual organically with his group;"{{sfn|Campbell|1991|p=520}} | |||
| :"The fourth function of mythology is to initiate the individual into the order of realities of his own psyche, guiding him toward his own spiritual enrichment and realization."{{sfn|Campbell|1991|p=521}} | |||
| In a later work Campbell explained the relationship of myth to civilization: | |||
| :The rise and fall of civilisations in the long, broad course of history can be seen largely to be a function of the integrity and cogency of their supporting canons of myth; for not authority but aspiration is the motivator, builder, and transformer of civilisation. A mythological canon is an organisation of symbols, ineffable in import, by which the energies of aspiration are evoked and gathered toward a focus.{{sfn|Campbell|1991|p=5}} | |||
| Yet the history of civilization is not one of harmony. | |||
| :There are two pathologies. One is interpreting myth as pseudo-science, as though it had to do with directing nature instead of putting oneself in accord with nature, and the other is the political interpretation of myths to the advantage of one group within a society, or one society within a group of nations.<ref>{{cite book|last=Boa|first=Fraser|title=The way of myth : talking with Joseph Campbell|year=1994|publisher=Shambhala|location=Boston|isbn=1-57062-042-3|page=152|edition=1st Shambhala}}</ref> | |||
| Campbell answers the question, "''what is the function of myth today''?" in the second episode of ]'s '']'' series. | |||
| ] defines mythology as "a subjective truth of people that is communicated through stories, symbols and rituals". He adds, "unlike fantasy that is nobody’s truth, and history that seeks to be everybody’s truth, mythology is somebody’s truth."<ref name="PD2016">{{cite web | last=Pattanaik | first=Devdutt| title=Why I Insist On Calling Myself A Mythologist | website=Swarajya | date=14 September 2015 | url=http://swarajyamag.com/culture/why-i-insist-on-calling-myself-a-mythologist | accessdate=24 July 2016}}</ref> | |||
| ==History of the academic discipline== | |||
| ] and ] (1916).]] | |||
| Historically, the important approaches to the study of mythology have been those of ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], the Soviet school, and the ].<ref>Guy Lanoue, Foreword to Meletinsky, p.viii</ref> | |||
| ===Pre-modern=== | |||
| The critical interpretation of myth began with the ].{{sfn|Segal|2015|p= 1}} Euhemerus was one of the most important pre-modern mythologists. He interpreted myths as accounts of actual historical events - distorted over many retellings. Sallustius<ref>On the Gods and the World, ch. 5, See Collected Writings on the Gods and the World, The Prometheus Trust, Frome, 1995</ref> divided myths into five categories – theological, physical (or concerning natural laws), animistic (or concerning soul), material, and mixed. Mixed concerns myths that show the interaction between two or more of the previous categories and are particularly used in initiations. | |||
| Plato famously condemned poetic myth when discussing education in the ''].'' His critique was primarily on the grounds that the uneducated might take the stories of gods and heroes literally. Nevertheless, he constantly referred to myths throughout his writings. As ] developed in the phases commonly called Middle Platonism and ], writers such as ], ], ], ] and ] wrote explicitly about the symbolic interpretation of traditional and Orphic myths.<ref>Perhaps the most extended passage of philosophic interpretation of myth is to be found in the fifth and sixth essays of Proclus’ ''Commentary on the Republic'' (to be found in ''The Works of Plato I'', trans. Thomas Taylor, The Prometheus Trust, Frome, 1996); Porphyry’s analysis of the Homeric Cave of the Nymphs is another important work in this area (''Select Works of Porphyry'', Thomas Taylor The Prometheus Trust, Frome, 1994). See the external links below for a full English translation.</ref> | |||
| Interest in polytheistic mythology revived during the ], with early works on mythography appearing in the sixteenth-century, such as the '']'' (1532). While myths are not the same as fables, legends, folktales, fairy tales, anecdotes, or fiction, the concepts may overlap. Notably, during the nineteenth century period of Romanticism, folktales and fairy tales were perceived as eroded fragments of earlier mythology (famously by the ] and ]). | |||
| Mythological themes were consciously employed in literature, beginning with ]. The resulting work may expressly refer to a mythological background without itself becoming part of a body of myths (]). Medieval romance in particular plays with this process of turning myth into literature. ''Euhemerism'', as stated earlier, refers to the rationalization of myths, putting themes formerly imbued with mythological qualities into pragmatic contexts. An example of this would be following a cultural or religious paradigm shift (notably the re-interpretation of ] mythology following ]). | |||
| Conversely, historical and literary material may acquire mythological qualities over time. For example, the ] (the legendary history of Great Britain, especially those focused on ] and ]) and the ], based on historical events of the fifth and eighth-centuries respectively, were first made into ] and became partly mythological over the following centuries. "Conscious generation" of mythology was termed ''mythopoeia'' by ] and was notoriously also suggested, separately, by Nazi ideologist ]. | |||
| ===Nineteenth-century=== | |||
| The first scholarly theories of myth appeared during the second half of the nineteenth-century.{{sfn|Segal|2015|p= 1}} In general, these nineteenth-century theories framed myth as a failed or obsolete mode of thought, often by interpreting myth as the primitive counterpart of modern science.{{sfn|Segal|2015|pp= 3–4}} | |||
| For example, ] interpreted myth as an attempt at a literal explanation for natural phenomena. Unable to conceive impersonal natural laws, early humans tried to explain natural phenomena by attributing souls to inanimate objects, giving rise to ].{{sfn|Segal|2015|p= 4}} According to Tylor, human thought evolved through stages, starting with mythological ideas and gradually progressing to scientific ideas. Not all scholars, not even all nineteenth-century scholars, accepted this view. ] claimed "the primitive mentality is a condition of the human mind, and not a stage in its historical development."<ref>{{cite book|last=Mâche|title=Music, Myth and Nature, or The Dolphins of Arion| year=1992| pages= 8}}</ref> | |||
| ] called myth a "disease of language". He speculated that myths arose due to the lack of abstract nouns and neuter gender in ancient languages. Anthropomorphic figures of speech, necessary in such languages, were eventually taken literally, leading to the idea that natural phenomena were in actuality conscious beings or gods.{{sfn|Segal|2015|p= 20}} | |||
| ] saw myths as a misinterpretation of magical rituals, which were themselves based on a mistaken idea of natural law.{{sfn|Segal|2015|pp= 67–68}} According to Frazer, humans begin with an unfounded belief in impersonal magical laws. When they realize applications of these laws do not work, they give up their belief in natural law in favor of a belief in personal gods controlling nature, thus giving rise to religious myths. Meanwhile, humans continue practicing formerly magical rituals through force of habit, reinterpreting them as reenactments of mythical events. Finally humans come to realize nature follows natural laws, and they discover their true nature through science. Here again, science makes myth obsolete as humans progress "from magic through religion to science."{{sfn|Frazer|1913|p= 711}} | |||
| Segal asserted that by pitting mythical thought against modern scientific thought, such theories imply modern humans must abandon myth.{{sfn|Segal|2015|p= 3}} | |||
| ===Twentieth-century=== | |||
| ]'' (1868) by ]. In the mythos of ] and possibly ] (the ] trilogy '']'', '']'' and '']''), Prometheus is bound and tortured for giving fire to humanity.]] | |||
| Many twentieth-century theories rejected the nineteenth-century theories' opposition of myth and science. In general, "twentieth-century theories have tended to see myth as almost anything but an outdated counterpart to science . Consequently, modern individuals are not obliged to abandon myth for science."{{sfn|Segal|2015|p= 3}} | |||
| ] tried to understand the psychology behind world myths. Jung asserted that all humans share certain innate unconscious psychological forces, which he called '']''. He believed similarities between the myths of different cultures reveals the existence of these universal archetypes.<ref>Boeree</ref> | |||
| Campbell described two orders of mythology: myths that "are metaphorical of spiritual potentiality in the human being," and myths "that have to do with specific societies."{{sfn|Campbell|1976|p=22}} His major work is ''The Masks of God I-IV''. In the first volume, ''Primitive Mythology'', he clearly outlines his intention: | |||
| {{quote|Without straining beyond the treasuries of evidence already on hand in these widely scattered departments of our subject, therefore, but simply gathering from them the membra disjuncta of a unitary mythological science, I attempt in the following pages the first sketch of a natural history of the gods and heroes, such as in its final form should include in its purview all divine beings—as zoology includes all animals and botany all plants—not regarding any as sacrosanct or beyond its scientific domain. For, as in the visible world of the vegetable and animal kingdoms, so also in the visionary world of the gods: there has been a history, an evolution, a series of mutations, governed by laws; and to show forth such laws is the proper aim of science.{{sfn|Campbell|1976|p=4}}}} | |||
| In his fourth volume Campbell coined the phrase, '']'', which he explains as: | |||
| {{quote|In the context of traditional mythology, the symbols are presented in socially maintained rites, through which the individual is required to experience, or will pretend to have experienced, certain insights, sentiments and commitments. In what I'm calling creative mythology, on the other hand, this order is reversed: the individual has had an experience of his own – of order, horror, beauty, or even mere exhilaration-which he seeks to communicate through signs; and if his realization has been of a certain depth and import, his communication will have the force and value of living myth-for those, that is to say, who receive and respond to it of themselves, with recognition, uncoerced.{{sfn|Campbell|1991|p=4}}}} | |||
| ] believed myths reflect patterns in the mind and interpreted those patterns more as fixed mental structures, specifically pairs of opposites (good/evil, compassionate/callous), rather than unconscious feelings or urges.{{sfn|Segal|2015|p= 113}} | |||
| In his appendix to ''Myths, Dreams and Mysteries'', and in ''The Myth of the Eternal Return'', ] attributed modern humans’ anxieties to their rejection of myths and the sense of the sacred.{{Citation needed|date=August 2015}} | |||
| In the 1950s, Barthes published a series of essays examining modern myths and the process of their creation in his book '']''.{{Citation needed|date=August 2015}} | |||
| Following the Structuralist Era (roughly the 1960s to 1980s), the predominant anthropological and sociological approaches to myth increasingly treated myth as a form of narrative that can be studied, interpreted and analyzed like ideology, history and culture. In other words, myth is a form of understanding and telling stories that is connected to power, political structures, and political and economic interests. These approaches contrast with approaches such as those of Campbell and Eliade that hold that myth has some type of essential connection to ultimate sacred meanings that transcend cultural specifics. In particular, myth was studied in relation to history from diverse social sciences. Most of these studies share the assumption that history and myth are not distinct in the sense that history is factual, real, accurate, and truth, while myth is the opposite. | |||
| Christian theologian ] wrote that | |||
| {{quote|...myth today has come to have negative connotations which are the complete opposite of its meaning in a religious context... In a religious context, however, myths are storied vehicles of supreme truth, the most basic and important truths of all. By them people regulate and interpret their lives and find worth and purpose in their existence. Myths put one in touch with sacred realities, the fundamental sources of being, power, and truth. They are seen not only as being the opposite of error but also as being clearly distinguishable from stories told for entertainment and from the workaday, domestic, practical language of a people. They provide answers to the mysteries of being and becoming, mysteries which, as mysteries, are hidden, yet mysteries which are revealed through story and ritual. Myths deal not only with truth but with ultimate truth.{{sfn|Hyers|1984|p=107}}}} | |||
| ==Comparative mythology== | |||
| {{Main article|Comparative mythology}} | |||
| Comparative mythology is the systematic comparison of myths from different cultures. It seeks to discover underlying themes that are common to the myths of multiple cultures. In some cases, comparative mythologists use the similarities between separate mythologies to argue that those mythologies have a common source. This source may inspire myths or provide a common "protomythology" that diverged into the mythologies of each culture.{{sfn|Littleton|1973|p=32}} | |||
| Nineteenth-century interpretations of myth were often comparative, seeking a common origin for all myths.{{sfn|Leonard|2007}} Later scholars tend to avoid universal statements about mythology. One exception to this modern trend is Campbell's '']'' (1949), which claims that all ] myths follow the same underlying pattern. This theory of a ] later fell out of favor.{{sfn|Northup|2006|p=8}} | |||
| ==Modern mythology== | |||
| ] ], depicting ], ] and ].]] | |||
| In modern society, myth is often regarded as a collection of stories. Scholars in the field of ] research how myth has worked itself into modern discourses. Mythological discourse can reach greater audiences than ever before via digital media. Various mythic elements appear in ], ] and ]s. | |||
| Although myth was traditionally transmitted through the oral tradition on a small scale, the film industry has enabled filmmakers to transmit myths to large audiences via film.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Cinematic Mythmaking: Philosophy in Film|last=Singer|first=Irving|publisher=MIT Press|year=2008|isbn=|location=|pages=3–6}}</ref> In ]<nowiki/>ian psychology myths are the expression of a culture or society’s goals, fears, ambitions and dreams.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Indick|first=William|date=November 18, 2004|title=Classical Heroes in Modern Movies: Mythological Patterns of the Superhero|url=|journal=Journal of Media Psychology|doi=|pmid=|access-date=}}</ref> Film is an expression of the society in which it was produced and reflects the culture of its era and location. | |||
| The basis of modern visual storytelling is rooted in the mythological tradition. Many contemporary films rely on ancient myths to construct narratives. ] is well-known among cultural study scholars for "reinventing" traditional childhood myths.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Folklore Studies and Popular Film and Television: A Necessary Critical Survey|last=Koven|first=Michael|publisher=University of Illinois Press|year=2003|isbn=|location=|pages=176–195}}</ref> While many films are not as obvious as Disney fairy tales, the plots of many films are based on the rough structure of myths. Mythological archetypes, such as the cautionary tale regarding the abuse of technology, battles between gods and creation stories, are often the subject of major film productions. These films are often created under the guise of ] ]s, ], ]s and ] tales.{{sfn|Corner|1999|pp=47–59}} | |||
| Recent films such as '']'', '']'' and '']'' continue the trend of mining traditional mythology to frame modern plots. Authors use mythology as a basis for their books, such as ], whose ] series is situated in a modern-day world where the ] are manifest, as well as his ] with the ] and ] with the ]. | |||
| Modern myths such as ] shows that myth-making continues. Myth-making is not a collection of stories fixed to a remote time and place, but an ongoing social practice within every society. | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| ] and ] represented as half-snake, half-human creatures]] | |||
| ;General | |||
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| {{Portal|Mythology}} | |||
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| ;Mythological archetypes | |||
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| ;Myth and religion | |||
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| ;Popular culture and media | |||
| *]- artificially constructed mythology, mainly for the purpose of storytelling. | |||
| ==Journals about mythology== | |||
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| ==Notes== | |||
| {{Reflist|30em}} | |||
| ==References== | |||
| *{{cite book|last=Apollodorus|title=Gods and Heroes of the Greeks: The Library of Apollodorus|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=3cmSa4H_C0oC}}|year=1976|publisher= ]|isbn=0-87023-206-1|translator-last=Simpson |translator-first=Michael|chapter= Introduction|location= Amherst|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=Karen |last=Armstrong|authorlink=Karen Armstrong|title=A Short History of Myth (Myths series)|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=QHbE9hRA10gC}}|date=29 October 2010|publisher=Knopf Canada|isbn=978-0-307-36729-7}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=Roland |last=Barthes|authorlink=Roland Barthes|title=Mythologies|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=jP-DBAAAQBAJ}}|date=1 January 1972|publisher=Hill and Wang|isbn=978-0-8090-7193-7|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=William Russell |last=Bascom|authorlink=William Bascom|title=The Forms of Folklore: Prose Narratives|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=AU0hNAAACAAJ}}|year=1965|publisher=University of California|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=John |last=Bowker|title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=mhF1QgAACAAJ}}|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-861053-3|chapter=Euhemerism|chapter-url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t101.e2315}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=Thomas |last=Bulfinch|authorlink=Thomas Bulfinch|title=Bulfinch's Mythology|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=OskAy9XOnIsC}}|date=June 2004|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|isbn=978-1-4191-1109-9|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book|last=Campbell|first=Joseph|title=Occidental Mythology|year=1991|publisher=Arkana|isbn=0-14-019441-X|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book|first=Joseph |last=Campbell|title=The Masks of God: Primitive mythology|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=kXUZAQAAMAAJ}}|date=1 June 1976|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-004304-4|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first1=Joseph |last1=Campbell|authorlink1=Joseph Campbell|first2=Bill |last2=Moyers|authorlink2=Bill Moyers|title=The Power of Myth|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=2GOIGuh5GJ4C}}|date=18 May 2011|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-307-79472-7}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=Joseph |last=Campbell|title=The Masks of God: Creative Mythology|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=XEUTF9fxYSQC}}|year=1991|publisher=Arkana|isbn=978-0-14-019440-1}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=John |last=Corner|title=Critical Ideas in Television Studies|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=Ta9kAAAAMAAJ}}|year=1999|publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-874221-0 |ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=Wendy |last=Doniger|title=Hindu Myths: A Sourcebook Translated from the Sanskrit|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=KzlCthJ4SLkC}}|date=24 June 2004|publisher=Penguin Books Limited|isbn=978-0-14-190375-0}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=William G. |last=Doty|title=Myth: A Handbook|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=qeI5UC1rmwwC}}|year=2004|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-32696-7|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=Christine |last=Downing|title=The Goddess: Mythological Images of the Feminine|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=U7yNnQEACAAJ}}|year=1996|publisher=Continuum}} | |||
| *]. "Binary Opposition in Myth: The Propp/Levi-Strauss Debate in Retrospect". ''Western Folklore'' 56 (Winter, 1997): 39–50. | |||
| *{{cite book|editor-first=Alan |editor-last=Dundes|title=Sacred Narrative: Readings in the Theory of Myth|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=l5Om2ALAFbEC}}|year=1984|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-05192-8|ref=harv}} | |||
| **{{cite book|last=Honko |first=Lauri |chapter=The Problem of Defining Myth |chapter-url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=l5Om2ALAFbEC}}|year=1984|ref=harv}} | |||
| **{{cite book|last=Kirk |first=G.S |chapter=On Defining Myths |chapter-url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=l5Om2ALAFbEC|page=53}}|pp=53–61|year=1984|ref=harv}} | |||
| **{{cite book|last=Pettazzoni |first=Raffaele |chapter=The Truth of Myth|chapter-url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=l5Om2ALAFbEC}}|year=1984|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{cite book|editor1-first=Laurie L. |editor1-last=Patton|editor2-first=Wendy |editor2-last=Doniger|title=Myth and Method|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=OgsTmeRHpeUC|page=147}}|year=1996|publisher=University of Virginia Press|isbn=978-0-8139-1657-6|pages=147–|last=Dundes |first=Alan |chapter=Madness in Method Plus a Plea for Projective Inversion in Myth}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=Mircea |last=Eliade|authorlink=Mircea Eliade|title=Myth and Reality|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=CaIUAAAAQBAJ}}|date=22 June 1998|publisher=Waveland Press|isbn=978-1-4786-0861-5|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=Mircea |last=Eliade|title=Myths, dreams, and mysteries: the encounter between contemporary faiths and archaic realities|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=XWZSvgAACAAJ}}|year=1960|publisher=Harvill Press|isbn=978-0-06-131320-2|translator-first=Philip |translator-last=Mairet|ref=harv}} | |||
| * ] | |||
| *{{cite book|first1=Henri |last1=Frankfort|authorlink1=Henri Frankfort|first2=H. A. |last2=Frankfort|first3=John A. |last3=Wilson|first4=Thorkild |last4=Jacobsen |first5=William A.|last5= Irwin|title=The Intellectual Adventure of Ancient Man: An Essay of Speculative Thought in the Ancient Near East|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=tSECAAAAQBAJ}}|date=28 June 2013|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-11256-5|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=Sir James George |last=Frazer|authorlink=James George Frazer|title=The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=z3sIAQAAIAAJ&pg=PR10}}|year=1913|publisher=Macmillan and Company, limited|pages=10–|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=Fritz |last=Graf|title=Greek Mythology: An Introduction|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=L2yMRI5xML8C}}|date=9 May 1996|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-8018-5395-1 |translator-first=Thomas |translator-last=Marier|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{cite book|last=Humphrey |first=Sheryl |title=The Haunted Garden: Death and Transfiguration in the Folklore of Plants|location=New York |publisher=DCA Art Fund Grant from the Council on the Arts and Humanities for Staten Island and public funding from the ]|isbn= 978-1-300-55364-9 |year=2012}} | |||
| *{{cite book|last=Hyers |first=Conradl |title=The Meaning of Creation: Genesis and Modern Science|location=|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn= 978-0804201254 |year=1984}} | |||
| *{{cite journal|last=Indick |first=William |title=Classical Heroes in Modern Movies: Mythological Patterns of the Superhero |journal=Journal of Media Psychology |volume=9 |issue=3 |year=2004 |p=93–95}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=Geoffrey Stephen |last=Kirk|title=Myth: Its Meaning and Functions in Ancient and Other Cultures|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=MXtfRwFwGzMC}}|year=1973|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-02389-5|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{Cite journal|last=Koven|first=Mikel J.|date=2003-05-22|title=Folklore Studies and Popular Film and Television: A Necessary Critical Survey|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/42709|journal=Journal of American Folklore|volume=116|issue=460|pages=176–195|doi=10.1353/jaf.2003.0027|issn=1535-1882|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{cite web|last=Leonard|first= Scott |title=The History of Mythology: Part I|date=August 2007|url=http://www.as.ysu.edu/~saleonard/History%20of%20Mythology%201.html |publisher=Youngstown State University |accessdate=17 November 2009|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=C. Scott |last=Littleton|title=The New Comparative Mythology: An Anthropological Assessment of the Theories of Georges Dumézil|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=KuSy6xW99agC|page=1}}|date=1 January 1973|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-02404-5|pages=1–|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{cite journal|last=Matira |first=Lopamundra |title=Children's Oral Literature and Modern Mass Media |journal=Indian Folklore Research Journal |volume=5 |issue=8 |year=2008 |pp=55–57}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=Eleazar M. |last=Meletinsky|title=The Poetics of Myth|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=kzmlAgAAQBAJ}}|date=21 January 2014|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-135-59913-3|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{cite web |last=Olson |first=Eric L. |title=Great Expectations: the Role of Myth in 1980s Films with Child Heroes |work= Virginia Polytechnic Scholarly Library |publisher=Virginia Polytechnic Institute And State University |date=May 3, 2011 |accessdate=October 24, 2011 |url=http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-05172011-113805/unrestricted/OLSON_EL_T_2011.pdf|format=PDF}} | |||
| *"Myth". ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. 2009. , 21 March 2009 | |||
| *"Myths". ''''. ] and Steve Roud. Oxford University Press, 2000. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. UC – Berkeley Library. 20 March 2009 | |||
| *{{Cite journal|date=2006-01-01|last=Northup|first=Lesley|title=Myth-Placed Priorities: Religion and the Study of Myth|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1748-0922.2006.00018.x/abstract|journal=Religious Studies Review|language=en|volume=32|issue=1|pages=5–10|doi=10.1111/j.1748-0922.2006.00018.x|issn=1748-0922|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=Robert |last=Segal|title=Myth: A Very Short Introduction|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=wJu9CQAAQBAJ|page=19}}|date=23 July 2015|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-103769-6|pages=19–|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=Irving |last=Singer|title=Cinematic Mythmaking: Philosophy in Film|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=DhrTiQW16-gC|page=1}}|date=24 September 2010|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-26484-6|pages=1–}} | |||
| *{{cite book|last=Slattery |first=Dennis Patrick |title=Bridge Work: Essays on Mythology, Literature and Psychology |location=Carpinteria |publisher=Mandorla Books |year=2015}} | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| * {{cite book|first=Stefan |last=Arvidsson|title=Aryan Idols: Indo-European Mythology as Ideology and Science|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=idTPDI6l0mkC}}|date=15 September 2006|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-02860-6}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=Kees W. |last=Bolle|title=The Freedom of Man in Myth|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=BXRMAwAAQBAJ|page=92}}|date=1 August 2010|publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers|isbn=978-1-60899-265-2|pages=92–}} | |||
| *] | |||
| **{{cite book|first=Joseph |last=Campbell|title=The Hero with a Thousand Faces|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=I1uFuXlvFgMC}}|year=2008|publisher=New World Library|isbn=978-1-57731-593-3}} ] | |||
| **{{cite book|first=Joseph |last=Campbell|title=The Flight of the Wild Gander: Explorations in the Mythological Dimension : Selected Essays, 1944-1968|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=oq-xLPfgvJ4C}}|year=2002|publisher=New World Library|isbn=978-1-57731-210-9}} | |||
| **{{cite book|first=Joseph |last=Campbell|title=Thou Art That: Transforming Religious Metaphor|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=1Kw5OWibZ0oC}}|date=September 2010|publisher=ReadHowYouWant.com|isbn=978-1-4587-5773-9}} ] | |||
| *{{cite book|first=Eric |last=Csapo|title=Theories of Mythology|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=83P3qenuH9EC}}|date=24 January 2005|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-631-23248-3}} | |||
| *] | |||
| **{{cite book|first=Mircea |last=Eliade|title=The Myth of the Eternal Return: Cosmos and History|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=zHjV4WICvSwC}}|year=2005|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-12350-0|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=Robert |last=Graves|title=Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=ofyHvgAACAAJ}}|year=1959 |chapter=Introduction |translator1-first=Richard |translator1-last=Aldington |translator2-first=Delano |translator2-last=Ames|pp=v–viii}} | |||
| *] , '']'', in 13 vols., 1916-1932. | |||
| *{{cite book|first=Edith |last=Hamilton|authorlink=Edith Hamilton |title=Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=qDi4RwAACAAJ}}|date=1 January 2011|publisher=Grand Central Publishing|isbn=978-0-446-57475-4}} ] (1998) | |||
| *] | |||
| **''Mental Functions in Primitive Societies'' (1910) | |||
| **''Primitive Mentality'' (1922) | |||
| **''The Soul of the Primitive'' (1928) | |||
| **''The Supernatural and the Nature of the Primitive Mind'' (1931) | |||
| **''Primitive Mythology'' (1935) | |||
| **''The Mystic Experience and Primitive Symbolism'' (1938) | |||
| *{{cite book |first1=José Manuel |last1=Losada |author1link=José Manuel Losada |first2=Antonella |last2=Lipscomb |title=Myths in Crisis. The Crisis of Myth |year=2015 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-443-87814-2}} | |||
| **{{cite book|title=The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=zBzzv977CLgC}}|year=1959|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=0-15-679201-X |translator-first=Willard R. |translator-last=Trask}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=Maria |last=Petringa|title=Brazzà, A Life for Africa|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=USwXz-prS3wC}}|date=13 January 2006|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=978-1-4520-7605-8}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=Barry B. |last=Powell|title=Classical Myth|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=dqOSAgAAQBAJ}}|year=2012|publisher=Pearson|isbn=978-0-205-17607-6}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first1=Giorgio De|last1=Santillana|first2=Hertha|last2= von Dechend|title=Hamlet's Mill: An Essay on Myth and the Frame of Time|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=ql7ATHGee50C}}|date=January 1977|publisher=David R. Godine Publisher|isbn=978-0-87923-215-3}} | |||
| <!--not useful to the modern reader*] | |||
| **''Introduction to the Philosophy of Mythology'', 1856. | |||
| **''Philosophy of Mythology'', 1857. | |||
| **''Philosophy of Revelation'', 1858.--> | |||
| *{{cite book|first1=Isabelle Loring |last1=Wallace|first2=Jennie |last2=Hirsh|title=Contemporary Art and Classical Myth|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=lmTBt5_9AJ0C}}|year=2011|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-0-7546-6974-6}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=Steven |last=Walker|title=Jung and the Jungians on Myth|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=VNhQAwAAQBAJ}}|date=8 April 2014|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-135-34767-3}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first1=Vanda |last1=Zajko|first2=Miriam |last2=Leonard|title=Laughing with Medusa: Classical Myth and Feminist Thought|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=1kFQNAAACAAJ}}|date=10 January 2008|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-923794-4|ref=harv}} | |||
| *Zong, In-Sob. ''Folk Tales from Korea''. 3rd ed. Elizabeth: Hollym, 1989. | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{Wiktionary|myth|mythology}} | |||
| {{Wikiversity|School:Comparative Mythology}} | |||
| {{Commons category}} | |||
| *], ed. Beach (1914), at ]. | |||
| *. ]. | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * Old Tales and Superstitions Interpreted by comparative mythology by John Fiske. | |||
| * ], a database of ancient objects linked with mythology | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| {{Authority control}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
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