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| {{Short description|Chinese term for propaganda}} | |||
| <noinclude></noinclude> | |||
| {{Format footnotes|date=September 2020}} | |||
| {{italic title}} | |||
| {{Infobox Chinese | |||
| |t= {{linktext|宣傳}} | |||
| |s= {{linktext|宣传}} | |||
| |l= spread transmit | |||
| |p= xuānchuán | |||
| |w= hsüan-ch'uan | |||
| |j= syun1 cyun4 | |||
| |h= siên-chhòn | |||
| |mc= sjwendrjwen | |||
| |oc-bs= *s-qʷarm-tron | |||
| |hangul= {{linktext|선전}} | |||
| |rr= sŏnjŏn | |||
| |mr= seonjeon | |||
| |kanji= {{linktext|宣伝}} | |||
| |hiragana= せんでん | |||
| |revhep= senden | |||
| }} | |||
| ].]] | |||
| The ] word '''''xuanchuan''''' "dissemination; propaganda; publicity" originally meant "to announce or convey information" during the 3rd-century ] period, and was chosen to translate Russian ''propagánda'' {{linktext|пропаганда}} in the 20th-century ], adopting the ] concept of a "transmission belt" for indoctrination and mass mobilization.{{sfn|Shambaugh|2007|p=26}} ''Xuanchuan'' is the keyword for ] and ]. | |||
| ==Terminology== | |||
| The ] term ''xuanchuan'' compounds ''xuan'' {{linktext|宣}} "declare; proclaim; announce" and ''chuan'' {{linktext|傳}} or {{linktext|传}} "pass (on); hand down; impart; teach; spread; infect; be contagious".{{sfn|DeFrancis|2003|pp=1087, 124}} The term means "disseminating purposeful information" and in the Chinese context it does not have a negative connotation in official discourse, though can in informal ones.<ref>{{harvnb|Edney|2014|pp=22–24, 195}}: "Outside the realm of official discourse, however, propaganda (xuanchuan), is occasionally used in a negative way...(p. 195)"</ref> The term can also can refer to announcing or conveying, as in ''xuanchuan zhengce'', meaning to publicize policies.{{sfn|Lin|2023|p=6}} The term is not used for censorship, as it might connote in other parts of the world.{{sfn|Edney|2014|pp=22–24, 195}} | |||
| Xuanchuan is not the only word that roughly translates to propaganda. ''Sixiang gaizao'' (thought reform) and ''Sixiang gongzuo'' (thought work) are related terms that can differ from xuanchuan by focusing more on changing thoughts and by extension, actions.{{sfn|Edney|2014|pp=22–24, 195}} | |||
| Numerous common Chinese words are based upon ''xuanchuan'', such as: ''xuānchuánpǐn'' 宣傳品 "propaganda/publicity material", ''xuānchuánduì'' 宣傳隊 "propaganda team", ''xuānchuánhuà'' 宣傳畫 "]", ''xuānchuándān'' 宣傳單 "propaganda slips/sheets", ''xuānchuángǔdòng'' 宣傳鼓動 "]", and ''xuānchuán diànyǐng'' 宣傳電影 "]".{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}} Journalists sometimes refer to themselves as ''gao xuanchuan de'', meaning "the people doing the propaganda" with a connotation of humility.{{sfn|Lin|2023|p=5}} | |||
| In ] terminology, a ] provides "]" (rather than "definitions") between the ] and ]. Sometimes words have complete equivalents, such as translating French '']'' as English '']''; but other times have partial or alternative equivalents, such as translating French '']'' as either the animal '']'' or the meat '']''.{{r|Svensén1993_14357}} | |||
| Translation equivalents of ''xuanchuan'' in major ] include: | |||
| *"to declare; propaganda"{{r|Mathews1943_431}} | |||
| *"propaganda; to carry on propaganda (for)"{{r|ChaoYang1947_61}} | |||
| *"propagate; propagandize; publicize; propaganda (work, bureau, etc.)"{{r|Lin1972_687}} | |||
| *"conduct propaganda; propagate; disseminate; give publicity to"{{r|Wu1979_782}} | |||
| *"propagate; disseminate; propagandize; give publicity to; publicize"{{r|Ding1985_1162}} | |||
| *"to publicize; to promote; propaganda; promotion"{{r|LiangChang1992_322}} | |||
| *"publicize; propagate; advocated; advertise; preach; blaze sth. abroad ; whoop"{{r|Wu1993_2886}} | |||
| *"propagate; disseminate; give publicity to"{{sfn|DeFrancis|2003|p=1087}} | |||
| Thus, the most frequent English lexicographical translations of ''xuanchuan'' are {{linktext|propaganda}}, {{linktext|propagate}}, {{linktext|publicize}}, {{linktext|disseminate}}, {{linktext|give publicity}}, and {{linktext|propagandize}}. Unlike the English usage of "propaganda," ''xuanchuan'' conveys a meaning of education.{{sfn|Lin|2023|p=34}} | |||
| Many languages besides English have different words to distinguish "propaganda" and "publicity", for instance, German '']'' and '']'', or Russian ''propagánda'' '']'' and ''rekláma'' '']''. Few languages besides Chinese have one ] word; excluding ] loanwords from Chinese such as Japanese ''senden'' ] "propaganda; advertisement; publicity", one example is Irish '']'' "publicity; propaganda; claptrap".{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}} | |||
| ==Historical usage== | |||
| The '']'' is a historical dictionary that gives chronologically arranged usage examples, comparable with the '']''. The ''xuanchuan'' entry gives three meanings: ''xuānbù chuándá'' 宣布传达 "to announce or convey information", ''xiàng rén jiạ̌ngjiě shuōmíng'' 向人讲解说明, 进行教育, ''jìnxíng jiàoyù'' 进行教育 " to explain something to someone, or to conduct education", and ''chuánbō'' 传播, ''xuānyáng'' 宣扬 "to disseminate or publicize".<ref>Tr. {{harvnb|Edney|2014|p=22}}.</ref> | |||
| First, the meaning of "to announce or convey information" was originally recorded in the historian ]'s (3rd century) '']'' in contexts of transmitting (esp. military) orders.{{sfn|Li|2023|p=6}} For example, the biography of ] dynasty General ] (d. 249) records that after defeating rebels in ], he was appointed General Who Pacifies the South and ordered back to the capital in ]. "In 242, when was returning to court, upon reaching ], he went to see Grand Marshall ], who conveyed an imperial decree that he was also appointed General in Chief of Zhennan Circuit ], ]]." Later usage examples are cited from historian ] (564–647), poet Cao Tang 曹唐 (fl. 860–874), and scholar Wang Mingqing 王明清 (1163-1224).{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}} | |||
| Second, the ''xuanchuan'' meaning of "to explain something to someone, or to conduct education" first appeared in ]'s (c. 320) '']'' criticism of effete scholars who ] (r. 75–88) extravagantly rewarded. | |||
| <blockquote>These various gentlemen were heaped with honors, but not because they could breach walls or fight in the fields, break through an enemy's lines and extend frontiers, fall ill and resign office, pray for a plan of confederation and give the credit to others, or possess a zeal transcending all bounds. Merely because they expounded an interpretation of one solitary classic, such were the honors lavished upon them. And they were only lecturing upon words bequeathed by the dead. Despite their own high positions, emperors and kings deigned to serve these teachers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ge |first=Hong |url=https://archive.org/details/alchemymediciner00ware |title=Alchemy, Medicine, Religion in the China of A.D. 320. |date=1966 |publisher=Cambridge, Mass., & London |isbn=9780262230223 |language=en |translator-last=Ware |translator-first=James |page=231}}</ref></blockquote> | |||
| Subsequent usages are quotes from monk-translator Pukong 不空 or ] (705–774), poet ] (954–1001), novelist ] (1904-2005), and ] (1893-1976). Mao's (1957) "The speech for the Chinese Communist party National Propaganda Work Meeting"{{r|trLeung1992_379}} says, "Our comrades who are engaged in propaganda work have the task of disseminating Marxism. This is a gradual propaganda and should be done well, so that people are willing to accept it."{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}} | |||
| Third, the modern ''xuanchuan'' meaning of "to disseminate or publicize" occurred in ]'s (1937) ''Camel Xiangzi'' or '']'',<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lao |first=She |title=Rickshaw Boy |title-link=Rickshaw Boy |date=2010-09-07 |publisher=Harper Collins |isbn=978-0-06-201064-3 |language=en |page=48}}</ref> "As promised, Old Man Liu told no one of Xiangzi’s experiences ]''], but the camel story quickly spread from Haidian into the city." The ''Hanyu Da Cidian'' gives two other usage examples from novels by ] (1906-1970).{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}} | |||
| ==Propaganda and publicity== | |||
| Whether ''xuanchuan'' is translated as either ''propaganda'' or ''propagandize'' versus ''publicity'' or ''publicize'' depends upon the Chinese collocation and context, and the English ]. For English and Chinese translation equivalent examples, ''political propaganda'' and ''zhèngzhì xuānchuán'' 政治宣传 are usually pejorative, but ''public health propaganda'' and ''gōnggòng wèishēng xuānchuán'' 公共卫生宣传 are not.{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}} | |||
| Some ''xuanchuan'' collocations customarily refer to "propaganda" (e.g., ''xuānchuánzhàn'' 宣传战 "propaganda war"), others to "publicity" (''chǎnpǐn xuānchuán'' 產品宣传 "product promotion"), and still others can ambiguously refer to either (''xuānchuányuán'' 宣传员 "propagandist; publicist").{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}} | |||
| ''Xuanchuan'' contexts can vary from covert ] (such as ]) that misrepresents its source to overt ] (such as a ]) that truthfully states its source. Chinese contexts determine the word's semantic connotations. For instance, the term ''Gòngchạ̌ndǎng de xuānchuán'' 共产党的宣传 "]" generally has positive connotations in ] usage but negative ones in ] usage. In official CCP discourse, ''xuanchuan'' "propaganda" has a neutral or positive connotation, but in informal usage, the word often has a pejorative connotation.{{sfn|Edney|2014|pp=22, 195}} For instance, in 2009 a group of Chinese academics and lawyers called for a boycott of the major ] network and sarcastically said the program '']'' "Network News" should be called ''Xuanchuan Lianbo'' "Propaganda News".{{sfn|Edney|2014|p=195}}<ref>{{Cite news |date=2009-01-12 |title=China TV faces propaganda charge |language=en-GB |work=] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7824255.stm |access-date=2023-12-14}}</ref> | |||
| ],{{sfn|Shambaugh|2007|p=29}} the scholar of Chinese politics and foreign policy, describes "proactive propaganda" in which the Chinese Communist Party Propaganda Department writes and disseminates information that it believes "''should'' be used in educating and shaping society". In this particular context, ''xuanchuan'' "does ''not'' carry negative connotations for the CCP, nor, for that matter, for most Chinese citizens." The sinologist and anthropologist Andrew B. Kipnis says unlike English ''propaganda'', Chinese ''xuanchuan'' is officially represented as language that is good for the nation as a whole.{{sfn|Kipnis|1995|p=119}} Operating according to this terminology, the CCP is open about the importance of its propaganda work, which it views as having a positive impact on informing the Chinese people and promoting social harmony.{{sfn|Šebok|2023|p=106}} | |||
| ''Propaganda'' and ''publicity'' have undergone considerable diachronic change in meaning. According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', ''propaganda'' was first recorded in 1718, referring to the Latin title ''Congregatio de Propaganda Fide'' "]" "a committee of Cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church having the care and oversight of foreign missions". The religious meaning was extended to "any association, systematic scheme, or concerted movement for the propagation of a particular doctrine or practice" in 1790, and specialized to "the systematic propagation of information or ideas by an interested party, esp. in a tendentious way in order to encourage or instill a particular attitude or response" in 1908. The linguist ] suggests that the "bad" sense of ''propaganda'' emerged on the political scene in the United States.{{r|Room1991_216}} ''Publicity'' was first used to mean "the quality of being public; the condition or fact of being open to public observation or knowledge" in 1791, and subsequently specified to "public notice; the action or fact of making someone or something publicly known; the business of promotion or advertising; an action or object intended to attract public notice; material issued to publicize".{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}} | |||
| Most standard English dictionary definitions of ''propaganda'' note the word's negative connotations; either through explanation "ideas or statements that are often false or exaggerated and that are spread in order to help a cause, a political leader, a government, etc." (] 1993), or through a usage note "The systematic dissemination of doctrine, rumour, or selected information to propagate or promote a particular doctrine, view, practice, etc.; ideas, information, etc. disseminated thus (frequently ''derogatory'')" (] 1993). | |||
| In contrast, standard Chinese-Chinese dictionary definitions of ''xuanchuan'' (see the ''Hanyu Da Cidian'' above) neither mention that the term can have a pejorative connotation nor highlight any connection between the act of propagandizing and the accuracy (or inaccuracy) of the information that is being disseminated.{{sfn|Edney|2014|p=22}} | |||
| As China's involvement in world affairs grew in the late 20th century, the CCP became sensitive to the negative connotations of the English word ''propaganda'', and the commonly used Chinese term ''xuanchuan'' acquired pejorative connotations.{{sfn|Mackinnon|1997|p=4}} In 1992, ] ] asked one of the CCP's most senior translators to come up with a better English alternative to ''propaganda'' as the translation of ''xuanchuan'' for propaganda targeting foreign audiences.{{sfn|Schoenhals|2008|p=125}} Replacement English translations include ''publicity'', ''information'', and ''political communication'' domestically,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brady |first=Anne-Marie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uj-1sxeO99kC |title=Marketing Dictatorship: Propaganda and Thought Work in Contemporary China |date=2008 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-7425-4057-6 |language=en |oclc=968245349 |author-link=Anne-Marie Brady |access-date=2020-05-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308184443/https://books.google.com/books?id=uj-1sxeO99kC |archive-date=2023-03-08 |url-status=live |page=73}}</ref> or ''media diplomacy'' and ''cultural exchange'' internationally.{{sfn|Edney|2014|p=24}} | |||
| CCPPD officials left the ''xuanchuan'' in official Chinese names the same but changed the English translations from "Propaganda Department of the Communist Party of China" to "Publicity Department of the Communist Party of China",{{sfn|Shambaugh|2007|p=47}} and changed "Central Propaganda Department" to "Central Publicity Department".{{sfn|Hassid|2008|p=415}} English-languages sources rarely use either "Publicity Department" translation. The ''Zhōngyāng Xuānchuán Sīxiǎng Lǐngdǎo Xiǎozǔ'', which oversees the CCPPD, continues to be translated as the "]".{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}} | |||
| ==References== | |||
| * {{cite book |editor-last=DeFrancis |editor-first=John |date=2003 |title=ABC Chinese-English Comprehensive Dictionary |publisher=University of Hawaii Press | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Edney |first=Kingsley |date=2014 |url=https://archive.org/details/globalizationofc0000edne |title=The Globalization of Chinese Propaganda: International Power and Domestic Political Cohesion |publisher=] |doi=10.1057/9781137382153|isbn=978-1-349-47990-0 }} | |||
| * {{Cite journal |last=Hassid |first=Jonathan |date=2008-06-01 |title=Controlling the Chinese Media: An Uncertain Business |journal=] |language=en |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=414–430 |doi=10.1525/as.2008.48.3.414 |issn=0004-4687}} | |||
| * {{Cite journal |last=Kipnis |first=Andrew B. |date=January 1995 |title=Within and Against Peasantness: Backwardness and Filiality in Rural China |journal=] |language=en |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=110–135 |doi=10.1017/S0010417500019563 |s2cid=144272199 |issn=0010-4175}} | |||
| * {{Cite book |last=Li |first=Jie |title=Cinematic Guerillas: Propaganda, Projectionists, and Audiences in Socialist China |publisher=] |year=2023 |isbn=9780231206273 |location=New York, NY}} | |||
| * {{Cite book |last=Lin |first=Chunfeng |title=Red Tourism in China: Commodification of Propaganda |publisher=] |year=2023 |isbn=9781032139609}} | |||
| * {{Cite journal |last=Mackinnon |first=Stephen R. |date=January 1997 |title=Toward a History of the Chinese Press in the Republican Period |journal=] |language=en |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=3–32 |doi=10.1177/009770049702300101 |issn=0097-7004 |jstor=189462|s2cid=148316475 }} | |||
| * {{Cite journal |last=Schoenhals |first=Michael |date=2008 |title=Abandoned or Merely Lost in Translation? |journal=Inner Asia |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=113–130 |doi=10.1163/000000008793066777 |issn=1464-8172 |jstor=23615059}} | |||
| * {{Cite book |last=Šebok |first=Filip |title=Contemporary China: a New Superpower? |publisher=] |year=2023 |isbn=978-1-03-239508-1 |editor-last=Kironska |editor-first=Kristina |chapter=Social Control and Propaganda |editor-last2=Turscanyi |editor-first2=Richard Q.}} | |||
| * {{cite journal |last=Shambaugh |first=David |author-link=David Shambaugh |date=January 2007 |title=Propaganda System: Institutions, Processes and Efficacy China's |journal=] |volume=57 |pages=25–58 |doi=10.1086/tcj.57.20066240 |s2cid=222814073 |url=http://myweb.rollins.edu/tlairson/china/chipropaganda.pdf}} | |||
| '''Footnotes''' | |||
| {{reflist|refs= | |||
| <ref name=Svensén1993_14357>Svensén, Bo (1993), ''Practical Lexicography: Principles and Methods of Dictionary-Making'', tr. by John Sykes and Kerstin Schofield, Oxford University Press. pp. 143–157.</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Mathews1943_431>Mathews, Robert H., ed. (1943), ''Mathews' Chinese-English Dictionary'', Rev. American ed., Harvard University Press. p. 431.</ref> | |||
| <ref name=ChaoYang1947_61>Chao, Yuen Ren and Yang, Lien-sheng, eds. (1947), '']'', Harvard University Press. p. 61.</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Lin1972_687>Lin Yutang, ed. (1972), '''', Chinese University of Hong Kong. p. 687.</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Wu1979_782>Wu Jingrong 吴景荣, ed. (1979), ''The Chinese-English Dictionary'', Commercial Press. p. 782.</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Ding1985_1162>Ding Guangxun 丁光訓, ed. (1985), ''A New Chinese-English Dictionary'', Joint Publishing. p. 1162.</ref> | |||
| <ref name=LiangChang1992_322>Liang Shih-chiu 梁實秋 and Chang Fang-chieh 張芳杰, eds. (1992), ''Far East Chinese-English Dictionary'', Far East Book Co. p. 322. {{ISBN|9789576122309}}.</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Wu1993_2886>Wu Guanghua 吴光华, ed. (1993), ''Chinese-English Dictionary'', 2 vols. Shanghai Jiaotong University Press. p. 2886.</ref> | |||
| <ref name=trLeung1992_379>Leung, John K., tr. (1992), '' The Writings of Mao Zedong, 1949-1976: January 1956-December 1957'', M.E. Sharpe. p. 379.</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Room1991_216>] (1991), ''NTC's Dictionary of Changes in Meanings'', National Textbook Company. p. 216.</ref> | |||
| }} | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| *Feuerwerker, Yi-tsi Mei (1982), ''Ding Ling's Fiction: Ideology and Narrative in Modern Chinese Literature'', Harvard University Press. | |||
| *Ling Yuan, ed. (2002), ''The Contemporary Chinese Dictionary (Chinese-English Edition)'', Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. | |||
| *Sahlins, Marshall (2014), , ''The Asia-Pacific Journal'', Vol. 12, Issue 45.1. | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
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