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{{Short description|Relationship between race and crime}} |
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{{AfDM|page=Race and crime (3rd nomination)|year=2011|month=April|day=4|substed=yes|origtag=afdx|help=off}} |
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{{POV|date=April 2011}} |
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{{Race}} |
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{{Race}} |
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An observed correlation between '''race and crime''' has been noted in a number of countries that have relatively multicultural populations as well as between different geographical world regions corresponding to different races. This has prompted controversy regarding the possible causes and social effects, and regarding which actions should consequently be taken. |
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] is one of the ] receiving attention in academic studies, government surveys, media coverage, and public concern. Research has found that social status, poverty, and childhood exposure to violent behavior are causes of the racial disparities in crime. Research conducted in Europe and the United States on the matter has been widely published, particularly in relation to discrimination by criminal justice systems. |
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==Crime statistics== |
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=== Worldwide === |
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''The Handbook of Crime Correlates'' (2009), a review of studies of correlates with crime, many of which are from the United States but also including other countries, states that studies on official data consistently finds higher crimes rates for blacks than for whites, especially regarding violent offenses. Victim surveys also show higher black crime rates. Studies on self-reported offending are more inconsistent with studies being about equally divided between those finding a higher overall offending and those finding no relationship. One possible explanation for the inconsistency between self-reported offending and other forms of data is biases in the criminal justice systems, but evidence for such an effect is mixed. Another is that self-reported offending primarily involves relatively trivial and victimless offenses, such as marijuana use. A third explanation is that some research indicates that whites tend to provide more complete self-reported information regarding offending.<ref name=Ellis2009/> |
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== Discrimination by the criminal justice system in Europe == |
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Also Hispanics have a higher official crime rates than whites. Studies on self-reported offences are more inconsistent. Both official and self-reported offending are higher for Native Americans than for whites. East Asians have lower official and self-reported crime rates than whites. The official offending rates for south Asian are similar to that for whites although self-report is higher. Both official and self-reported crime rates are higher for Pacific and Indian Oceanic Islanders than for whites.<ref name=Ellis2009>Handbook of Crime Correlates; Lee Ellis, Kevin M. Beaver, John Wright; 2009; Academic Press</ref> |
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Research suggests that police practices, such as ], over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of racial minorities among crime suspects in ], ], and ] and ]. According to the ] conducted by the ] Prime Minister, in 2017 minorities living in Wales and England were more than 3.5 times more likely to be arrested than whites. Likewise, this same group was far more likely to be the victims of crime with their white counterparts only having 15 percent likelihood.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Bulman|first1=May|date=October 11, 2017|title=Ethnic minorities most likely to be both victims and suspects of crime, UK race report finds|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/ethnic-minorities-crime-victims-perpetrators-uk-race-report-a7993521.html|access-date=30 November 2018|work=The Independent|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":23">{{Cite web|title=Diskriminering i rättsprocessen - Brå|url=https://www.bra.se/bra/publikationer/arkiv/publikationer/2008-02-21-diskriminering-i-rattsprocessen.html|access-date=2016-01-26|website=www.bra.se|language=sv}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last1=Hällsten|first1=Martin|last2=Szulkin|first2=Ryszard|last3=Sarnecki|first3=Jerzy|date=2013-05-01|title=Crime as a Price of Inequality? The Gap in Registered Crime between Childhood Immigrants, Children of Immigrants and Children of Native Swedes|journal=British Journal of Criminology|volume=53|issue=3|pages=456–481|doi=10.1093/bjc/azt005}}</ref><ref name=":27">{{Cite book|last=Crocitti|first=Stefania|title=Immigration, Crime, and Criminalization in Italy - Oxford Handbooks|year=2014|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859016.013.029}}</ref><ref name=":29">{{Cite journal|last=Colombo|first=Asher|date=2013-11-01|title=Foreigners and immigrants in Italy's penal and administrative detention systems|journal=European Journal of Criminology|language=en|volume=10|issue=6|pages=746–759|doi=10.1177/1477370813495128|s2cid=145099179}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Parmar|first=Alpa|title=Ethnicities, Racism, and Crime in England and Wales - Oxford Handbooks|year=2014|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859016.013.014}}</ref>{{citation overkill|date=March 2023}} Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for racial minorities in Sweden, the ], Italy, ], ] and ].<ref name=":23" /><ref name=":27" /><ref name=":29" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Holmberg|first1=Lars|last2=Kyvsgaard|first2=Britta|year=2003|title=Are Immigrants and Their Descendants Discriminated against in the Danish Criminal Justice System?|journal=Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention|volume=4|issue=2|pages=125–142|doi=10.1080/14043850310020027|s2cid=143646955}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Roché|first1=Sebastian|title=Case Study - Oxford Handbooks|last2=Gordon|first2=Mirta B.|last3=Depuiset|first3=Marie-Aude|year=2014|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859016.013.030}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Light|first=Michael T.|date=2016-03-01|title=The Punishment Consequences of Lacking National Membership in Germany, 1998–2010|journal=Social Forces|language=en|volume=94|issue=3|pages=1385–1408|doi=10.1093/sf/sov084|s2cid=155814847}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Wermink|first1=Hilde|last2=Johnson|first2=Brian D.|last3=Nieuwbeerta|first3=Paul|last4=Keijser|first4=Jan W. de|date=2015-11-01|title=Expanding the scope of sentencing research: Determinants of juvenile and adult punishment in the Netherlands|journal=European Journal of Criminology|language=en|volume=12|issue=6|pages=739–768|doi=10.1177/1477370815597253|s2cid=143366742}}</ref>{{citation overkill|date=March 2023}} |
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== Discrimination by the criminal justice system in the United States == |
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] collated crime statistics from the ] Yearbooks for different nations and presented the results as crime rates per 100,000 people for groups of nations with similar racial composition.<ref name=RT2009>{{cite doi|10.1016/j.intell.2009.04.003}}</ref> |
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{{main|Race and crime in the United States|Race in the United States criminal justice system}} |
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Research suggests that police practices, such as ], over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of racial minorities among crime suspects.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Warren|first1=Patricia Y.|last2=Tomaskovic-Devey|first2=Donald|date=2009-05-01|title=Racial profiling and searches: Did the politics of racial profiling change police behavior?|journal=Criminology & Public Policy|language=en|volume=8|issue=2|pages=343–369|doi=10.1111/j.1745-9133.2009.00556.x}}</ref><ref name="MoJ p. 82">'''', p. 8., 22</ref><ref name=":52">{{Cite journal|last=West|first=Jeremy|date=February 2018|title=Racial Bias in Police Investigations|url=https://people.ucsc.edu/~jwest1/articles/West_RacialBiasPolice.pdf|journal=Working Paper}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Donohue III|first1=John J.|last2=Levitt|first2=Steven D.|date=2001-01-01|title=The Impact of Race on Policing and Arrests|journal=The Journal of Law & Economics|volume=44|issue=2|pages=367–394|citeseerx=10.1.1.381.8047|doi=10.1086/322810|jstor=10.1086/322810|s2cid=1547854}}</ref>{{citation overkill|date=March 2023}} Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for racial minorities.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Abrams|first1=David S.|last2=Bertrand|first2=Marianne|last3=Mullainathan|first3=Sendhil|date=2012-06-01|title=Do Judges Vary in Their Treatment of Race?|url=https://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/faculty_scholarship/355|journal=The Journal of Legal Studies|volume=41|issue=2|pages=347–383|doi=10.1086/666006|s2cid=2338687}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Mustard|first=David B.|date=2001|title=Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Disparities in Sentencing: Evidence from the U.S. Federal Courts|journal=The Journal of Law and Economics|volume=44|issue=1|pages=285–314|doi=10.1086/320276|s2cid=154533225}}</ref><ref name=":34">{{Cite journal|last1=Anwar|first1=Shamena|last2=Bayer|first2=Patrick|last3=Hjalmarsson|first3=Randi|date=2012-05-01|title=The Impact of Jury Race in Criminal Trials|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|language=en|volume=127|issue=2|pages=1017–1055|doi=10.1093/qje/qjs014|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Daudistel|first1=Howard C.|last2=Hosch|first2=Harmon M.|last3=Holmes|first3=Malcolm D.|last4=Graves|first4=Joseph B.|date=1999-02-01|title=Effects of Defendant Ethnicity on Juries' Dispositions of Felony Cases|journal=Journal of Applied Social Psychology|language=en|volume=29|issue=2|pages=317–336|doi=10.1111/j.1559-1816.1999.tb01389.x}}</ref><ref name=":62">{{Cite journal|last1=Depew|first1=Briggs|last2=Eren|first2=Ozkan|last3=Mocan|first3=Naci|year=2017|title=Judges, Juveniles, and In-Group Bias|url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w22003.pdf|journal=]|volume=60|issue=2|pages=209–239|doi=10.1086/693822|s2cid=147631237}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=David|first1=Arnold|last2=Will|first2=Dobbie|last3=Yang|first3=Crystal S.|date=May 2017|title=Racial Bias in Bail Decisions|journal=NBER Working Paper No. 23421|doi=10.3386/w23421|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":193">{{Cite journal|last1=Rehavi|first1=M. Marit|last2=Starr|first2=Sonja B.|date=2014|title=Racial Disparity in Federal Criminal Sentences|url=https://repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2413&context=articles|journal=Journal of Political Economy|language=en|volume=122|issue=6|pages=1320–1354|doi=10.1086/677255|issn=0022-3808|s2cid=3348344}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Crystal S.|last2=Cohen|first2=Alma|date=2019|title=Judicial Politics and Sentencing Decisions|journal=American Economic Journal: Economic Policy|language=en|volume=11|issue=1|pages=160–91|doi=10.1257/pol.20170329|issn=1945-7731|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{citation overkill|date=March 2023}} On average, white offenders are less likely to be arrested for their crime than non-white offenders. <ref>{{Cite web |last=Beck |first=Allen J. |date=September 2021 |title=Race and Ethnicity of Violent Crime Offenders and Arrestees, 2018 |url=https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/revcoa18.pdf |access-date=October 13, 2023}}</ref> |
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== See also == |
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From the 1986 Yearbook, 12 East Asian countries, 48 European countries, and 28 African and Caribbean countries.<ref name=RT2009/> |
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* ] |
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*murder, 6, 5, and 9 |
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*rape, 3, 6, and 14 |
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*serious assault, 29, 66, and 130 |
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From the 1990 Yearbook, 12 East Asian, 41 European, and 23 Afro-Caribbean countries.<ref name=RT2009/> |
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*murder, 3, 5, and 13 |
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*rape, 3, 6, and 17 |
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*serious assault, 27, 63, and 213 |
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From the 1993–96 Yearbooks, 7 East Asian, 45 Caucasian, and 22 Afro-Caribbean countries.<ref name=RT2009/> |
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*murder, 2, 4, and 8 |
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*rape, 3, 5, and 6 |
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*serious assault, 31, 34, and 136 |
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There were similar or greater differences if instead analyzing subsets of nations from the more ethnically homogeneous northeast Asia, central Europe, and sub-Saharan Africa. The same pattern also appeared when comparing total violent crime in six mainly White/Amerindian Caribbean countries to eight mainly Black Caribbean countries (72 vs. 449).<ref name=RT2009/> |
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=== United States === |
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] |
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{{Main|Race and crime in the United States}} |
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There are large disparities in crime rates for the different racial/ethnic groups in the ]. A number of theories have been proposed as explanations. |
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== Ethnic/racial homogeneity == |
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The degree to which is a country is compromised of more than one ethnic/racial group is referred to as its ethnic/racial homogeneity. Many studies have examined if ethnic/racially heterogeneous areas, most often neighborhoods in large cities, have higher crime rates than homogeneous areas. The evidence is largely consistent for that the more ethnically/racially heterogeneous an area is, the higher its crime rates tend to be.<ref name=Ellis2009/> |
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== Racial group conflicts == |
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{{See also|Dominant minority|Model minority|Middleman minority}} |
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The relations between different racial/ethnic groups are sometimes tense and have in some cases caused large scale criminal violence. The book '']'' described tension and violence against successful ethnic minorities worldwide.<ref>Chua, Amy (2002). World on Fire. Doubleday. ISBN 0385503024.</ref> |
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==Theories of causation== |
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{{See also|Causes and correlates of crime}} |
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=== Nature vs. nuture debate === |
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Race and crime were studied by criminal anthropologist Cesare Lombroso, who belonged to the Italian school of criminology of the end of the 19th century. Lombroso divided Northern Italian and Southern Italians in two different "races." Henceforth, he thought that "Southern Italians were more crime-prone and lazy because they were unlucky enough to have less Aryan blood than their northern countrymen."<ref>Mary Gibson, Born to Crime: Cesare Lombroso and the Origins of Biological Criminology, p.108 (Praeger Press. Hardcover - 272 pages - 2002)</ref> Enrico Ferri, a student of Lombroso, considered black people to be of an "inferior race" and more prone to crime than others.<ref>Antony Walsh, , Review of Born to Crime: Cesare Lombroso and the Origins of Biological Criminology, by Mary Gibson. Published in The Human Nature Review, 2003 Volume 3: 1-11 ( 15 January )</ref> |
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Such theories were criticized by later works of criminology, which argued that only social, economic and cultural factors explained criminality. Genetics as an explanation was largely abandoned in criminology after WWII. ] has also been criticized and supported as a biological concept.<ref name="Edwards2003">{{cite journal |author=Edwards AW |title=Human genetic diversity: Lewontin's fallacy |journal=BioEssays |volume=25 |issue=8 |pages=798–801 |year=2003 |month=August |pmid=12879450 |doi=10.1002/bies.10315}}</ref> See also "]". |
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=== Sociological theories === |
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{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2011}} |
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Criminologists from the United States have proposed a large number of theories attempting to explain the US data as described in the ] article. However, these do not necessarily work for other nations or for worldwide statistics. |
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Examples of sociological theories regarding different worldwide crimes rates include the theory that crimes rates decrease with ], the theory that crime rates decrease with ], the theory that crimes rates decrease with less ], and the theory that when certain groups are underrepresented in the population (notably young, unmarried, lower-income, less educated males), then there is less crime.<ref>Modernization, Inequality, Routine Activities, and International Variations in Household Property Crimes, Sener Uludag, Mark Colvin, David Hussey, Abbey L. Eng, International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences Vol 4 Issue 1 January – June 2009</ref> |
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=== Trait theories === |
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] has in the books '']'' and the '']'' argued that there is a relationship between ] which is an important explanation for differing crime rates across the world. It should be noted that this is not necessarily a genetic theory. Average IQ differences between nations can also be explained by environmental factors such as malnutrition and disease. There are also various criticisms both against ] and genetic explanations regarding ] as discussed in the articles on those topics.<ref name=Nisbett2009Appendix>{{cite book |last=Nisbett |first=Richard |authorlink=Richard Nisbett |title=Intelligence and How to Get It: Why Schools and Cultures Count |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |year=2009 |isbn=0393065057 |url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/29596219}}</ref> |
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] has argued that denying or trying to conceal real biological differences between groups on average IQ instead cause people to seek something to blame for the differing average group achievements, causing resentment and hostility. She argues that "virtually all the victim groups of genocide in the Twentieth Century had relatively ''high'' average levels of achievement (e.g., German ], ], Russian ]s, ], ]; Gordon, 1980)."<ref>What if the Hereditarian Hypothesis Is True? Linda S. Gottfredson, Psychology, Public Policy, and Law Volume 11, Issue 2, June 2005, Pages 311-319</ref> She has also disputed that a lower achieving group gains from denying or concealing real biological differences. An increasingly complex society built on the assumption than everyone can do equally well means that they who do not have this ability have increasing trouble functioning in most areas of life. They need various forms of special assistance which is not possible as long as the need is denied to exist.<ref name=G2005>What if the Hereditarian Hypothesis Is True? Linda S. Gottfredson, Psychology, Public Policy, and Law Volume 11, Issue 2, June 2005, Pages 311-319</ref><ref>[http://www.cato-unbound.org/2007/11/26/linda-s-gottfredson/flynn-ceci-and-turkheimer-on-race-and-intelligence-opening-moves/ FLYNN, CECI, AND TURKHEIMER ON RACE AND INTELLIGENCE: OPENING MOVES</ref> |
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=== Biological theories === |
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] in his book '']'' applied ] to human races and a number of factors including crime. Rushton and Templer (2009) examined how several factors correlated with high national rate of violent crime (murder, rape, and serious assault). Higher violent crime rates correlated with higher rate of HIV/AIDS (0.5), lower ] (0.25), darker skin color (0.23), shorter life expectancy (0.21), but had no relationship with national income (correlation of 0.00). They argue that this, as well as an analysis showing that 52% of the ] of these as well as other factor (birth rate and infant mortality) could be explained by a single factor, support the existence of a r/K factor.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1016/j.intell.2009.04.003}}</ref> There have been various criticisms of the theory as described in the article on the book.<ref name=rebreview></ref> |
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One example of criticism of biological theories for criminal behavior is the book '']''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Joseph|first=J.|title=The Gene Illusion: Genetic Research in Psychiatry and Psychology under the Microscope|year=2003|publisher=PCCS Books|isbn=1-898059-47-0}}</ref> |
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== Use in law enforcement == |
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=== Racial profiling === |
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] refers to the use of an individual’s race or ethnicity by law enforcement personnel as a key factor in deciding whether to engage in enforcement (e.g. make a traffic stop or arrest). The practice is controversial and is illegal in some nations. |
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===Forensics=== |
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In ] several methods are used to determine the race of a victim or a perpetrator. ] is the application of the science of ] and human ] (the study of the human ]) in a legal setting, most often in criminal cases where the victim's remains are in the advanced stages of decomposition. |
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] is another method that can be used in law enforcement to used to identify a person's race/geographic ancestry or degree of ] of different races/geographic ancestries. It has also been used to infer features of physical appearance such as hair and eye color. Since in particular results for persons with a mixed ancestry may be difficult to interpret, some companies supply photographs of persons with a similar genetic mix in order to help identification. Research is also being done on more exactly determining physical traits such as hair texture, skull shape, or the distance between the eyes, possibly allowing a crude sketch of a suspect to be generated from a DNA sample. Critics have questioned the reliability of the results and argue that physical appearances vary, even for close relatives such as siblings. There is also worry about the possibility of genetic racial profiling.<ref>Molecular eyewitness: DNA gets a human face, Carolyn Abraham, Globe and Mail, Jun. 25, 2005, Last updated Tuesday, Apr. 07, 2009 10:24PM, http://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/article888804.ece </ref><ref>DNA tests offer clues to suspect's race, Richard Willing, USA Today, Posted 8/16/2005 11:46 PM, http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2005-08-16-dna_x.htm</ref> |
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==See also== |
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== References == |
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== References == |
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{{reflist}} |
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{{Reflist}} |
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==External links== |
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==The Color of Crime== |
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* The Color of Crime |
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* The Color of Crime |
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{{Race and crime}} |
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{{Race and crime}} |
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{{Authority control}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2011}} |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Race And Crime}} |
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