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{{short description|slavery as practiced within the pre-conquest central Mexican society}} {{short description|none}} <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see ] -->
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{{More citations needed|date=April 2012}} {{More citations needed|date=April 2012}}
{{More footnotes|date=November 2010}} {{More footnotes|date=November 2010}}
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{{-}}{{Redirect|Aztec slavery|Aztec people enslaved following the Spanish invasion|Slavery in New Spain}}{{slavery}}
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'''],''' within the structure of the ] society, produced many ], known by the ] word, ''tlacotin.''<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=López Hernández|first=Miriam|title=Aztec women and goddesses|year=2012|publisher=FCAS- Fundación Cultural Armella Spitalier|isbn=978-607-8187-16-4|edition=1st English|location=México City|oclc=794489192}}</ref> Within Mexica society, slaves constituted an important class. ''' Slavery in the ]''' and surrounding ] societies was widespread, with slaves known by the ] word, ''tlacotli.''<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=López Hernández|first=Miriam|title=Aztec women and goddesses|year=2012|publisher=FCAS- Fundación Cultural Armella Spitalier|isbn=978-607-8187-16-4|edition=1st English|location=México City|oclc=794489192}}</ref> Slaves did not inherit their status; people were enslaved as a form of punishment, after capturing in war, or voluntarily to pay off debts. Within Mexica society, slaves constituted an important ].


==Description== ==Description==
Line 18: Line 17:


Women slave owners exerted much Women slave owners exerted much
in the way of choice, in regard to slaves. For example, if a woman was widowed, it was not uncommon for her to either remarry one of her husband's slaves, or make one of his slaves her personal steward.<ref name=World/> The richest merchants in Mexica society were slave traders. Not only were they wealthy, but they were also granted special privileges. They were also considered to be very religious, and played a key role in the festival of ] festival, in honor of Mexica god, ].<ref name=World/> in the way of choice, regarding slaves. For example, if a woman was widowed, it was not uncommon for her to either remarry one of her husband's slaves or make one of his slaves her steward.<ref name=World/> The richest merchants in Mexica society were slave traders. Not only were they wealthy, but they were also granted special privileges. They were also considered to be very religious, and played a key role in the festival of ] in respect of the Mexica god, ].<ref name=World/>


Any person not related to a slave's master could be enslaved for trying to ''prevent'' a slave's escape.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} If one slave would not behave in accordance to the slave masters will, he could be sentenced to death.<ref name=Azteca>{{cite book|author=Manuel Orozco y Berra|title=La Civilización Azteca|year=1816|publisher=Cien de México|author-link=Manuel Orozco y Berra}}</ref> Any person not related to a slave's master could be enslaved for trying to ''prevent'' a slave's escape.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} If one slave would not behave according to the slave master's will, he could be sentenced to death.<ref name=Azteca>{{cite book|author=Manuel Orozco y Berra|title=La Civilizatión Azteca|year=1816|publisher=Cien de México|author-link=Manuel Orozco y Berra}}</ref>


===Slaves in the Aztec society=== ===Slaves in the Aztec society===
While slavery could not be inherited, in Mexica society, one could, in fact, live indefinitely as a slave. For example, ], in addition to confiscating property, would condemn traitors, or their families, to slavery for life. He would also do the same to astrologers who failed to predict the occurrence of omens.<ref name=World/> While slavery could not be inherited, in Mexica society, one could live indefinitely as a slave. For example, ], in addition to confiscating property, would condemn traitors, or their families, to slavery for life. He would also do the same to astrologers who failed to predict the occurrence of omens.<ref name=World/>


Slaves were bound to their master's lands, until one's debt was paid to his master. Barring being a captive, being punished for committing a crime, or failing to pay an outstanding gambling debt, slavery was an institution one could enter into freely.<ref name=World/><ref name=Culture>{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Dr. Michael E.|title=Aztec Culture|year=2006|publisher=Arizona State University}}</ref> In that respect, the system was not slavery, but contractual indentured servitude, resulting in "unfree" labor. However, it was such a widely held practice that the Mexica would often sell their children into slavery.<ref name=World/> Slaves were bound to their master's lands until their debt was paid to their master. Barring being a captive, being punished for committing a crime, or failing to pay an outstanding gambling debt, slavery was an institution one could enter into freely.<ref name=World/><ref name=Culture>{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Dr. Michael E.|title=Aztec Culture|year=2006|publisher=Arizona State University}}</ref> In that respect, the system was not slavery, but contractual indentured servitude, resulting in "unfree" labor. However, it was such a widely held practice that the Mexica would often sell their children into slavery.<ref name=World/>


Slaves wore maguey garments called "''],''" which was a skirt that wrapped around the hips, one end overlapping the other, held together by a belt-like strap. Reflecting their low status in society, the ''cueitl'' of slaves were colorless.<ref name=World/> Typically, upon the death of their owner, slaves who had performed outstanding services were freed, while the rest were passed on as part of the inheritance.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} As for assigned work, many slaves were sent to the regions of Cimatan and the ], aquatic environments, to work as rowers and as laborers in the cacao groves, which was work that needed to be done year-round.<ref name=World/> Slaves wore maguey garments called "''],''" which was a skirt that wrapped around the hips, one end overlapping the other, held together by a belt-like strap. Reflecting their low status in society, the ''create'' of slaves was colorless.<ref name=World/> Typically, upon the death of their owner, slaves who had performed outstanding services were freed, while the rest were passed on as part of the inheritance.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} As for assigned work, many slaves were sent to the regions of Cimatan and the ], aquatic environments, to work as rowers and as laborers in the cacao groves, which was work that needed to be done year-round.<ref name=World/>


Beyond their labor, slaves were free; they could marry and own their own property including other slaves.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hassig, Ross|title=War and society in ancient Mesoamerica|year=1992|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=0-520-07734-2|location=Berkeley|oclc=25007991}}</ref> They were also expected to contribute to the betterment of Mexica society. For example, slaves helped move the military's equipment when it set off for battle.<ref name=World/> When slaves had children the children were not passed down to the master of the slaves but were set free to live their own lives. Beyond their labor, slaves were free; they could marry and own their property including other slaves.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hassig, Ross|title=War and society in ancient Mesoamerica|year=1992|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=0-520-07734-2|location=Berkeley|oclc=25007991}}</ref> They were also expected to contribute to the betterment of Mexica society. For example, slaves helped move the military's equipment when it set off for battle.<ref name=World/> When slaves had children, the children were not passed down to the master of the slaves but were set free to live their own lives.


==== Use of slaves by various social classes ==== ==== Use of slaves by various social classes ====
Slaves could be used for any sort of work, however in practice most slaves often found themselves as servants in the palaces of lords.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Smith|first=Michael Ernest|title=The Aztecs|year=2011|isbn=978-1-118-25719-7|edition=Third|location=Hoboken|oclc=830161852}}</ref> When noblemen died they were ] with forty slaves, 20 women and 20 men.<ref name=":1"/> Slaves could be used for any sort of work, but in practice, most slaves found themselves as servants in the palaces of lords.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Smith|first=Michael Ernest|title=The Aztecs|year=2011|isbn=978-1-118-25719-7|edition=Third|location=Hoboken|oclc=830161852}}</ref> When noblemen died, they were ] with forty slaves—20 women and 20 men.<ref name=":1"/>


Aztec society consisted of strict social class structure and every individual had their place in society, yet your social class was not set in stone there was room for maneuvering.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pedelty |first1=Mark |title=Musical Ritual in Mexico City: From the Aztec to NAFTA |date=2004 |publisher=University of Texas Press}}</ref> Aztec slaves were a vehicle for moving around the societal hierarchy. José Luis de Rojas the author of ''Tenochtitlan: Capital of the Aztec Empire'' states that one of the most respected positions an Aztec commoner could obtain was the role of “Tealtiani"'' or the person responsible for the cleansing of slaves before ].<ref name=":2">{{cite book|last=Rojas|first=José Luis|title=Tenochtitlan: Capital of the Aztec Empire|year=2012|publisher=University Press of Florida|page=102}}</ref> Aztec society consisted of a strict social class structure and every individual had their place in society, although social class was not set in stone; rather, there was room for maneuvering.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pedelty |first1=Mark |title=Musical Ritual in Mexico City: From the Aztec to NAFTA |date=2004 |publisher=University of Texas Press}}</ref> Aztec slaves were a vehicle for moving around the societal hierarchy. José Luis de Rojas, the author of ''Tenochtitlan: Capital of the Aztec Empire'', states that one of the most respected positions an Aztec commoner could obtain was the role of “tealtiani" or the person responsible for the cleansing of slaves before ].<ref name=":2">{{cite book|last=Rojas|first=José Luis|title=Tenochtitlan: Capital of the Aztec Empire|year=2012|publisher=University Press of Florida|page=102}}</ref>


==== Slavery of war captives ==== ==== Slavery of war captives ====
Slavery was most difficult for ] captives who, after being captured, could be sold.<ref name=World/> They could also be ] at a religious ceremony or festival.<ref name=World/> For example, slaves were selected to be ''ixiptla'', which is a representation of a ]. They believed that the god would, in turn, represent a force of celestial natures such as the wind or the moon, and that sacrificing the slave would satisfy the god, who would then bring good fortune to the people.<ref name=World/> In the event of a nobleman's death, slaves could be killed, and buried with him, to assist him in the ], as they assisted him in life.<ref name=World/> The body parts of sacrificed slaves could be taken home and eaten with maize and salt as an extension of their sacrifice.<ref name=World/> Slavery was most difficult for ] captives who, after being captured, could be sold.<ref name=World/> They could also be ] at a religious ceremony or festival.<ref name=World/> For example, slaves were selected to be ''ixiptla'', which is a representation of a ]. They believed that the god would, in turn, represent a force of celestial nature such as the wind or the moon and that sacrificing the slave would satisfy the god, who would then bring good fortune to the people.<ref name=World/> In the event of a nobleman's death, slaves could be killed, and buried with him, to assist him in the ] as they assisted him in life.<ref name=World/> The body parts of sacrificed slaves could be taken home and eaten with maize and salt as an extension of their sacrifice.<ref name=World/>


It was a great honor to be given the opportunity to sacrifice a human in a public setting in the Aztec Empire. The warriors would go out into combat and come back with slaves to sacrifice but for the elderly and nobles this was not an option, and in turn they would purchase slaves. The book '']: Capital of the Aztec Empire'' by José Luis de Rojas also mentions that citizens would buy slaves that held similar occupations as themselves for sacrifice.<ref>{{cite book|last=Rojas|first=José Luis|title=Tenochtitlan: capital of the Aztec empire|year=2012|publisher=University Press of Florida|page=167}}</ref> It was a great honor to be allowed to sacrifice a human in a public setting in the Aztec Empire. The warriors would go out into combat and come back with slaves to sacrifice. However, this was not an option for the elderly and nobles, who would instead purchase slaves. Citizens would also buy slaves that held similar occupations as themselves for sacrifice.<ref>{{cite book|last=Rojas|first=José Luis|title=Tenochtitlan: capital of the Aztec empire|year=2012|publisher=University Press of Florida|page=167}}</ref>


==== Emancipation ==== ==== Emancipation ====
A way for slaves to get their freedom was by running outside the walls, at the marketplace and stepping on a piece of human ], then presenting their case to the judges, asking for freedom.<ref name=Azteca/> If granted, the slaves would then be washed, given new clothes (not owned by the master), and declared free. A way for slaves to get their freedom was by running outside the walls of the marketplace and stepping on a piece of human ], then presenting their case to the judges, asking for freedom.<ref name=Azteca/> If granted freedom, the slaves would be washed, given new clothes (not owned by the master), and declared free.


==Aztec slave trade== ==Aztec slave trade==
Slaves were also frequent faces in the market of ] where they could be sold along with food, cloth, and handmade goods. However, the cities with the most well-known slave markets were ] and ].<ref name=World/> Slaves were also frequent faces in the market of ] where just like food, cloth, and handmade goods had their own section, there was a section of slaves for sale.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Burkholder, Mark A.|author2=Johnson, Lyman L.|chapter=1. America, Iberia, and Africa Before the Conquest|date=2019|edition=10th|language=en|page=16|publisher=]|quote=biggest market in central Mexico, in Tlatelolco, daily served tens of thousands of buyers and sellers. The stalls were in neat rows, with foodstuffs dominating the market. Jewelry, feathers, and precious stones were in one row, slaves in another|title=Colonial Latin America}}<!-- auto-translated from Spanish by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> However, the cities with the most well-known slave markets were ] and ].<ref name=World/>


Usually, only wealthy men, or nobles, could often afford slaves. Slaves could be bought for 30 cotton garments called "''quachtli.''" Slaves who could entertain their masters with a talent, such as by singing or dancing, were more expensive, and could cost upwards of 25 percent more.<ref name=World/> Usually, only wealthy men, or nobles, could often afford slaves. Slaves could be bought for 30 cotton garments called "''quaintly.''" Slaves who could entertain their masters with talent, such as by singing or dancing, were more expensive and could cost upwards of 25 percent more.<ref name=World/>


Slaves that possessed different skills were valued at different prices. According to José Luis de Rojas the author of ''Tenochtitlan: Capital of the Aztec Empire'', slaves that could dance would be worth around 40 cotton cloth while different skills like weaving were valued differently. Luis also writes about how Slaves could also be purchased with ], the average slave was possessed at 3000-4000 beans.<ref name=":2"/> Slaves that possessed different skills were valued at different prices. According to José Luis de Rojas the author of ''Tenochtitlan: Capital of the Aztec Empire'', slaves that could dance would be worth around 40 pieces of cotton cloth. At the same time, different skills like weaving were valued differently. Luis also writes about how slaves could also be purchased with ], the average slave possessed 3000-4000 beans.<ref name=":2"/>


===Collared slaves=== ===Collared slaves===
] ]


Orozco y Berra reports that a master could not sell a slave without the slave's consent, unless the slave had been classified as ] by an authority. Incorrigibility could be determined on the basis of repeated laziness, attempts to run away, or general bad conduct. Incorrigible slaves were made to wear a wooden collar, affixed by rings at the back. The collar was not merely a symbol of bad conduct: it was designed to make it harder to run away through a crowd or through narrow spaces. Orozco y Berra reports that a master could not sell a slave without the slave's consent unless the slave had been classified as ] by an authority. Incorrigibility could be determined based on repeated laziness, attempts to run away, or general bad conduct. Incorrigible slaves were made to wear a wooden collar, affixed by rings at the back. The collar was not merely a symbol of bad conduct: it was designed to make it harder to run away through a crowd or narrow spaces.


According to Dr. Michael Smith slaves for sale in the market all were identified by their large wooden collars.<ref name=":0"/> According to Dr Michael Smith, slaves for sale in the market, all were identified by their large wooden collars.<ref name=":0"/>


When buying a collared slave, one was informed of how many times that slave had been sold. A slave who was sold three times as incorrigible could be sold to be ]; those slaves commanded a premium in price. However, if a collared slave managed to present him- or herself in the royal palace or in a temple, he or she would regain liberty. When buying a collared slave, one was informed of how many times that slave had been sold. A slave who was sold three times as incorrigible could be sold to be ]; those slaves commanded a premium in price. However, if a collared slave managed to present him- or herself in the royal palace or a temple, he or she would regain liberty.


==Voluntary slavery== ==Voluntary slavery==
Some slaves gave up their freedom to pay off gambling debts.<ref name=Culture/> However, becoming a slave was a process. First, the gambler had to stand before four respected elders. They would then conduct a ceremony whereby the gambler would prefers his want (or need) to become a slave and be given, by his new owner, the price of his freedom, which was often 20 pieces of cloth and the means to live alone for a year before he began his slavery. After the gambler spent that amount, his service would be exchanged for food, shelter and clothing.<ref name=":0"/> Anyone could be a slave, though commoners were more likely to enter slavery voluntarily. But, because slaves were looked down upon, it was usually the last option one took to pay off a debt.<ref name=World/> Beside gamblers, selling oneself into slavery was often a fate for aging ]s or prostitutes, known among the Mexica as "''ahuini''". Beyond paying off debts people may have become slaves to better support themselves in times of economic crisis. During a Famine in the 1450s many Aztecs sold themselves into slavery in the ] where economic prospects were better.<ref name=":0"/> Some slaves gave up their freedom to pay off gambling debts.<ref name=Culture/> However, becoming a slave was a process. First, the gambler had to stand before four respected elders. They would then conduct a ceremony whereby the gambler would prefer his want (or need) to become a slave and be given, by his new owner, the price of his freedom, which was often 20 pieces of cloth and the means to live alone for a year before he began his slavery. After the gambler spent that amount, his service would be exchanged for food, shelter and clothing.<ref name=":0"/> Anyone could be a slave, though commoners were more likely to enter slavery voluntarily. But, because slaves were looked down upon, it was usually the last option one took to pay off a debt.<ref name=World/> Besides gamblers, selling oneself into slavery was often a fate for ageing ]s or prostitutes, known among the Mexica as "''tahini''". Beyond paying off debts people may have become slaves to better support themselves in times of economic crisis. During a Famine in the 1450s, many Aztecs sold themselves into slavery in the ] where economic prospects were better.<ref name=":0"/>


==Superstitions and slavery== ==Superstitions and slavery==

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Slavery in the Aztec Empire and surrounding Mexica societies was widespread, with slaves known by the Nahuatl word, tlacotli. Slaves did not inherit their status; people were enslaved as a form of punishment, after capturing in war, or voluntarily to pay off debts. Within Mexica society, slaves constituted an important class.

Description

Slavery was not a station one was born into, but a state entered into as a form of punishment, out of financial desperation, or as a captive. The practice consisted of two systems:

Aztecs as slave owners

Slave owners were required to provide food, water, and shelter for their slaves.

Women slave owners exerted much in the way of choice, regarding slaves. For example, if a woman was widowed, it was not uncommon for her to either remarry one of her husband's slaves or make one of his slaves her steward. The richest merchants in Mexica society were slave traders. Not only were they wealthy, but they were also granted special privileges. They were also considered to be very religious, and played a key role in the festival of Panquetzaliztli in respect of the Mexica god, Huitzilopochtli.

Any person not related to a slave's master could be enslaved for trying to prevent a slave's escape. If one slave would not behave according to the slave master's will, he could be sentenced to death.

Slaves in the Aztec society

While slavery could not be inherited, in Mexica society, one could live indefinitely as a slave. For example, Moctezuma II, in addition to confiscating property, would condemn traitors, or their families, to slavery for life. He would also do the same to astrologers who failed to predict the occurrence of omens.

Slaves were bound to their master's lands until their debt was paid to their master. Barring being a captive, being punished for committing a crime, or failing to pay an outstanding gambling debt, slavery was an institution one could enter into freely. In that respect, the system was not slavery, but contractual indentured servitude, resulting in "unfree" labor. However, it was such a widely held practice that the Mexica would often sell their children into slavery.

Slaves wore maguey garments called "cueitl," which was a skirt that wrapped around the hips, one end overlapping the other, held together by a belt-like strap. Reflecting their low status in society, the create of slaves was colorless. Typically, upon the death of their owner, slaves who had performed outstanding services were freed, while the rest were passed on as part of the inheritance. As for assigned work, many slaves were sent to the regions of Cimatan and the Acalan, aquatic environments, to work as rowers and as laborers in the cacao groves, which was work that needed to be done year-round.

Beyond their labor, slaves were free; they could marry and own their property including other slaves. They were also expected to contribute to the betterment of Mexica society. For example, slaves helped move the military's equipment when it set off for battle. When slaves had children, the children were not passed down to the master of the slaves but were set free to live their own lives.

Use of slaves by various social classes

Slaves could be used for any sort of work, but in practice, most slaves found themselves as servants in the palaces of lords. When noblemen died, they were cremated with forty slaves—20 women and 20 men.

Aztec society consisted of a strict social class structure and every individual had their place in society, although social class was not set in stone; rather, there was room for maneuvering. Aztec slaves were a vehicle for moving around the societal hierarchy. José Luis de Rojas, the author of Tenochtitlan: Capital of the Aztec Empire, states that one of the most respected positions an Aztec commoner could obtain was the role of “tealtiani" or the person responsible for the cleansing of slaves before sacrifice.

Slavery of war captives

Slavery was most difficult for war captives who, after being captured, could be sold. They could also be sacrificed at a religious ceremony or festival. For example, slaves were selected to be ixiptla, which is a representation of a god. They believed that the god would, in turn, represent a force of celestial nature such as the wind or the moon and that sacrificing the slave would satisfy the god, who would then bring good fortune to the people. In the event of a nobleman's death, slaves could be killed, and buried with him, to assist him in the underworld as they assisted him in life. The body parts of sacrificed slaves could be taken home and eaten with maize and salt as an extension of their sacrifice.

It was a great honor to be allowed to sacrifice a human in a public setting in the Aztec Empire. The warriors would go out into combat and come back with slaves to sacrifice. However, this was not an option for the elderly and nobles, who would instead purchase slaves. Citizens would also buy slaves that held similar occupations as themselves for sacrifice.

Emancipation

A way for slaves to get their freedom was by running outside the walls of the marketplace and stepping on a piece of human excrement, then presenting their case to the judges, asking for freedom. If granted freedom, the slaves would be washed, given new clothes (not owned by the master), and declared free.

Aztec slave trade

Slaves were also frequent faces in the market of Tenochtitlan where just like food, cloth, and handmade goods had their own section, there was a section of slaves for sale. However, the cities with the most well-known slave markets were Azcapotzalco and Itzocan.

Usually, only wealthy men, or nobles, could often afford slaves. Slaves could be bought for 30 cotton garments called "quaintly." Slaves who could entertain their masters with talent, such as by singing or dancing, were more expensive and could cost upwards of 25 percent more.

Slaves that possessed different skills were valued at different prices. According to José Luis de Rojas the author of Tenochtitlan: Capital of the Aztec Empire, slaves that could dance would be worth around 40 pieces of cotton cloth. At the same time, different skills like weaving were valued differently. Luis also writes about how slaves could also be purchased with Cacao beans, the average slave possessed 3000-4000 beans.

Collared slaves

Wooden collar

Orozco y Berra reports that a master could not sell a slave without the slave's consent unless the slave had been classified as incorrigible by an authority. Incorrigibility could be determined based on repeated laziness, attempts to run away, or general bad conduct. Incorrigible slaves were made to wear a wooden collar, affixed by rings at the back. The collar was not merely a symbol of bad conduct: it was designed to make it harder to run away through a crowd or narrow spaces.

According to Dr Michael Smith, slaves for sale in the market, all were identified by their large wooden collars.

When buying a collared slave, one was informed of how many times that slave had been sold. A slave who was sold three times as incorrigible could be sold to be sacrificed; those slaves commanded a premium in price. However, if a collared slave managed to present him- or herself in the royal palace or a temple, he or she would regain liberty.

Voluntary slavery

Some slaves gave up their freedom to pay off gambling debts. However, becoming a slave was a process. First, the gambler had to stand before four respected elders. They would then conduct a ceremony whereby the gambler would prefer his want (or need) to become a slave and be given, by his new owner, the price of his freedom, which was often 20 pieces of cloth and the means to live alone for a year before he began his slavery. After the gambler spent that amount, his service would be exchanged for food, shelter and clothing. Anyone could be a slave, though commoners were more likely to enter slavery voluntarily. But, because slaves were looked down upon, it was usually the last option one took to pay off a debt. Besides gamblers, selling oneself into slavery was often a fate for ageing courtesans or prostitutes, known among the Mexica as "tahini". Beyond paying off debts people may have become slaves to better support themselves in times of economic crisis. During a Famine in the 1450s, many Aztecs sold themselves into slavery in the Gulf Coast where economic prospects were better.

Superstitions and slavery

It was believed that those who were born in the 13-day series that started with 1 Ocelotl were destined to be slaves, or that their lives would be burdened with something else undesirable.

References

  1. ^ López Hernández, Miriam (2012). Aztec women and goddesses (1st English ed.). México City: FCAS- Fundación Cultural Armella Spitalier. ISBN 978-607-8187-16-4. OCLC 794489192.
  2. ^ Agurilar-Moreno, Manuel (2006). Handbook to Life in the Aztec World. California State University, Los Angeles.
  3. ^ Manuel Orozco y Berra (1816). La Civilizatión Azteca. Cien de México.
  4. ^ Smith, Dr. Michael E. (2006). Aztec Culture. Arizona State University.
  5. Hassig, Ross (1992). War and society in ancient Mesoamerica. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07734-2. OCLC 25007991.
  6. ^ Smith, Michael Ernest (2011). The Aztecs (Third ed.). Hoboken. ISBN 978-1-118-25719-7. OCLC 830161852.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  7. Pedelty, Mark (2004). Musical Ritual in Mexico City: From the Aztec to NAFTA. University of Texas Press.
  8. ^ Rojas, José Luis (2012). Tenochtitlan: Capital of the Aztec Empire. University Press of Florida. p. 102.
  9. Rojas, José Luis (2012). Tenochtitlan: capital of the Aztec empire. University Press of Florida. p. 167.
  10. Burkholder, Mark A.; Johnson, Lyman L. (2019). "1. America, Iberia, and Africa Before the Conquest". Colonial Latin America (10th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 16. biggest market in central Mexico, in Tlatelolco, daily served tens of thousands of buyers and sellers. The stalls were in neat rows, with foodstuffs dominating the market. Jewelry, feathers, and precious stones were in one row, slaves in another
  • Thomas Ward “Expanding Ethnicity in Sixteenth-Century Anahuac: Ideologies of Ethnicity and Gender in the Nation-Building Process.” MLN 116.2 (March 2001): 419–452.
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