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{{Short description|Relationship between race and crime}} |
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{{Too few opinions|date=March 2023}} |
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{{Race}} |
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{{Race}} |
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An observed correlation between '''race and crime''' has been noted in a number of countries that have relatively multicultural populations. This has prompted controversy regarding the possible causes and social effects, and regarding which actions should consequently be taken. |
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] is one of the ] receiving attention in academic studies, government surveys, media coverage, and public concern. Research has found that social status, poverty, and childhood exposure to violent behavior are causes of the racial disparities in crime. Research conducted in Europe and the United States on the matter has been widely published, particularly in relation to discrimination by criminal justice systems. |
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==Crime statistics== |
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=== Worldwide === |
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] collated crime statistics from the ] Yearbooks for different nations and presented the results as crime rates per 100,000 people for groups of nations with similar racial composition.<ref name=RT2009>{{cite doi|10.1016/j.intell.2009.04.003}}</ref> |
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== Discrimination by the criminal justice system in Europe == |
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From the 1986 Yearbook, 12 East Asian countries, 48 European countries, and 28 African and Caribbean countries.<ref name=RT2009/> |
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Research suggests that police practices, such as ], over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of racial minorities among crime suspects in ], ], and ] and ]. According to the ] conducted by the ] Prime Minister, in 2017 minorities living in Wales and England were more than 3.5 times more likely to be arrested than whites. Likewise, this same group was far more likely to be the victims of crime with their white counterparts only having 15 percent likelihood.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Bulman|first1=May|date=October 11, 2017|title=Ethnic minorities most likely to be both victims and suspects of crime, UK race report finds|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/ethnic-minorities-crime-victims-perpetrators-uk-race-report-a7993521.html|access-date=30 November 2018|work=The Independent|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":23">{{Cite web|title=Diskriminering i rättsprocessen - Brå|url=https://www.bra.se/bra/publikationer/arkiv/publikationer/2008-02-21-diskriminering-i-rattsprocessen.html|access-date=2016-01-26|website=www.bra.se|language=sv}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last1=Hällsten|first1=Martin|last2=Szulkin|first2=Ryszard|last3=Sarnecki|first3=Jerzy|date=2013-05-01|title=Crime as a Price of Inequality? The Gap in Registered Crime between Childhood Immigrants, Children of Immigrants and Children of Native Swedes|journal=British Journal of Criminology|volume=53|issue=3|pages=456–481|doi=10.1093/bjc/azt005}}</ref><ref name=":27">{{Cite book|last=Crocitti|first=Stefania|title=Immigration, Crime, and Criminalization in Italy - Oxford Handbooks|year=2014|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859016.013.029}}</ref><ref name=":29">{{Cite journal|last=Colombo|first=Asher|date=2013-11-01|title=Foreigners and immigrants in Italy's penal and administrative detention systems|journal=European Journal of Criminology|language=en|volume=10|issue=6|pages=746–759|doi=10.1177/1477370813495128|s2cid=145099179}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Parmar|first=Alpa|title=Ethnicities, Racism, and Crime in England and Wales - Oxford Handbooks|year=2014|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859016.013.014}}</ref>{{citation overkill|date=March 2023}} Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for racial minorities in Sweden, the ], Italy, ], ] and ].<ref name=":23" /><ref name=":27" /><ref name=":29" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Holmberg|first1=Lars|last2=Kyvsgaard|first2=Britta|year=2003|title=Are Immigrants and Their Descendants Discriminated against in the Danish Criminal Justice System?|journal=Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention|volume=4|issue=2|pages=125–142|doi=10.1080/14043850310020027|s2cid=143646955}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Roché|first1=Sebastian|title=Case Study - Oxford Handbooks|last2=Gordon|first2=Mirta B.|last3=Depuiset|first3=Marie-Aude|year=2014|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859016.013.030}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Light|first=Michael T.|date=2016-03-01|title=The Punishment Consequences of Lacking National Membership in Germany, 1998–2010|journal=Social Forces|language=en|volume=94|issue=3|pages=1385–1408|doi=10.1093/sf/sov084|s2cid=155814847}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Wermink|first1=Hilde|last2=Johnson|first2=Brian D.|last3=Nieuwbeerta|first3=Paul|last4=Keijser|first4=Jan W. de|date=2015-11-01|title=Expanding the scope of sentencing research: Determinants of juvenile and adult punishment in the Netherlands|journal=European Journal of Criminology|language=en|volume=12|issue=6|pages=739–768|doi=10.1177/1477370815597253|s2cid=143366742}}</ref>{{citation overkill|date=March 2023}} |
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*murder, 6, 5, and 9 |
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*rape, 3, 6, and 14 |
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*serious assault, 29, 66, and 130 |
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== Discrimination by the criminal justice system in the United States == |
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From the 1990 Yearbook, 12 East Asian, 41 European, and 23 Afro-Caribbean countries.<ref name=RT2009/> |
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{{main|Race and crime in the United States|Race in the United States criminal justice system}} |
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*murder, 3, 5, and 13 |
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Research suggests that police practices, such as ], over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of racial minorities among crime suspects.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Warren|first1=Patricia Y.|last2=Tomaskovic-Devey|first2=Donald|date=2009-05-01|title=Racial profiling and searches: Did the politics of racial profiling change police behavior?|journal=Criminology & Public Policy|language=en|volume=8|issue=2|pages=343–369|doi=10.1111/j.1745-9133.2009.00556.x}}</ref><ref name="MoJ p. 82">'''', p. 8., 22</ref><ref name=":52">{{Cite journal|last=West|first=Jeremy|date=February 2018|title=Racial Bias in Police Investigations|url=https://people.ucsc.edu/~jwest1/articles/West_RacialBiasPolice.pdf|journal=Working Paper}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Donohue III|first1=John J.|last2=Levitt|first2=Steven D.|date=2001-01-01|title=The Impact of Race on Policing and Arrests|journal=The Journal of Law & Economics|volume=44|issue=2|pages=367–394|citeseerx=10.1.1.381.8047|doi=10.1086/322810|jstor=10.1086/322810|s2cid=1547854}}</ref>{{citation overkill|date=March 2023}} Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for racial minorities.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Abrams|first1=David S.|last2=Bertrand|first2=Marianne|last3=Mullainathan|first3=Sendhil|date=2012-06-01|title=Do Judges Vary in Their Treatment of Race?|url=https://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/faculty_scholarship/355|journal=The Journal of Legal Studies|volume=41|issue=2|pages=347–383|doi=10.1086/666006|s2cid=2338687}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Mustard|first=David B.|date=2001|title=Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Disparities in Sentencing: Evidence from the U.S. Federal Courts|journal=The Journal of Law and Economics|volume=44|issue=1|pages=285–314|doi=10.1086/320276|s2cid=154533225}}</ref><ref name=":34">{{Cite journal|last1=Anwar|first1=Shamena|last2=Bayer|first2=Patrick|last3=Hjalmarsson|first3=Randi|date=2012-05-01|title=The Impact of Jury Race in Criminal Trials|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|language=en|volume=127|issue=2|pages=1017–1055|doi=10.1093/qje/qjs014|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Daudistel|first1=Howard C.|last2=Hosch|first2=Harmon M.|last3=Holmes|first3=Malcolm D.|last4=Graves|first4=Joseph B.|date=1999-02-01|title=Effects of Defendant Ethnicity on Juries' Dispositions of Felony Cases|journal=Journal of Applied Social Psychology|language=en|volume=29|issue=2|pages=317–336|doi=10.1111/j.1559-1816.1999.tb01389.x}}</ref><ref name=":62">{{Cite journal|last1=Depew|first1=Briggs|last2=Eren|first2=Ozkan|last3=Mocan|first3=Naci|year=2017|title=Judges, Juveniles, and In-Group Bias|url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w22003.pdf|journal=]|volume=60|issue=2|pages=209–239|doi=10.1086/693822|s2cid=147631237}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=David|first1=Arnold|last2=Will|first2=Dobbie|last3=Yang|first3=Crystal S.|date=May 2017|title=Racial Bias in Bail Decisions|journal=NBER Working Paper No. 23421|doi=10.3386/w23421|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":193">{{Cite journal|last1=Rehavi|first1=M. Marit|last2=Starr|first2=Sonja B.|date=2014|title=Racial Disparity in Federal Criminal Sentences|url=https://repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2413&context=articles|journal=Journal of Political Economy|language=en|volume=122|issue=6|pages=1320–1354|doi=10.1086/677255|issn=0022-3808|s2cid=3348344}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Crystal S.|last2=Cohen|first2=Alma|date=2019|title=Judicial Politics and Sentencing Decisions|journal=American Economic Journal: Economic Policy|language=en|volume=11|issue=1|pages=160–91|doi=10.1257/pol.20170329|issn=1945-7731|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{citation overkill|date=March 2023}} On average, white offenders are less likely to be arrested for their crime than non-white offenders. <ref>{{Cite web |last=Beck |first=Allen J. |date=September 2021 |title=Race and Ethnicity of Violent Crime Offenders and Arrestees, 2018 |url=https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/revcoa18.pdf |access-date=October 13, 2023}}</ref> |
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*rape, 3, 6, and 17 |
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*serious assault, 27, 63, and 213 |
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== See also == |
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From the 1993–96 Yearbooks, 7 East Asian, 45 Caucasian, and 22 Afro-Caribbean countries.<ref name=RT2009/> |
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* ] |
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*murder, 2, 4, and 8 |
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*rape, 3, 5, and 6 |
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* ] |
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* ] |
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*serious assault, 31, 34, and 136 |
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* ] |
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* ] |
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There were similar or greater differences if instead analyzing subsets of nations from the more ethnically homogeneous northeast Asia, central Europe, and sub-Saharan Africa. The same pattern also appeared when comparing total violent crime in six mainly White/Amerindian Caribbean countries to eight mainly Black Caribbean countries (72 vs. 449).<ref name=RT2009/> |
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* ] |
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=== United States === |
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* ] |
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* ] |
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{{See|Race and crime in the United States}} |
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*] |
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that offending rates for blacks were more than 7 times higher than the rates for whites.]] |
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*] |
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* ] |
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A February 1997 report on rape and sexual-based crime published by the ] stated that of the crimes surveyed, 56% of arrestees were Caucasian, 42% were African American, and 2% were of other races. The report additionally noted that "ictims of ] were about evenly divided between whites and blacks; in about 88% of forcible rapes, the victim and offender were of the same race."<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/ascii/soo.txt| title=Sex Offenses and Offenders: An Analysis of Data on Rape and Sexual Assault| author=Greenfeld, Lawrence A.| publisher=]| month=February| year=1997}}</ref> |
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According to United States Department of Justice document Criminal Victimization in the United States, in the ] in 2005, 37,460 White females were sexually assaulted or raped by a Black man, while between zero and ten Black females were sexually assaulted or raped by a White man. There were overall 111,590 white victims of rape/sexual assault in 2005. In those 111,590 cases the offender was White in 44.5 percent of the cases and Black in 33.6 percent of the cases.<ref></ref> |
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A subsequent United States Department of Justice report which surveyed ] statistics between 1974 and 2004 stated that of the crimes surveyed, 52.1% of the offenders were Black, 45.9% were White, and 2% were Other Races. Of the victims in those same crimes, 51% were White, 46.9% were Black, and 2.1% were Other Races. The report further noted that, "most ] are intraracial", with 86% of White murders committed by Whites, and 94% of Black murders committed by Blacks.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/homicide/race.htm| title=Homicide trends in the U.S.: Trends by race| author=Bureau of Justice Statistics| publisher=]| date=2006-06-29}}</ref> However, the document does not provide any details concerning what races or ethnicities are included in the designations "White", "Black", or "Other Races". |
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] |
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70% of prisoners in the United States are non-Whites.<ref></ref> In 1998, nearly one out of three Black men between the ages of 20-29 were in ] or ], on probation or parole on any given day.<ref></ref><ref></ref> |
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A 2005 United States Department of Justice report on violent crimes stated that of the "perceived race" of the offenders in single-offender violent crimes, 43.3% were White, 21.0% were Black, and 9.6% were "Other", with the remaining 26.0% of offenders of unknown race.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/cvus0502.pdf| title=Criminal Victimization in the United States, 2005 Statistical Tables| publisher=]| year=2005}}</ref> |
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US Department of Justice survey stated that more than 6.6 million violent crimes (murder, rape, assault and robbery) are committed in the ] each year, of which about 20%, are inter-racial crimes.<ref></ref> According to research done by ], a radio host and ] best-selling author, of the approximately 1,700,000 interracial crimes of violence each year, nearly 1,200,000 involved black-white crime. In 90% of those crimes, black offenders attacked white victims.<ref></ref><ref></ref> ] are more than 50 times more likely to commit violent crimes against ] than vice versa.<ref></ref> |
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The most dangerous cities in the United States. |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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!Rank |
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!City |
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!White population |
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!Black population |
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|1 |
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|] |
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|42.9% |
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|51.2% |
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|- |
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|2 |
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|] |
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|10.5% |
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|81.6% |
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|- |
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|3 |
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|] |
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|40% |
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|53.3% |
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|- |
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|4 |
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|] |
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|1% |
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|40.3% |
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|- |
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|5 |
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|] |
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|7.1% |
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|53.3% |
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|- |
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|6 |
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|] |
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|23.5% |
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|73.5% |
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|- |
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|7 |
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|] |
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|38.8% |
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|51% |
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|- |
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|8 |
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|] |
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|23.5% |
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|35.7% |
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|- |
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|9 |
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|] |
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|48.9% |
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|43.8% |
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|- |
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|10 |
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|] |
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|10.1% |
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|84% |
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=== Canada === |
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Although aboriginal persons make up 3.6% of Canada's population, they account for more than 20% of Canada's prison population.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www41.statcan.ca/2006/2693/ceb2693_002-eng.htm|title=Aboriginal people over-represented in Saskatchewan's prisons| publisher= Statistics Canada| accessdate=2010-03-11}} {{Dead link|date=November 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> Similarly, while black people make up only 2 percent of the Canadian population, they represent over 6 percent of federal prison population. Overall, the federal incarceration rate for aboriginal (185 per 100,000) and black Canadians (146 per 100,000) is many times higher than the rate for Whites (42 per 100,000) and Asians (16 per 100,000). |
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According to figures for admissions to prison in 1992 in Ontario, expressed per 1000 of the population, Chinese had the lowest crime rates at 3.5 per 1000, only half that of whites (7.1 per 1000). The South Asians had the next lowest rate at about two thirds that of whites. The Native American Indians had much higher crime rates (19.9) at more than two and half times that of whites. The blacks had by far the greatest crime rates (36.9) at more seven times that of whites. The seven-fold over-representation of blacks in crime in Ontario was almost exactly the same as that of Britain and the United States. The low crime rates of the Chinese are also found in both Britain and the United States.<ref>Ontario (1996). ''Report of the commission on Systemic Racism in the Ontario Criminal Justice System.'' Ministry of the Solicitor-General and Correctional Services. Toronto:Queen's Printer.</ref> |
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=== Britain === |
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{{See|Race and crime in the United Kingdom}} |
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Whites in Britain are the victims of race attacks more than ] and ] put together. However, the proportion of ethnic minorities reporting being the victim of a racially-motivated crime is higher. In ], 58% of victims were white, 35% were Asian and 9% were black. |
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Almost twice as many black people are in prison as at university, according to a report by the Commission for Racial Equality. |
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The black prison population has risen by almost 60% under Labour, according to shock new government figures. New Home Office statistics show numbers of African-Caribbean prisoners has leapt a staggering 58% since 1997, with young black men making up over 90% of all black inmates. |
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63% of mugging victims in London reporting that their attackers were black. In 2005, blacks comprise 19% of those sentenced to prison for robberies, 8% of those sentenced for sexual offences and 23% of those sentenced for drug offences, although they make up 2% of the population. |
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Five years ago, the threat from Jamaican gangsters and black British-born crack dealers could have been dismissed as a local difficulty for a handful of inner-city police forces. But today, as the most authoritative study into the threat reveals, Jamaican organised crime groups have infiltrated almost every part of the country. |
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Blacks are more likely to plead not guilty than whites, are more likely to be released on parole than white prisoners and black defendants are more likely to be acquitted than white defendants. (Sources: Prison statistics England and Wales 2000 and Ethnic differences in decisions on young offenders dealt with by the CPS, Section 95 Findings No.1 (2000) |
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Black females are around 16 times more likely to go to prison than white females. (Source: Prison statistics England and Wales 2000) |
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A report by Britain's Home Office for the years 2003, 2004, and 2005 stated that of the "ethnic appearance" of persons arrested for "notable offenses", 84.3% were White, 8.8% were Black, 4.9% were Asian, and 1.4% were Other, with the remaining percentage classified as "Unknown". Additionally, the report stated that when cases of crime went to court, those of either Black or White ethnic appearance were convicted 51% of the time, and those of Asian appearance were convicted 24% of the time.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs06/s95race05.pdf| title=Statistics on Race and the Criminal Justice System - 2005| author=]| year=2006}}</ref> It stated that: |
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<blockquote>"Black and Asian people experience a higher likelihood of being stopped and searched. Moreover, Black defendants are more prominent in the ] caseload, although this is partly due to a tendency to elect for jury trial more often than other ethnic groups, including White. Furthermore, Black people are also overrepresented in the prison population reflecting, at least in part, the longest average sentence imposed upon them.<ref>], , Section 95, Summary, p.VII <!--please do not change format as it includes page number --></ref></blockquote> |
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In ] in 2006, 75% of the victims of ] and 79% of the suspects were "from the African/Caribbean community."<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.mpa.gov.uk/committees/cop/2007/070503/05.htm| title=MPS Response to Guns, Gangs and Knives in London| publisher=]| date=2007-05-03| accessdate=2007-07-01}}</ref> |
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In 2005-6, 1,543 victims of racist crime in Scotland were of Pakistani origin, while more than 1,000 victims were classed as being "white British".<ref></ref> ] was a ] fifteen-year-old who was kidnapped and murdered in ] in ].Five ] men were later found guilty of racially-motivated violence; those convicted of murder were all sentenced to life imprisonment.<ref></ref> |
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The ] reveals that in 2004, 87,000 people from black or minority ethnic communities said they had been a victim of a racially motivated crime. They had suffered 49,000 violent attacks, with 4,000 being wounded. |
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At the same time 92,000 white people said they had also fallen victim of a racially motivated crime. The number of violent attacks against whites reached 77,000, while the number of white people who reported being wounded was five times the number of black and minority ethnic victims at 20,000. Most of the offenders (57%) in the racially motivated crimes identified in the British Crime Survey are not white. White victims said 82% of offenders were not white.<ref></ref> |
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On the other hand, the Home Office report above-mentioned state that: |
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<blockquote>Black victims (32%) were more likely to be shot compared to Asians (10%) and White (5%) victims. Twenty-three homicides were recorded as being racially-motivated over the three years-old.<ref>], , Section 95, Summary, p.VIII <!--please do not change format as it includes page number --></ref></blockquote> |
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=== Sweden === |
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Immigrants are overrepresented in ]'s crime statistics. During the period 1997-2001, 25% of the almost 1,520,000 offences were committed by people born overseas, while almost 20% were committed by Swedish-born people with a foreign background. Those from ] and ] were overrepresented.<ref></ref> |
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=== Australia === |
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{{See|Indigenous Australians and crime}} |
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According to the Australian government's June 2006 publication of prison statistics, while only 2.3% of the national population, Indigenous peoples make up 24% of the overall prison population in Australia.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4517.0Main+Features12006?OpenDocument| title=Prisoners in Australia, 2006| publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics| date=2006-12-14| accessdate=2007-05-04}}</ref> ("Indigenous" meaning those identifying themselves as being of ] or ] origin<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4517.0Explanatory%20Notes12006?OpenDocument| title=Prisoners in Australia, 2006: Explanatory Notes| publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics| date=2006-12-14| accessdate=2007-05-04}}</ref>) |
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=== New Zealand === |
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In 2004, ] made up just 15% of the total population but 49.5% of prisoners. Maori were entering prison at 8 times the rate of non-Maori.<ref></ref> |
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=== Czech republic === |
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Roma make 2-3% of population in the ]. According to Říčan (1998), Roma make up more than 60% of Czech prisoners and about 20-30% earn their livelihood in illegal ways, such as prostitution, trafficking and other property crimes.<ref>{{cite book |last= Říčan |first= Pavel |title= ] |publisher= ] |location= Praha |year= 1998 |isbn= 0-7869-1850-8 |pages=58–63}}</ref> Roma are thus more than 20 times overrepresented in Czech prisons than their population share would suggest. |
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== Racial group conflicts == |
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{{See also|Dominant minority}} |
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The relationships between different racial groups are sometimes tense and have in some cases caused large scale criminal violence with ] being the most extreme case. The book '']'' described tension and violence against successful ethnic minorities worldwide. |
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==Theories of causation== |
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{{See also|Causes and correlates of crime}} |
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Criminologists from the United States have proposed a large number of theories attempting to explain the US data as described in the ] article. However, these do not necessarily work for other nations or for worldwide statistics. |
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Some argue that because a majority group in a population will usually have an easier time to reach their goals and plus explicit and implicit discrimination of the minority groups, tendency to commit crime by minority group increases. For instances in African American ]s, there is obvious lack of economic opportunity, segregation, and social discrimination that make people more susceptible to commit crime than in a neighborhood and population where there is abundant work opportunity, education level and relative social acceptance. The economic condition of certain groups make committing crime higher to achieve their ends. However, this theory does not explain why certain minorities such as East Asians are underrepresented regarding crime to the majority. |
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===Nature v. nurture=== |
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{{See|Nature versus nurture|Scientific racism}} |
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Race and crime were studied by criminal anthropologist Cesare Lombroso, who belonged to the Italian school of criminology of the end of the 19th century. Lombroso divided Northern Italian and Southern Italians in two different "races." Henceforth, he thought that "Southern Italians were more crime-prone and lazy because they were unlucky enough to have less Aryan blood than their northern countrymen.<ref>Mary Gibson, Born to Crime: Cesare Lombroso and the Origins of Biological Criminology, p.108 (Praeger Press. Hardcover - 272 pages - 2002)</ref>" Enrico Ferri, a student of Lombroso, considered Black people to be of an "inferior race" and more prone to crime than others <ref>Antony Walsh, , Review of Born to Crime: Cesare Lombroso and the Origins of Biological Criminology, by Mary Gibson. Published in The Human Nature Review, 2003 Volume 3: 1-11 ( 15 January )</ref> |
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Such theories were criticized by later works of criminology, which argued that only social, economic and cultural factors explained criminality. Genetics as an explanation was largely abandoned in criminology after WWII. |
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] has also been criticized as a biological concept. However, crime rates can be studied for any arbitrary population. |
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Recent research in ares such as ], which aims at explaining behaviour by biological factors, or in the area of ], have caused a renewed interest in genetic explanations, reviving the old debate of nature versus nurture. Scholars critical of this include clinical psychologist Jay Joseph in The Gene Illusion (2002). |
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] has in the books '']'' and the '']'' argued that there is a relationship between ] which is an important explanation for differing crime rates across the world. |
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] has argued that denying or trying to conceal real biological differences between groups on average IQ instead cause people to seek something to blame for the differing average group achievements, causing resentment and hostility. She argues that "virtually all the victim groups of genocide in the Twentieth Century had relatively ''high'' average levels of achievement (e.g., German ], ], Russian ]s, ], ]; Gordon, 1980)."<ref>What if the Hereditarian Hypothesis Is True? Linda S. Gottfredson, Psychology, Public Policy, and Law Volume 11, Issue 2, June 2005, Pages 311-319</ref> |
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==See also== |
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*] |
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*] |
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*] |
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'''Dynamics:''' |
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*'']'' |
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== References == |
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== References == |
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{{reflist}} |
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{{Reflist}} |
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==External links== |
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==The Color of Crime== |
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* The Color of Crime |
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* The Color of Crime |
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{{Race and crime}} |
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{{Race and crime}} |
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{{Authority control}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2011}} |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Race And Crime}} |
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