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| {{distinguish|Mass killings under communist regimes}} | |||
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| {{communism sidebar|related}} | |||
| '''] under communist regimes''' occurred during the 20th century, and they included forced deportations, massacres, torture, forced disappearance, ]s, ],<ref name="Kemp-Welch A">Kemp-Welch, p. 42.</ref> ], and ], as well as the deliberate starvation of people (during the ], the ] and the ]). Additional events included the commition of genocide, conspiracy to commit genocide, and complicity in genocide. Such events have been described as crimes against humanity.<ref name="Rosefielde, Steven">Rosefielde, p. 6.</ref><ref name="Karlsson, Klas-Göran">Karlsson, p. 5.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide Approved and proposed for signature and ratification or accession by General Assembly resolution 260 A (III) of 9 December 1948 Entry into force: 12 January 1951, in accordance with article XIII |url=https://www.un.org/en/genocideprevention/documents/atrocity-crimes/Doc.1_Convention%20on%20the%20Prevention%20and%20Punishment%20of%20the%20Crime%20of%20Genocide.pdf |website=United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect}}</ref> | |||
| The 2008 ] stated that crimes which were committed in the name of ] should be assessed as crimes against humanity. The government of ] has prosecuted former members of the ]<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/10/world/asia/cambodia-khmer-rouge-united-nations-tribunal.html|title=11 Years, $300 Million and 3 Convictions. Was the Khmer Rouge Tribunal Worth It?|first=Seth|last=Mydans|date=10 April 2017|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=26 December 2019}}</ref> and the governments of ], ] and ] have passed laws that have led to the prosecution of several perpetrators for their crimes against the Baltic peoples.<!-- Who are these alleged perpetrators who were convicted? --> They were tried for crimes which they committed during the ] in ] as well as for crimes which they committed during the ] which occurred after World War II.<ref name="Naimark, Norman M.">Naimark p. 25.</ref> | |||
| == Cambodia == | |||
| ] | |||
| There is a scholarly consensus that the ] which was carried out by the ] under the leadership of ] in what became known as the ] was a crime against humanity.<ref name="Totten, Samuel">Totten, p. 359.</ref> Over the course of 4 years, the Pol Pot regime was responsible for the deaths of approximately 2 million people through starvation, exhaustion, execution, lack of medical care as a result of the communist utopia experiment.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Khmer Rouge leaders guilty of crimes against humanity and jailed for life|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/07/khmer-rouge-leaders-guilty-of-crimes-against-humanity-and-jailed-for-life|access-date=25 November 2021}}</ref> Legal scholars Antoine Garapon and David Boyle, sociologist ] and professor of political science ] all believe that the actions of the ] can best be described as a crime against humanity rather than a ].<ref name="Semelin, Jacques">Semelin, p. 344.</ref> In 2018, the Khmer Rouge was declared guilty of committing genocide against the minority Muslim Cham and Vietnamese.<ref>{{Cite news|date=5 November 2018|title=Khmer Rouge's Slaughter in Cambodia Is Ruled a Genocide|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/15/world/asia/khmer-rouge-cambodia-genocide.html|access-date=25 November 2021}}</ref> Conviction appeal against court decision was rejected in 2022.<ref>{{cite news |title=Khmer Rouge head of state's genocide conviction appeal rejected by Cambodia's UN-backed tribunal|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/asia/southeast-asia/khieu-samphan-cambodia-khmer-rouge-tribunal-b2172712.html|access-date=22 September 2022 |work=] |date=22 September 2022}}</ref> It reaffirms the ECCC's recognition of the Khmer Rouge's racial discrimination and ethnic cleansing against non-Cambodian (Khmer) minorities. The naming of the Cambodian genocide is an overlooked problem because it downplays the overwhelming sufferings among targeted minority groups and the important roles of racism in understanding how the genocide was perpetrated.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Heder|first=Steve|title=Racism, Marxism, labelling, and genocide in Ben Kiernan's "The Pol Pot regime"|journal=South East Asia Research|date=1997|volume=5|issue=2|pages=101–153|jstor=23746851|doi=10.1177/0967828X9700500202}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Kiernan|first=Ben|title=The Pol Pot Regime: Race, Power, and Genocide in Cambodia Under the Khmer Rouge, 1975–79|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-030-0-14299-0}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Kiernan|first=Ben|title=Wild Chickens, Farm Chickens, and Cormorants: Cambodia's Eastern Zone under Pol Pot, 1st Edition|publisher=Routledge|year=2008|isbn= 978-0-20379-088-5}}</ref> Historian ] calls the Khmer Rouge's ethnic policy "racial communism."<ref>{{cite book|last=Weitz|first=Eric D.|title=A Century of Genocide: Utopias of Race and Nation - Updated Edition|publisher=Princeton University Press, NJ|year=2015|isbn=978-0-69116-587-5}}</ref> | |||
| In 1997 the co-prime ministers of Cambodia sought help from the United Nations in seeking justice for the crimes which were perpetrated by the communists during the years from 1975 to 1979. In June 1997, Pol Pot was taken prisoner during an internal power struggle within the Khmer Rouge and offered up to the international community. However, no country was willing to seek his ].<ref name="Lattimer, Mark. Sands, Philippe.">Lattimer, p. 214.</ref> The policies enacted by the Khmer Rouge led to the deaths of one quarter of the population in just four years.<ref name="Jones, Adam 188">Jones, p. 188.</ref> | |||
| == China == | |||
| === Under Mao Zedong === | |||
| ] at ]]] | |||
| ] was the ] of the ] (CCP) which took control of China in 1949 until his death in September 1976. During this time, he instituted several reform efforts, the most notable of which were the ] and the ]. In January 1958, Mao launched the second five-year plan, which was known as the Great Leap Forward. The plan was intended to expedite production and ] as a supplement to economic growth similar to the Soviet model and the defining factor behind Mao's ] policies. Mao spent ten months touring the country in 1958 to gain support for the Great Leap Forward and inspect the progress that had already been made. What this entailed was the humiliation, public castigation and torture of all who questioned the leap. The five-year-plan first instituted the division of farming communities into communes. The Chinese National Program for Agricultural Development (NPAD) began to accelerate its drafting plans for the countries industrial and agricultural outputs. The drafting plans were initially successful as the Great Leap Forward divided the Chinese workforce and production briefly soared.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9pPxwn6EvR4C|title=Mao's Crusade: Politics and Policy Implementation in China's Great Leap Forward|last=Chan|first=Alfred L.|date=7 June 2001|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=9780191554018|page=13}}</ref> | |||
| Eventually CCP planners developed even more ambitious goals such as replacing the draft plans for 1962 with those for 1967 and the industries developed supply bottlenecks, but they could not meet the growth demands. Rapid industrial development came in turn with a swelling of urban populations. Due to the furthering of collectivization, heavy industry production and the stagnation of the farming industry that did not keep up with the demands of population growth in combination with a year (1959) of unfortunate weather in farming areas, only 170 million tons of grain were produced, far below the actual amount of grain which the population needed. Mass starvation ensued and it was made even worse in 1960, when only 144 million tons of grain were produced, a total amount which was 26 million tons lower than the total amount of grain that was produced in 1959.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/modern-world-history-1918-to-1980/china-1900-to-1976/the-great-leap-forward/|title=The Great Leap Forward – History Learning Site|website=History Learning Site|access-date=14 April 2016}}</ref> The government instituted rationing, but between 1958 and 1962 it is estimated that at least 10 million people died of starvation. The famine did not go unnoticed and Mao was fully aware of the major famine that was sweeping the countryside, but rather than try to fix the problem he blamed it on counterrevolutionaries who were "hiding and dividing grain".<ref name=":0">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LQfeXVU_EvgC|title=Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the 20th Century|last=Valentino|first=Benjamin A.|date=8 December 2005|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=0801472733|pages=127–132}}</ref> Mao even symbolically decided to abstain from eating meat in honor of those who were suffering.<ref name=":0"/> | |||
| An original estimate of the final death toll ranged from 15 to 40 million. According to ], a chair professor of humanities at the ] and the author of ''Mao's Great Famine'', a book which details the Great Leap Forward and the consequences of the strong armed implementation of the economic reform, the total number of people who were killed in the famine which lasted from 1958 to 1962 ran upwards of 45 million. Of those who were killed in the famine, 6–8% of them were often tortured first and then prematurely killed by the government, 2% of them committed suicide and 5% of them died in Mao's ] which were built to hold those who were labelled "]".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.frankdikotter.com/books/maos-great-famine/synopsis.html|title=Synopsis|website=Frankdikotter.com|access-date=14 April 2016}}</ref> In an article for '']'', Dikötter also references severe punishments for slight infractions such as being buried alive for stealing a handful of grain or losing an ear and being branded for digging up a potato.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5NsMWCHDStQC|title=Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958–1962|last=Dikötter|first=Frank|date=1 October 2010|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA|isbn=9780802779281|page=88}}</ref> Dikotter claims that a chairman in an executive meeting in 1959 expressed apathy with regard to the widespread suffering, stating: "When there is not enough to eat, people starve to death. It is better to let half of the people die so that the other half can eat their fill".<ref name=":1"/> Anthony Garnaut clarifies that Dikötter's interpretation of Mao's quotation, "It is better to let half of the people die so that the other half can eat their fill." not only ignores the substantial commentary on the conference by other scholars and several of its key participants, but defies the very plain wording of the archival document in his possession on which he hangs his case.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Garnaut |first1=Anthony |title=Hard facts and half-truths: The new archival history of China's Great Famine |journal=China Information |date=2013 |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=223–246|doi=10.1177/0920203X13485390 |s2cid=143503403 }}</ref> | |||
| === Under Xi Jinping=== | |||
| {{See also|Persecution of Uyghurs in China|UN Human Rights Office report on Xinjiang}} | |||
| Since 2014, the ] (CCP), under the ] of ] ], has pursued policies in its ] region that have resulted in the incarceration of more than an estimated one million ] ] in ] without any ].<ref name="aj2018">{{cite news |date=10 August 2018 |title=One million Muslim Uighurs held in secret China camps: UN panel |publisher=] |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/8/10/one-million-muslim-uighurs-held-in-secret-china-camps-un-panel |access-date=1 September 2022 |archive-date=28 October 2021 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20211028144800/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/8/10/one-million-muslim-uighurs-held-in-secret-china-camps-un-panel |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Welch |first1=Dylan |last2=Hui |first2=Echo |last3=Hutcheon |first3=Stephen |date=24 November 2019 |title=The China Cables: Leak reveals the scale of Beijing's repressive control over Xinjiang |publisher=] |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-11-25/china-cables-beijings-xinjiang-secrets-revealed/11719016 |access-date=1 September 2022 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210415200557/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-11-25/china-cables-beijings-xinjiang-secrets-revealed/11719016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="hrw._UN:U">{{Cite web |date=10 July 2019 |title=UN: Unprecedented Joint Call for China to End Xinjiang Abuses |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/07/10/un-unprecedented-joint-call-china-end-xinjiang-abuses |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217070044/https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/07/10/un-unprecedented-joint-call-china-end-xinjiang-abuses |archive-date=17 December 2019 |access-date=18 December 2020 |publisher=]}}</ref> This is the largest-scale detention of ethnic and religious minorities since ].<ref name="Finley-2020">{{cite journal |last=Finley |first=Joanne |year=2020 |title=Why Scholars and Activists Increasingly Fear a Uyghur Genocide in Xinjiang |journal=] |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=348–370 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2020.1848109 |s2cid=236962241}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Kirby |first=Jen |date=25 September 2020 |title=Concentration camps and forced labor: China's repression of the Uighurs, explained |work=] |url=https://www.vox.com/2020/7/28/21333345/uighurs-china-internment-camps-forced-labor-xinjiang |quote=It is the largest mass internment of an ethnic-religious minority group since World War II. |access-date=1 September 2022 |archive-date=6 December 2020 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20201206013427/https://www.vox.com/2020/7/28/21333345/uighurs-china-internment-camps-forced-labor-xinjiang |url-status=live }}</ref> Experts estimate that, since 2017, some sixteen thousand mosques have been razed or damaged,<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Khatchadourian |first=Raffi |date=3 April 2021 |title=Surviving the Crackdown in Xinjiang |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/04/12/surviving-the-crackdown-in-xinjiang |magazine=] |language=en-US |access-date=2022-03-04 |archive-date=10 April 2021 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210410193233/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/04/12/surviving-the-crackdown-in-xinjiang |url-status=live }}</ref> and hundreds of thousands of children have been forcibly separated from their parents and sent to ].<ref name="2018FTFamily">{{cite news |last1=Feng |first1=Emily |date=9 July 2018 |title=Uighur children fall victim to China anti-terror drive |work=] |url=https://www.ft.com/content/f0d3223a-7f4d-11e8-bc55-50daf11b720d |access-date=1 September 2022 |archive-date=10 July 2018 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20180710120341/https://www.ft.com/content/f0d3223a-7f4d-11e8-bc55-50daf11b720d |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=] |date=July 2019 |title=Break Their Roots: Evidence for China's Parent-Child Separation Campaign in Xinjiang. |url=https://www.jpolrisk.com/break-their-roots-evidence-for-chinas-parent-child-separation-campaign-in-xinjiang/ |journal=The Journal of Political Risk |volume=7 |issue=7 |access-date=1 September 2022 |archive-date=25 May 2021 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210525232757/https://www.jpolrisk.com/break-their-roots-evidence-for-chinas-parent-child-separation-campaign-in-xinjiang/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| On 31 August 2022 the ] (OHCHR) published a report which concluded that "the extent of arbitrary and discriminatory detention of members of Uyghur and other predominantly Muslim groups, pursuant to law and policy, in context of restrictions and deprivation more generally of fundamental rights enjoyed individually and collectively, may constitute international crimes, in particular ]."<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 August 2022 |title=China's treatment of Uyghurs may be crime against humanity, says UN human rights chief |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/aug/31/china-uyghur-muslims-xinjiang-michelle-bachelet-un |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901063704/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/aug/31/china-uyghur-muslims-xinjiang-michelle-bachelet-un |archive-date=1 September 2022 |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=31 August 2022 |title=Torture claims against China Uyghurs credible – UN |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-62744522 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901074250/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-62744522 |archive-date=1 September 2022 |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=]}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite news |last1=Cumming-Bruce |first1=Nick |last2=Ramzy |first2=Austin |date=31 August 2022 |title=U.N. Says China May Have Committed 'Crimes Against Humanity' in Xinjiang |language=en-US |work=] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/31/world/asia/un-china-xinjiang-uyghurs.html |url-status=live |access-date=2022-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901014137/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/31/world/asia/un-china-xinjiang-uyghurs.html |archive-date=1 September 2022}}</ref> | |||
| == Ethiopia== | |||
| {{main|Red Terror (Ethiopia)}} | |||
| ] | |||
| Following the overthrow of Ethiopian emperor ], the ] gained control over Ethiopia and established a Marxist–Leninist state. They enacted the ] against political opponents, killing an estimated 10,000 to 750,000 people.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Metaferia |first=Getachew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kfPV6wQVxgC&pg=PA67 |title=Ethiopia and the United States: History, Diplomacy, and Analysis |date=2009 |publisher=Algora Publishing |isbn=978-0-87586-647-5 |pages=67 |language=en}}</ref><ref>Harff, Barbara & Gurr, Ted Robert: "Toward an Empirical Theory of Genocides and Politicides", ''International Studies Quarterly'' '''32'''(3), p. 364 (1988).</ref><ref name="US admits helping Mengistu escape"> ], 22 December 1999</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Genocides, Politicides, and Other Mass Murder Since 1945, With Stages in 2008 |url=http://www.gpanet.org/content/genocides-politicides-and-other-mass-murder-1945-stages-2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419013211/http://www.gpanet.org/content/genocides-politicides-and-other-mass-murder-1945-stages-2008 |archive-date=19 April 2019 |access-date=22 July 2016 |website=Genocide Prevention Advisory Network}}</ref> Derg chairman ] said "We are doing what ] did. You cannot build ] without ]."<ref>As quoted by Christopher Andrew and ], ''The Mitrokhin Archive II: The KGB and the World'', Penguin, 2006, pp. 467–8.</ref><ref name="AM">] and ]. ''The World Was Going Our Way: The KGB and the Battle for the Third World.'' Basic Books, 2005. {{ISBN|0-465-00311-7}} ch. 25.</ref> The ] reported that the victims of the Red Terror included not only adults but 1,000 or more children, mostly aged between eleven and thirteen, whose corpses were left in the streets of Addis Ababa.<ref name=AM/> | |||
| On 13 August 2004, 33 top former Derg officials were presented in trial for genocide and other human rights violations during the Red Terror. The officials appealed for a pardon to the Prime Minister ] in a forum to "beg the Ethiopian public for their pardon for the mistakes done knowingly or unknowingly" during the Derg regime.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The letter was first published by the Ethiopian Reporter on 26 June 2004. Among the Derg officials who signed the letter are former Vice-President Colonel Fiseha Desta,former Prime Minister Captain Fikreselasie Wogederes and the notorious henchmen of dictator Mengistu Hailemariam, Captain Legesse Asfaw and Major Melaku Tefera}}</ref> No official response made by the government to the date. The Red Terror trial included grave human rights violations, comprising ], ], ], rape and ] which be would punishable under Article 7 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, article 26 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights as well as article 3 of the African Charter on Human and People's Rights, all of which made part of the ].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Art 9 Proclamation 1/1995 Proclamation of the Constitution of the FederalDemocratic Republic of Ethiopia |year=1995}}</ref> | |||
| == North Korea == | |||
| {{see|Human experimentation in North Korea|Human rights in North Korea|Prisons in North Korea}} | |||
| Three victims of the ] in North Korea unsuccessfully attempted to bring ] to justice with the aid of the Citizens Coalition for Human Rights of abductees and North Korean Refugees. In December 2010, they filed charges in ].<ref name="North Korea Gulags">{{cite news|title=Gulag survivors demand trial of Kim Jong-il for crimes against humanity|url=http://www.asianews.it/news-en/Gulag-survivors-demand-trial-of-Kim-Jong-il-for-crimes-against-humanity-17499.html|newspaper=Asia News|date=2 January 2010|access-date=26 December 2019}}</ref> The NGO group ] has stated that the ] appears to be specifically designed to kill a large number of people who are labelled enemies or have a differing political belief.<ref name="Jones, Adam 216">Jones, p. 216.</ref> | |||
| == Romania == | |||
| In a speech before the ], President ] stated that "the criminal and illegitimate ] committed massive human rights violations and crimes against humanity, killing and persecuting as many as two million people between 1945 and 1989".<ref name=Shawl>{{cite web|last=Shawl|first=Jeannie|title=Romania president says Communist regime committed crimes against humanity|url=http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2006/12/romania-president-says-communist.php|publisher=Jurist.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110312125452/http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2006/12/romania-president-says-communist.php|archive-date=12 March 2011}}</ref><ref name=Clej>{{cite news|last=Clej|first=Petru|title=Romania exposes communist crimes|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/6190931.stm|publisher=BBC|date=18 December 2006|access-date=26 December 2019}}</ref> The speech was based on the 660-page report of a ] headed by ], a professor at the ]. The report also stated that "the regime exterminated people by assassination and deportation of hundreds of thousands of people" and it also highlighted the ].<ref name="NYT">{{cite news|last=Smith|first=Craig S.|title=Romanian Leader Condemns Communist Rule|newspaper=]|date=19 December 2006|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/19/world/europe/19romania.html|access-date=26 December 2019}}</ref> | |||
| Engineer and former political prisoner Gheorghe Boldur-Lățescu has also stated that the Pitești Experiment was a crime against humanity,<ref name="Boldur-Lățescu, Gheorghe">Boldur-Lățescu p. 22</ref> while ] has described it as "n experiment of a grotesque originality ... employed techniques of psychiatric abuse which were not only designed to inculcate terror into opponents of the regime but also to destroy the personality of the individual. The nature and enormity of the experiment ... set Romania apart from the other Eastern European regimes."<ref name="DD">{{cite book|last=Deletant|first=Dennis|author-link=Dennis Deletant|title=Ceaușescu and the Securitate: coercion and dissent in Romania, 1965–1989|year=1995|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XmmilITRkxYC|isbn=978-1-56324-633-3|pages=29–33|publisher=M.E. Sharpe }}</ref> | |||
| == Soviet Union == | |||
| {{see|Soviet war crimes|Political repression in the Soviet Union|Human rights in the Soviet Union|Holodomor genocide question}} | |||
| {{Expand section|date=December 2021}} | |||
| Some scholars (such as ], ], ] and ]) consider the ], a famine in ] from 1932 to 1933 that killed millions of ], as an act of ] or a crime against humanity, although others, such as ] and ], argue that the famine was man-made but unintentional. Stalin's "]" of 1937 is often considered a crime against humanity, with deaths of 700,000<ref name="Kuhr">{{Cite journal|last=Kuhr|first=Corinna|date=1998|title=Children of "Enemies of The People" as Victims of the Great Purges|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20171081|journal=Cahiers du Monde russe|volume=39|issue=1/2|pages=209–220|doi=10.3406/cmr.1998.2520|jstor=20171081|issn=1252-6576|quote=According to latest estimates 2,5 million people were arrested and 700,000 of them shot. These figures are based on reliable archival materials |via=]}}</ref><ref name="Xavier">{{Cite web|last=François-Xavier|first=Nérard|date=27 February 2009|title=The Levashovo cemetery and the Great Terror in the Leningrad region|url=https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/levashovo-cemetery-and-great-terror-leningrad-region.html|access-date=|website=]|language=en|quote=The Yezhovshchina or Stalin’s Great Terror The precise end result of these operations is difficult to establish, but the total of the condemnations is estimated at roughly 1,300,000 of which 700,000 were sentenced to death, most of the others were sentenced to ten years in the camps (document translated in Werth, 2006: 143).}}</ref> to 1.2 million.<ref name="EllmanComment">{{cite journal|last=Ellman|first=Michael|date=2002|title=Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments|url=http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/ELM-Repression_Statistics.pdf|journal=Europe-Asia Studies|volume=54|issue=7|pages=1151–1172|doi=10.1080/0966813022000017177|quote=The best estimate that can currently be made of the number of repression deaths in 1937–38 is the range 950,000–1.2 million, i.e. about a million. This is the estimate which should be used by historians, teachers and journalists concerned with twentieth century Russian—and world—history|s2cid=43510161}}</ref> | |||
| The war crimes which were perpetrated by the ]'s armed forces from 1919 to 1991 include acts which were committed by the ] (later called the ]) as well as acts which were committed by the country's secret police, ], including its ]. In many cases, these acts were committed upon the orders of the Soviet leaders ] and ] in pursuance of the early Soviet government's policy of '']''. In other instances they were committed without orders by Soviet troops against prisoners of war or civilians of countries that had been in ] with the USSR, or they were committed during ].<ref name="Statiev2010">{{cite book|last=Statiev|first=Alexander|title=The Soviet Counterinsurgency in the Western Borderlands|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YIRSwRDVqu4C&pg=PA277|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-76833-7|page=277}}</ref> | |||
| A significant number of these incidents occurred in Northern, Central, and Eastern Europe recently before, and during, the aftermath of World War II, involving summary executions and the mass murder of prisoners of war, such as in the ] and ] of the Red Army in ]. | |||
| When the ] founded the post-war ] to examine war crimes committed during the conflict by ], with officials from the Soviet Union taking an active part in the judicial processes, there was no examination of the Allied forces' actions and no charges were ever brought against their troops, because they were undefeated powers which then held Europe under military occupation, marring the historical authority of the Tribunal's activity as being, in part, ].<ref name="Davies2006">{{cite book|last=Davies|first=Norman|author-link=Norman Davies|title=Europe at War 1939–1945 : No Simple Victory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8xtTkaQhHYEC|year=2006|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-0-333-69285-1|page=198}}</ref> | |||
| In the 1990s and 2000s, war crimes trials held in the Baltic states led to the prosecution of some Russians and Ukrainians, mostly ''in absentia'', and some Latvians, Lithuanians and Estonians, for crimes against humanity committed during or shortly after World War II, including killings or deportations of civilians.<ref name="Naimark, Norman M."/> | |||
| == Yugoslavia == | |||
| Dominic McGoldrick writes that as the head of a "highly centralized and oppressive" dictatorship, ] wielded tremendous power in Yugoslavia, with his dictatorial rule administered through an elaborate bureaucracy which routinely suppressed human rights.{{sfn|McGoldrick|2000|p=17}} First repressions included reprisal killings against World War II ]s, most prominent being ] and ].<ref name=Cohen>{{cite book|title=Group Psychotherapy and Political Reality: A Two-Way Mirror|last1=Cohen|first1=Bertram D.|last2=Ettin|first2=Mark F.|last3=Fidler|first3=Jay W.|year=2002|publisher=International Universities Press|isbn=0-8236-2228-2|page=193}}</ref><ref name=Andjelic>{{cite book|last=Andjelic|first=Neven|title=Bosnia-Herzegovina: The End of a Legacy|publisher=Frank Cass|year=2003|page=36 |isbn=0-7146-5485-X}}</ref><ref name=Tierney>{{cite book|title=Accommodating National Identity: New Approaches in International and Domestic Law|last=Tierney|first=Stephen|year=2000|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|isbn=90-411-1400-9|page=17}}</ref><ref>Jambrek, Peter, ed. (January–June 2008). . Slovenian Presidency of the Council of the European Union. Retrieved 26 December 2019. p. 156. "Most of the mass killings were carried out from May to July 1945; among the victims were mostly the "returned" (or "home-captured") Home guards and prisoners from other Yugoslav provinces. In the following months, up to January 1946 when the Constitution of the Federative People's Republic of Yugoslavia was passed and OZNA had to hand the camps over to the organs of the Ministry of the Interior, those killings were followed by mass killing of Germans, Italians and Slovenes suspected of collaborationism and anti-communism. Individual secret killings were carried out at later dates as well. The decision to "annihilate" opponents must had been adopted in the closest circles of Yugoslav state leadership, and the order was certainly issued by the Supreme Commander of the Yugoslav Army Josip Broz – Tito, although it is not known when or in what form".</ref> Near the end of the ], ] who were suspected to have been involved with the ] were placed into internment camps. Many were tortured, and at least 5,800 were killed. Others were subject to forced labor.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last1=Sretenovic, Stanislav|last2=Prauser, Steffen|name-list-style=amp|title=The Expulsion of the German-Speaking Minority from Yugoslavia|url=http://www.iue.it/PUB/HEC04-01.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304100309/http://www.iue.it/PUB/HEC04-01.pdf|archive-date=4 March 2009|publisher=European University Institute, Florence|page=55}}</ref> In March 1945, the surviving Swabians were ]ized in "village camps", later described as "extermination camps" by the survivors, where the death rate ranged as high as 50%.<ref name=":2"/> The most notorious camp was at ] (formerly Rudolfsgnad), where an estimated 11,000 to 12,500 Swabians died.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2009-05-20 |title=Vojvodian Germans |url=http://www.media-diversity.org/beta%20articles/Vojvodina%20Germans.htm |access-date=2022-01-19 |website= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090520012559/http://www.media-diversity.org/beta%20articles/Vojvodina%20Germans.htm |archive-date=20 May 2009 }}</ref> | |||
| Some 120,000 ] were forced to emigrate to Serbia by the Yugoslav Communists after they had opted for Serbian citizenship in 1944.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gale Group|url=http://archive.org/details/worldmarkencyclo03gale|title=Worldmark encyclopedia of the nations|date=2007|publisher=Detroit : Thomson Gale|others=Internet Archive|isbn=978-1-4144-1089-0}}</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2023}} Those who stayed were subject to increasing Macedonian efforts, such as forcibly changing their surnames, substituting "''ić''" with ''"ski " (] -'' ]). In the whole period after the Second World War the Serbs in the Socialist Republic of Macedonia were kept from freely developing their national and cultural identity. The Serbs were treated like ]s.<ref>{{Cite web|title= Slavenko Terzic: The Serbs and the Macedonian Question|url=http://www.rastko.rs/istorija/srbi-balkan/sterzic-macedonian.html|access-date=2022-01-19|website=www.rastko.rs}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2023}} | |||
| The ] initiated a repression against known and alleged ], which included even some of the most prominent among Tito's collaborators, most of which were taken to a labor camp on ]. On 19 November 1956, ], perhaps the closest of Tito's collaborators and widely regarded as Tito's possible successor, was arrested and jailed for four years because of his criticism against certain actions of the Yugoslav regime. The repression did not exclude intellectuals and writers such as ], who was arrested and sent to jail in January 1956 for writing poems considered anti-Titoist.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}} | |||
| Tito's Yugoslavia had been described as a tightly controlled ].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EY_xAgAAQBAJ&q=Tito%27s+Yugoslavia+was+a+tightly+controlled+police+state&pg=PT73|title=Tell it to the world, Eliott Behar|publisher=Dundurn Press|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4597-2380-1}}</ref> According to ], outside the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia had more ] than all of the rest of Eastern Europe combined.{{sfn|Matas|1994|p=36}} Tito's secret police was modeled on the Soviet KGB. Its members were ever-present and often ],{{sfn|Corbel|1951|pp=173–174}} with victims including middle-class intellectuals, liberals and democrats.{{sfn|Cook|2001|p=1391}} Yugoslavia was a signatory to the ], but scant regard was paid to some of its provisions.{{sfn|Matas|1994|p=37}} | |||
| == Bulgaria == | |||
| When the communists came to power in September 1944, the punishment of the "bourgeoisie" immediately began – thousands were killed and expelled from the country. By the end of October 1944, the number of those killed was 6,800{{fact|date=December 2023}}. By the end of 1945, nearly 10,000 people were in concentration camps, 5,000 families were expelled from the country or resettled elsewhere, 6,000 were in prisons, and 1,050 were sentenced to death. From 1946 to 1975, 680 people were sentenced to death by the Communist government. | |||
| ] were forced to leave Bulgaria.{{fact|date=December 2023}} In 1989 ] campaign was carried out. During the demonstration in the streets, 3 people were killed, and 200 ] were imprisoned. The number of Turks who were deported to rural areas was around 4,000. In 1989 there was a massive ] of more than 200,000 Turks to ]. | |||
| From 1945 to 1985 more than 85,000 people were arrested in Bulgaria, and 20,000 people were in concentration camps all over the country. The number of political prisoners was 10,200. | |||
| == See also == | |||
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| == References == | |||
| === Notes === | |||
| {{reflist}} | |||
| === Bibliography === | |||
| * {{Cite book|last=Boldur-Lățescu|first=Gheorghe|title=The communist genocide in Romania|date=2005|publisher=]|isbn=1-59454-251-1|location=New York|oclc=57002619|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v7EW88xTIBUC}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Cook |first=Bernard A. |title=Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia, Volume 2 K-Z |year=2001 |publisher=Garland Publishing Inc. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hafLHZgZtt4C&pg=PA1391 |location=New York City |isbn=9780815340584}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Corbel |first=Josef |title=Tito's Communism |year=1951 |publisher=The University of Denver Press |location=Denver, Colorado |url=https://archive.org/details/titoscommunism00korb}} | |||
| * Jones, Adam (2010). ''Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction''. Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-415-48618-7}}. | |||
| * Karlsson, Klas-Göran; Schoenhals, Michael (2008). ''Crimes Against Humanity Under Communist Regimes''. Forum for Living History. {{ISBN|978-91-977487-2-8}} | |||
| * Kemp-Welch, A. (2008). ''Poland Under Communism: A Cold War History''. ]. {{ISBN|978-0-521-71117-3}}. | |||
| * Lattimer, Mark and Sands, Philippe. (2003) ''Justice for Crimes Against Humanity'' Hart Publishing {{ISBN|978-1-84113-413-0}}. | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Matas |first=David |title=No More: The Battle Against Human Rights Violations |year=1994 |publisher=Dundurn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Iz6pvc3YSr0C&pg=PA37 |isbn=978-1-55002-221-6}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=McGoldrick |first=Dominic |editor=Stephen Tierney |title=Accommodating National Identity: New Approaches in International and Domestic Law |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SAyizpsg-Z8C |year=2000 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |isbn=978-90-411-1400-6 |chapter=Accommodating National Identity in National Law and International Law}} | |||
| * Naimark, Norman M. (2010). ''Stalin's Genocides''. Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-691-14784-0}}. | |||
| * Rosefielde, Steven (2009). ''Red Holocaust''. ]. {{ISBN|978-0-415-77757-5}}. | |||
| * Semelin, Jacques (2009). ''Purify and Destroy: The Political Uses of Massacre and Genocide''. ]. {{ISBN|978-0-231-14283-0}}. | |||
| * Totten, Samuel; Parsons, William S.; Charny, Israel W. (2004). ''Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts''. Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-415-94430-4}}. | |||
| == External links == | |||
| * {{cite web|url=http://www.globalmuseumoncommunism.org/|title=Global Museum on Communism|publisher=The Global Museum on Communism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213221048/http://www.globalmuseumoncommunism.org/|archive-date=13 December 2010|access-date=8 September 2020}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
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