Misplaced Pages

Revision as of 19:11, 20 December 2023

A society (/səˈsaɪəti/) is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction or a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Societies are characterized by patterns of relationships (social relations) between individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions; a given society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among its constituent members.

Societies construct patterns of behavior by deeming certain actions or concepts acceptable or unacceptable. These patterns of behavior within a given society are known as societal norms. Societies and their norms undergo gradual and perpetual changes. So far as it is collaborative, a society can enable its members to benefit in ways that would otherwise be difficult on an individual basis.

Societies vary based on level of technology and type of economic activity. Larger societies with larger food surpluses often exhibit stratification or dominance patterns. Societies can have many different forms of government, various ways of understanding kinship, and different gender roles. Human behavior varies immensely between different societies: Humans shape society, but society in turn shapes human beings.

Etymology and usage

The term "society" often refers to a large group of people in an ordered community, in a country or several similar countries, or the 'state of being with other people', e.g. "they lived in medieval society." The term dates back to 1513 and comes from the 12th-century French societe (modern French société) meaning 'company'. Societe was in turn derived from the Latin word societas ('fellowship,' 'alliance', 'association'), which in turn was derived from the noun socius ("comrade, friend, ally"). In early usage "society" referred to specific groups or clubs, but by the 1630s, it was used in reference to "people bound by neighborhood and intercourse, aware of living together in an ordered community". In the 18th century, the economist Adam Smith said a society "may subsist among different men, as among different merchants, from a sense of its utility without any mutual love or affection, if only they refrain from doing injury to each other."

Conceptions

In biology

Humans fall between presocial and eusocial on the spectrum of animal ethology. Humans, along with bonobos and chimpanzees are relatively social animals, while other great apes (gorillas and orangutans) are less social. Human society differs in important ways from groups of chimps and bonobos: According to anthropologist Maurice Godelier, one critical novelty in society is the parental role assumed by the males, which is absent in our nearest relatives for whom paternity is not generally determinable. Social group living may have evolved in humans due to group selection in physical environments that made survival difficult.

In sociology

In sociology, there are three dominant paradigms for understanding society: functionalism (also known as structural functionalism), conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism.

Functionalism

According to the functionalist school of thought, individuals in society work together like organs in the body to create emergent behavior, sometimes referred to as collective consciousness. 19th century sociologists Auguste Comte and Emile Durkheim, for example, believed that society constitutes a separate "level" of reality, distinct from both biological and inorganic matter. Explanations of social phenomena had therefore to be constructed within this level, individuals being merely transient occupants of comparatively stable social roles.

Conflict theory

Conflict theorists take the opposite view, and posit that individuals and social groups or social classes within society interact on the basis of conflict rather than agreement. One prominent conflict theorist is Karl Marx who conceived as society as operating on an economic "base" with a "superstructure" of government, family, religion and culture. Marx argues that the economic base determines the superstructure, and that throughout history, societal change has been driven by conflict between laborers and those who own the means of production.

Symbolic interactionism

Unlike functionalism and conflict theory, symbolic interactionism is a micro-level theory that focuses on individuals and how the individual relates to society. Symbolic interactionists study humans' use of shared language to create common symbols and meanings, and use this frame of reference to understand how individuals interact to create symbolic worlds, and in turn, how these worlds shape individual behaviors.

In the latter half of the 20th century, theorists began to view society as socially constructed. In this vein, sociologist Peter L. Berger describes society as "dialectic": Society is created by humans, but this creation turns in turn creates or molds humans.

Types

Sociologists tend to classify societies based on their level of technology, and place societies in three broad categories: pre-industrial, industrial, and postindustrial.

Subdivisions of these categories vary, and classifications are often based on level of technology, communication, and economy. One example of such a classification comes from sociologist Gerhard Lenski who lists: (1) hunting and gathering; (2) horticultural; (3) agricultural; and (4) industrial; as well as specialized societies (e.g., fishing or herding).

Some cultures have progressed over time toward more complex forms of organization and control. This cultural evolution has a profound effect on patterns of community. Hunter-gatherer tribes settled around seasonal food stocks to become agrarian villages. Villages grew to become towns and cities. Cities turned into city-states and nation-states.

Pre-industrial

In a pre-industrial society, food production, which is carried out through the use of human and animal labor, is the main economic activity. These societies can be subdivided according to their level of technology and their method of producing food. These subdivisions are hunting and gathering, pastoral, horticultural, and agrarian.

Hunting and gathering

The main form of food production in hunter-gatherer societies is the daily collection of wild plants and the hunting of wild animals. Hunter-gatherers move around constantly in search of food. As a result, they do not build permanent villages or create a wide variety of artifacts. The need for mobility also limits the size of these societies, and they usually only form small groups such as bands and tribes, usually with fewer than 50 people per community. Bands and tribes are relatively egalitarian, and decisions are reached through consensus. There are no formal political offices containing real power in band societies, rather a chief is merely a person of influence, and leadership is based on personal qualities. The family forms the main social unit, with most members being related by birth or marriage.

The anthropologist Marshall Sahlins described hunter-gatherers as the "original affluent society" due to their extended leisure time: adults in foraging and horticultural societies work, on average, about 6.5 hours a day, whereas people in agricultural and industrial societies work on average 8.8 hours a day.

Pastoral

Rather than searching for food on a daily basis, members of a pastoral society rely on domesticated herd animals to meet their food needs. Pastoralists typically live a nomadic life, moving their herds from one pasture to another. Community size in pastoral societies is similar to hunter-gatherers (about 50 individuals), but unlike hunter gatherers, pastoral societies usually consist of multiple communities---the average pastoral society contains thousands of people. This is because pastoral groups tend to live in open areas where movement is easy, which enables political integration. Pastoral societies tend to create a food surplus, and have specialized labor and high levels of inequality.

Horticultural

Fruits and vegetables grown in garden plots, that have been cleared from the jungle or forest, provide the main source of food in a horticultural society. These societies have a similar level of technology and complexity to pastoral societies. Along with pastoral societies, horticultural societies emerged about 10,000 years ago, after technological changes of the Agricultural Revolution made it possible to cultivate crops and raise animals. Horticulturists use human labor and simple tools to cultivate the land for one or more seasons. When the land becomes barren, horticulturists clear a new plot and leave the old plot to revert to its natural state. They may return to the original land several years later and begin the process again. By rotating their garden plots, horticulturists can stay in one area for a long period of time. This allows them to build permanent or semi-permanent villages.

As with pastoral societies, surplus food leads to a more complex division of labor. Specialized roles in horticultural societies include craftspeople, shamans (religious leaders), and traders. This role specialization allows horticultural societies to create a variety of artifacts. Scarce, defensible resources can lead to wealth inequalities in horticultural political systems.

Agrarian

Agrarian societies use agricultural technological advances to cultivate crops over a large area. Lenski differentiates between horticultural and agrarian societies by the use of the plow. Larger food supplies due to improved technology mean agrarian communities are larger than horticultural communities. A greater food surplus results in towns that become centers of trade. Economic trade in turn leads to increased specialization, including a ruling class, as well as educators, craftspeople, merchants, and religious figures, who do not directly participate in the production of food.

Agrarian societies are especially noted for their extremes of social classes and rigid social mobility. As land is the major source of wealth, social hierarchy develops based on landownership and not labor. The system of stratification is characterized by three coinciding contrasts: governing class versus the masses, urban minority versus peasant majority, and literate minority versus illiterate majority. This results in two distinct subcultures; the urban elite versus the peasant masses. Moreover, this means cultural differences within agrarian societies are greater than differences between them.

The landowning strata typically combine government, religious, and military institutions to justify and enforce their ownership, and support elaborate patterns of consumption, slavery, serfdom, or peonage is commonly the lot of the primary producer. Rulers of agrarian societies often do not manage their empire for the common good or in the name of the public interest, but as property they own. Caste systems, as found in India, are much more typical of agrarian societies where lifelong agricultural routines depend upon a rigid sense of duty and discipline. The emphasis in the modern West on personal liberties and freedoms was in large part a reaction to the steep and rigid stratification of agrarian societies.

Industrial

Industrial societies, which emerged in the 18th century after the Industrial Revolution, rely heavily on machines powered by external sources for the mass production of goods.

Increased productivity, as well as the stability caused by improved transportation, leads to decreased mortality and resulting population growth. Centralized production of goods in factories, along with a decreased need for agricultural labor, leads to urbanization.

Industrial societies are often capitalist, and have high degrees of inequality, but also high social mobility as businesspeople use the market to amass large amounts of wealth.

Post-industrial

Post-industrial societies are societies dominated by information and services, rather than the production of goods. Advanced industrial societies see a shift toward an increase in service sectors, over manufacturing. Service industries include retail, hospitality, education, health and finance.

Information

An information society is a society where the usage, creation, distribution, manipulation and integration of information is a significant activity. Proponents of the idea that modern-day global society is an information society posit that information technologies are impacting most important forms of social organization, including education, economy, health, government, warfare, and levels of democracy. Although the concept of information society has been discussed since the 1930s, in present day, it is almost always applied to ways that contemporary information technologies impact society and culture. It, therefore, covers the effects of computers and telecommunications on the home, the workplace, schools, government, and various communities and organizations, as well as the emergence of new social forms in cyberspace.

One of the European Union's areas of interest is the information society. The EU directs policies towards promoting an open and competitive digital economy, and towards research into information and communication technologies, as well as their application to improve social inclusion, public services, and quality of life.

Knowledge

As the access to electronic information resources increased at the beginning of the 21st century, special attention was extended from the information society to the knowledge society. A knowledge society generates, shares, and makes available to all members of the society knowledge that may be used to improve the human condition. A knowledge society differs from an information society in that it transforms information into resources that allow society to take effective action, rather than only creating and disseminating raw data.

An analysis by the Irish government stated, "The capacity to manipulate, store and transmit large quantities of information cheaply has increased at a staggering rate over recent years. The digitisation of information and the associated pervasiveness of the Internet are facilitating a new intensity in the application of knowledge to economic activity, to the extent that it has become the predominant factor in the creation of wealth. As much as 70 to 80 percent of economic growth is now said to be due to new and better knowledge."

Characteristics

Gender

The division of humans into male and female gender roles has been marked culturally by a corresponding division of norms, practices, dress, behavior, rights, duties, privileges, status, and power. Some argue that gender roles arise naturally from sex differences, which lead to a division of labor where women take on reproductive labor and other domestic roles. Gender roles have varied historically, and challenges to predominant gender norms have recurred in many societies.

Kinship

All human societies organize, recognize and classify types of social relationships based on relations between parents, children and other descendants (consanguinity), and relations through marriage (affinity). There is also a third type of familial relationship applied to godparents or adoptive children (fictive). These culturally defined relationships are referred to as kinship. In many societies, it is one of the most important social organizing principles and plays a role in transmitting status and inheritance. All societies have rules of incest taboo, according to which marriage between certain kinds of kin relations are prohibited; and some societies also have rules of preferential marriage with certain other kin relations.

Ethnicity

Human ethnic groups are a social category that identify together as a group based on shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups. These shared attributes can be a common set of traditions, ancestry, language, history, society, culture, nation, religion, or social treatment within their residing area. There is no generally accepted definition of what constitutes an ethnic group, and humans have evolved the ability to change affiliation with social groups relatively easily, including leaving groups with previously strong alliances, if doing so is seen as providing personal advantages. Ethnicity is separate from the concept of race, which is based on physical characteristics, although both are socially constructed. Assigning ethnicity to a certain population is complicated, as even within common ethnic designations there can be a diverse range of subgroups, and the makeup of these ethnic groups can change over time at both the collective and individual level. Ethnic groupings can play a powerful role in the social identity and solidarity of ethnopolitical units. Ethnic identity has been closely tied to the rise of the nation state as the predominant form of political organization in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Government and politics

Governments create laws and policies that affect the people that they govern. There have been many forms of government throughout human history, with various ways of allocating power, and with different levels and means of control over the population. In early history, distribution of political power was determined by the availability of fresh water, fertile soil, and temperate climate of different locations. As farming populations gathered in larger and denser communities, interactions between different groups increased, leading to the further development of governance within and between communities.

As of 2022, 45% of national governments were democracies, 18% autocracies and 37% containing elements of both. Many countries have formed international political organizations and alliances, the largest being the United Nations with 193 member states.

Trade and economics

Trade, the voluntary exchange of goods and services, has long been aspect of human societies, and it is seen as a characteristic that differentiates humans from other animals. Trade has even been cited as a practice that gave Homo sapiens a major advantage over other hominid: Evidence suggests early H. sapiens made use of long-distance trade routes to exchange goods and ideas, leading to cultural explosions and providing additional food sources when hunting was sparse, while such trade networks did not exist for the now extinct Neanderthals. Early trade likely involved materials for creating tools like obsidian. The first truly international trade routes were around the spice trade through the Roman and medieval periods.

Early human economies were more likely to be based around gift giving than a bartering system. Early money consisted of commodities; the oldest being in the form of cattle and the most widely used being cowrie shells. Money has since evolved into governmental issued coins, paper and electronic money. Human study of economics is a social science that looks at how societies distribute scarce resources among different people. There are massive inequalities in the division of wealth among humans; the eight richest humans are worth the same net monetary value as the poorest half of all the human population.

Conflict

The willingness of humans to kill other members of their species en masse through organized conflict (i.e. war) has long been the subject of debate. One school of thought is that war evolved as a means to eliminate competitors, and that violence is an innate human characteristic. Humans commit violence against other humans at a rate comparable to other primates (although humans kill adults at a relatively high rate and have a relatively low rate of infanticide).

Another school of thought suggests that war is a relatively recent phenomenon and appeared due to changing social conditions. While not settled, the current evidence suggests warlike behavior only became common about 10,000 years ago, and in many regions much more recently than that.

Phylogenetic analysis predicts 2% of human deaths to be caused by homicide, which approximately matches the rate of homicide in band societies. However, rates of violence vary widely according to societal norms, and rates of homicide in societies that have legal systems and strong cultural attitudes against violence stand at about 0.01%.

See also

• Civil society
• Consumerism
• Group cohesiveness
• High society
• Learned society
• Mass society
• Open society
• Outline of community
• Outline of culture
• Outline of religion
• Outline of society
• Professional association
• Secret society
• Sociobiology
• Social action
• Social capital
• Social contract
• Social order
• Social system
• Social work
• Societal collapse
• Structure and agency

References

Citations

1. "SOCIETY | English meaning - Cambridge Dictionary".
2. "Society". Merriam-webster dictionary. Archived from the original on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
3. ^ "Society (n.)". Online Etymological Dictionary. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
4. Briggs 2000, p. 9.
5. Godelier, Maurice (2004). Métamorphoses de la parenté.
6. Goody, Jack. "The Labyrinth of Kinship". New Left Review. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 24 July 2007.
7. Wilson, David Sloan (2008). Evolution for everyone: how Darwin's theory can change the way we think about our lives (Paperback ed.). New York: Delacorte. ISBN 978-0385340922.
8. "The Main Sociological Theories | Introduction to Sociology". courses.lumenlearning.com. Retrieved 20 December 2023.
9. Conerly & Holmes, p. 103-108. sfn error: no target: CITEREFConerlyHolmes (help)
10. Conerly & Holmes, p. 103-104. sfn error: no target: CITEREFConerlyHolmes (help)
11. Macionis, John (1944–2011). Sociology. Gerber, Linda Marie (7th ed.). Toronto, Canada: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 9780137001613. OCLC 652430995.
12. Conerly & Holmes, p. 104-105. sfn error: no target: CITEREFConerlyHolmes (help)
13. Conerly & Holmes, p. 108. sfn error: no target: CITEREFConerlyHolmes (help)
14. "Symbolic Interactionist Theory | Introduction to Sociology". courses.lumenlearning.com. Retrieved 20 December 2023.
15. Hall, Peter M. (2007). "Symbolic Interaction". Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology. doi:10.1002/9781405165518.wbeoss310. ISBN 9781405124331. Archived from the original on 8 March 2020. Retrieved 24 January 2017.
16. West, Richard L.; Turner, Lynn H. (3 March 2017). Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application (6th ed.). New York. ISBN 9781259870323. OCLC 967775008.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
17. Conerly & Holmes, p. 109-110. sfn error: no target: CITEREFConerlyHolmes (help)
18. Berger, Peter L. (1967). The Sacred Canopy: Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion. Garden City, NYC: Doubleday & Company, Inc. p. 3.
19. ^ Conerly & Holmes, p. 99. sfn error: no target: CITEREFConerlyHolmes (help)
20. ^ Lenski 1974, p. 96.
21. Glassman, Ronald (2017). The Origins of Democracy in Tribes, City-States and Nation-States. Springer. p. 1502. ISBN 9783319516950.
22. Lenski 1974, p. 135.
23. ^ Lenski 1974, p. 134.
24. Lee, Richard B.; Daly, Richard (1999). "Introduction: Foragers & Others". The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters & Gatherers. Cambridge University Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-521-57109-X.
25. Lenski 1974, p. 146.
26. Lenski 1974, p. 142.
27. Sahlins, M. (1968). "Notes on the Original Affluent Society". Man the Hunter. By Lee, R.B.; DeVore, I. New York: Aldine Publishing Company. pp. 85–89. ISBN 0-202-33032-X. See also: Lewis, Jerome (2008). "Managing abundance, not chasing scarcity" (PDF). Radical Anthropology (2). Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 May 2013, and Gowdy, John (2005). "Hunter-Gatherers and the Mythology of the Market". Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers. By Lee, Richard B. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021.
28. Sackett, Ross (1996). Time, energy, and the indolent savage. A quantitative cross-cultural test of the primitive affluence hypothesis (PhD). University of California, Los Angeles. S2CID 146347757.
29. Lenski 1974, p. 267.
30. ^ Lenski 1974, p. 268-269.
31. ^ Bulliet et al. 2015, p. 14.
32. ^ Lenski 1974, p. 165.
33. Gurven, Michael; Borgerhoff Mulder, Monique; Hooper, Paul L.; Kaplan, Hillard; Quinlan, Robert; Sear, Rebecca; Schniter, Eric; von Rueden, Christopher; Bowles, Samuel; Hertz, Tom; Bell, Adrian (19 February 2010). "Domestication Alone Does Not Lead to Inequality: Intergenerational Wealth Transmission among Horticulturalists". Current Anthropology. 51 (1): 49–64. doi:10.1086/648587. S2CID 12364888 – via CrossRef.
34. Lenski 1974, p. 207.
35. Langlois, S. 2001. Traditions: Social, 15830.
36. Brown, D.E. 1988. Hierarchy, History, and Human Nature. 78-82.
37. Lenski, Gerhard and Patrick Nolan. 2010. "The Agricultural Economy," 35-37.
38. Brown, D.E. 1988. Hierarchy, History, and Human Nature, 112.
39. Lenski 1974, p. 315.
40. ^ Conerly & Holmes, p. 101. sfn error: no target: CITEREFConerlyHolmes (help)
41. Lenski 1974, p. 319.
42. Conerly & Holmes 2021, p. 101. sfn error: no target: CITEREFConerlyHolmes2021 (help)
43. Lenski 1974, p. 328.
44. Conerly & Holmes, p. 102. sfn error: no target: CITEREFConerlyHolmes (help)
45. "Industries in the UK - House of Commons Library".
46. Soll, Jacob (2011). The information master: Jean-Baptiste Colbert's secret state intelligence system. Cultures of knowledge in the early modern world (First paperback ed.). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-02526-8.
47. "Digital Technology & Social Change". canvas.instructure.com. Archived from the original on 5 January 2018.
48. The Information Society. Indiana University. Archived 7 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 20 October 2009.
49. "Information Society Policies at a Glance". Europa.eu. Archived from the original on 24 March 2010. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
50. Phillips, Fred; Yu, Ching-Ying; Hameed, Tahir; El Akhdary, Mahmoud Abdullah (2017). "The knowledge society's origins and current trajectory". International Journal of Innovation Studies. 1 (3): 175–191. doi:10.1016/j.ijis.2017.08.001.
51. Castelfranchi, C. (2007). Six critical remarks on science and the construction of the knowledge society. Journal of Science Communication, 6(4), 1-3.
52. Building the Knowledge Society. Report to Government (PDF). Information Society Commission, Ireland. December 2002. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 November 2007. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
53. Ridgeway CL (2001). International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. ISBN 978-0-08-043076-8.
54. Alters S, Schiff W (2009). Essential Concepts for Healthy Living. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-7637-5641-3. Retrieved 3 January 2018.
55. Fortin N (2005). "Gender Role Attitudes and the Labour Market Outcomes of Women Across OECD Countries". Oxford Review of Economic Policy. 21 (3): 416–438. doi:10.1093/oxrep/gri024.
56. "The Nature of Kinship: Overview". www2.palomar.edu. Archived from the original on 3 December 2020. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
57. Itao K, Kaneko K (February 2020). "Evolution of kinship structures driven by marriage tie and competition". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 117 (5): 2378–2384. Bibcode:2020PNAS..117.2378I. doi:10.1073/pnas.1917716117. PMC 7007516. PMID 31964846.
58. Chandra K (2012). Constructivist theories of ethnic politics. Oxford University Press. pp. 69–70. ISBN 978-0-19-989315-7. OCLC 829678440. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
59. People J, Bailey G (2010). Humanity: An Introduction to Cultural Anthropology (9th ed.). Wadsworth Cengage learning. p. 389. In essence, an ethnic group is a named social category of people based on perceptions of shared social experience or one's ancestors' experiences. Members of the ethnic group see themselves as sharing cultural traditions and history that distinguish them from other groups. Ethnic group identity has a strong psychological or emotional component that divides the people of the world into opposing categories of 'us' and 'them.' In contrast to social stratification, which divides and unifies people along a series of horizontal axes based on socioeconomic factors, ethnic identities divide and unify people along a series of vertical axes. Thus, ethnic groups, at least theoretically, cut across socioeconomic class differences, drawing members from all strata of the population.
60. Chandra K (2006). "What is Ethnic Identity and Does It Matter?". Annual Review of Political Science. 9 (1): 397–424. doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.9.062404.170715. ISSN 1094-2939.
61. Cronk L, Leech BL (20 September 2017). "How Did Humans Get So Good at Politics?". SAPIENS. Archived from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
62. Blackmore E (22 February 2019). "Race and ethnicity: How are they different?". Culture. Archived from the original on 22 October 2020. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
63. Race, Ethnicity, and Genetics Working Group (October 2005). "The use of racial, ethnic, and ancestral categories in human genetics research". American Journal of Human Genetics. 77 (4): 519–32. doi:10.1086/491747. PMC 1275602. PMID 16175499.
64. Smith AD (1999). Myths and Memories of the Nation. Oxford University Press. pp. 4–7.
65. Banton M (2007). "Max Weber on 'ethnic communities': a critique". Nations and Nationalism. 13 (1): 19–35. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8129.2007.00271.x.
66. Delanty G, Kumar K (2006). The SAGE Handbook of Nations and Nationalism. London: SAGE. p. 171. ISBN 978-1-4129-0101-7.
67. Melina R (14 February 2011). "What Are the Different Types of Governments?". livescience.com. Archived from the original on 1 February 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
68. Holslag J. A political history of the world: three thousand years of war and peace. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-0-241-38466-4. OCLC 1080190517.
69. Christian D (2004). Maps of Time. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24476-4.
70. "Democracy Index 2022: Frontline democracy and the battle for Ukraine" (PDF). Economist Intelligence Unit. 2023. p. 3.
71. National Geographic Society (23 December 2012). "international organization". National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on 27 April 2017. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
72. Horan RD, Bulte E, Shogren JF (1 September 2005). "How trade saved humanity from biological exclusion: an economic theory of Neanderthal extinction". Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization. 58 (1): 1–29. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2004.03.009. ISSN 0167-2681.
73. Gibbons J (11 August 2015). "Why did Neanderthals go extinct?". Smithsonian Insider. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
74. University of Wyoming (24 March 2005). "Did Use of Free Trade Cause Neanderthal Extinction?". www.newswise.com. Archived from the original on 1 February 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
75. Polianskaya A (15 March 2018). "Humans may have been trading with each for as long as 300,000 years". inews.co.uk. Archived from the original on 23 January 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
76. Henriques M. "How spices changed the ancient world". www.bbc.com. Archived from the original on 25 January 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
77. Strauss IE (26 February 2016). "The Myth of the Barter Economy". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 15 February 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
78. ^ "The History of Money". www.pbs.org. 26 October 1996. Archived from the original on 29 November 2020. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
79. "Why do we need economists and the study of economics?". Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 23 October 2020.
80. Sheskin M. "The inequality delusion: Why we've got the wealth gap all wrong". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 3 February 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
81. Yong E (28 September 2016). "Humans: Unusually Murderous Mammals, Typically Murderous Primates". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 7 May 2021.
82. ^ Ferguson RB (1 September 2018). "War Is Not Part of Human Nature". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 30 January 2021. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
83. ^ Gómez JM, Verdú M, González-Megías A, Méndez M (October 2016). "The phylogenetic roots of human lethal violence". Nature. 538 (7624): 233–237. Bibcode:2016Natur.538..233G. doi:10.1038/nature19758. PMID 27680701. S2CID 4454927.
84. ^ Pagel M (October 2016). "Animal behaviour: Lethal violence deep in the human lineage" (PDF). Nature. 538 (7624): 180–181. Bibcode:2016Natur.538..180P. doi:10.1038/nature19474. PMID 27680700. S2CID 4459560. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2022. Retrieved 1 June 2022.

Sources

• Briggs, Asa (2000). The Age of Improvement (2nd ed.). Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-36959-7.
• Brown, D.E. 1988. Hierarchy, History, and Human Nature: The Social Origins of Historical Consciousness. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
• Bulliet, Richard; Crossley, Pamela; Headrick, Daniel; Hirsch, Steven; Johnson, Lyman (2015). The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History. Vol. 1 (6th ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-285-44567-0.
• Langlois, S. 2001. "Traditions: Social." In Neil J. Smelser and Paul B. Baltes, Editors, International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, Pergamon, Oxford, 15829–15833.
• Lenski, Gerhard E. (1974). Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. ISBN 978-0-07-037172-9.
• Lenski, Gerhard. "Agrarian Societies ." In Power and Privilege: A Theory of Social Stratification, 189–296. 1966. Reprinted, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984.
• Conerly, Tanja; Holmes, Kathleen; Tamang, Asha Lal (2021). Introduction to Sociology, 3rd edition (PDF). OpenStax. p. 99. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.

Further reading

• Althusser, Louis; Balibar, Étienne (2009). Reading Capital. London: Verso.
• Bicchieri, Cristina; Muldoon, Ryan; Sontuoso, Alessandro (1 March 2011). Social Norms. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
• Bottomore, Tom, ed. (1991). A Dictionary of Marxist Thought (2nd ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 45–48.
• Boyd, Robert; Richerson, Peter J. (12 November 2009). "Culture and the evolution of human cooperation". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 364 (1533): 3281–3288. doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0134. PMC 2781880. PMID 19805434.
• Calhoun, Craig, ed. (2002). Dictionary of the Social Sciences. Oxford University Press.
• Clutton-Brock, T.; West, S.; Ratnieks, F.; Foley, R. (12 November 2009). "The evolution of society". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 364 (1533): 3127–3133. doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0207. PMC 2781882. PMID 19805421.
• Dunfey, Theo Spanos (29 May 2019). "What is Social Change and Why Should We Care?". Southern New Hampshire University.
• Griffen, Leonid (2021). "The Society as a Superorganism" (PDF). The Scientific Heritage. 5 (67): 51–60. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2021.
• Hall, Stuart (1977). "Rethinking the Base and Superstructure Metaphor". In Bloomfield, J. (ed.). Papers on Class, Hegemony and Party. London: Lawrence & Wishart.
• Harman, Chris (Summer 1986). "Base and Superstructure". International Socialism. 2 (32): 3–44. Archived from the original on 27 June 2015.
• Harvey, David (2010). A Companion to Marx's Capital. London: Verso.
• Jenkins, Richard (2002). Foundations of Sociology. London: Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-333-96050-9.
• Larrain, Jorge (1983). Marxism and Ideology. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press.
• Lukács, Georg (1972). History and Class Consciousness. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Postone, Moishe (1993). Time, Labour, and Social Domination: A Reinterpretation of Marx's Critical Theory. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
• Rummel, R.J. (1976). "The State, Political System and Society". Understanding Conflict and War, Vol. 2: The Conflict Helix.
• Williams, Raymond (1976). Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. Fontana.
• — (1977). Marxism and Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

• Definitions from Wiktionary
• Media from Commons
• News from Wikinews
• Quotations from Wikiquote
• Texts from Wikisource
• Data from Wikidata

• Society
• Humans
• Main topic articles