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{{Short description|Partially recognised state in Southeastern Europe}}
{{Other uses|Kosovo (disambiguation)|Kosova (disambiguation)}}{{pp-semi-indef}} {{pp-move-indef}}


{{Redirect category shell|
{{Coord|42|35|N|21|00|E|display=title}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}}
{{R mentioned in hatnote}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Republic of Kosova
| common_name = Kosova
| linking_name =
| native_name = {{unbulleted list|item_style=font-size:85%;|{{native name|sq|Republika e Kosovës}}|{{lang|sr-Cyrl|Република Косово}} / {{native name|sr-Latn|Republika Kosovo}}}}
| image_flag = Flag of Kosovo.svg
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Kosovo.svg
| symbol_type = Emblem
| national_motto =
| national_anthem = Himni i Republikës së Kosovës<br />"]"{{center|]}}
| image_map = Europe-Republic of Kosovo.svg
| map_caption = Location in Europe
| capital = {{nowrap|]}}<sup>a</sup>
| coordinates = {{Coord|42|40|N|21|10|E|type:city(1,900,000)}}
| largest_city = capital
| official_languages = {{hlist|]|]}}
| languages2_type = Regional languages
| languages2 = {{hlist|]|]<ref>{{cite web|title=Municipal language compliance in Kosovo|url=https://www.osce.org/kosovo/120010?download=true|publisher=OSCE Minsk Group|quote=Turkish language is currently official in Prizren and Mamuşa/Mamushë/Mamuša municipalities. In 2007 and 2008, the municipalities of Gjilan/Gnjilane, southern Mitrovicë/Mitrovica, Prishtinë/Priština and Vushtrri/Vučitrn also recognized Turkish as a language in official use.|access-date=17 February 2021|archive-date=5 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305035807/http://www.osce.org/kosovo/120010?download=true|url-status=live}}</ref>|]}}
| ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list|92% ]|4% ]|2% ]|1% ]|1% ]}}
| ethnic_groups_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/kosovo-population/ |title=Kosovo Population 2019 |work=World Population Review |access-date=8 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190728020418/http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/kosovo-population/ |archive-date=28 July 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
| ethnic_groups_year = 2019
| religion = {{unbulleted list|95.6% ]|3.7% ]|0.1% ]|0.1% ]|0.1% Not stated}}
| religion_ref = <ref name=factbook/>
| demonym = {{unbulleted list|Kosovar, Kosovan}}
| government_type = ]
| leader_title1 = ]
| leader_name1 = ]
| leader_title2 = ]
| leader_name2 = ]
| leader_title3 = ]
| leader_name3 = ]
| legislature = ]
| established_event1 = ]
| established_date1 = 1877
| established_event2 = ]
| established_date2 = 31 January 1946
| established_event3 = ]
| established_date3 = 2 July 1990
| established_event4 = ]
| established_date4 = 9 June 1999
| established_event6 = ]
| established_date6 = 10 June 1999
| established_event7 = ]
| established_date7 = 17 February 2008
| established_event8 = ]
| established_date8 = 10 September 2012
| established_event9 = ]
| established_date9 = 19 April 2013
| area_km2 = 10,887
| area_rank =
| area_sq_mi = 4,212
| percent_water = 1.0<ref>{{cite web|title=Water percentage in Kosovo (Facts about Kosovo; 2011 Agriculture Statistics)|url=http://ask.rks-gov.net/|publisher=Kosovo Agency of Statistics, KAS|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829035712/http://ask.rks-gov.net/|archive-date=29 August 2017}}</ref>
| population_estimate = {{increase}} 1,806,279<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=XK|title=Population of Kosovo|date=2022|access-date=10 August 2022}}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2022
| population_estimate_rank = 152nd
| population_census_year = 2011
| population_density_km2 = 159
| population_density_sq_mi = 412
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $25.3 billion<ref name="IMFWEORS">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|date=October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=]|access-date= October 11, 2022}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2022
| GDP_PPP_rank = 151nd
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $14,532<ref name="IMFWEORS"/>
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 100th
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $9.2 billion<ref name="IMFWEORS"/>
| GDP_nominal_year = 2022
| GDP_nominal_rank = 155th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $5,230<ref name="IMFWEORS"/>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 105th
| Gini = 29.0
| Gini_year = 2017
| Gini_change = increase
| Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |publisher=] |title=GINI index (World Bank estimate)–Kosovo |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=XK&name_desc=false |access-date=24 September 2020 |archive-date=24 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190124203818/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=XK&name_desc=false |url-status=live}}</ref>
| HDI = 0.742
| HDI_year = 2016
| HDI_change = increase
| HDI_ref = <ref>{{cite web |publisher=] (UNDP) |title=Kosovo Human Development Report 2016 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/en/content/kosovo-human-development-report-2016 |access-date=24 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200714182725/https://hdr.undp.org/en/content/kosovo-human-development-report-2016 |archive-date=14 July 2020 |date=19 October 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| HDI_rank =
| currency = ] (])<sup>b</sup>
| currency_code = EUR
| time_zone = ]
| utc_offset = +1
| utc_offset_DST = +2
| time_zone_DST = ]
| date_format = ]
| drives_on = ]
| calling_code = ]
| iso3166code = XK
| cctld = ]<sup>c</sup> (proposed)
| footnote_a = ] is the official capital.<ref name="capital">{{cite web |publisher=Gazeta Zyrtare e Republikës së Kosovës |title=Ligji Nr. 06/L-012 për Kryeqytetin e Republikës së Kosovës, Prishtinën |url=https://gzk.rks-gov.net/ActDetail.aspx?ActID=16506 |access-date=24 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924130927/https://gzk.rks-gov.net/ActDetail.aspx?ActID=16506 |archive-date=24 September 2020 |language=sq |date=6 June 2018}}</ref> ] is the historic capital of Kosovo.<ref name="capital" />
| footnote_b = Two currencies are used in Kosova - the Euro is unilaterally approved even though Kosovo is not a formal member of the ], and the ] is used mainly in Serb-majority areas.<ref>{{cite web |title=Foreign travel advice Kosovo |url=https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/kosovo/money |website=www.gov.uk |publisher=UK Government |access-date=26 November 2021 |archive-date=26 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126011416/https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/kosovo/money |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Kosovo loses millions of euros from the use of the Serbian dinar |date=12 September 2020 |url=https://kosovapress.com/en/kosovo-loses-millions-of-euros-from-the-use-of-the-serbian-dinar/ |publisher=Kosova Press |access-date=26 November 2021 |archive-date=26 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126011426/https://kosovapress.com/en/kosovo-loses-millions-of-euros-from-the-use-of-the-serbian-dinar/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Points of dispute between Kosovo and Serbia |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20181109-points-dispute-between-kosovo-serbia |website=France 24 |date=9 November 2018 |access-date=26 November 2021 |archive-date=26 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126011416/https://www.france24.com/en/20181109-points-dispute-between-kosovo-serbia |url-status=live}}</ref>
| footnote_c = XK is a "user assigned" ISO 3166 code not designated by the standard, but used by the ], Switzerland, the ] and other organisations. However, ] remains in use.
| status = {{unbulletedlist|] of the ]<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=The Jerusalem Post|date=1 February 2021|title=Israel's ties with Kosovo: What new opportunities await?|url=https://www.jpost.com/opinion/israels-ties-with-kosovo-what-new-opportunities-await-657476|access-date=8 February 2021|archive-date=7 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207154341/https://www.jpost.com/opinion/israels-ties-with-kosovo-what-new-opportunities-await-657476|url-status=live}}</ref>|Claimed by ] as the ] (under ])}}
| religion_year = 2015
| today =
| symbol = Emblem of Kosovo
}} }}
'''Kosova''' ({{lang-sq|Kosova}} {{IPA-sq|kɔˈsɔva|}} or {{lang|sq|Kosovë}} {{IPA-sq|kɔˈsɔvə|}}; {{lang-sr-Cyrl|Косово}} {{IPA-sr|kôsoʋo|}}), officially the '''Republic of Kosova''' ({{lang-sq|Republika e Kosovës|links=no}}; {{lang-sr|Република Косово|Republika Kosovo}}) is a landlocked ] state in ], lying in the centre of the ]. It ] ] from ] on 17 February 2008,<ref name="icj2020">{{cite web |date=22 July 2010 |title=Accordance with International Law of the Unilateral Declaration of Independence in Respect of Kosovo |url=https://www.icj-cij.org/files/case-related/141/141-20100722-ADV-01-00-EN.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924140658/https://www.icj-cij.org/files/case-related/141/141-20100722-ADV-01-00-EN.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2020 |access-date=24 September 2020 |publisher=] (ICJ)}}</ref> and has since gained diplomatic recognition as a ] by ] of the ]. It is bordered by Serbia to the north and east, ] to the southeast, ] to the southwest, and ] to the west. Most of central Kosovo is dominated by the vast plains and fields of ] and ]. The ] and ] rise in the southwest and southeast, respectively. Its capital and largest city is ].


{{Rcat shell|
In classical antiquity, the central tribe which emerged in the territory of Kosovo were the ], who formed an independent polity known as the ] in the 4th century BC. It was annexed by the ] by the 1st century BC, and for the next millennium, the territory remained part of the ], whose rule was eroded by Slavic invasions beginning in the 6th–7th century AD. In the centuries thereafter, control of the area alternated between the Byzantines and the ]. By the 13th century, Kosovo became the core of the ], and has also been the seat of the ] from the 14th century, when its status was upgraded to a ].<ref name="Sharpe 2003 364">{{cite book |last=Sharpe |first=M. E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jLfX1q3kJzgC |title=Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-Century Central-Eastern Europe |year=2003 |isbn=9780765618337 |page=364 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803211910/https://books.google.rs/books?id=jLfX1q3kJzgC&printsec=frontcover |archive-date=3 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=RFE/RL Research Report: Weekly Analyses from the RFE/RL Research Institute, Том 3 |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty}}</ref> ] in the Balkans in the late 14th and 15th century led to the decline and ]; the ] of 1389 is considered to be one of the defining moments in Serbian medieval history. The Ottomans fully conquered the region after the ]. The ] ] for almost five centuries until 1912.
{{R from alternative language|sq|en}}

}}
In the late 19th century, Kosovo was the center of the ] and where the ] and ] took place. Following their defeat in the ], the Ottomans ] Kosovo to Serbia and Montenegro. Both countries joined ] after ], and following a period of ] in the Kingdom, the post-World War II ] constitution established the ] within the Yugoslav constituent republic of Serbia. Tensions between Kosovo's Albanian and Serb communities simmered through the 20th century and occasionally erupted into major violence, culminating in the ] of 1998 and 1999, which resulted in the withdrawal of the Yugoslav army, and the establishment of the ]. Ultimately, Kosovo ] ] from Serbia on 17 February 2008,<ref name="icj2020" /> and has since gained diplomatic recognition as a ] by ] of the ]. Serbia does not officially recognise Kosovo as a sovereign state and continues to claim it as its constituent ], although it accepts the governing authority of the Kosovo institutions as a part of the ].<ref name="foreignaffairs">{{cite magazine |last=Gvosdev |first=Nikolas K. |date=24 April 2013 |title=Kosovo and Serbia Make a Deal |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/kosovo/2013-04-24/kosovo-and-serbia-make-deal |url-status=live |magazine=Foreign Affairs |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305041508/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/kosovo/2013-04-24/kosovo-and-serbia-make-deal |archive-date=5 March 2016}}</ref>

Kosovo is a developing country, with an ]. It has experienced solid ] over the last decade as measured by international financial institutions since the onset of the ]. Kosovo is a member of the ], ], and has applied for membership in the ], ], ], and for observer status in the ]. In December 2022, Kosovo filed a formal application to become a member of the European Union.<ref name="dw10">{{cite web |title=Kosovo formally applies for EU membership |url=https://www.dw.com/en/kosovo-formally-applies-for-eu-membership/a-64110674 |access-date=15 December 2022 |website=]}}</ref>

== Name ==
{{Main|Names of Kosova}}
] in the 3rd century BCE.]]
The entire region that today corresponds to the territory is commonly referred to in English simply as ''Kosovo'' and in ] as ''Kosova'' (], {{IPA-sq|kɔˈsɔva}}) or ''{{lang|sq|Kosovë}}'' ("indefinite" form, {{IPA-sq|kɔˈsɔvə}}). In Serbia, a formal distinction is made between the eastern and western areas; the term ''{{lang|sr-Latn|Kosovo}}'' ({{lang|sr|Косово}}) is used for the eastern part centred on the historical ], while the western part is called '']'' (known as ''Dukagjini'' in Albanian).<ref name="constitution-serbia">{{cite web |title=Constitution of the Republic of Serbia |url=http://www.parlament.gov.rs/content/eng/akta/ustav/ustav_ceo.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127021637/http://www.parlament.gov.rs/content/eng/akta/ustav/ustav_ceo.asp |archive-date=27 November 2010 |access-date=2 January 2011 |publisher=Parlament.gov.rs}}</ref>

''Kosovo'' ({{lang-sr-Cyrl|Косово}}, {{IPA-sr|kôsoʋo}}) is the Serbian neuter ] of ''kos'' (кос) "]", an ] for ''Kosovo Polje'', 'blackbird field', the name of ] situated in the eastern half of today's Kosovo and the site of the 1389 ].<ref name="Inc.2015">{{cite book |author=IBP, Inc. |title=Kosovo Country Study Guide Volume 1 Strategic Information and Developments |publisher=International Business Publications Inc. |year=2015 |page=9}}</ref><ref>''Oxford English Dictionary'', s.v. 'Kosovar'.</ref> The name of the plain was applied to ] created in 1864.

Albanians also refer to Kosovo as ], the name of an ancient kingdom and later ], which covered the territory of modern-day Kosovo. The name is derived from the ancient tribe of the '']'', possibly related to the Proto-Albanian term ''dardā'', which means "pear" (Modern Albanian: {{Lang|sq|dardhë}}).<ref>Albanian Etymological Dictionary, V.Orel, Koninklijke Brill, Leiden Boston Köln 1998, p. 56</ref> The former Kosovo President ] had been an enthusiastic backer of a "Dardanian" identity, and the Kosovar presidential flag and seal refer to this national identity. However, the name "Kosova" remains more widely used among the Albanian population. In recent years, the flag of Dardania gas gained official status (]) and is heavily featured in the institution of the presidency.

The current borders of Kosovo were drawn while part of Yugoslavia in 1945, when the ] was created as an administrative division of the new ]. In 1963, it was raised from the level of an autonomous region to the level of an autonomous province as the ]. In 1968, the dual name "Kosovo and Metohija" was reduced to a simple "Kosovo" in the name of the ''Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo''. In 1990, the province was renamed the ''Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shelley |first=Fred M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5qlXatHRJtMC&pg=PA73 |title=Nation Shapes: The Story Behind the World's Borders |year=2013 |isbn=9781610691062 |page=73 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016003257/https://books.google.com/books?id=5qlXatHRJtMC&pg=PA73 |archive-date=16 October 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The official conventional long name of the state is ''Republic of Kosovo'', as defined by the ], and is used to represent Kosovo internationally.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kosovo's Constitution of 2008 (with Amendments through 2016) |url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Kosovo_2016.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102154102/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Kosovo_2016.pdf |archive-date=2 November 2019 |access-date=2 November 2019 |via=constituteproject.org}}</ref> Additionally, as a result of an ] in talks mediated by the European Union, Kosovo has participated in some international forums and organisations under the title "Kosovo*" with a footnote stating, "This designation is without prejudice to positions on status, and is in line with UNSC 1244 and the ICJ Opinion on the Kosovo declaration of independence". This arrangement, which has been dubbed the "asterisk agreement", was agreed in an 11-point arrangement on 24 February 2012.<ref>{{cite news |date=25 February 2012 |title=Agreement on regional representation of Kosovo |publisher=B92 |url=http://www.b92.net/eng/insight/pressroom.php?yyyy=2012&mm=02&nav_id=78973 |url-status=live |access-date=11 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141111162752/http://www.b92.net/eng/insight/pressroom.php?yyyy=2012&mm=02&nav_id=78973 |archive-date=11 November 2014}}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of Kosovo}}
{{Very long section|date=January 2023}}

=== Early development ===
{{See also|Archaeology of Kosovo|Copper, Bronze and Iron Age sites in Kosovo}}{{Further|Illyrians|Dardania (Roman province)|l2=Dardania}}
] is one of the most significant archaeological artifacts of Kosovo and has been adopted as the symbol of ].]]
The strategic position including the abundant natural resources were favorable for the development of human settlements in Kosovo, as is highlighted by the hundreds of archaeological sites identified throughout its territory. The first archaeological expedition in Kosovo was organised by the Austro-Hungarian army during the ] in the ] ] burial grounds of Nepërbishti within the ].<ref name="SchermerShukriu">{{cite book |last1=Schermer |first1=Shirley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lzi4N-74QmAC |title=The Routledge Handbook of Archaeological Human Remains and Legislation: An International Guide to Laws and Practice in the Excavation and Treatment of Archaeological Human Remains |last2=Shukriu |first2=Edi |last3=Deskaj |first3=Sylvia |date=2011 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1136879562 |editor1-last=Marquez-Grant |editor1-first=Nicholas |page=235 |access-date=20 September 2020 |editor2-last=Fibiger |editor2-first=Linda |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204134209/https://books.google.com/books?id=Lzi4N-74QmAC |archive-date=4 February 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> Since 2000, the increase in archaeological expeditions has revealed many, previously unknown sites. The earliest documented traces in Kosovo are associated to the ]; namely, indications that cave dwellings might have existed, such as Radivojce Cave near the source of the ], Grnčar Cave in the ] and the Dema and Karamakaz Caves in the ].

The earliest archaeological evidence of organised settlement, which have been found in Kosovo, belong to the ] ] and ] cultures.<ref name="Berisha">{{cite web |last=Berisha |first=Milot |year=2012 |title=Archaeological Guide of Kosovo |url=https://www.mkrs-ks.org/repository/docs/drafti_i_guides_-anglisht_final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417092446/https://www.mkrs-ks.org/repository/docs/drafti_i_guides_-anglisht_final.pdf |archive-date=17 April 2019 |access-date=20 September 2020 |publisher=Ministry of Culture of Kosovo |pages=17–18}}</ref> ] and ] are important sites of the ] – the rock art paintings at Mrrizi i Kobajës near ] are the first find of prehistoric art in Kosovo.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shukriu |first1=Edi |author-link1=Edi Shukriu |date=2006 |title=Spirals of the prehistoric open rock painting from Kosova |url=https://www.academia.edu/1787676 |url-status=live |journal=Proceedings of the XV World Congress of the International Union for Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences |volume=35 |page=59 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210914015031/https://www.academia.edu/1787676 |archive-date=14 September 2021 |access-date=20 September 2020}}</ref> Amongst the finds of excavations in Neolithic Runik is a baked-clay ], which is the first musical instrument recorded in Kosovo.<ref name="Berisha" /> The beginning of the ] coincides with the presence of ] burial grounds in western Kosovo, like the site of ].<ref name="SchermerShukriu" />
] situated south-east of ]. The city played an important role in the development of one of the most important cities in the Roman province of Dardania.]]
The ] were the most important ] tribe in the region of Kosovo. A wide area which consists of Kosovo, parts of Northern Macedonia and eastern Serbia was named ] after them in classical antiquity, reaching to the ] contact zone in the east. In archaeological research, Illyrian names are predominant in western Dardania (present-day Kosovo), while Thracian names are mostly found in eastern Dardania (present-day south-eastern Serbia).

Thracian names are absent in western Dardania; some Illyrian names appear in the eastern parts. Thus, their identification as either an ] or ] tribe has been a subject of debate, the ethnolinguistic relationship between the two groups being largely uncertain and debated itself as well. The correspondence of Illyrian names – including those of the ruling elite – in Dardania with those of the southern Illyrians suggests a "thracianization" of parts of Dardania.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wilkes |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Nv6SPRKqs8C |title=The Illyrians |publisher=Wiley |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-631-19807-9 |page=85 |access-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200502085653/https://books.google.com/books?id=4Nv6SPRKqs8C |archive-date=2 May 2020 |url-status=live |orig-year=1992}}</ref> The Dardani retained an individuality and continued to maintain social independence after Roman conquest, playing an important role in the formation of new groupings in the Roman era.<ref name="Papazoglou">{{Cite book |last=Papazoglu |first=Fanula |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Up4JAQAAIAAJ |title=The Central Balkan Tribes in pre-Roman Times: Triballi, Autariatae, Dardanians, Scordisci and Moesians |publisher=Hakkert |year=1978 |isbn=9789025607937 |location=Amsterdam |page=131 |author-link=Fanula Papazoglu |access-date=27 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411011011/https://books.google.com/books?id=Up4JAQAAIAAJ |archive-date=11 April 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The Roman state annexed Dardania by the first century AD. The importance of the area lay in its high mining potential (''metalla Dardana''), highlighted by the large mining complex of ] and the designation of part of the region as an imperial mining district.{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}} Kosovo was part of two provinces, ] and ]. ] is the most important ] which developed in Kosovo.{{sfn|Teichner|2015|p=81}} It was refounded as ''Justiniana Secunda'' under ] in the 6th century AD.{{sfn|Teichner|2015|p=83}}

=== Middle Ages ===
], a ].]]
], a ].]]
In the next centuries, Kosovo was a frontier province of the ]. The region was exposed to an increasing number of raids from the 4th century CE onward, culminating with the ] of the 6th and 7th centuries.

Toponymic evidence suggests that ] was probably spoken in Kosovo prior to the Slavic settlement of the region.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Curtis |first=Matthew Cowan |title=Slavic-Albanian Language Contact, Convergence, and Coexistence |url=http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1338406907 |publisher=The Ohio State University |year=2012 |page=42}}</ref><ref name="Prendergast2017">{{cite thesis |last1=Prendergast |first1=Eric |year=2017 |title=The Origin and Spread of Locative Determiner Omission in the Balkan Linguistic Area |page=80 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7nk454x6 |publisher=UC Berkeley}}</ref>

There is one intriguing line of argument to suggest that the Slav presence in Kosovo and southernmost part of the Morava valley may have been quite weak in the first one or two centuries of Slav settlement. Only in the ninth century can the expansion of a strong Slav (or quasi-Slav) power into this region be observed. Under a series of ambitious rulers, the Bulgarians – a Slav population which absorbed, linguistically and culturally, its ruling elite of Turkic Bulgars – pushed westwards across modern Macedonia and eastern Serbia, until by the 850's they had taken over Kosovo and were pressing on the border of ].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Malcolm |first1=Noel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_FMZQQAACAAJ&q=kosovo+a+short+history |title=Kosovo: A Short History |year=2002 |isbn=9780330412247 |access-date=9 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111130647/https://books.google.no/books?id=_FMZQQAACAAJ&dq=kosovo+a+short+history&hl=no&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj5z4PbjI_uAhWIuIsKHamyB90Q6AEwAHoECAAQAg |archive-date=11 January 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The ] acquired Kosovo by the mid-9th century, but Byzantine control was ] by the late 10th century. In 1072, the leaders of the Bulgarian ] traveled from their center in ] to Prizren and held a meeting in which they invited ] of ] to send them assistance. Mihailo sent his son, ] with 300 of his soldiers. After they met, the Bulgarian magnates proclaimed him "Emperor of the Bulgarians".<ref>{{cite book |last1=McGeer |first1=Eric |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CmjIDwAAQBAJ |title=Byzantium in the Time of Troubles: The Continuation of the Chronicle of John Skylitzes (1057–1079) |date=2019 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-9004419407 |page=149 |access-date=19 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426180211/https://books.google.com/books?id=CmjIDwAAQBAJ |archive-date=26 April 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> The uprising was defeated by ]. ] is the last Byzantine archbishop of Ohrid to include Prizren in his jurisdiction until 1219.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Prinzing |first1=Günter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vllZG5zOxmMC |title=Demetrii Chomateni Ponemata diaphora: |date=2008 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3110204506 |page=30 |chapter=Demetrios Chomatenos, Zu seinem Leben und Wirken |access-date=19 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805223703/https://books.google.com/books?id=vllZG5zOxmMC |archive-date=5 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> ] had seized the area along the ] in 1185-95 and the ecclesiastical split of Prizren from the Patriarchate in 1219 was the final act of establishing ] rule. ] concluded, from the correspondence of archbishop Demetrios of Ohrid (1216–36), that Dardania (modern Kosovo) was increasingly populated by Albanians and the expansion started from ] and ] area, prior to the Slavic expansion.<ref name="Abulafia1999">{{cite book |last=Ducellier |first=Alain |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bclfdU_2lesC&pg=PA781 |title=The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 5, c.1198-c.1300 |date=1999-10-21 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-36289-4 |page=780 |access-date=21 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103143439/http://books.google.com/books?id=bclfdU_2lesC&pg=PA781 |archive-date=3 January 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

During the 13th and 14th centuries, Kosovo was a political, cultural and religious centre of the ].<ref name="Sharpe 2003 364" /> The zenith of Serbian power was reached in 1346 with the formation of the ] (1346-1371). In the late 13th century, the seat of the ] was moved to ], and rulers centred themselves between ] and ],<ref>Denis P Hupchik. The Balkans. From Constantinople to Communism. p. 93 "Dusan.. established his new state primate's seat at Peć (Ipek), in Kosovo"</ref> during which time thousands of Christian monasteries and feudal-style forts and castles were erected,<ref>Bieber, p. 12</ref> ] using ] as one of his temporary courts for a time. When the Serbian Empire fragmented into a conglomeration of principalities in 1371, Kosovo became the hereditary land of the ]. During the late 14th and early 15th centuries, parts of Kosovo, the easternmost area located near Pristina, were part of the ]{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}, which was later incorporated into an anti-Ottoman federation of all Albanian principalities, the ].<ref name="Sellers2010">{{cite book |last=Sellers |first=Mortimer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Rx7_KyUp7cC&pg=PA207 |title=The Rule of Law in Comparative Perspective |publisher=Springer |year=2010 |isbn=978-90-481-3748-0 |page=207 |access-date=2 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511193103/https://books.google.com/books?id=9Rx7_KyUp7cC&pg=PA207 |archive-date=11 May 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>

] is a combined ] consisting of four Serbian Orthodox churches and ]. The constructions were founded by members of the ], a prominent dynasty of ].<ref>{{cite web |title=Medieval Monuments in Kosovo |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/724 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150513120313/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/724/ |archive-date=13 May 2015 |access-date=7 September 2016 |publisher=]}}</ref>

=== Ottoman rule ===
{{further|Bajrak of Oštrozub|Battle of Kosovo|History of Ottoman Kosovo|Vilayet of Kosovo}}{{Undue weight section|date=December 2022}}
In the 1389 ], Ottoman forces defeated a coalition led by ].<ref name="Jelavich1983">{{cite book |author=Barbara Jelavich |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofbalkans0000jela |title=History of the Balkans |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-521-27458-6 |pages=– |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="prospect-magazine.co.uk">{{cite web |title=Essays: 'The battle of Kosovo' by Noel Malcolm, Prospect Magazine May 1998 issue 30 |url=http://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/magazine/thebattleofkosovo/#axzz3eyNaDTl6 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120531075927/http://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/magazine/thebattleofkosovo/ |archive-date=31 May 2012 |access-date=20 July 2009 |publisher=Prospect-magazine.co.uk}}</ref> Some historians, most notably ], argue that the battle of Kosovo in 1389 did not end with an Ottoman victory and "Serbian statehood did survive for another seventy years."{{sfn|Malcolm|1998|pp=58, 75}} Soon after, Lazar's son accepted Turkish nominal vassalage (as did some other Serbian principalities) and Lazar's daughter was married to the Sultan to seal the peace. By 1459, Ottomans conquered the new Serbian capital of Smederevo,<ref>{{cite news |author1=Miranda Vickers |date=1998 |title=Chapter 1: Between Serb and Albanian, A History of Kosovo |website=New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/v/vickers-serb.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130330011115/http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/v/vickers-serb.html |archive-date=30 March 2013}}</ref> leaving ] and ] under ] rule until second quarter of the 16th century.

Kosovo was part of the ] from 1455 to 1912, at first as part of the '']'' of ], and from 1864 as a separate ] ('']''). During this time, ] was introduced to the population. The ] was an area much larger than today's Kosovo; it included all of current-day Kosovo, sections of the ] region cutting into present-day ] and ], and the ] municipality, the surrounding region in present-day northern ] and also parts of north-western North Macedonia, with the city of ] (then Üsküp), as its capital. Between 1881 and 1912, the Vilayet expanded to include other regions of present-day North Macedonia, including larger urban settlements such as ] (''İştip''), ] (''Kumanova'') and ] (''Kratova''). According to some historians, Serbs likely formed a majority of Kosovo from the 8th to the mid-19th century.{{sfn|Banac|p=42}}<ref>''The Balkans: A Post-Communist History'', I Jeffries, R Bideleux 2007, p. 513</ref> However, this claim is difficult to prove, as historians who base their works on Ottoman sources of the time give solid evidence that at least the western and central parts of Kosovo had an Albanian majority — the scholar Fredrick F. Anscombe shows that Prizren and ] (''Vulçitrin'') had no Serbian population in the early 17th century. Prizren was inhabited by a mix of Catholic and Muslim Albanians, while Vushtrri had a mix of Albanian and Turkish speakers, followed by a tiny Serbian minority. ] was founded by Albanians in the 16th century, and ] (''İpek'') had a continuous presence of the Albanian Kelmendi tribe. Central Kosovo was mixed, but large parts of the ] were ethnically Albanian. Central Kosovo, as well as the cities of Prizren, Gjakova, and the region of ] regularly supplied the Ottoman forces with levies and mercenaries.<ref name="Anscombe">Anscombe, Frederick F. (2006). {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514093015/http://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/577/1/Binder2.pdf|date=14 May 2011}}, ''The International History Review'' 28 (4) 758–793.</ref>

The Ottoman ] of the 15th-16th centuries indicate that the ] in western Kosovo were inhabited by a majority of ] Christians of both the Orthodox and Catholic rites. The Slavic population was a small minority that was concentrated in the Nahiya of ] and a small pocket in the Nahiya of ]; the documentation of ] in Peja at the end of the 15th century presupposes that ] were early inhabitants of the region that pre-dated the ].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pulaha |first1=Selami |url=https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B3ma9plMXxAEZi1PZTVXMXV1NFE/edit |title=Defter i Sanxhakut të Shkodrës 1485 |date=1974 |publisher=Academy of Sciences of Albania |pages=34, 40}}</ref> According to Paul Cohen, in the early sixteenth century, a large migration of Albanians into Kosovo resulted in a sizeable ethnic Albanian presence in some parts of Western Kosovo which continued into the next century.<ref name="Cohen">{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=Paul A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DcfbAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 |title=History and Popular Memory: The Power of Story in Moments of Crisis |date=2014 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-23153-729-2 |pages=8–9 |access-date=19 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130180358/https://books.google.com/books?id=DcfbAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 |archive-date=30 November 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Historian ] challenges this view, using 15th-18th century Ottoman immigration documents and 17th century northern Albanian Catholic emigration sources to argue that the majority of the migrants into the Kosovo region during this period were not Albanian.{{sfn|Malcolm|1998|p=}} The population of Kosovo was also much bigger than that of northern and central Albania and its rate of growth lower.{{sfn|Malcolm|1998|p=}} Kosovo was part of the wider Ottoman region to be occupied by Austrian forces during the Great War of 1683–99,<ref>{{cite web |title=WHKMLA: Habsburg-Ottoman War, 1683–1699 |url=http://www.zum.de/whkmla/military/17cen/habsbott16831699.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719120350/http://www.zum.de/whkmla/military/17cen/habsbott16831699.html |archive-date=19 July 2011 |access-date=20 July 2009 |publisher=Zum.de}}</ref> but the Ottomans re-established their rule of the region. Such acts of assistance by the Austrian Empire (then arch-rivals of the Ottoman Empire), or Russia, were always abortive or temporary at best.{{sfn|Banac|p=42}}<ref>Cirkovic. p. 115 Prior to the final conquest, the Turks often took inhabitants as slaves, frequently to Asia Minor</ref> In 1690, the ] ] led thousands of people from Kosovo to the Christian north, in what came to be known as the ]. Anscombe casts doubt on the fact that this exodus affected Kosovo, since there is no evidence that parts of Kosovo were depopulated. Evidence of depopulation can only be found in areas between ] and Belgrade. Some Albanians from Skopje and other regions were displaced in order to fill some areas around Niš, but there is no evidence that such events took place in Kosovo.<ref>''The Serbs'', Sima Cirkovic. ]. p. 144 "Patriarch Arsenije III claimed that 30,000 people followed him (on another occasion the figure was 40,000)"</ref><ref name="Anscombe" /> In 1766, the Ottomans abolished the ] and fully imposed the '']'' on its non-Muslim population.
] was the cultural and intellectual centre of Kosovo during the Ottoman period in the Middle Ages and is now the historic capital of Kosovo.]]
Although initially stout opponents of the advancing Turks, Albanian chiefs ultimately came to accept the Ottomans as sovereigns. The resulting alliance facilitated the mass conversion of Albanians to Islam. Given that the Ottoman Empire's subjects were divided along religious (rather than ethnic) lines, the spread of Islam greatly elevated the status of Albanian chiefs. Prior to this, they were organised along simple tribal lines, living in the mountainous areas of modern Albania (from Kruje to the Šar range).<ref>Fine (1994), p. 51.</ref> Soon, they expanded into a depopulated Kosovo,<ref name="Cirkovic. p. 244">Cirkovic. p. 244.</ref> as well as northwestern Macedonia, although some might have been autochthonous to the region.{{sfn|Banac|p=46}} However, Banac favours the idea that the main settlers of the time were ].{{sfn|Banac|p=42}} Centuries earlier, Albanians of Kosovo were predominantly Christian and Albanians and Serbs for the most part co-existed peacefully. The Ottomans appeared to have a more deliberate approach to converting the Roman Catholic population who were mostly Albanians in comparison with the mostly Serbian adherents of Eastern Orthodoxy, as they viewed the former less favorably due to its allegiance to Rome, a competing regional power.<ref name="Cohen" />

Many Albanians gained prominent positions in the Ottoman government, with "little cause of unrest", according to author Dennis Hupchik. "If anything, they grew important in Ottoman internal affairs."<ref name="hupchik">''The Balkans. From Constantinople to Communism'', Dennis Hupchik</ref> In the 19th century, there was an ] of ] throughout the Balkans. The underlying ethnic tensions became part of a broader struggle of Christian Serbs against Muslim Albanians.<ref name="prospect-magazine.co.uk" /> The ethnic ] movement was centred in Kosovo. In 1878 the ] ({{lang|sq|Lidhja e Prizrenit}}) was formed, a political organisation that sought to unify all the Albanians of the Ottoman Empire in a common struggle for autonomy and greater cultural rights,<ref>''Kosovo: What Everyone Needs to Know'' by Tim Judah, Publisher ], US, 2008 {{ISBN|0-19-537673-0|978-0-19-537673-9}} p. 36</ref> although they generally desired the continuation of the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="Cirkovic. p. 244" /> The League was dis-established in 1881 but enabled the awakening of a ] among Albanians,<ref>George Gawlrych, ''The Crescent and the Eagle,'' (Palgrave/Macmillan, London, 2006), {{ISBN|1-84511-287-3}}</ref> whose ambitions competed with those of the Serbs, the ] wishing to incorporate this land that had formerly been within its empire.

The modern Albanian-Serbian conflict has its roots in the ] from areas that became incorporated into the ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Frantz |first=Eva Anne |year=2009 |title=Violence and its Impact on Loyalty and Identity Formation in Late Ottoman Kosovo: Muslims and Christians in a Period of Reform and Transformation |journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=460–461 |doi=10.1080/13602000903411366 |s2cid=143499467}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Müller |first=Dietmar |year=2009 |title=Orientalism and Nation: Jews and Muslims as Alterity in Southeastern Europe in the Age of Nation-States, 1878–1941 |journal=East Central Europe |volume=36 |issue=1 |page=70 |doi=10.1163/187633009x411485}}</ref> During and after the ], between 30,000 and 70,000 Muslims, mostly Albanians, were expelled by the ] from the ] and fled to the ].<ref>Pllana, Emin (1985). "Les raisons de la manière de l'exode des refugies albanais du territoire du sandjak de Nish a Kosove (1878–1878) ". ''Studia Albanica''. '''1''': 189–190.</ref><ref>Rizaj, Skënder (1981). "Nënte Dokumente angleze mbi Lidhjen Shqiptare të Prizrenit (1878–1880) ". ''Gjurmine Albanologjike (Seria e Shkencave Historike)''. '''10''': 198.</ref><ref>Şimşir, Bilal N, (1968). ''Rumeli'den Türk göçleri. Emigrations turques des Balkans ''. Vol I. Belgeler-Documents. p. 737.</ref><ref name="Batakovic1992">{{cite book |last=Bataković |first=Dušan |url=http://www.rastko.rs/kosovo/istorija/kosovo_chronicles/kc_part2b.html |title=The Kosovo Chronicles |publisher=Plato |year=1992 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226174611/http://www.rastko.rs/kosovo/istorija/kosovo_chronicles/kc_part2b.html |archive-date=26 December 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Elsie2010">{{cite book |last=Elsie |first=Robert |title=Historical Dictionary of Kosovo |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2010 |isbn=9780333666128 |page=xxxii}}</ref><ref>Stefanović, Djordje (2005). "Seeing the Albanians through Serbian eyes: The Inventors of the Tradition of Intolerance and their Critics, 1804–1939." ''European History Quarterly''. '''35'''. (3): 470.</ref> According to Austrian data, by the 1890s Kosovo was 70% Muslim (nearly entirely of Albanian descent) and less than 30% non-Muslim (primarily Serbs).<ref name="Cohen" /> In May 1901, Albanians pillaged and partially burned the cities of Novi Pazar, Sjenica and Pristina, and ] in the area of Kolašin.<ref name="King-Mason-30">{{cite book |author1=Iain King |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9m3Hp2OevdUC&pg=PA30 |title=Peace at Any Price: How the World Failed Kosovo |author2=Whit Mason |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8014-4539-2 |page=30 |access-date=7 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200109150705/https://books.google.com/books?id=9m3Hp2OevdUC&pg=PA30 |archive-date=9 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Skendi |first1=Stavro |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8QPWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA201 |title=The Albanian National Awakening |date=2015 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-4776-1 |page=201 |access-date=28 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728220204/https://books.google.com/books?id=8QPWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA201 |archive-date=28 July 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Kingdom of Yugoslavia ===
{{Further|Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943)|German occupation of Albania}}
The ] movement took control of the Ottoman Empire after a coup in 1912 which deposed Sultan ]. The movement supported a centralised form of government and opposed any sort of autonomy desired by the various nationalities of the Ottoman Empire. An allegiance to ] was promoted instead.<ref>Erik Zurcher, Ottoman sources of Kemalist thought, (New York, Routledge, 2004), p. 19.</ref> An Albanian uprising in 1912 exposed the empire's northern territories in Kosovo and ], which led to an invasion by the ]. ] suffered a serious defeat at the hands of Albanians in 1912, culminating in the Ottoman loss of most of its Albanian-inhabited lands. The Albanians threatened to march all the way to ] and reimpose Abdul Hamid.{{sfn|Malcolm|1998|p=248}}
] between the ] (''yellow'') and the ] (''green'') following the ] 1913.]]
A wave of Albanians in the ] ranks also deserted during this period, refusing to fight their own kin. In September 1912, a joint Balkan force made up of Serbian, Montenegrin, Bulgarian and Greek forces drove the Ottomans out of most of their European possessions. The rise of nationalism hampered relations between Albanians and ], due to influence from Russians, Austrians and Ottomans.<ref>See: Isa Blumi, ''Rethinking the Late Ottoman Empire: A Comparative Social and Political History of Albania and Yemen, 1878–1918'' (Istanbul: The Isis Press, 2003)</ref> After the Ottomans' defeat in the ], the ] was signed with ] ceded to the ] and Eastern Kosovo ceded to the ].<ref>{{cite web |title=Treaty of London, 1913 |url=http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/boshtml/bos145.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970501052336/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/boshtml/bos145.htm |archive-date=1 May 1997 |access-date=6 November 2011 |publisher=Mtholyoke.edu}}</ref> During the ], over 100,000 Albanians left Kosovo and around 20,000 were killed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Malcolm |first=Noel |date=1999 |title=Kosovo – A Short History |journal=Verfassung in Recht und Übersee |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=422–423 |doi=10.5771/0506-7286-1999-3-422 |issn=0506-7286 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Soon, there were concerted Serbian colonisation efforts in Kosovo during various periods between Serbia's 1912 takeover of the province and ], causing the population of Serbs in Kosovo to sharply decline after a period of growth.{{sfn|Malcolm|1998|p=}}

Serbian authorities promoted creating new Serb settlements in Kosovo as well as the assimilation of Albanians into Serbian society, causing a mass exodus of Albanians from Kosovo.<ref name="Schabnel 2001 20">Schabnel, Albrecht; Thakur, Ramesh (eds). Kosovo and the Challenge of Humanitarian Intervention: Selective Indignation, ], and International Citizenship. New York: The United Nations University, 2001. p. 20.</ref> Numerous colonist Serb families moved into Kosovo, equalising the demographic balance between Albanians and Serbs.{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}} The figures of Albanians forcefully expelled from Kosovo range between 60,000 and 239,807, while Malcolm mentions 100,000–120,000. In combination with the politics of extermination and expulsion, there was also a process of assimilation through religious conversion of Albanian Muslims and Albanian Catholics into the Serbian Orthodox religion which took place as early as 1912. These politics seem to have been inspired by the nationalist ideologies of ] and ].<ref>{{cite book |last1=I. Mehmeti |first1=Leandrit |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IWMqDwAAQBAJ |title=Kosovo and Serbia: Contested Options and Shared Consequences |last2=Radeljic |first2=Branislav |date=24 March 2017 |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |isbn=978-0822944690 |location=Pittsburgh |pages=63–64 |access-date=8 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307171432/https://books.google.com/books?id=IWMqDwAAQBAJ |archive-date=7 March 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>
], circa 1941.]]
In the winter of 1915–16, during ], Kosovo saw the retreat of the Serbian army as Kosovo was occupied by ] and ]. In 1918, the ] pushed the ] out of Kosovo. After the end of World War I, the Kingdom of Serbia was transformed into the ] on 1 December 1918.

Kosovo was split into four counties, three belonging to Serbia (], Kosovo and southern ]) and one to Montenegro (northern Metohija). However, the new administration system since 26 April 1922 split Kosovo among three districts (]) of the Kingdom: Kosovo, Raška and Zeta. In 1929, the country was transformed into the ] and the territories of Kosovo were reorganised among the ], the ] and the ]. In order to change the ], between 1912 and 1941 a ] was undertaken by the Belgrade government. Kosovar Albanians' right to receive education in their own language was denied alongside other non-Slavic or unrecognised Slavic nations of Yugoslavia, as the kingdom only recognised the Slavic Croat, Serb, and Slovene nations as constituent nations of Yugoslavia. Other Slavs had to identify as one of the three official Slavic nations and non-Slav nations deemed as minorities.<ref name="Schabnel 2001 20" />

Albanians and other ] were forced to emigrate, mainly with the land reform which struck Albanian landowners in 1919, but also with direct violent measures.<ref name="daskalovski">Daskalovski, Židas. Claims to Kosovo: Nationalism and ]. In: Florian Bieber & Zidas Daskalovski (eds.), ''Understanding the War in Kosovo''. L.: Frank Cass, 2003. {{ISBN|0-7146-5391-8}}. pp. 13–30.</ref>{{sfn|Malcolm|1998|p=}} In 1935 and 1938, two agreements between the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and Turkey were signed on the expatriation of 240,000 Albanians to Turkey, but the expatriation did not occur due to the outbreak of ].<ref>Ramet, Sabrina P. The Kingdom of God or the Kingdom of Ends: Kosovo in Serbian Perception. In Mary Buckley & Sally N. Cummings (eds.), ''Kosovo: Perceptions of War and Its Aftermath''. L.&nbsp;– N.Y.: Continuum Press, 2002. {{ISBN|0-8264-5670-7}}. pp. 30–46.</ref>

After the ] in 1941, most of Kosovo was assigned to Italian-controlled Albania, and the rest controlled by Germany and Bulgaria. A three-dimensional conflict ensued, involving inter-ethnic, ideological, and international affiliations.{{sfn|Malcolm|1998|p=312}} Albanian collaborators persecuted Serb and Montenegrin settlers,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bieber |first1=Florian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6OiQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA58 |title=Understanding the War in Kosovo |last2=Daskalovski |first2=Zidas |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-13576-155-4 |page=58 |access-date=19 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119180548/https://books.google.com/books?id=6OiQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA58 |archive-date=19 November 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> and killed an estimated 10,000 and expelled or transferred 70,000 to 100,000 more to concentration camps in Pristina and Mitrovica.<ref name="Ramet2006">{{cite book |last1=Ramet |first1=Sabrina P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FTw3lEqi2-oC&pg=PA114 |title=The Three Yugoslavias: State-building and Legitimation, 1918-2005 |date=2006 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-25334-656-8 |pages=114, 141 |access-date=19 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119180549/https://books.google.com/books?id=FTw3lEqi2-oC&pg=PA114 |archive-date=19 November 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Nonetheless, these conflicts were relatively low-level compared with other areas of Yugoslavia during the war years. Two Serb historians also estimate that 12,000 Albanians died.{{sfn|Malcolm|1998|p=312}} An official investigation conducted by the Yugoslav government in 1964 recorded nearly 8,000 war-related fatalities in Kosovo between 1941 and 1945, 5,489 of them Serb or Montenegrin and 2,177 Albanian.<ref>{{cite book |last=Frank |first=Chaim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k6sqlTGHpsAC |title=Antisemitism in Eastern Europe: History and Present in Comparison |publisher=Peter Lang |year=2010 |isbn=978-3-631-59828-3 |editor1-last=Petersen |editor1-first=Hans-Christian |location=] |pages=97–98 |editor2-last=Salzborn |editor2-first=Samuel |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016003257/https://books.google.com/books?id=k6sqlTGHpsAC |archive-date=16 October 2015 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref> There had been large-scale Albanian immigration from Albania to Kosovo, by some scholars estimated in the range from 72,000<ref>{{Citation |last=Vickers |first=Miranda |title=Between Serb and Albanian : a history of Kosovo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S41pAAAAMAAJ&q=%22encouraged+an+extensive%22 |year=1998 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304215008/https://books.google.rs/books?id=S41pAAAAMAAJ&q=%22encouraged+an+extensive%22 |url-status=live |location=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=9781850652786 |quote=The Italian occupation force encouraged an extensive settlement programme involving up to 72,000 Albanians from Albania in Kosovo |archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref><ref name="Ramet2006" /> to 260,000 people. Some historians and contemporary references emphasise that a large-scale migration of Albanians from Albania to Kosovo is not recorded in Axis documents.{{sfn|Malcolm|1998|pp=312-313}}{{Clear}}

=== Communist Yugoslavia ===
{{Main|Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo}}
]
The province in its current form first took shape in 1945 as the ''Autonomous Kosovo-Metohian Area''. Until World War II, the only entity bearing the name of Kosovo had been a political unit carved from the former ] which bore no special significance to its internal population. In the ] (which previously controlled the territory), it was a vilayet and its borders were revised on several occasions. When the ] last existed, it included areas which were by now either ceded to ], or within the newly created Yugoslav republics of ], or ] (including its previous capital, ]), with another part in the ] region of southwest Serbia.

Tensions between ethnic Albanians and the Yugoslav government were significant, not only due to ethnic tensions but also due to political ideological concerns, especially regarding relations with neighbouring Albania.<ref name="Kosovo. 2000. Pp. 35">Independent International Commission on Kosovo. ''The Kosovo report: conflict, international response, lessons learned''. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. p. 35.</ref> Harsh repressive measures were imposed on Kosovo Albanians due to suspicions that there were sympathisers of the ] regime of ] of Albania.<ref name="Kosovo. 2000. Pp. 35" /> In 1956, a show trial in Pristina was held in which multiple Albanian Communists of Kosovo were convicted of being infiltrators from Albania and given long prison sentences.<ref name="Kosovo. 2000. Pp. 35" /> High-ranking Serbian communist official ] sought to secure the position of the Serbs in Kosovo and gave them dominance in Kosovo's ].<ref>Melissa Katherine Bokovoy, Jill A. Irvine, Carol S. Lilly. State-society relations in Yugoslavia, 1945–1992. Scranton, Pennsylvania: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997. p. 295.</ref>
], the vice-president of ], from 1978 to 1979.]]
] in Kosovo at this time was repressed and both Albanians and Muslim Slavs were encouraged to declare themselves to be Turkish and emigrate to Turkey.<ref name="Kosovo. 2000. Pp. 35" /> At the same time Serbs and Montenegrins dominated the government, security forces, and industrial employment in Kosovo.<ref name="Kosovo. 2000. Pp. 35" /> Albanians resented these conditions and protested against them in the late 1960s, caling the actions taken by authorities in Kosovo colonialist, and demanding that Kosovo be made a republic, or declaring support for Albania.<ref name="Kosovo. 2000. Pp. 35" />

After the ouster of Ranković in 1966, the agenda of pro-decentralisation reformers in Yugoslavia, especially from Slovenia and Croatia, succeeded in the late 1960s in attaining substantial decentralisation of powers, creating substantial autonomy in Kosovo and Vojvodina, and recognising a ] nationality.<ref name="Melissa Katherine Bokovoy 1992. Pp. 296">Melissa Katherine Bokovoy, Jill A. Irvine, Carol S. Lilly. State-society relations in Yugoslavia, 1945–1992. Scranton, Pennsylvania: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997. p. 296.</ref> As a result of these reforms, there was a massive overhaul of Kosovo's nomenklatura and police, that shifted from being Serb-dominated to ethnic Albanian-dominated through firing Serbs in large scale.<ref name="Melissa Katherine Bokovoy 1992. Pp. 296" /> Further concessions were made to the ethnic Albanians of Kosovo in response to unrest, including the creation of the ] as an ] institution.<ref name="Melissa Katherine Bokovoy 1992. Pp. 296" /> These changes created widespread fear among Serbs that they were being made ] in Yugoslavia.<ref>Melissa Katherine Bokovoy, Jill A. Irvine, Carol S. Lilly. State-society relations in Yugoslavia, 1945–1992. Scranton, Pennsylvania: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997. p. 301.</ref> By the 1974 Constitution of Yugoslavia, Kosovo was granted major autonomy, allowing it to have its own administration, assembly, and judiciary; as well as having a membership in the collective presidency and the Yugoslav parliament, in which it held veto power.<ref>Independent International Commission on Kosovo. ''The Kosovo report: conflict, international response, lessons learned''. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. pp. 35–36.</ref>
]
In the aftermath of the 1974 constitution, concerns over the rise of Albanian nationalism in Kosovo rose with the widespread celebrations in 1978 of the 100th anniversary of the founding of the ].<ref name="Kosovo. 2000. Pp. 35" /> Albanians felt that their status as a "minority" in Yugoslavia had made them second-class citizens in comparison with the "nations" of Yugoslavia and demanded that Kosovo be a ], alongside the other republics of Yugoslavia.<ref name="Kosovo. 2000. Pp. 36">Independent International Commission on Kosovo. ''The Kosovo report: conflict, international response, lessons learned''. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. p. 36.</ref> ] resulted in Yugoslav territorial defence units being brought into Kosovo and a state of emergency being declared resulting in violence and the protests being crushed.<ref name="Kosovo. 2000. Pp. 36" /> In the aftermath of the 1981 protests, purges took place in the Communist Party, and rights that had been recently granted to Albanians were rescinded&nbsp;– including ending the provision of Albanian professors and Albanian language textbooks in the education system.<ref name="Kosovo. 2000. Pp. 36" />

Due to very high ], the proportion of Albanians increased from 75% to over 90%. In contrast, the number of Serbs barely increased, and in fact dropped from 15% to 8% of the total population, since many Serbs departed from Kosovo as a response to the tight economic climate and increased incidents with their Albanian neighbours. While there was tension, charges of "genocide" and planned harassment have been debunked as an excuse to revoke Kosovo's autonomy. For example, in 1986 the ] published an official claim that Kosovo Serbs were being subjected to an Albanian program of 'genocide'.<ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ap8wa_YmT2QC&pg=PA215 |title=Religion and the Creation of Race and Ethnicity: An Introduction |publisher=New York University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8147-6701-6 |editor-last=Prentiss |editor-first=Craig R |access-date=20 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211124233817/https://books.google.com/books?id=ap8wa_YmT2QC&pg=PA215 |archive-date=24 November 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Even though they were disproved by police statistics,<ref name="books.google.com" />{{Page needed|date=June 2014}} they received wide attention in the Serbian press and that led to further ethnic problems and eventual removal of Kosovo's status. Beginning in March 1981, Kosovar Albanian students of the University of Pristina organised protests seeking that Kosovo become a republic within Yugoslavia and demanding their human rights.<ref name="nyt19810419">New York Times 1981-04-19, "One Storm has Passed but Others are Gathering in Yugoslavia"</ref> The protests were brutally suppressed by the police and army, with many protesters arrested.<ref name="hdk">]. ''Historical Dictionary of Kosova''. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2004. {{ISBN|0-8108-5309-4}}.</ref> During the 1980s, ethnic tensions continued with frequent violent outbreaks against Yugoslav state authorities, resulting in a further increase in emigration of Kosovo Serbs and other ethnic groups.<ref name="reuters19860527">Reuters 1986-05-27, "Kosovo Province Revives Yugoslavia's Ethnic Nightmare"</ref><ref name="csm19860728">Christian Science Monitor 1986-07-28, "Tensions among ethnic groups in Yugoslavia begin to boil over"</ref> The Yugoslav leadership tried to suppress protests of Kosovo Serbs seeking protection from ethnic discrimination and violence.<ref name="nyt19870627">New York Times 1987-06-27, "Belgrade Battles Kosovo Serbs"</ref>{{Clear}}

=== Breakup of Yugoslavia and Kosovo War ===
{{main|Kosovo War}}
{{further|War crimes in the Kosovo War|Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija|Republic of Kosova (1990–2000)}}
Inter-ethnic tensions continued to worsen in Kosovo throughout the 1980s. In 1989, Serbian President ], employing a mix of intimidation and political maneuvering, drastically reduced Kosovo's special autonomous status within Serbia and started cultural oppression of the ethnic Albanian population.<ref name="rogel">{{Cite journal |last1=Rogel |first1=Carole |year=2003 |title=Kosovo: Where It All Began |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1025397128633 |url-status=live |journal=International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=167–182 |doi=10.1023/A:1025397128633 |s2cid=141051220 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624203551/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1025397128633 |archive-date=24 June 2021 |access-date=20 June 2021}}</ref> Kosovar Albanians responded with a ] separatist movement, employing widespread ] and creation of parallel structures in ] care, and taxation, with the ultimate goal of achieving the ].<ref>Clark, Howard. ''Civil Resistance in Kosovo''. London: ], 2000. {{ISBN|0-7453-1569-0}}.</ref>

In July 1990, the Kosovo Albanians proclaimed the existence of the ], and declared it a sovereign and independent state in September 1992.{{sfn|Malcolm|1998|pp=346-347}} In May 1992, ] was elected its president in an election in which only Kosovo Albanians participated.<ref name="babuna">Babuna, Aydın. . ''Perceptions'' 8(3), September–November 2003: 43–69.</ref> During its lifetime, the Republic of Kosova was only officially ] by Albania. By the mid-1990s, the Kosovo Albanian population was growing restless, as the status of Kosovo was not resolved as part of the ] of November 1995, which ended the ]. By 1996, the ] (KLA), an ethnic Albanian guerrilla ] that sought the separation of Kosovo and the eventual creation of a ],<ref>See:

* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YS15BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 |title=State-building in Kosovo. A plural policing perspective |date=2015 |publisher=Maklu |isbn=9789046607497 |page=53 |access-date=7 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306202756/https://books.google.rs/books?id=YS15BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 |archive-date=6 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X5sa90AEvi0C&pg=PA69 |title=Liberating Kosovo: Coercive Diplomacy and U. S. Intervention |date=2012 |publisher=] |isbn=9780262305129 |page=69 |access-date=7 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306193001/https://books.google.rs/books?id=X5sa90AEvi0C&pg=PA69 |archive-date=6 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rgGA91skoP4C&pg=PA249 |title=Dictionary of Genocide |date=2008 |publisher=] |isbn=9780313346422 |page=249 |access-date=7 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306190516/https://books.google.rs/books?id=rgGA91skoP4C&pg=PA249 |archive-date=6 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) |encyclopedia=] |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kosovo-Liberation-Army |date=2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906171517/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kosovo-Liberation-Army |archive-date=6 September 2015 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite magazine |date=6 March 2001 |title=Albanian Insurgents Keep NATO Forces Busy |url=http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,101938,00.html |url-status=live |magazine=] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226173544/http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,101938,00.html |archive-date=26 December 2016}}</ref> had prevailed over the Rugova's non-violent resistance movement and launched attacks against the Yugoslav Army and Serbian police in Kosovo, resulting in the ].<ref name="rogel" /><ref>Rama, Shinasi A. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090429172242/http://www.alb-net.com/amcc/cgi-bin/viewnews.cgi?newsid985323600,53297,|date=29 April 2009}}. ''The International Journal of Albanian Studies'', 1 (1998), pp. 15–19.</ref> The situation escalated further when Yugoslav and Serbian forces committed numerous massacres against Kosovo Albanians, such as the ] in which one of the KLA founders ] was surrounded in his home along with his extended family. In total 58 Kosovo Albanians were killed in this massacre, including 18 women and 10 children, in a massacre where mortars were fired on the houses and snipers shot those who fled. This massacre along with others motivated many Albanian men to join the KLA.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News &#124; EUROPE &#124; Behind the Kosovo crisis |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/674056.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429110929/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/674056.stm |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=28 May 2019 |website=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref>
] from the U.S. set up a road block near the village of Koretin on 16 June 1999.]]
By 1998, international pressure compelled Yugoslavia to sign a ceasefire and partially withdraw its security forces. Events were to be monitored by ] (OSCE) observers according to an agreement negotiated by ]. The ceasefire did not hold and fighting resumed in December 1998, culminating in the ], which attracted further international attention to the conflict.<ref name="rogel" /> Within weeks, a multilateral international conference was convened and by March had prepared a draft agreement known as the ], calling for the restoration of Kosovo's autonomy and the deployment of ] ] forces. The Yugoslav delegation found the terms unacceptable and refused to sign the draft. Between 24 March and 10 June 1999, ] by bombing Yugoslavia, aiming to force Milošević to withdraw his forces from Kosovo,<ref>{{cite web |title=Operation Allied Force |url=http://www.nato.int/kosovo/all-frce.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160912233627/http://www.nato.int/kosovo/all-frce.htm |archive-date=12 September 2016 |publisher=NATO}}</ref> though NATO could not appeal to any particular motion of the ] to help legitimise its intervention.
] soldiers holding pictures in memory of the men who were killed or went missing in the ].]]
Combined with continued skirmishes between Albanian guerrillas and Yugoslav forces the conflict resulted in a further massive displacement of population in Kosovo.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Larry Minear |author2=Ted van Baarda |author3=Marc Sommers |year=2000 |title=NATO and Humanitarian Action in the Kosovo Crisis |url=http://www.unhcr.org/partners/PARTNERS/3bb051c54.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080226204541/http://www.unhcr.org/partners/PARTNERS/3bb051c54.pdf |archive-date=26 February 2008 |access-date=23 February 2008 |publisher=]}}</ref>

During the conflict, roughly a million ethnic Albanians fled or were forcefully driven from Kosovo. In 1999 more than 11,000 deaths were reported to the office of the ] prosecutor ].<ref>{{Cite news |date=10 November 1999 |title=World: Europe UN gives figure for Kosovo dead |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/514828.stm |url-status=live |access-date=5 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100420192736/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/514828.stm |archive-date=20 April 2010}}</ref> {{As of|2010}}, some 3,000 people were still missing, including 2,500 Albanians, 400 Serbs and 100 ].<ref>{{Cite news |author=KiM Info-Service |date=7 June 2000 |title=3,000 missing in Kosovo |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/781310.stm |url-status=live |access-date=5 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100420192727/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/781310.stm |archive-date=20 April 2010}}</ref> By June, Milošević agreed to a foreign military presence in Kosovo and the withdrawal of his troops. During the ], over 90,000 Serbian and other non-Albanian refugees fled the province. In the days after the Yugoslav Army withdrew, over 80,000 Serb and other non-Albanian civilians (almost half of 200,000 estimated to live in Kosovo) were expelled from Kosovo, and many of the remaining civilians were victims of abuse.<ref>{{cite web |date=August 1999 |title=Abuses against Serbs and Roma in the new Kosovo |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/kosov2/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120902070934/http://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/kosov2/ |archive-date=2 September 2012 |publisher=]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hudson |first1=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wkQ3I6GyClEC&pg=PA29 |title=After Yugoslavia: Identities and Politics Within the Successor States |last2=Bowman |first2=Glenn |date=2012 |isbn=9780230201316 |page=30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101051745/https://books.google.com/books?id=wkQ3I6GyClEC&pg=PA29 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=4 August 1999 |title=Kosovo Crisis Update |url=http://www.unhcr.org/3ae6b80f2c.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016002408/http://www.unhcr.org/3ae6b80f2c.html |archive-date=16 October 2015 |publisher=]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=6 October 2006 |title=Forced Expulsion of Kosovo Roma, Ashkali and Egyptians from OSCE Participated state to Kosovo |url=http://www.osce.org/odihr/21342?download=true |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151126062302/http://www.osce.org/odihr/21342?download=true |archive-date=26 November 2015 |publisher=]}}</ref><ref name="Wills">{{cite book |author=Siobhán Wills |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QoqQ7kBrlSAC&pg=PA219 |title=Protecting Civilians: The Obligations of Peacekeepers |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-953387-9 |page=219 |access-date=24 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606104524/http://books.google.com/books?id=QoqQ7kBrlSAC&pg=PA219 |archive-date=6 June 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> After the Kosovo and other ], Serbia became home to the highest number of refugees and ] (including Kosovo Serbs) in Europe.<ref>{{cite web |date=20 June 2010 |title=Serbia home to highest number of refugees and IDPs in Europe |url=http://www.b92.net/eng/news/society.php?yyyy=2011&mm=06&dd=20&nav_id=75016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326082532/http://www.b92.net/eng/news/society.php?yyyy=2011&mm=06&dd=20&nav_id=75016 |archive-date=26 March 2017 |publisher=]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2008 |title=Serbia: Europe's largest proctracted refugee situation |url=http://www.osce.org/serbia/24323?download=true |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326082139/http://www.osce.org/serbia/24323?download=true |archive-date=26 March 2017 |publisher=]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=S. Cross, S. Kentera, R. Vukadinovic, R. Nation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=el-YZHB8hzYC&pg=PP1 |title=Shaping South East Europe's Security Community for the Twenty-First Century: Trust, Partnership, Integration |date=2013 |publisher=] |isbn=9781137010209 |page=169 |access-date=31 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326082403/https://books.google.rs/books?id=el-YZHB8hzYC&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1 |archive-date=26 March 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In some villages under Albanian control in 1998, militants drove ethnic Serbs from their homes.{{citation needed|date=March 2022}} Some of those who remained are unaccounted for and are presumed to have been abducted by the KLA and killed. The KLA detained an estimated 85 Serbs during its 19 July 1998 attack on ]. 35 of these were subsequently released but the others remained. On 22 July 1998, the KLA briefly took control of the Belaćevac mine near the town of Obilić. Nine Serb mineworkers were captured that day and they remain on the ]'s list of the missing and are presumed to have been killed.<ref name="hrw.org">{{cite web |date=August 1999 |title=Abuses against Serbs and Roma in the new Kosovo |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/kosov2/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120902070934/http://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/kosov2/ |archive-date=2 September 2012 |publisher=]}}</ref> In August 1998, 22 Serbian civilians were reportedly killed in the village of Klečka, where the police claimed to have discovered human remains and a kiln used to cremate the bodies.<ref name="hrw.org" /><ref>], {{cite web |title=Kosovo, drugs and the West |url=http://www.cpa.org.au/garchive/949kla.htm |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070911190307/http://www.cpa.org.au/garchive/949kla.htm |archive-date=11 September 2007 |access-date=27 June 2017}}, 14 April 1999.</ref> In September 1998, Serbian police collected 34 bodies of people believed to have been seized and murdered by the KLA, among them some ethnic Albanians, at Lake Radonjić near Glođane (Gllogjan) in what became known as the ].<ref name="hrw.org" /> Human Rights Watch have raised questions about the validity of at least some of these allegations made by Serbian authorities.<ref>{{Cite web |title=UNDER ORDERS: War Crimes in Kosovo – 2. Background |url=https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/2001/kosovo/undword-01.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407112036/https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/2001/kosovo/undword-01.htm |archive-date=7 April 2019 |access-date=28 May 2019 |website=www.hrw.org}}</ref>
]
The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) prosecuted crimes committed during the Kosovo War. Nine senior Yugoslav officials, including Milošević, were indicted for ] and ] committed between January and June 1999. Six of the defendants were convicted, one was acquitted, one died before his trial could commence, and one (Milošević) died before his trial could conclude.<ref name="icty">{{cite web |title=ICTY&nbsp;– TPIY : Judgement List |url=http://www.icty.org/sid/10095 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301030130/http://www.icty.org/sid/10095 |archive-date=1 March 2014 |access-date=3 March 2014 |publisher=icty.org}}</ref> Six KLA members were charged with crimes against humanity and war crimes by the ICTY following the war, and one was convicted.<ref>{{cite web |title=ICTY.org |url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/limaj/cis/en/cis_limaj_al_en.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100827083654/http://www.icty.org/x/cases/limaj/cis/en/cis_limaj_al_en.pdf |archive-date=27 August 2010 |access-date=28 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=ICTY.org |url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/haradinaj/cis/en/cis_haradinaj_al_en.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110301212926/http://www.icty.org/x/cases/haradinaj/cis/en/cis_haradinaj_al_en.pdf |archive-date=1 March 2011 |access-date=28 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Second Amended Indictment&nbsp;– Limaj et al |url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/limaj/ind/en/lim-2ai040212e.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171431/http://www.icty.org/x/cases/limaj/ind/en/lim-2ai040212e.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2011 |access-date=20 July 2009 |publisher=Icty.org}}</ref><ref name="Haradinaj cleared">{{cite news |date=29 November 2012 |title=Kosovo ex-PM Ramush Haradinaj cleared of war crimes |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-20536318 |url-status=live |access-date=29 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121129170103/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-20536318 |archive-date=29 November 2012}}</ref> In total around 10,317 civilians were killed during the war, of whom 8,676 were Albanians, 1,196 Serbs and 445 Roma and others in addition to 3,218 killed members of armed formations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kosovo Memory Book Database Presentation and Expert Evaluation |url=http://www.kosovomemorybook.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Expert_Evaluation_of_Kosovo_Memory_Book_Database_Prishtina_04_02_2015.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111055051/http://www.kosovomemorybook.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Expert_Evaluation_of_Kosovo_Memory_Book_Database_Prishtina_04_02_2015.pdf |archive-date=11 January 2019 |access-date=28 May 2019 |website=Kosovo Memory Book 1998-2000}}</ref>

=== Post-war ===
{{Main|United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo|Kosovo status process}}
{{clear}}
] with Albanian children during his visit to Kosovo, June 1999.]]
On 10 June 1999, the UN Security Council passed ], which placed Kosovo under transitional UN administration (UNMIK) and authorised ] (KFOR), a NATO-led peacekeeping force. Resolution 1244 provided that Kosovo would have autonomy within the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and affirmed the ] of Yugoslavia, which has been legally succeeded by the Republic of Serbia.<ref>{{cite news |date=17 June 1999 |title=Resolution 1244 (1999) |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/371562.stm |url-status=live |access-date=19 February 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080407233507/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/371562.stm |archive-date=7 April 2008}}</ref>

Estimates of the number of Serbs who left when Serbian forces left Kosovo vary from 65,000<ref>European Stability Initiative (ESI): {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324234708/http://www.esiweb.org/pdf/esi_document_id_53.pdf|date=24 March 2009}}, 7 June 2004.</ref> to 250,000.<ref>Coordinating Centre of Serbia for Kosovo-Metohija: .</ref> Within post-conflict Kosovo Albanian society, calls for retaliation for previous violence done by Serb forces during the war circulated through public culture.<ref name="Herscher14">{{harvnb|Herscher|2010|p=14}}.</ref> Widespread attacks against Serbian cultural sites commenced following the conflict and the return of hundreds of thousands of Kosovo Albanian refugees to their homes.<ref name="Riedlmayer11">{{cite web |author=András Riedlmayer |title=Introduction in Destruction of Islamic Heritage in the Kosovo War, 1998–1999 |url=http://www.heritage.sense-agency.com/assets/kosovo/sg-6-06-riedlmayer-foreword-interfaith-eng.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190712133659/http://heritage.sense-agency.com/assets/kosovo/sg-6-06-riedlmayer-foreword-interfaith-eng.pdf |archive-date=12 July 2019 |access-date=29 September 2018 |page=11}}</ref> In 2004, prolonged negotiations over Kosovo's future status, sociopolitical problems and nationalist sentiments resulted in the ].<ref name="RauschBanar246">{{harvnb|Rausch|Banar|2006|p=246}}.</ref><ref name="Egleder79">{{harvnb|Egleder|2013|p=79}}.</ref> 11 Albanians and 16 Serbs were killed, 900 people (including peacekeepers) were injured, and several houses, public buildings and churches were damaged or destroyed.
] is the main base of the ] under KFOR command in south-eastern part of Kosovo near the city of ].]]
International negotiations began in 2006 to determine the final status of Kosovo, as envisaged under ]. The UN-backed talks, led by UN ] ], began in February 2006. Whilst progress was made on technical matters, both parties remained diametrically opposed on the question of status itself.<ref>" {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307072437/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6034567.stm|date=7 March 2016}} ", ''BBC News'', 9 October 2006.</ref>

In February 2007, Ahtisaari delivered a draft status settlement proposal to leaders in Belgrade and Pristina, the basis for a draft ] which proposed 'supervised independence' for the province. A draft resolution, backed by the ], the ] and other European members of the ], was presented and rewritten four times to try to accommodate Russian concerns that such a resolution would undermine the principle of state sovereignty.<ref>{{cite web |author=Southeast European Times |date=29 June 2007 |title=Russia reportedly rejects fourth draft resolution on Kosovo status |url=http://www.setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/newsbriefs/setimes/newsbriefs/2007/06/29/nb-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070702211016/http://www.setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/newsbriefs/setimes/newsbriefs/2007/06/29/nb-07 |archive-date=2 July 2007 |access-date=24 July 2009}}</ref>

Russia, which holds a veto in the Security Council as one of five permanent members, had stated that it would not support any resolution which was not acceptable to both Belgrade and Kosovo Albanians.<ref>{{cite web |author=Southeast European Times |date=10 July 2007 |title=UN Security Council remains divided on Kosovo |url=http://setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/newsbriefs/setimes/newsbriefs/2007/07/10/nb-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012154347/http://setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/newsbriefs/setimes/newsbriefs/2007/07/10/nb-02 |archive-date=12 October 2007 |access-date=24 July 2009}}</ref> Whilst most observers had, at the beginning of the talks, anticipated independence as the most likely outcome, others have suggested that a rapid resolution might not be preferable.<ref>{{cite web |author=James Dancer |date=30 March 2007 |title=A long reconciliation process is required |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/985caa90-de5a-11db-afa7-000b5df10621.html?nclick_check=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080208151642/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/985caa90-de5a-11db-afa7-000b5df10621.html?nclick_check=1 |archive-date=8 February 2008 |website=Financial Times}}</ref>

After many weeks of discussions at the UN, the United States, United Kingdom and other European members of the Security Council formally 'discarded' a draft resolution backing Ahtisaari's proposal on 20 July 2007, having failed to secure Russian backing. Beginning in August, a "]" consisting of negotiators from the European Union (]), the United States (]) and Russia (Alexander Botsan-Kharchenko) launched a new effort to reach a status outcome acceptable to both Belgrade and Pristina. Despite Russian disapproval, the U.S., the United Kingdom, and France appeared likely to recognise Kosovar independence.<ref>{{cite news |author=Simon Tisdall |date=13 November 2007 |title=Bosnian nightmare returns to haunt EU |work=The Guardian |location=UK |url=https://www.theguardian.com/international/story/0,,2209907,00.html |url-status=live |access-date=15 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307171451/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/nov/13/international.mainsection |archive-date=7 March 2022}}</ref> A declaration of independence by Kosovar Albanian leaders was postponed until the end of the ] (4 February 2008). A significant portion of politicians in both the EU and the US had feared that a premature declaration could boost support in Serbia for the nationalist candidate, ].<ref>{{cite news |date=11 July 2008 |title=Europe, Q&A: Kosovo's future |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6386467.stm |url-status=live |access-date=20 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090123190828/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6386467.stm |archive-date=23 January 2009}}</ref>{{Clear}}

=== Provisional self-government ===
{{main|Provisional Institutions of Self-Government}}
In November 2001, the ] supervised the ] for the ].<ref>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509143621/http://www.osce.org/kosovo/13208.html|date=9 May 2008}} ", Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe</ref> After that election, Kosovo's political parties formed an all-party unity coalition and elected ] as president and ] (PDK) as Prime Minister.<ref>" {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160825081955/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1846264.stm|date=25 August 2016}}", ], 21 February 2002.</ref> After Kosovo-wide elections in October 2004, the LDK and AAK formed a new governing coalition that did not include PDK and Ora. This coalition agreement resulted in ] (AAK) becoming Prime Minister, while Ibrahim Rugova retained the position of President. PDK and Ora were critical of the coalition agreement and have since frequently accused that government of corruption.<ref>{{cite web |title=Publicinternationallaw.org |url=http://www.publicinternationallaw.org/docs/BW2005/Balkan_Watch.11April_05.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121041814/http://www.publicinternationallaw.org/docs/BW2005/Balkan_Watch.11April_05.pdf |archive-date=21 November 2008 |access-date=28 April 2010}}</ref>

] were held on 17 November 2007. After early results, ] who was on course to gain 35 per cent of the vote, claimed victory for PDK, the ], and stated his intention to declare independence. Thaçi formed a coalition with current president ]'s ] which was in second place with 22 percent of the vote.<ref>" {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080408184153/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7179850.stm|date=8 April 2008}}", BBC News, 9 January 2008.</ref> The turnout at the election was particularly low. Most members of the Serb minority refused to vote.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080206035607/http://www.euronews.net/index.php?page=info&article=454473&lng=1|date=6 February 2008}}. Retrieved 18 November 2007.</ref>

=== After declaration of independence ===
{{Main|2008 Kosovo declaration of independence|International recognition of Kosovo|2008 unrest in Kosovo}}
] unveiled at the celebration of the 2008 Kosovo declaration of independence proclaimed earlier that day, 17 February 2008, ].]]
Kosovo declared independence from ] on 17 February 2008.<ref name="bbc_proclaim">" {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215131649/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7249034.stm|date=15 February 2009}}", ], 17 February 2008.</ref> {{Numrec|Kos||UN states|asof=S}} recognised its independence, including all of its immediate neighbours, with the exception of Serbia.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203110112/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7662149.stm|date=3 February 2016}}. Retrieved 10 October 2008.</ref> However, 15 states have subsequently withdrawn recognition of the Republic of Kosovo.<ref>{{cite web |date=22 November 2019 |title=Nauru withdraws recognition of Kosovo's independence, Pristina denies |url=http://rs.n1info.com/English/NEWS/a546106/Dacic-says-95-countries-do-not-recognise-Kosovo-as-state-after-Nauru-s-withdrawal.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200513073923/http://rs.n1info.com/English/NEWS/a546106/Dacic-says-95-countries-do-not-recognise-Kosovo-as-state-after-Nauru-s-withdrawal.html |archive-date=13 May 2020 |access-date=18 April 2020 |publisher=N1}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=3 March 2020 |title=Serbia claims Sierra Leone has withdrawn Kosovo recognition |url=https://prishtinainsight.com/serbia-claims-sierra-leone-has-withdrawn-kosovo-recognition/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422142329/https://prishtinainsight.com/serbia-claims-sierra-leone-has-withdrawn-kosovo-recognition/ |archive-date=22 April 2020 |access-date=18 April 2020 |publisher=Prishtina Insight}}</ref> Russia and China do not recognise Kosovo's independence.<ref name="voa_serbia_kosovo_agreement">{{cite web |last=Kostreci |first=Keida |date=September 5, 2020 |title=US-Brokered Serbia-Kosovo Deal a 'Step Forward' But Challenges Remain |url=https://www.voanews.com/europe/us-brokered-serbia-kosovo-deal-step-forward-challenges-remain |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200907223628/https://www.voanews.com/europe/us-brokered-serbia-kosovo-deal-step-forward-challenges-remain |archive-date=7 September 2020 |access-date=September 7, 2020 |website=Voice of America}}</ref> Since declaring independence, it has become a member of international institutions such as the ] and ],<ref>{{cite web |date=24 June 2009 |title=Republic of Kosovo&nbsp;– IMF Staff Visit, Concluding Statement |url=http://www.imf.org/external/np/ms/2009/062409.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629132600/http://www.imf.org/external/np/ms/2009/062409.htm |archive-date=29 June 2009 |access-date=20 July 2009 |publisher=Imf.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=World Bank Cauntries |url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/0,,pagePK:180619~theSitePK:136917,00.html#k |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060716000650/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/0,,pagePK:180619~theSitePK:136917,00.html#k |archive-date=16 July 2006}}</ref> though not of the United Nations.

The Serb minority of Kosovo, which largely opposes the declaration of independence, has formed the ] in response. The creation of the assembly was condemned by Kosovo's President Fatmir Sejdiu, while UNMIK has said the assembly is not a serious issue because it will not have an operative role.<ref>{{cite web |date=30 June 2008 |title=Kosovo Serbs convene parliament; Pristina, international authorities object |url=http://www.setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/features/setimes/features/2008/06/30/feature-01 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090113180251/http://www.setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/features/setimes/features/2008/06/30/feature-01 |archive-date=13 January 2009 |access-date=20 July 2009 |publisher=SETimes.com}}</ref> On 8 October 2008, the UN General Assembly resolved, on a proposal by Serbia, to ask the International Court of Justice to render an advisory opinion on the legality of Kosovo's declaration of independence. The advisory opinion, which is not binding over decisions by states to recognise or not recognise Kosovo, was rendered on 22 July 2010, holding that Kosovo's declaration of independence was not in violation either of general principles of international law, which do not prohibit unilateral declarations of independence, nor of specific international law&nbsp;– in particular UNSCR 1244&nbsp;– which did not define the final status process nor reserve the outcome to a decision of the Security Council.<ref name="icj-cij">{{cite web |title=Advisory Proceedings&nbsp;&#124;&nbsp;International Court of Justice |url=http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?p1=3&p2=4&code=kos&case=141&k=21 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140208141833/http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?p1=3&p2=4&code=kos&case=141&k=21 |archive-date=8 February 2014 |access-date=3 March 2014 |publisher=icj-cij.org}}</ref>

Some rapprochement between the two governments took place on 19 April 2013 as both parties reached the ], an agreement brokered by the EU that allowed the Serb minority in Kosovo to have its own police force and court of appeals.<ref>{{cite news |date=19 April 2013 |title=Serbia and Kosovo reach EU-brokered landmark accord |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-22222624 |url-status=live |access-date=6 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008021737/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-22222624 |archive-date=8 October 2014}}</ref> The agreement is yet to be ratified by either parliament.<ref>{{cite web |title=Belgrade, Pristina initial draft agreement |url=http://www.srbija.gov.rs/vesti/vest.php?id=93685 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006095629/http://www.srbija.gov.rs/vesti/vest.php?id=93685 |archive-date=6 October 2014 |access-date=6 October 2014 |website=Serbian government website}}</ref> Presidents of Serbia and Kosovo organized two meetings, in ] on 27 February 2023 and ] on 18 March 2023, to create and agree upon an 11-point agreement on implementing a European Union-backed deal to normalise ties between the two countries, which includes recognising "each other's documents such as passports and license plates"; president ] stated that it "will become part of the negotiation framework for both sides."<ref>{{cite newspaper |date=19 March 2023 |title=Serbia, Kosovo agree on implementation of EU-backed agreement to normalize ties |newspaper=] |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/europe/serbia-kosovo-agree-on-implementation-of-eu-backed-agreement-to-normalize-ties/2849709 |access-date=19 March 2023}}</ref>

== Governance ==
{{Main|Politics of Kosovo}}
{{See also|Government of Kosovo}}
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Kosovo is a ] ] ] ]. It is governed by ], ] and ] institutions, which derive from the ], although, until the ], North Kosovo was in practice largely controlled by institutions of Serbia or parallel institutions funded by Serbia. Legislative functions are vested in both the ] and the ministers within their competencies. The ] exercises the executive power and is composed of the ] as the ], the Deputy Prime Ministers and the Ministers of the various ministries.

The judiciary is composed of the Supreme Court and subordinate courts, a ], and independent prosecutorial institutions. There also exist multiple independent institutions defined by the constitution and law, as well as local governments. It specifies that Kosovo is a "]" and neutral in matters of religious beliefs. Freedom of belief, conscience and religion is guaranteed with religious autonomy ensured and protected. All citizens are equal before the law and ] is ensured by the constitution.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book |last=Perritt |first=Henry H. Jr. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WX4hAwAAQBAJ&q=kosovo%20no%20official%20religion&pg=PA167 |title=The Road to Independence for Kosovo: A Chronicle of the Ahtisaari Plan |date=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781139479431 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180216082458/https://books.google.com/books?id=WX4hAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA167&lpg=PA167#v=onepage&q=kosovo%20no%20official%20religion |archive-date=16 February 2018 |url-status=live |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite book |last1=Naamat |first1=Talia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R1vU9p9ftlsC&q=kosovo%20constitution%20article%207&pg=PA235 |title=Legislating for Equality: A Multinational Collection of Non-Discrimination Norms. Volume I: Europe |last2=Porat |first2=Dina |last3=Osin |first3=Nina |date=2012 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |isbn=978-9004226128 |access-date=1 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307171429/https://books.google.com/books?id=R1vU9p9ftlsC&q=kosovo+constitution+article+7&pg=PA235 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |url-status=live |via=Google Books}}</ref> The Constitutional Framework guarantees a minimum of ten seats in the 120-member Assembly for Serbs, and ten for other minorities, and also guarantees Serbs and other minorities places in the Government.

The ] serves as the ] and represents the unity of the people, elected every five years, indirectly by the parliament through a ] by a two-thirds majority of all deputies. The head of state invested primarily with representative responsibilities and powers. The president has the power to return draft legislation to the parliament for reconsideration and has a role in foreign affairs and certain official appointments.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kosovo's Constitution of 2008 (with Amendments through 2016), chapter V |url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Kosovo_2016.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102154102/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Kosovo_2016.pdf |archive-date=2 November 2019 |access-date=2 November 2019 |via=constituteproject.org}}</ref> The ] serves as the ] elected by the parliament. Ministers are nominated by the Prime Minister, and then confirmed by the parliament. The head of government exercises executive power of the territory.

Corruption is a major problem and an obstacle to the development of democracy in the country. Those in the judiciary appointed by the government to fight corruption are often government associates. Moreover, prominent politicians and party operatives who commit offences are not prosecuted due to the lack of laws and political will. Organised crime also poses a threat to the economy due to the practices of bribery, extortion and racketeering.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Phillips |first1=David L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X5sa90AEvi0C&pg=PA211 |title=Liberating Kosovo: Coercive Diplomacy and U. S. Intervention |date=2012 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-26230-512-9 |page=211 |access-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803022449/https://books.google.com/books?id=X5sa90AEvi0C&pg=PA211 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The government of Kosovo has exhibited severe shortcomings in the coordination of local and state police forces fighting international crime in the country. Since 2018, Kosovo Police was observed to raid warehouses and pharmacy establishments in ] and ] with no prior warning or coordination with city law enforcement. The smuggling of contraband goods, firearms as well as illicit drugs is a major obstacle for Kosovo's economic development and international recognition.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211013092933/https://rs.n1info.com/english/news/kosovo-police-fire-tear-gas-to-disperse-crowd-in-mitrovica/|date=13 October 2021}}. ''rs.n1info.com''. Retrieved 14 October 2021.</ref>

=== Foreign relations and military ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Kosovo|Kosovo Security Force}}
] ] participated in a signing ceremony with ] ] and President of Serbia ] on 4 September 2020 in the Oval Office of the ].]]
The ] are conducted through the ] in ]. {{as of|2023}}, 101 out of 193 ] member states ] the Republic of Kosovo. Within the ], it is recognised by 22 of 27 members and is a ] for the ].<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140917212253/http://www.b92.net/eng/news/politics.php?yyyy=2012&mm=11&dd=26&nav_id=83353|date=17 September 2014}} "B92&nbsp;– News", Retrieved 31 March 2014.</ref><ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120828041606/http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/countries/detailed-country-information/kosovo/index_en.htm|date=28 August 2012}}. ec.europa.eu.</ref> On 15 December 2022 Kosovo filed a formal application to become a member of the European Union.<ref name="dw10" />

Kosovo is a member of several international organisations including the ], ], ], Regional Cooperation Council, ], ] and ].<ref name="Will the EBRD do the right thing?">{{cite news |date=10 February 2013 |title=Will the EBRD do the right thing for Kosovo, its newest member? |publisher=neurope.eu |url=http://www.neurope.eu/blog/will-ebrd-do-right-thing-kosovo-its-newest-member/ |url-status=dead |access-date=11 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130212081804/http://www.neurope.eu/blog/will-ebrd-do-right-thing-kosovo-its-newest-member |archive-date=12 February 2013}}</ref> In 2015, Kosovo's bid to become a member of ] fell three votes short of the two-thirds majority required to join.<ref>{{cite news |date=9 November 2015 |title=Kosovo fails in UNESCO membership bid |newspaper=Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/09/kosovo-fails-in-unesco-membership-bid |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171022143509/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/09/kosovo-fails-in-unesco-membership-bid |archive-date=22 October 2017}}</ref> 21 countries maintain ] in Kosovo.<ref>{{cite web |title=Foreign Missions in Kosovo |url=http://www.mfa-ks.net/?page=2,50 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506184551/http://www.mfa-ks.net/?page=2,50 |archive-date=6 May 2016 |access-date=28 April 2016 |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kosovo}}</ref> Kosovo maintains 24 ] and 28 consular missions abroad.<ref>{{cite web |title=Embassies of the Republic of Kosovo |url=http://www.mfa-ks.net/?page=2,49 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160513211823/http://www.mfa-ks.net/?page=2,49 |archive-date=13 May 2016 |access-date=28 April 2016 |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kosovo}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Consular Missions of the Republic of Kosovo |url=http://www.mfa-ks.net/?page=2,67 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160513154127/http://www.mfa-ks.net/?page=2,67 |archive-date=13 May 2016 |access-date=28 April 2016 |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kosovo}}</ref>

The ] are in a special case considering that both countries share the same language and culture. The ] is one of the ] of Kosovo. ] has an embassy in the capital ] and Kosovo an embassy in ]. In 1992, Albania was the only country whose parliament voted to recognise the ]. ] was also one of the first countries to officially announce its recognition of the Republic of Kosovo in February 2008.
] is the military of Kosovo and aims to join NATO in the future.]]
The ] 2020 ranked Kosovo 85th out of 163 countries. Kosovo's biggest challenges were identified in the areas of ongoing conflicts and societal safety and security, which are affected by Kosovo's relations to its neighbors and its domestic societal and political stability.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://visionofhumanity.org/reports |title=Global Peace Index 2020: Measuring Peace in a Complex World |publisher=Institute for Economics & Peace |year=2020 |place=Sydney |format=PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319170234/http://visionofhumanity.org/reports/ |archive-date=2017-03-19 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Kosovo's military is the ]. The ] holds the title of commander-in-chief of the military. Citizens over the age of 18 are eligible to serve in the Kosovo Security Force. Members of the force are protected from discrimination on the basis of gender or ethnicity.<ref>{{cite act|number=Law No. 03/L-082|date=13 June 2008|article=Article 3, Section 3(a)|title=Law on Service in the Kosovo Security Force|url=http://www.mksf-ks.org/repository/docs/Law%20on%20Service%20in%20the%20KSF.pdf|language=en|access-date=7 July 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504213923/http://mksf-ks.org/repository/docs/Law%20on%20Service%20in%20the%20KSF.pdf|archive-date=4 May 2016}}</ref> The ] (NATO) led the ] (KFOR) and the ] (KPC) in 2008, started preparations for the formation of the Kosovo Security Force. In 2014, the former ] ] declared, that the ] had decided to establish a Defence Ministry in 2019 and to officially transform the Kosovo Security Force into the ], an army which would meet all the standards of ] members with the aim to join the alliance in the future.<ref>{{cite news |date=4 March 2014 |title=Kosovo to create national army of 5,000 soldiers |work=Reuters |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-kosovo-army-idUKBREA231E620140304 |url-status=live |access-date=28 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140309202553/http://uk.reuters.com/article/2014/03/04/uk-kosovo-army-idUKBREA231E620140304 |archive-date=9 March 2014}}</ref> In December 2018, the parliament of Kosovo changed the mandate of the Kosovo Security Force by law and converted it to an army. It additionally established a Ministry of Defense.<ref>{{cite news |last=Shehu |first=Bekim |date=2018-12-14 |title=Kosova bëhet me ushtri |language=sq |work=Deutsche Welle |publisher=Deutsche Welle |url=https://p.dw.com/p/3A6U7 |url-status=live |access-date=2020-09-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307171432/https://www.dw.com/sq/kosova-b%C3%ABhet-me-ushtri/a-46737219 |archive-date=7 March 2022}}</ref>

=== Law ===
{{Main|Law of Kosovo}}
{{See also|EULEX}}
] (''Policia e Kosovës'') is the main law enforcement agency in Kosovo.]]
The judicial system of Kosovo is a civil law system divided between courts with regular civil and criminal jurisdiction and administrative courts with jurisdiction over litigation between individuals and the public administration. As of the ], the judicial system is composed of the Supreme Court, which is the highest judicial authority, a ], and an independent prosecutorial institution. All of them are administered by the ] located in ]. The ] is the main state law enforcement agency in the nation. After the Independence of Kosovo in 2008, the force became the governmental agency. The agency carries nearly all general police duties such as criminal investigation, patrol activity, traffic policing, border control.

The ] envisaged two forms of international supervision of Kosovo after its independence such as the ] (ICO), which would monitor the implementation of the Plan and would have a wide range of veto powers over legislative and executive actions, and the ] (EULEX), which would have the narrower mission of deploying police and civilian resources with the aim of developing the Kosovo Police and judicial systems but also with its own powers of arrest and prosecution. The declaration of independence and subsequent Constitution granted these bodies the powers assigned to them by the Ahtisaari Plan. Since the Plan was not voted on by the UN Security Council, the ICO's legal status within Kosovo was dependent on the de facto situation and Kosovo legislation; it was supervised by an ] (ISG) composed of the main states which recognised Kosovo. It was never recognised by Serbia or other non-recognising states. EULEX was also initially opposed by Serbia, but its mandate and powers were accepted in late 2008 by Serbia and the UN Security Council as operating under the umbrella of the continuing UNMIK mandate, in a status-neutral way, but with its own operational independence. The ICO's existence terminated on 10 September 2012, after the ISG had determined that Kosovo had substantially fulfilled its obligations under the Ahtisaari Plan. EULEX continues its existence under both Kosovo and international law; in 2012 the Kosovo president formally requested a continuation of its mandate until 2014. Its mandate was further extended in 2016, 2018, 2020 and 2021. Since 2018, the mandate of EULEX has been greatly reduced and it now only has a monitoring role.<ref>{{cite web |date=2018-06-08 |title=EULEX Kosovo: new role for the EU rule of law mission |url=https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2018/06/08/eulex-kosovo-new-role-for-the-eu-rule-of-law-mission/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201203161823/https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2018/06/08/eulex-kosovo-new-role-for-the-eu-rule-of-law-mission/ |archive-date=3 December 2020 |access-date=2021-02-12 |publisher=European Council}}</ref>{{Clear}}

=== Minorities ===
The relations between ] and ] have been hostile since the rise of nationalism in the Balkans during the 19th century.<ref name="Schabnel, Albrecht 2001. Pp. 20">Schabnel, Albrecht; Thakur (ed), Ramesh (ed). ''Kosovo and the Challenge of Humanitarian Intervention: Selective Indignation, Collective Action, and International Citizenship'', New York: The United Nations University, 2001. p. 20.</ref> During Communism in Yugoslavia, the ethnic Albanians and Serbs were strongly irreconcilable, with sociological studies during the Tito-era indicating that ethnic Albanians and Serbs rarely accepted each other as neighbors or friends and few held inter-ethnic marriages.<ref name="Schabnel, Albrecht 2001. Pp. 24">Schabnel, Albrecht; Thakur (ed), Ramesh (ed), 2001. p. 24.</ref> Ethnic prejudices, stereotypes and mutual distrust between ethnic Albanians and Serbs have remained common for decades.<ref name="Schabnel, Albrecht 2001. Pp. 24" /> The level of intolerance and separation between both communities during the Tito-period was reported by sociologists to be worse than that of Croat and Serb communities in Yugoslavia, which also had tensions but held some closer relations between each other.<ref name="Schabnel, Albrecht 2001. Pp. 24" />

Despite their planned integration into the Kosovar society and their recognition in the Kosovar constitution, the ], Ashkali, and Egyptian communities continue to face many difficulties, such as segregation and discrimination, in housing, education, health, employment and social welfare.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Roma and "Humanitarian" Ethnic Cleansing in Kosovo |url=http://dissidentvoice.org/Articles/Rifati_Kosovo.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100521004009/http://dissidentvoice.org/Articles/Rifati_Kosovo.htm |archive-date=21 May 2010 |access-date=19 June 2010 |publisher=Dissidentvoice.org}}</ref> Many camps around Kosovo continue to house thousands of ], all of whom are from minority groups and communities.<ref>{{cite web |author=Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) – Norwegian Refugee Council |title=IDMC, Internally Displaced persons (IDPs) in Kosovo |url=http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/(httpCountries)/165F03EE03E9D015C1257662005CE095?opendocument&count=10000 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100521044236/http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/%28httpCountries%29/165F03EE03E9D015C1257662005CE095?OpenDocument&count=10000 |archive-date=21 May 2010 |access-date=19 June 2010 |publisher=Internal-displacement.org}}</ref> Because many of the Roma are believed to have sided with the Serbs during the conflict, taking part in the widespread looting and destruction of Albanian property, ] report that Romani people encounter hostility by Albanians outside their local areas.<ref>{{cite web |author=Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) – Norwegian Refugee Council |title=IDMC: Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, Countries, Kosovo, Roma, Ashkaelia and Egyptians in Kosovo (2006) |url=http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/(httpEnvelopes)/B4A8E121B6EA5BBB802570B8005AA863?OpenDocument |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514140932/http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/%28httpEnvelopes%29/B4A8E121B6EA5BBB802570B8005AA863?OpenDocument |archive-date=14 May 2011 |access-date=19 June 2010 |publisher=Internal-displacement.org}}</ref>{{Clear}}

=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main|Districts of Kosovo}}
{{See also|Municipalities of Kosovo}}
Kosovo is divided into seven ] ({{lang-sq|rajon}}; {{lang-sr-Latn|okrug}}), according to the Law of Kosovo and the Brussels Agreement of 2013, which stipulated the formation of new municipalities with Serb majority populations. The districts are further subdivided into 38 ] ({{lang|sq|komunë}}; {{lang|sr-Latn|opština}}). The largest and most populous district of Kosovo is the ] with the capital in ], having a surface area of {{convert|2470|km2|sqmi|lk=in|sigfig=5}} and a population of 477,312.
{| align="center" style="background:none;" cellspacing="3px"
|{{Kosovo Districts}}
|
|
{| class="sortable wikitable" style="margin-top:7px; margin-right:0; background:none; text-align:left; font-size:90%;"
!<!--style="width:120/75/75/85px"-->]
!Seat
!Area (km<sup>2</sup>)
!Population
|-
|]
|]
| style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px" |1,365
| style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px" |174,235
|-
|]
|]
| style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px" |2,077
| style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px" |272,247
|-
|]
|]
| style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px" |2,470
| style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px" |477,312
|-
|]
|]
| style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px" |1,206
| style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px" |180,783
|-
|]
|]
| style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px" |1,129
| style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px" |194,672
|-
|]
|]
| style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px" |1,397
| style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px" |331,670
|-
|]
|]
| style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px" |1,030
| style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px" |185,806
|-
|}
|
|
|}
{{Clear}}

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Kosovo}}
] within the ] bordering ].]]
Defined in a total area of {{convert|10887|km2|0|abbr=off}}, Kosovo is ] and located in the center of the ] in ]. It lies between latitudes ] and ], and longitudes ] and ].<ref>{{cite web |title=Europe: Kosovo–The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kosovo/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204144331/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kosovo/ |archive-date=4 February 2021 |access-date=24 September 2020 |publisher=]}}</ref> The northernmost point is Bellobërda at 43° 14' 06" northern latitude; the southernmost is Restelica at 41° 56' 40" northern latitude; the westernmost point is ] at 20° 3' 23" eastern longitude; and the easternmost point is ] at 21° 44' 21" eastern longitude. The highest point is ] at {{convert|2658|m|ft}} ], and the lowest is the ] at {{convert|297|m|ft}}.
] encompass one-tenth of Kosovo's territory.<ref>{{cite web |date=February 2013 |title=Parku Kombëtar Sharri Plani Hapësinor |url=https://mmph-rks.org/repository/docs/1._070813_PHPK_Sharri_shq._908833.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171021003730/https://mmph-rks.org/repository/docs/1._070813_PHPK_Sharri_shq._908833.pdf |archive-date=21 October 2017 |access-date=24 September 2020 |publisher=Ministria e Ekonomisë dhe Ambientit and Agjencia për Mbrojtjen e Mjedisit të Kosovës |page=13 |language=sq}}</ref>]]
Most of the borders of Kosovo are dominated by mountainous and high terrain. The most noticeable ] features are the ] and the ]. The Accursed Mountains are a geological continuation of the ]. The mountains run laterally through the west along the border with ] and ]. The southeast is predominantly the Šar Mountains, which constitute the border with ]. Besides the mountain ranges, Kosovo's territory consists mostly of two major plains, the ] in the east and the ] in the west.

Additionally, Kosovo consists of multiple geographic and ethnographic regions, such as ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ].

Kosovo's hydrological resources are relatively small; there are few ] in Kosovo, the largest of which are ], ], ] and ].<ref>Jovan Đ. Marković (1990): ''Enciklopedijski geografski leksikon Jugoslavije''; Svjetlost-Sarajevo; {{ISBN|86-01-02651-6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Istitue of Statistics, Albania |url=http://www.instat.gov.al/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190210091104/http://www.instat.gov.al/ |archive-date=10 February 2019 |access-date=7 March 2022}}</ref> In addition to these, Kosovo also does have ], ] and mineral water springs.<ref name="ICMMt"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403195114/http://www.kosovo-mining.org/kosovoweb/en/kosovo/hydrology.html|date=2015-04-03}} Independent Commission for Mines and Minerals of Kosovo</ref> The longest rivers of Kosovo include the ], the ] and the ]. ], a tributary of Ibar, is the largest river lying completely within Kosovo's territory. River ] represents Europe's only instance of a river bifurcation flowing into the ] and ].{{Clear}}

=== Climate ===
{{Main|Climate of Kosovo}}
] in ] as seen from ].]]
Most of Kosovo experiences predominantly a ] with ] and ] influences,<ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2008 |title=Kosovo Environment and Climate Analysis |url=https://sidaenvironmenthelpdesk.se/wordpress3/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Environmental-policy-brief-Kosovo-2008.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028225601/https://sidaenvironmenthelpdesk.se/wordpress3/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Environmental-policy-brief-Kosovo-2008.pdf |archive-date=28 October 2018 |access-date=24 September 2020 |publisher=] |page=3}}</ref> strongly influenced by Kosovo's proximity to the ] in the west, the ] in the south as well as the European continental landmass in the north.<ref>{{cite web |title=Overview: Climate Change in Albania and Kosovo |url=https://www.sustainicum.at/files/projects/358/en/handouts/PlanBound_handout_ClimateChange.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924095806/https://www.sustainicum.at/files/projects/358/en/handouts/PlanBound_handout_ClimateChange.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2020 |access-date=24 September 2020 |publisher=Sustainicum Collection |page=1}}</ref>

The coldest areas are situated in the mountainous region to the west and southeast, where an Alpine climate is prevalent. The warmest areas are mostly in the extreme southern areas close to the border with Albania, where a Mediterranean climate is the norm. Mean monthly temperature ranges between {{convert|0|°C|°F|lk=on}} (in January) and {{convert|22|°C|°F|lk=off}} (in July). Mean annual precipitation ranges from {{convert|600|to|1300|mm|abbr=on|in}} per year, and is well distributed year-round.

To the northeast, the ] and ] are drier with total precipitation of about {{convert|600|mm|abbr=off}} per year and more influenced by continental air masses, with colder winters and very hot summers. In the southwest, climatic area of ] receives more mediterranean influences with warmer summers, somewhat higher precipitation ({{convert|700|mm|in|abbr=on}}) and heavy snowfalls in the winter. The mountainous areas of the ] in the west, ] on the south and ] in the north experiences alpine climate, with high precipitation ({{convert|900|to|1300|mm|abbr=on|in}} per year), short and fresh summers, and cold winters.<ref>{{cite web |title=Climatic Conditions |url=https://www.kosovo-mining.org/kosovoweb/en/kosovo/climate.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070516231747/https://www.kosovo-mining.org/kosovoweb/en/kosovo/climate.html |archive-date=16 May 2007 |access-date=27 September 2020 |publisher=Independent Commission for Mines and Minerals of Kosovo}}</ref> The average annual temperature of Kosovo is {{convert|9.5|C|F}}. The warmest month is July with average temperature of {{convert|19.2|C|F}}, and the coldest is January with {{convert|-1.3|C|F}}. Except ] and ], all other meteorological stations in January recorded average temperatures under {{convert|0|C|F}}.<ref>{{cite book |last=Çavolli |first=Riza |title=Gjeografia e Kosovës |year=1993 |page=23}}</ref>{{Clear}}

=== Biodiversity ===
{{Main|Biodiversity of Kosovo}}
{{See also|Protected areas of Kosovo}}
] is home to a wide range of flora and fauna species.]]
Located in ], Kosovo receives floral and faunal species from Europe and ]. Forests are widespread in Kosovo and cover at least 39% of the region. ], it straddles the ] province of the ] within the ]. In addition, it falls within three terrestrial ecoregions: ], ], and ].<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal |last1=Dinerstein |first1=Eric |last2=Olson |first2=David |last3=Joshi |first3=Anup |last4=Vynne |first4=Carly |last5=Burgess |first5=Neil D. |last6=Wikramanayake |first6=Eric |last7=Hahn |first7=Nathan |last8=Palminteri |first8=Suzanne |last9=Hedao |first9=Prashant |last10=Noss |first10=Reed |last11=Hansen |first11=Matt |last12=Locke |first12=Harvey |last13=Ellis |first13=Erle C |last14=Jones |first14=Benjamin |last15=Barber |first15=Charles Victor |display-authors=1 |year=2017 |title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm |journal=BioScience |volume=67 |issue=6 |pages=534–545 |doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014 |issn=0006-3568 |pmc=5451287 |pmid=28608869 |last16=Hayes |first16=Randy |last17=Kormos |first17=Cyril |last18=Martin |first18=Vance |last19=Crist |first19=Eileen |last20=Sechrest |first20=Wes |last21=Price |first21=Lori |last22=Baillie |first22=Jonathan E. M. |last23=Weeden |first23=Don |last24=Suckling |first24=Kierán |last25=Davis |first25=Crystal |last26=Sizer |first26=Nigel |last27=Moore |first27=Rebecca |last28=Thau |first28=David |last29=Birch |first29=Tanya |last30=Potapov |first30=Peter |last31=Turubanova |first31=Svetlana |last32=Tyukavina |first32=Alexandra |last33=de Souza |first33=Nadia |last34=Pintea |first34=Lilian |last35=Brito |first35=José C. |last36=Llewellyn |first36=Othman A. |last37=Miller |first37=Anthony G. |last38=Patzelt |first38=Annette |last39=Ghazanfar |first39=Shahina A. |last40=Timberlake |first40=Jonathan |last41=Klöser |first41=Heinz |last42=Shennan-Farpón |first42=Yara |last43=Kindt |first43=Roeland |last44=Lillesø |first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow |last45=van Breugel |first45=Paulo |last46=Graudal |first46=Lars |last47=Voge |first47=Maianna |last48=Al-Shammari |first48=Khalaf F. |last49=Saleem |first49=Muhammad}}</ref> Kosovo's biodiversity is conserved in two ], eleven ] and one hundred three other protected areas.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Veselaj |first1=Zeqir |last2=Mustafa |first2=Behxhet |date=28 December 2015 |title=Overview of Nature Protection Progress in Kosovo |url=https://www.landscapeonline.de/wp-content/uploads/DOI103097-LO201545.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721165525/https://www.landscapeonline.de/wp-content/uploads/DOI103097-LO201545.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2018 |access-date=27 September 2020 |page=6}}</ref> The ] and ] are the most important regions of vegetation and biodiversity in Kosovo.<ref name="Maxhuni">{{cite web |last1=Maxhuni |first1=Qenan |title=Biodiversiteti i Kosovës |url=https://www.ammk-rks.net/repository/docs/Biodiversiteti_i_Kosoves.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802214537/https://www.ammk-rks.net/repository/docs/Biodiversiteti_i_Kosoves.pdf |archive-date=2 August 2020 |access-date=27 September 2020 |language=sq}}</ref> Kosovo had a 2019 ] mean score of 5.19/10, ranking it 107th globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal |last1=Grantham |first1=H. S. |last2=Duncan |first2=A. |last3=Evans |first3=T. D. |last4=Jones |first4=K. R. |last5=Beyer |first5=H. L. |last6=Schuster |first6=R. |last7=Walston |first7=J. |last8=Ray |first8=J. C. |last9=Robinson |first9=J. G. |last10=Callow |first10=M. |last11=Clements |first11=T. |last12=Costa |first12=H. M. |last13=DeGemmis |first13=A. |last14=Elsen |first14=P. R. |last15=Ervin |first15=J. |display-authors=1 |year=2020 |title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material |journal=Nature Communications |volume=11 |issue=1 |page=5978 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3 |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=7723057 |pmid=33293507 |s2cid=228082162 |doi-access=free |last16=Franco |first16=P. |last17=Goldman |first17=E. |last18=Goetz |first18=S. |last19=Hansen |first19=A. |last20=Hofsvang |first20=E. |last21=Jantz |first21=P. |last22=Jupiter |first22=S. |last23=Kang |first23=A. |last24=Langhammer |first24=P. |last25=Laurance |first25=W. F. |last26=Lieberman |first26=S. |last27=Linkie |first27=M. |last28=Malhi |first28=Y. |last29=Maxwell |first29=S. |last30=Mendez |first30=M. |last31=Mittermeier |first31=R. |last32=Murray |first32=N. J. |last33=Possingham |first33=H. |last34=Radachowsky |first34=J. |last35=Saatchi |first35=S. |last36=Samper |first36=C. |last37=Silverman |first37=J. |last38=Shapiro |first38=A. |last39=Strassburg |first39=B. |last40=Stevens |first40=T. |last41=Stokes |first41=E. |last42=Taylor |first42=R. |last43=Tear |first43=T. |last44=Tizard |first44=R. |last45=Venter |first45=O. |last46=Visconti |first46=P. |last47=Wang |first47=S. |last48=Watson |first48=J. E. M.}}</ref>

] encompasses more than 1,800 species of ] species, but the actual number is estimated to be higher than 2,500 species.<ref name="KOSOVObio">{{cite web |title=Kosovo Biodiversity Assessment |url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pnact349.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170303232722/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACT349.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2017 |website=pdf.usaid.gov |pages=15–16 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Biodiversity conservation status in the Republic of Kosovo with focus on biodiversity centres |url=http://www.jeb.co.in/journal_issues/201204_apr12_supp/paper_04.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020033206/http://www.jeb.co.in/journal_issues/201204_apr12_supp/paper_04.pdf |archive-date=20 October 2017 |website=jeb.co.in |page=1 |language=en}}</ref> The diversity is the result of the complex interaction of geology and hydrology creating a wide variety of habitat conditions for flora growth. Although, Kosovo represents only 2.3% of the entire surface area of the ], in terms of vegetation it has 25% of the Balkan flora and about 18% of the European flora.<ref name="KOSOVObio" /> The fauna is composed of a wide range of species.<ref name="Maxhuni" />{{rp|14}} The mountainous west and southeast provide a great habitat for several ] or ] including ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite web |title=Kosovo Biodiversity Assessment |url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pnact349.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170303232722/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACT349.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2017 |website=pdf.usaid.gov |page=17 |language=sq}}</ref> A total of 255 species of ] have been recorded, with raptors such as the ], ] and ] living principally in the mountains of Kosovo.{{Clear}}

== Demographics ==
]
{{Main|Demographics of Kosovo}}
{{Further|Languages of Kosovo}}{{update-section|date=July 2022}}
]
The population of Kosovo, as defined by ], was estimated in 2021 to be approximately 1,774,000.<ref name="Chapter 1">{{cite web |author1=Kosovo Agency of Statistics |author1-link=Kosovo Agency of Statistics |title=Estimation of Kosovo population 2021 |url=https://ask.rks-gov.net/en/kosovo-agency-of-statistics/add-news/population-assessment-2021#:~:text=The%20population%20in%20Kosovo%20for,971%20resident%20inhabitants. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117225230/https://ask.rks-gov.net/en/kosovo-agency-of-statistics/add-news/population-assessment-2021.pdf |archive-date=18 November 2022 |access-date=18 November 2022 |language=en |location=Pristina}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=European Centre for Minority Issues |author1-link=European Centre for Minority Issues |date=8 January 2013 |title=Minority figures in Kosovo census to be used with reservations |url=https://www.infoecmi.eu/index.php/ecmi-minority-figures-in-kosovo-census-to-be-used-with-reservations/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181124060844/https://www.infoecmi.eu/index.php/ecmi-minority-figures-in-kosovo-census-to-be-used-with-reservations/ |archive-date=24 November 2018 |access-date=23 November 2018 |website=infoecmi.eu |language=en}}</ref> In 2011, the overall ] at birth was 76.7 years; 74.1 years for males and 79.4 years for females.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Kosovo Agency of Statistics |author1-link=Kosovo Agency of Statistics |title=Kosovo in Figures (2015) |url=http://ask.rks-gov.net/media/2362/kosova_shifra-2015-ang.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200512185501/https://ask.rks-gov.net/media/2362/kosova_shifra-2015-ang.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2020 |access-date=23 November 2018 |website=ask.rks-gov.net |page=17 |language=en}}</ref> Kosovo ranks ] in the ] and ] in the world.

In 2005, the ] estimated the population of Kosovo to be between 1.9 and 2.2&nbsp;million with the ] and ] being the largest ] followed by other groups such as ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite web |author=UNMIK |title=Kosovo in figures 2005 |url=http://www.ks-gov.net/esk/esk/pdf/english/general/kosovo_figures_05.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080309073836/http://www.ks-gov.net/esk/esk/pdf/english/general/kosovo_figures_05.pdf |archive-date=9 March 2008 |publisher=Ministry of Public Services}}</ref> However, according to the 2009 ], Kosovo's population stands at 1,804,838 persons. It stated that ethnic composition was 88% ], 7% ] and 5% of other ethnic groups including Bosniaks, Gorani, Romani, Turks, ], ] and ].<ref name="factbook">{{cite web |date=19 June 2014 |title=World Factbook–Kosovo |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kosovo/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204144331/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kosovo/ |archive-date=4 February 2021 |access-date=30 January 2014 |publisher=]}}</ref>

Albanians, steadily increasing in number, may have constituted a majority in Kosovo since the 19th century, although the region's historical ethnic composition is disputed. Kosovo's political boundaries do not fully coincide with the ethnic boundary by which Albanians compose an absolute majority in every municipality; for example, Serbs form a local majority in ] and ], while there are large areas with an Albanian majority outside of Kosovo, namely in the neighbouring regions of former Yugoslavia: the north-west of North Macedonia, and in the ] in Southern Serbia.

At 1.3% per year as of 2008 data, ethnic ] have the fastest rate of growth in population in Europe.<ref>{{cite web |title=Albanian Population Growth |url=http://files.osa.ceu.hu/holdings/300/8/3/text/3-13-10.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227175620/http://files.osa.ceu.hu/holdings/300/8/3/text/3-13-10.shtml |archive-date=27 February 2008 |publisher=Files.osa.ceu.hu}}</ref> In the second half of the 20th century, Kosovo Albanians had three times higher birth rates than Serbs.<ref name="On Genetic Interests: Family, Ethnicity, And Humanity in an Age of Mass Migration">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kslga1MfT1gC&pg=PA236 |title=On Genetic Interests: Family, Ethnicity, And Humanity in an Age of Mass Migration |publisher=Transaction Publishers |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-4128-3006-5 |page=236 |quote=In the Serbian province of Kosovo the ethnic Albanian birthrate was over three times that of the ethnic Serbs in the second half of the twentieth century. |access-date=22 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605141443/http://books.google.com/books?id=kslga1MfT1gC&pg=PA236 |archive-date=5 June 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> The UNHCR estimated in 2019 that the total number of IDPs (Serbs and non-Serbs) from Kosovo in Serbia are 68,514.<ref name="UNHCR2019">{{cite web |title=UNHCR - Kosovo Fact Sheet 2019 |url=https://www.unhcr.org/see/wp-content/uploads/sites/57/2019/05/Fact-sheet-Kosovo-9-May-2019.pdf |publisher=UNHCR}}</ref> In addition, most of Kosovo's pre-1999 ] population relocated to Serbia proper following the ] campaign in 1999.<ref name="Wills" /> ] are largely rural, with only eight municipalities having more than 40,000 inhabitants living in the ].

The ] of Kosovo are ] and ] and the institutions are committed to ensure the equal use of those two languages.<ref name="langauges">{{Cite web |title=Kosovo's Constitution of 2008 (with Amendments through 2016), article 5 |url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Kosovo_2016.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102154102/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Kosovo_2016.pdf |archive-date=2 November 2019 |access-date=2 November 2019 |via=constituteproject.org}}</ref><ref name="Assessing Minority Language Rights in Kosovo">{{cite web |title=Assessing Minority Language Rights in Kosovo |url=http://kv.sapientia.ro/data/miremir_pres/andrea_najvirtova_lars_burema.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304070550/http://kv.sapientia.ro/data/miremir_pres/andrea_najvirtova_lars_burema.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=29 June 2015 |publisher=]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Constitution of the Republic of Kosovo |url=https://gzk.rks-gov.net/ActDetail.aspx?ActID=3702 |access-date=June 9, 2022 |website=Constitution of the Republic of Kosovo}}</ref><ref name="COE-Municipalities">{{cite web |title=Municipal language compliance in Kosovo, June 2014 |url=http://www.osce.org/kosovo/120010?download=true |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703120903/http://www.osce.org/kosovo/120010?download=true |archive-date=3 July 2015 |access-date=29 June 2015 |publisher=] |format=PDF}}</ref> ], ] and ] hold the status of official languages at municipal level if the linguistic community represents at least 5% of the total population of municipality.<ref name="langauges" /><ref name="COE-Municipalities" />

Albanian is spoken as a ] by approximately 95% of the population, while Bosnian and Serbian are spoken by 1.7% and 1.6% of the population, respectively.<ref>{{cite web |title=Language in Kosovo |url=http://census.rks-gov.net/istarMDAS/MD/dawinciMD.jsp?a1=yC&a2=_B2&n=1UR90600V701U&o=&v=1UR060P600V70000000&p=0&sp=null&l=0&exp=0 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150217192027/http://census.rks-gov.net/istarMDAS/MD/dawinciMD.jsp?a1=yC&a2=_B2&n=1UR90600V701U&o=&v=1UR060P600V70000000&p=0&sp=null&l=0&exp=0 |archive-date=17 February 2015 |publisher=Kosovo Agency of Statistics}}</ref> As censuses have been boycotted in North Kosovo by Serbian speakers, Bosnian appears to be the second most spoken language after Albanian, when in fact Serbian has more native speakers than Bosnian in Kosovo.

Although both Albanian and Serbian are official languages, municipal civil servants are only required to speak one of them in a professional setting and, according to Language Commissioner of Kosovo, Slaviša Mladenović, statement from 2015, no organisations have all of their documents in both languages.<ref name="ECMI-Kosovo Language Commissioner">{{cite web |title=Kosovo Language Commissioner lauds trainings |url=http://www.infoecmi.eu/index.php/kosovo-language-commissioner-trainings/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924034740/http://www.infoecmi.eu/index.php/kosovo-language-commissioner-trainings/ |archive-date=24 September 2015 |access-date=29 June 2015 |publisher=]}}</ref> The Law on the Use of Languages gives ] the status of an official language in the municipality of ], irrespective of the size of the ] living there.<ref name="COE-Municipalities" />

A 2020 research report funded by the EU shows that there is a limited scale of trust and overall contact between the major ethnic groups in Kosovo.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2020 |title=Index of ethnic stereotypes in Kosovo |url=https://kcr-ks.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Index-ENG-stereotypes.pdf |url-status=live |journal= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200720222406/https://kcr-ks.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Index-ENG-stereotypes.pdf |archive-date=20 July 2020 |access-date=20 July 2020}}</ref>{{Clear}}
{| class="infobox" style="text-align:left; width:97%; margin-right:10px; font-size:90%"
! colspan="8" style="background:#e9e9e9; padding:0.3em; line-height:1.2em;" |Largest ] by population (2015)<ref>{{cite web |title=Vlerësim Popullsia e Kosovës 2015 |url=http://ask.rks-gov.net/sq/popullsia/category/88-vpk?download=1641%3Avleresim-popullsia-e-kosoves-2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007061847/http://ask.rks-gov.net/sq/popullsia/category/88-vpk?download=1641%3Avleresim-popullsia-e-kosoves-2015 |archive-date=7 October 2016 |website=ask.rks-gov.net |language=sq |format=PDF}}</ref>
|-
! rowspan="23" |{{center|]<br />]<br />}}{{center|]<br />]<br />}}
! style="text-align:center; background:#f5f5f5;" |Rank
! style="text-align:center; background:#f5f5f5;" |Municipality
! style="text-align:center; background:#f5f5f5;" |Population
! style="text-align:center; background:#f5f5f5;" |Rank
! style="text-align:center; background:#f5f5f5;" |Municipality
! style="text-align:center; background:#f5f5f5;" |Population
! rowspan="23" |{{center|]<br />]<br />}}{{center|]<br />]<br />}}
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" |1
| align="left" |''']'''
|204,721
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" |11
| align="left" |''']'''
|59,681
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" |2
| align="left" |''']'''
|186,986
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" |12
| align="left" |''']'''
|58,908
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" |3
| align="left" |''']'''
|101,174
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" |13
| align="left" |''']'''
|57,301
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" |4
| align="left" |''']'''
|97,890
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" |14
| align="left" |''']'''
|56,643
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" |5
| align="left" |''']'''
|94,543
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" |15
| align="left" |''']'''
|51,746
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" |6
| align="left" |''']'''
|83,425
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" |16
| align="left" |''']'''
|46,742
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" |7
| align="left" |''']'''
|80,623
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" |17
| align="left" |''']'''
|41,173
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" |8
| align="left" |''']'''
|80,525
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" |18
| align="left" |''']'''
|39,604
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" |9
| align="left" |''']'''
|64,578
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" |19
| align="left" |''']'''
|39,208
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" |10
| align="left" |''']'''
|60,175
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" |20
| align="left" |''']'''
|37,048
|-
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center; background:#f5f5f5;" |
|}
{{Clear}}

=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Kosovo}}
{{bar box|title=Religion in Kosovo<ref name=factbook/>|titlebar=#ddd|left1=Religion|right1=Percent|float=right|bars={{bar percent|] (mostly ])<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghaffar |first1=Mughal Abdul |title=Muslims in Kosovo: A Socio-economic and Demographic Profile: Is the Muslim Population Exploding? |journal=Balkan Social Science Review |date=30 December 2015 |volume=6 |pages=155–201 |url=https://js.ugd.edu.mk/index.php/BSSR/article/view/1258 |access-date=20 December 2021 |archive-date=20 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220190456/https://js.ugd.edu.mk/index.php/BSSR/article/view/1258 |url-status=live}}</ref>|Green|95.6}}
{{bar percent|]|Yellow|3.7}}
{{bar percent|-(])|Yellow|2.2}}
{{bar percent|-(])|Orange|1.5}}
{{bar percent|]|Blue|0.1}}
{{bar percent|Other|Beige|0.1}}
{{bar percent|Unspecified|Violet|0.1}}}}Kosovo is a ] with no ]; ], ] and ] is explicitly guaranteed in the ].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kosovo's Constitution of 2008 (with Amendments through 2016), article 8 |url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Kosovo_2016.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102154102/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Kosovo_2016.pdf |archive-date=2 November 2019 |access-date=2 November 2019 |via=constituteproject.org}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA" /><ref name="ReferenceB" /> Kosovar society is strongly ] and is ranked first in ] and ninth in the world as free and equal for tolerance towards ] and ].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Olivier Roy, Arolda Elbasani |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4F9OCgAAQBAJ&q=secular&pg=PA72 |title=The Revival of Islam in the Balkans: From Identity to Religiosity |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9781137517845 |page=67 |language=en |access-date=1 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307171441/https://books.google.com/books?id=4F9OCgAAQBAJ&q=secular&pg=PA72 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Freedom of Thought 2014 report (map) |url=http://freethoughtreport.com/map/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010131440/http://freethoughtreport.com/map/ |archive-date=10 October 2017 |access-date=8 September 2015 |publisher=Freedom of Thought |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

In the 2011 census, 95.6% of the population of Kosovo was counted as ] and 3.7% as ] including 2.2% as ] and 1.5% as ].<ref name="factbook" /> The remaining 0.3% of the population reported having no religion, or another religion, or did not provide an adequate answer. Protestants, although recognised as a religious group in Kosovo by the government, were not represented in the census. The census was largely boycotted by the ] (who predominantly identify as ] Christians), especially in ],<ref>{{Cite news |author=Petrit Collaku |date=29 March 2011 |title=Kosovo Census to Start Without the North |work=] |url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/kosovo-census-starts-without-northern-kosovo |url-status=live |access-date=17 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925200738/https://balkaninsight.com/2011/03/29/kosovo-census-starts-without-northern-kosovo// |archive-date=25 September 2020}}</ref> leaving the Serb population underrepresented.<ref>{{Cite news |author=Perparim Isufi |date=14 September 2017 |title=Kosovo Police Stop 'Illegal' Serb Census Attempts |work=Balkan Insight |url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/kosovo-police-stop-illegal-serb-census-attempts-09-14-2017 |url-status=live |access-date=17 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925200741/https://balkaninsight.com/2017/09/14/kosovo-police-stop-illegal-serb-census-attempts-09-14-2017// |archive-date=25 September 2020}}</ref>

] is the most widely practiced religion in Kosovo and was introduced in the ] by the ]. Today, Kosovo has the highest percentage of Muslims in Europe after Turkey.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Mughal Abdul Ghaffar |title=Muslims in Kosovo: A Socio-economic and Demographic Profile: Is the Muslim Population Exploding? |url=http://js.ugd.edu.mk/index.php/BSSR/article/download/1258/1058/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181124220057/http://js.ugd.edu.mk/index.php/BSSR/article/download/1258/1058/ |archive-date=24 November 2018 |access-date=24 November 2018 |website=js.ugd.edu.mk |language=en |format=PDF}}</ref> The majority of the Muslim population of Kosovo are ethnic ], ], and Slavs such as ] and ].<ref>{{cite news |date=23 December 2005 |title=Muslims in Europe: Country guide |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4385768.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090126140616/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4385768.stm |archive-date=26 January 2009 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

] has a long and continuous history in Kosovo which can be traced back to the ] invasion of the region. During the Middle Ages, the entire ] had been ] initially by the ] and subsequently by the ]. Followers of the ] are predominantly Albanians while ethnic Serbs follow the ]. In 2008, Protestant pastor Artur Krasniqi, primate of the Kosovo Protestant Evangelical Church, claimed that "as many as 15,000" Kosovar Albanians had converted to Protestantism since 1985.<ref>{{Cite news |date=30 December 2008 |title=Conversion rate |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/europe/2008/12/30/conversion-rate |url-status=live |access-date=25 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171105000350/http://www.economist.com/node/12868180 |archive-date=5 November 2017 |issn=0013-0613}}</ref>

Relations between the Albanian Muslim and Albanian Catholic communities in Kosovo are good; however, both communities have few or no relations with the ] community. In general, the Albanians define their ] by language and not by religion, while religion reflects a distinguishing identity feature among the Slavs of Kosovo and elsewhere.<ref>{{cite journal |date=2001 |title=Religion in Kosovo |language=de |edition=International Crisis Group |location=Pristina and Brussels |page=3}}</ref>{{Clear}}

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Kosovo}}
{{see|Industry of Kosovo}}
] reserves in the world.]]
The ] is a transitional economy. It suffered from the combined results of political upheaval, the Serbian dismissal of Kosovo employees and the following ]. Despite declining foreign assistance, the GDP has mostly grown since its declaration of independence. This was despite the ] and the subsequent ]. Additionally, the ] has been low. Most economic development has taken place in the trade, retail and construction sectors. Kosovo is highly dependent on remittances from the ], ] and other capital inflows.<ref name="IMF Country Report No 12/100"> ''IMF Country Report No 12/100'' {{cite web |title=Archived copy |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2012/cr12100.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924054059/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2012/cr12100.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2015 |access-date=4 October 2012}} "Unemployment, around 40% of the population, is a significant problem that encourages outward migration and black market activity."</ref> Kosovo is one of the poorest countries in Europe. In 2018, the ] reported that approximately one-sixth of the population lived below the poverty line and one-third of the working age population was unemployed, the highest rate in Europe.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HatMDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA22 |title=Republic of Kosovo: Selected Issues |date=2018 |publisher=International Monetary Fund |isbn=978-1-48434-056-1 |page=22 |access-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210528183018/https://books.google.com/books?id=HatMDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA22 |archive-date=28 May 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Kosovo's largest trading partners are Albania, Italy, Switzerland, China, Germany and Turkey. The ] is its official currency.<ref>{{cite web |title=Invest in Kosovo&nbsp;– EU Pillar top priorities: privatisation process and focus on priority economic reforms |url=http://www.euinkosovo.org/uk/invest/invest.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120128203427/http://www.euinkosovo.org/uk/invest/invest.php |archive-date=28 January 2012 |access-date=26 March 2013 |publisher=Euinkosovo.org}}</ref> The ] has signed free-trade agreements with Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, ] and ].<ref>, ], 2 October 2006 {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006101521/http://www.b92.net/eng/news/globe-article.php?yyyy=2006&mm=10&dd=02&nav_category=123&nav_id=37090|date=6 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title="UNMIK and Bosnia and Herzegovina Initial Free Trade Agreement". UNMIK Press Release, 17 February 2006 |url=http://www.euinkosovo.org/upload_press/4.06%20-%20UNMIK%20and%20Bosnia%20and%20Herzegovina%20Initial%20Free%20Trade%20Agreement%2017.2.06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305232527/http://euinkosovo.org/upload_press/4.06%20-%20unmik%20and%20bosnia%20and%20herzegovina%20initial%20free%20trade%20agreement%2017.2.06.pdf |archive-date=5 March 2016 |website=euinkosovo.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=10 October 2007 |title=Oda Eknomike e Kosovės/Kosova Chambre of Commerce – Vision |url=http://www.kosovo-eicc.org/oek/index.php?page_id=64 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071010053451/http://www.kosovo-eicc.org/oek/index.php?page_id=64 |archive-date=10 October 2007}}</ref><ref name="buyusa">{{cite web |title=Doing business in Kosovo |url=http://www.buyusa.gov/kosovo/en/doingbusinessinkosovo.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090713042142/http://www.buyusa.gov/kosovo/en/doingbusinessinkosovo.html |archive-date=13 July 2009 |publisher=buyusa.gov}}</ref> Kosovo is a member of ], agreed with ], and enjoys free trade with most nearby non-] countries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Trade Agreements |url=http://www.itg-rks.com/en-us/Trade-Agreements |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140423025541/http://www.itg-rks.com/en-us/Trade-Agreements |archive-date=23 April 2014 |access-date=23 May 2014 |publisher=Kosovo Chamber of Commerce}}</ref>

The ] accounted for 22.60% of ] and a general ] of 800,000 employees in 2009. There are several reasons for this stagnation, ranging from consecutive occupations, political turmoil and the ] in 1999.<ref name="gjeografiaa77">Asllan, Pushka. "Gjeografia 12". Libri Shkollor (2005). p. 77.</ref>

The ] is considered one of the sectors with the greatest potential of development.<ref>{{cite web |title=Projekti Energjetik i Kosovës |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTENERGY2/Resources/Report_of_the_independent_Expert_Panel_in_ALBANIAN.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303201600/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTENERGY2/Resources/Report_of_the_independent_Expert_Panel_in_ALBANIAN.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2014 |access-date=2 March 2014 |publisher=World Bank}}</ref> Kosovo's electricity sector is highly dependent on coal-fired power plants, which use the abundant lignite, so efforts are being made to diversify electricity production, such as ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Balkan Green Energy News |first= |date=2021-10-25 |title=Kosovo's 102.6 MW wind farm Bajgora goes on stream |url=https://balkangreenenergynews.com/kosovos-102-6-mw-wind-farm-bajgora-goes-on-stream/ |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=Balkan Green Energy News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Todorović |first=Igor |date=2020-09-14 |title=Kitka wind farm in Kosovo* to be expanded by 20 MW |url=https://balkangreenenergynews.com/kitka-wind-farm-to-be-expanded-by-20-mw/ |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=Balkan Green Energy News |language=en-US}}</ref>

In April 2020 Kosovo with ], the government-owned Transmission System Operator, declared its independence from the Serbian electricity transmission operator ] with a vote by the European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity, ], which has paved the way for Kosovo to become an independent regulatory zone for electricity. The vote confirms that a connection agreement will be signed between ENTSO-E and KOSTT, allowing KOSTT to join the 42 other transmission operators. A joint energy bloc between Kosovo and Albania, is in work after an agreement which was signed in December 2019.<ref>{{cite web |date=21 April 2020 |title=Kostt gains independence from Serbia |url=https://prishtinainsight.com/kostt-gains-independence-from-serbian-electricity-transmission-system/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422065634/https://prishtinainsight.com/kostt-gains-independence-from-serbian-electricity-transmission-system/ |archive-date=22 April 2020 |access-date=21 April 2020 |website=Prishtinainsight.com}}</ref> With that agreement Albania and Kosovo will now be able to exchange energy reserves, which is expected to result in €4 million in savings per year for Kosovo.<ref>{{cite web |date=21 April 2020 |title=Kosovos electricity transmission system becomes independent from serbia |url=https://exit.al/en/2020/04/21/kosovos-electricity-transmission-system-becomes-independent-from-serbia/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803003247/https://exit.al/en/2020/04/21/kosovos-electricity-transmission-system-becomes-independent-from-serbia/ |archive-date=3 August 2020 |access-date=21 April 2020 |website=Exit.al}}</ref>

Kosovo has large reserves of lead, ], silver, ], ], copper, iron and ].<ref name="Natural resources key to the future">{{cite web |title=Kosovo: Natural resources key to the future, say experts |url=http://www.adnkronos.com/AKI/English/Business/?id=1.0.1683003038 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707084602/http://www.adnkronos.com/AKI/English/Business/?id=1.0.1683003038 |archive-date=7 July 2011 |access-date=17 March 2011 |website=adnkronos.com}}</ref> The nation has the fifth-largest lignite reserves in the world and the 3rd in Europe.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lignite Mining Development Strategy |url=http://www.esiweb.org/pdf/bridges/kosovo/10/11.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617082054/http://esiweb.org/pdf/bridges/kosovo/10/11.pdf |archive-date=17 June 2010 |access-date=14 April 2017 |website=esiweb.org |language=en}}</ref> The Directorate for Mines and Minerals and the ] estimated that Kosovo had €13.5&nbsp;billion worth of minerals in 2005.<ref name="Kosovo's mineral resources at 13.5bn euros">{{cite web |date=28 January 2005 |title=World Bank survey puts Kosovo's mineral resources at 13.5bn euros |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/459422903 |url-status=live |access-date=31 August 2022 |work=BBC Monitoring European |via=ProQuest |id={{ProQuest|459422903}} |agency=KosovaLive}}</ref>
] in 2011]]
] valley.]]
The primary sector is based on small to medium-sized family-owned dispersed units.<ref>{{cite web |date=November 2014 |title=Kosovo – Bilateral relations in agriculture |url=https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/sites/agriculture/files/bilateral-relations/pdf/kosovo_en.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001211505/https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/sites/agriculture/files/bilateral-relations/pdf/kosovo_en.pdf |archive-date=1 October 2019 |work=European Commission |language=en}}</ref> 53% of the nation's area is agricultural land, 41% forest and forestry land, and 6% for others.<ref>{{cite web |title=5. Agriculture |url=http://enrin.grida.no/htmls/kosovo/SoE/agricult.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010131705/http://enrin.grida.no/htmls/kosovo/SoE/agricult.htm |archive-date=10 October 2017 |website=henrin.grida.no}}</ref> The arable land is mostly used for corn, wheat, pastures, meadows and vineyards. It contributes almost to 35% of ] including the forestry sector. ] has historically been produced in Kosovo. The wine industry is successful and has been growing after the ]. The main heartland of Kosovo's wine industry is in ], where millions of litres of wine are produced. The main cultivars include ], ], and ]. Kosovo exports wines to Germany and the United States.<ref name="Kosovo's wines flowing again">{{cite news |date=29 October 2011 |title=Kosovo's wines flowing again |newspaper=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-15401459 |url-status=live |access-date=29 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111029172442/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-15401459 |archive-date=29 October 2011}}</ref> During the "glory days" of the wine industry, grapes were grown from the vineyard area of 9,000ha, divided into private and public ownership, and spread mainly throughout the south and west of Kosovo. The four state-owned wine production facilities were not as much "wineries" as they were "wine factories". Only the Rahovec facility that held approximately 36% of the total vineyard area had the capacity of around 50 million litres annually. The major share of the wine production was intended for exports. At its peak in 1989, the exports from the Rahovec facility amounted to 40&nbsp;million litres and were mainly distributed to the German market.<ref name="wine">{{cite web |title=Investing in Kosovo – Vineyards |url=http://www.eciks.org/english/publications/investing_in_kosovo/content/iguide_3.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130404212338/http://www.eciks.org/english/publications/investing_in_kosovo/content/iguide_3.html |archive-date=4 April 2013 |access-date=15 January 2017 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

=== Tourism ===
{{Main|Tourism in Kosovo}}
] is one of the most visited winter tourist destinations in Kosovo.]]
The natural values of Kosovo represent quality tourism resources. The description of Kosovo's potential in tourism is closely related to its geographical location, in the center of the ] in ]. It represents a crossroads which historically dates back to ]. Kosovo serves as a link in the connection between ] and ] and the ] and ]. The mountainous west and southeast of Kosovo has great potential for winter tourism. Skiing takes place at the winter resort of ] within the ].<ref name="turizmi">{{cite web |title=Investing in Kosovo |url=http://www.eciks.org/english/publications/InvestinginKosovo_2011_Web.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104072918/http://www.eciks.org/english/publications/InvestinginKosovo_2011_Web.pdf |archive-date=4 November 2013 |access-date=27 February 2014 |page=15 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

Kosovo is generally rich in various topographical features, including high ], ], ], steep ] and ].<ref name="turizmi" /> ], with the close proximity to the ] (60&nbsp;km) and ] (70&nbsp;km), is a possible destination for international tourists. Other major attractions include the capital, ], the historical cities of ], ] and ] but also ] and ].

'']'' included Kosovo on the list of 41 places to visit in 2011.<ref>{{cite news |date=7 January 2011 |title=The 41 Places to Go in 2011 |work=The New York Times |url=http://travel.nytimes.com/2011/01/09/travel/09where-to-go.html |url-status=dead |access-date=20 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111202331/http://travel.nytimes.com/2011/01/09/travel/09where-to-go.html |archive-date=11 January 2012 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2 August 2012 |title=Picturesque Kosovo |url=http://www.diplomatmagazine.co.uk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=510&Itemid&ed=22 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120804085239/http://www.diplomatmagazine.co.uk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=510&Itemid&ed=22 |archive-date=4 August 2012 |access-date=16 December 2011 |website=Diplomat}}</ref>

=== Transport ===
{{Main|Transport in Kosovo}}
{{Further|Motorways in Kosovo}}
Currently, there are two main motorways in Kosovo: the ] connecting Kosovo with ] and the ] connecting ] with the Macedonian border at ]. The construction of the new ] began in 2017.

The ] (part of ]) links Kosovo to ]'s ] coast in ]. Once the remaining ] from ] to ] section project will be completed, the motorway will link Kosovo through the present ] highway with the ] (]) near ] in Serbia. The ], forming part of the ], is the second motorway constructed in the region. It links the capital ] with the border with North Macedonia at ], which is about {{convert|20|km|abbr=on}} from ]. Construction of the motorway started in 2014 and finished in 2019.<ref>{{cite web |date=29 May 2019 |title="Arbën Xhaferi"e gatshme për qarkullim |url=http://www.mit-ks.net/sq/lajme/arben-xhaferie-gatshme-per-qarkullim |access-date=5 September 2022 |publisher=] |language=sq-AL}}</ref>

] operates daily ] on two routes: ] – ] – ], as well as Pristina – Fushë Kosovë – ] – ], North Macedonia (the latter in cooperation with ]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Transporti i udhëtarëve |url=http://www.trainkos.com/sherbimet/transporti-i-udhetareve/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516212413/https://www.trainkos.com/sherbimet/transporti-i-udhetareve/ |archive-date=16 May 2021 |access-date=2021-05-28 |publisher=] |language=sq-AL}}</ref> In addition, ], subsidiary of ], operates a train service from ], Serbia to ].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Red vožnje – Kurir |url=https://www.srbvoz.rs/red-voznje-kurir/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330195343/https://www.srbvoz.rs/red-voznje-kurir/ |archive-date=30 March 2021 |access-date=2021-05-28 |publisher=] |language=sr-RS}}</ref> Also, freight trains run throughout the country.
] (PRN) handles more than 2.1&nbsp;million passengers per year.]]
The nation hosts two airports, ] and ]. Pristina International Airport is located southwest of ]. It is Kosovo's only international airport and the only port of entry for air travelers to Kosovo. Gjakova Airport was built by the ] (KFOR) following the ], next to an existing airfield used for agricultural purposes, and was used mainly for military and humanitarian flights. The local and national government plans to offer Gjakova Airport for operation under a public-private partnership with the aim of turning it into a civilian and commercial airport.<ref>{{cite web |title=Aktivitetet e Ministrisë së Tregtisë dhe Industrisë: Themelohet Ndërmarrja Publike 'Aeroporti i Gjakovës' |url=http://www.mti-ks.org/sq/Aktivitetet-e-MTI-se/Themelohet-Ndermarrja-Publike-Aeroporti-i-Gjakoves-2882-2882 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227170445/http://www.mti-ks.org/sq/Aktivitetet-e-MTI-se/Themelohet-Ndermarrja-Publike-Aeroporti-i-Gjakoves-2882-2882 |archive-date=27 February 2015 |publisher=Ministria e Tregtisë dhe Industrisë}}</ref>

== Infrastructure ==

=== Health ===
{{main|Health care in Kosovo|l1 = Health in Kosovo}}
] (NIPHK)]]
In the past, Kosovo's capabilities to develop a modern ] system were limited.<ref name="Sectorial Health Strategy">{{cite web |title=Strategjia Sektoriale e Shendetesise |url=http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache%3Ahttp%3A%2F%2Fkryeministri-ks.net%2Frepository%2Fdocs%2FStrategjia_e_Sektorit_te_Shendetesise_2010-2014.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903235317/http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache%3Ahttp%3A%2F%2Fkryeministri-ks.net%2Frepository%2Fdocs%2FStrategjia_e_Sektorit_te_Shendetesise_2010-2014.pdf |archive-date=3 September 2015 |access-date=2 March 2014 |publisher=Ministry of Health&nbsp;– Republic of Kosovo}}</ref> Low ] during 1990 worsened the situation even more. However, the establishment of Faculty of Medicine in the ] marked a significant development in health care. This was also followed by launching different health clinics which enabled better conditions for professional development.<ref name="Sectorial Health Strategy" />

Nowadays the situation has changed, and the health care system in Kosovo is organised into three sectors: ], secondary and tertiary health care.<ref name="Sectorial Health Care Strategy">{{cite web |title=Strategjia Sektoriale e Shendetesise |url=http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache%3Ahttp%3A%2F%2Fkryeministri-ks.net%2Frepository%2Fdocs%2FStrategjia_e_Sektorit_te_Shendetesise_2010-2014.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903235317/http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache%3Ahttp%3A%2F%2Fkryeministri-ks.net%2Frepository%2Fdocs%2FStrategjia_e_Sektorit_te_Shendetesise_2010-2014.pdf |archive-date=3 September 2015 |access-date=2 March 2014 |publisher=Ministry of Health}}</ref> Primary health care in ] is organised into thirteen family medicine centres<ref name="prishtina-komuna.org">QKMF. (2010–2014). Njesite me Adresa dhe Nr.Telefonit. Available: . Last accessed 23 February 2014.</ref> and fifteen ambulatory care units.<ref name="prishtina-komuna.org" /> Secondary health care is decentralised in seven regional hospitals. Pristina does not have any regional hospital and instead uses University Clinical Center of Kosovo for health care services. University Clinical Center of Kosovo provides its health care services in twelve clinics,<ref name="Stafi i QKUK-se">{{cite web |title=Stafi i QKUK-se |url=http://qkuk.org/stafi/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306190904/http://qkuk.org/stafi/ |archive-date=6 March 2014 |access-date=23 February 2014 |publisher=QKUK}}</ref> where 642 doctors are employed.<ref name="2012 Health Statistics">{{cite web |title=Statistikat e Shëndetësisë 2012 |url=https://esk.rks-gov.net/shendetsia/doc_view/1066-statistikat-e-shaeumlndetaeumlsisaeuml-2012?tmpl=component&format=raw |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302190734/https://esk.rks-gov.net/shendetsia/doc_view/1066-statistikat-e-shaeumlndetaeumlsisaeuml-2012?tmpl=component&format=raw |archive-date=2 March 2014 |access-date=1 March 2014 |publisher=Kosovo Agency of Statistics}}</ref> At a lower level, home services are provided for several vulnerable groups which are not able to reach health care premises.<ref name="Home Services">{{cite web |title=Informatë&nbsp;– 13 shkurt 2012 |url=http://kk.rks-gov.net/prishtina/News/INFORMATE.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706004640/http://kk.rks-gov.net/prishtina/News/INFORMATE.aspx |archive-date=6 July 2015 |access-date=2 March 2014 |publisher=Municipality of Prishtina&nbsp;– Republic of Kosovo}}</ref> Kosovo health care services are now focused on patient safety, quality control and assisted health.<ref name="Patient Safety and Quality Control">{{cite web |title=Strategjia e permiresimit te cilesise se sherbimeve shendetesore 2012–2016 |url=http://msh-ks.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Strategjia-e-permiresimit-te-cilesise-dhe-sigurise-se-SHSH-2012-2016.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306192356/http://msh-ks.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Strategjia-e-permiresimit-te-cilesise-dhe-sigurise-se-SHSH-2012-2016.pdf |archive-date=6 March 2014 |access-date=2 March 2014 |publisher=Ministry of Health&nbsp;– Republic of Kosovo}}</ref>{{Clear}}

=== Education ===
{{see also|Education in Kosovo}}
] in ]. Honorary members include the ] Nobel Prize winner ] and the ] ] nun ].]]
Education for primary, secondary, and tertiary levels is predominantly public and supported by the state, run by the ]. Education takes place in two main stages: primary and secondary education, and higher education.

The primary and secondary education is subdivided into four stages: preschool education, primary and low secondary education, high secondary education and special education. Preschool education is for children from the ages of one to five. Primary and secondary education is obligatory for everyone. It is provided by gymnasiums and vocational schools and also available in languages of recognised minorities in Kosovo, where classes are held in ], Serbian, ], ] and ]. The first phase (primary education) includes grades one to five, and the second phase (low secondary education) grades six to nine. The third phase (high secondary education) consists of general education but also professional education, which is focused on different fields. It lasts four years. However, pupils are offered possibilities of applying for higher or university studies. According to the ], children who are not able to get a general education are able to get a special education (fifth phase).<ref>{{cite web |title=Elementary and secondary education |url=https://www.rks-gov.net/en-US/Qytetaret/Edukimi/Pages/ArsimiFillorDheMesem.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160818111807/https://www.rks-gov.net/en-US/Qytetaret/Edukimi/Pages/ArsimiFillorDheMesem.aspx |archive-date=18 August 2016 |access-date=14 April 2017 |website=rks-gov.net |language=en}}</ref>

Higher education can be received in universities and other higher-education institutes. These educational institutions offer studies for ], ] and ] degrees. The students may choose full-time or part-time studies.

=== Media ===
{{main|Media of Kosovo}}
Kosovo ranked 58th in the 2008 ] report compiled by the ], while in 2016, it ranked 90th. The ] consists of different kinds of communicative media such as radio, television, newspapers, and internet web sites. Most of the media survive from advertising and subscriptions. As according to IREX there are 92 radio stations and 22 television stations.<ref>{{Cite report |title=Media Sustainability Index 2012 |date=2012 |pages=74–85 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140506145929/http://www.irex.org/system/files/u105/EE_MSI_2012_Kosovo.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2014 |url-status=dead |chapter-url=http://www.irex.org/system/files/u105/EE_MSI_2012_Kosovo.pdf |chapter=Kosovo}}</ref>

== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Kosovo}}
]]]

=== Arts ===
{{Main|Architecture of Kosovo|Monuments of Kosovo|l1 = Architecture}}
{{See also|Destruction of Albanian heritage in Kosovo|Destruction of Serbian heritage in Kosovo|l1=Destruction of Albanian|l2=Serbian heritage in Kosovo}}
] was built in the 15th century and was part of the ] in ].]]
The architecture of Kosovo dates back to the ], ] and ]. It has been influenced by the presence of different civilisations and religions as evidenced by the structures which have survived to this day.

Kosovo is home to many ] and churches from the 13th and 14th centuries that represent the ] legacy. Architectural heritage from the ] includes mosques and ] from the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. Other historical architectural structures of interest include ] from the 18th and 19th centuries, as well as a number of bridges, urban centers and fortresses. While some ] are not considered important in their own right, taken together they are of considerable interest. During the ], many buildings that represent this heritage were destroyed or damaged.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |date=23 January 2009 |title=Prioritized Intervention List |url=http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/cultureheritage/cooperation/see/countries/kosovo_en.asp |url-status=live |journal=Regional Programme for Cultural and Natural Heritage in South-east Europe |page=8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302202142/http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/cultureheritage/cooperation/see/countries/kosovo_en.asp |archive-date=2 March 2014 |access-date=2 March 2014}}</ref><ref name="unesco.org">{{cite journal |title=Cultural Heritage in South-East: Kosovo |url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/venice/culture/safeguarding-cultural-heritage/capacity-building/cultural-heritage-kosovo/ |url-status=live |journal=United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization |page=5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140322132708/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/venice/culture/safeguarding-cultural-heritage/capacity-building/cultural-heritage-kosovo/ |archive-date=22 March 2014 |access-date=2 March 2014}}</ref> In the Dukagjini region, at least 500 kullas were attacked, and most of them destroyed or otherwise damaged.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=7 Years of Kosovo Howard Smith of Geelong |url=https://hsog.tk/2015/03/7-years-of-kosovo/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150413201519/http://hsog.tk/2015/03/7-years-of-kosovo/ |archive-date=13 April 2015 |access-date=13 April 2015}}</ref>

In 2004, ] recognised the ] as ] for its outstanding universal value. Two years later, the site of patrimony was extended as a serial nomination, to include three other religious monuments: ], ] and ] under the name of ].<ref>{{cite web |date=2006 |title=Medieval Monuments in Kosovo |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/724 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150513120313/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/724/ |archive-date=13 May 2015 |publisher=]}}</ref> It consists of four ] churches and ], which represent the fusion of the eastern Orthodox ] and the western ] ecclesiastical architecture to form the Palaiologian Renaissance style. The construction was founded by members of ], the most important dynasty of ].

These monuments have come under attack, especially during the ]. In 2006, the property was inscribed on the ] due to difficulties in its management and conservation stemming from the region's political instability.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002052606/https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/268|date=2 October 2015}}, '']'', 13 July 2006. Accessed 31 January 2017.</ref>

Kosovar art was unknown to the international public for a very long time, because of the regime, many artists were unable to display their art in art galleries, and so were always on the lookout for alternatives, and even resorted to taking matters into their own hands. Until 1990, artists from Kosovo presented their art in many prestigious worldwide renowned centers. They were affirmed and evaluated highly because of their unique approach to the arts considering the circumstances in which they were created, making them distinguished and original.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Photography academic invited by President to attend ceremony for popstar Rita Ora |url=http://www.dmu.ac.uk/about-dmu/news/2015/august/photography-academic-invited-by-president-to-attend-ceremony-for-popstar-rita-ora.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180509221300/http://www.dmu.ac.uk/about-dmu/news/2015/august/photography-academic-invited-by-president-to-attend-ceremony-for-popstar-rita-ora.aspx |archive-date=9 May 2018 |access-date=9 May 2018 |website=www.dmu.ac.uk |language=en-gb}}</ref><ref name="Congress2010">{{cite book |author=Library of Congress |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ij47KwlCAykC&pg=PA4303 |title=Library of Congress Subject Headings |publisher=Library of Congress |year=2010 |pages=4303– |access-date=9 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804023456/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ij47KwlCAykC&pg=PA4303 |archive-date=4 August 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In February 1979, the ] was founded. It became the highest institution of visual arts in Kosovo. It was named after one of the most prominent artists of Kosovo ]. ], ], ], ], ], ], Aziz Nimani, ], ] and Lendita Zeqiraj are some of few ] born in Kosovo.{{Clear}}

=== Cuisine ===
{{main|Kosovar cuisine}}
] is one of the most favored dishes of the traditional ] in Kosovo.]]
The ] is mixed with influences of the ] and ] origins of its majority population. Located at the crossroad of ], ], ] and ] cultures, Kosovo has enriched its own cuisine adopting and maintaining some of their cooking traditions and techniques.

Food is an important component in the social life of the people of Kosovo particularly during ] such as ], ] and ]. For festive occasions, ], ] and ] are traditionally prepared in almost every household throughout Kosovo and the ] regardless of ethnicity or cultural identity.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tavares blog » Embelsira kosovare |url=http://rebibneenun.blogdetik.com/embelsira-kosovare/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130407193613/http://rebibneenun.blogdetik.com/embelsira-kosovare/ |archive-date=7 April 2013 |access-date=7 April 2013}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|date=November 2021}}

Perhaps the most prominent and traditional examples of Kosovar food include the ] and Pite which are served with assorted ], ], honey and ]. Flia is composed of multiple layered ] and is predominantly brushed with cream while Pite are filled with a mixture of salty ], ], ] or ].

The cuisine of Kosovo features a wide range of fresh ], ] and ] such as ], ] and ] and vegeta.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cuisine of Kosovo |url=http://www.podravka.com/company/markets/kosovo/tab-cuisine-of-kosovo |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528131108/http://www.podravka.com/company/markets/kosovo/tab-cuisine-of-kosovo |archive-date=28 May 2013 |access-date=6 June 2013 |website=Podravka}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=Citation is a food company website.|date=November 2019}} The people of Kosovo enjoy a wide variety of meat and ] products among other ], ], ], ] and ] which is considered to be the traditional meat for religious occasions due to its religious connections.

] such as Albanian-style ] or Russian and Turkish-style ] are a widely consumed beverage throughout Kosovo and particularly served at cafés, restaurants or at home. ] is another popular drink although Kosovo is steeped in culture and their coffee culture is a big part of the modern society.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ondozi |first=Qerim |date=25 December 2017 |title=Coffee Culture Is Rooted in Our Society |url=http://kosovotwopointzero.com/en/coffee-culture-rooted-society/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181124220225/http://kosovotwopointzero.com/en/coffee-culture-rooted-society/ |archive-date=24 November 2018 |access-date=24 November 2018 |website=kosovotwopointzero.com |language=en}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=Citation is an opinion piece.|date=November 2019}}{{Clear}}

=== Sports ===
{{main|Sport in Kosovo}}
], an Olympic, World and European champion.]]
Sport is a significant component of the society and culture of Kosovo. The most prominent sports in Kosovo include ], ], ], ], ] and ]. The ] became a full member of the ] in 2014.<ref name="Olympic recognition">{{Cite news |date=9 December 2014 |title=127th IOC Session comes to close in Monaco |work=olympic.org |url=http://www.olympic.org/news/127th-ioc-session-comes-to-close-in-monaco/242155 |url-status=live |access-date=9 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150104235120/http://www.olympic.org/news/127th-ioc-session-comes-to-close-in-monaco/242155 |archive-date=4 January 2015}}</ref> It participated at the ] in ], ] in ] and the ] in Brazil.

By far the most popular ] in Kosovo is ]. 1922 saw the founding of Kosovo's first clubs, including ] and ]. During the ] era from 1945 until 1991, football in ] advanced so rapidly that in 1946, the ] was formed as a subsidiary of the Federation of Yugoslavia. Prishtina were the nation's most successful club during that period, spending five years in the top-tier ] and reaching the semi-finals of the ]. In 1991, an unsanctioned Kosovar league system known as the ''Liga e Pavarur e Kosovës'' ("Independent League of Kosovo") was set up, running parallel to the official Yugoslav leagues; in 1999, in the wake of the ], this became ].<ref name="History of Football in Kosovo">{{Cite web |date=20 November 2013 |title=Historia e futbollit në Kosovë! |trans-title=History of Football in Kosovo |url=http://korneri.net/?p=60042 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302195907/http://korneri.net/?p=60042 |archive-date=2 March 2014 |access-date=2 March 2014 |website=Korneri.net |language=sq}}</ref>

Three footballers from Kosovo – ], ], and ] – were part of the ] that won a gold medal at the ] and a silver medal at the ]. Kosovar-born goalkeeper ] became the first goalkeeper to captain a ]-winning team when he captained ] to victory in the ].

The 2010s saw an increase in the number of ] playing in top European teams. These include ], who captained ] and ] as well as the ]; ] who played for ], ], and the ]; ], who won the ] with ] and also plays for Switzerland internationally;<ref>{{cite news |date=13 July 2018 |title=Xherdan Shaqiri: Liverpool sign Stoke forward after triggering release clause |work=BBC Sport |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/44818207 |url-status=live |access-date=14 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180714010013/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/44818207 |archive-date=14 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Sports in Kosovo |url=http://www.president-ksgov.net/?page=1,71 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130318193558/http://www.president-ksgov.net/?page=1,71 |archive-date=18 March 2013 |access-date=2 March 2014 |publisher=The President of Kosovo Office |language=sq}}</ref> and ], who began his career at ] and currently represents ].

Basketball is also a popular sport in Kosovo. The first championship was held in 1991, with the participation of eight teams. The ] was accepted as a full member of ] on 13 March 2015.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 March 2015 |title=Kosovo becomes 215th National Member Federation of FIBA |url=http://www.fiba.com/news/kosovo-becomes-215th-national-member-federation-of-fiba |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150315235854/http://www.fiba.com/news/kosovo-becomes-215th-national-member-federation-of-fiba |archive-date=15 March 2015 |access-date=13 March 2015 |publisher=FIBA}}</ref> Notable players born in Kosovo who played for the successful ] and ] include ], ] and ], some of whom continue to compete for Serbia despite FIBA's recognition of Kosovo.

Judoka ] became ] in 2013 and ], and also the European Champion in ]. At the ], Kelmendi became the first decorated Kosovar athlete to win a gold medal, also the first gold medal for Kosovo in a major sport tournament.<ref name="Olympics">{{cite web |last=MacPhail |first=Cameron |date=7 August 2016 |title=Majlinda Kelmendi makes history with victory in women's judo as Kosovo wins first ever gold medal |url=https://www.rio2016.com/en/news/kosovo-wins-first-ever-gold-medal-majlinda-kelmendi-womens-judo-rio-2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808061428/https://www.rio2016.com/en/news/kosovo-wins-first-ever-gold-medal-majlinda-kelmendi-womens-judo-rio-2016 |archive-date=8 August 2016 |access-date=7 August 2016 |website=rio2016.com |publisher=Rio 2016}}</ref> ] won the first medal for Kosovo at the ] in 2015, when she earned bronze in ] category. In the ] in 2019, Kelmendi won a gold medal, Gjakova a silver medal and ] a bronze medal.

=== Music ===
{{main|Music of Kosovo}}
Although the music in Kosovo is diverse, authentic ] and ] still exist. ] is characterised by the use of the ]. ] is well known in Kosovo and has been taught at several ] and universities. In 2014, Kosovo submitted their first film for the ], with '']'' directed by ].<ref name="ThreeWindows">{{cite web |date=23 September 2014 |title=Oscars: Kosovo Selects 'Three Windows and a Hanging' for Foreign-Language Category |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/oscars-kosovo-selects-three-windows-734975 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140926013052/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/oscars-kosovo-selects-three-windows-734975 |archive-date=26 September 2014 |access-date=23 September 2014 |website=Hollywood Reporter}}</ref>
] is used by ] for the singing of epic songs or ].]]
In the past, epic poetry in Kosovo and ] was sung on a lahuta and then a more tuneful çiftelia was used which has two strings-one for the melody and one for drone. Kosovar music is influenced by Turkish music due to the almost 500-year span of Ottoman rule in Kosovo though Kosovar folklore has preserved its originality and exemplary.<ref>{{cite book |last=Knaus, Warrander |first=Verena, Gail |title=Kosovo |publisher=Brad Travel Guides |year=2010 |location=Kosovo |page=41}}</ref> Archaeological research tells how old this tradition is and how it was developed in parallel with other traditional music in the Balkans. Roots dating to the 5th century BC have been found in paintings on stones of singers with instruments. (There is a famous portrait of "Pani" holding an instrument similar to a flute).<ref name="Kruta">{{cite book |last=Kruta |first=Beniamin |title=Vendi i polifonise shqiptare ne polifonike ballkanike |publisher=Kultura Popullore |year=1990 |pages=13–14}}</ref>

The contemporary music artists ], ] and ], are all of ] and have achieved international recognition for their music.<ref>{{cite web |date=24 February 2012 |title=Rita Ora |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/earshot/rita-ora-single-party-and-bullshit-jay-z-roc-nation-294871 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120501101740/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/earshot/rita-ora-single-party-and-bullshit-jay-z-roc-nation-294871 |archive-date=1 May 2012 |website=]}}</ref> One widely recognised musician from ] is guitarist ], winner of several international prizes.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Catalogue of the 3rd edition of Dam Festival}}</ref>

Serbian music from Kosovo presents a mixture of traditional music, which is part of the wider Balkan tradition, with its own distinctive sound, and various Western and Turkish influences.<ref name="Bradt">{{cite book |last=Warrander |first=Gail |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uSaH1bKAb8QC&q=serbian%20music%20kosovo&pg=PA41 |title=Kosovo |publisher=Bradt Guides |year=2011 |isbn=9781841623313 |page=41 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170817203252/https://books.google.rs/books?id=uSaH1bKAb8QC&pg=PA41#v=onepage&q=serbian%20music%20kosovo |archive-date=17 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Serb songs from Kosovo were an inspiration for 12th song wreath by composer ]. Most of Serbian music from Kosovo was dominated by church music, with its own share of sung epic poetry.<ref name="Bradt" /> Serbian national instrument ] is also used in Kosovo.<ref>{{cite book |last=Biddle |first=Ian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C_oM5LheoEAC |title=Music National Identity and the Politics of Location: Between the Global and the Local |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |year=2013 |isbn=9781409493778 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170817203150/https://books.google.rs/books?id=C_oM5LheoEAC |archive-date=17 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>

] is the only artist from ] who represented ] as part of ] in ]. Singer ] finished 5th in the ] Eurovision Song Contest, while ] represented Albania in ]. Several Serbian singers from Kosovo have also participated in the Serbian national selection for the Eurovision Song Contest. ] represented ] and twice in the Eurovision Song Contest, firstly as a member of ] in ] and as a solo act in ].

=== Cinema ===
{{main|Cinema of Kosovo}}
] was the first Eastern European actor to star in ] during the Cold War.]]<!-- Copied Content from "Cinema of Kosovo" -->
The film industry of Kosovo dates from the 1970s. In 1969, the parliament of Kosovo established ], a state institution for the production, distribution and showing of films. Its initial director was the actor Abdurrahman Shala, followed by writer and noted poet Azem Shkreli, under whose direction the most successful films were produced. Subsequent directors of Kosovafilm were Xhevar Qorraj, Ekrem Kryeziu and Gani Mehmetaj. After producing seventeen feature films, numerous short films and documentaries, the institution was taken over by the Serbian authorities in 1990 and dissolved. Kosovafilm was reestablished after ] withdrawal from the region in June 1999 and has since been endeavoring to revive the film industry in Kosovo.
] in ].]]
The International ] is the largest film event in Kosovo. The Festival is organised in August in ], which attracts numerous international and regional artists. In this annually organised festival, films are screened twice a day in three open-air cinemas as well as in two regular cinemas. Except for its films, the festival is also well known for lively nights after the screening. Various events happen within the scope of the festival: workshops, DokuPhoto exhibitions, festival camping, concerts, which altogether turn the city into a charming place to be. In 2010, Dokufest was voted as one of the 25 best international documentary festivals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home – DOKUFEST 2013 |url=https://dokufest.com/2012/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820055759/http://www.dokufest.com/2012/?cid=2,34 |archive-date=20 August 2016 |website=dokufest.com}}</ref>

International actors of ] from Kosovo include ], ], ] and ]. The ] is the largest film festival, held annually in Pristina, in Kosovo that screens prominent international cinema productions in the Balkan region and beyond, and draws attention to the Kosovar film industry.

The movie '']'' was nominated for the ] at the ].<ref>{{cite web |last=Johnson |first=Zach |date=14 January 2016 |title=Oscars 2016 Nominations: Complete List of Nominees |url=http://www.eonline.com/news/730249/oscars-2016-nominations-complete-list-of-nominees |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115113854/http://www.eonline.com/news/730249/oscars-2016-nominations-complete-list-of-nominees |archive-date=15 January 2016 |access-date=14 January 2016 |website=]}}</ref> The movie was written and directed by Oscar nominated director ], based on true events during the ]. ''Shok'''s distributor is Ouat Media, and the social media campaign is led by ].

=== Holidays ===
{{further|Public holidays in Kosovo}}
{| class="wikitable"
!Date
!English Name
!Local Name
!Notes
|-
|1 January
|]
|Viti i Ri
|
|-
|7 January
|]
|Krishtlindjet Ortodokse (''Pravoslavni Božić'')
|Orthodox
|-
|17 February
|]
|Dita e Pavarësisë
|17 February 2008
|-
|9 April
|]
|Dita e Kushtetutës
|
|-
|Varies yearly
|]
|Pashkët Katolike (''Katolički Uskrs'')
|Catholic
|-
|Varies yearly
|]
|Pashkët Ortodokse (''Pravoslani Uskrs'')
|Orthodox
|-
|1 May
|]
|Dita Ndërkombëtare e Punës
|
|-
|9 May
|]
|Dita e Europës
|
|-
|Varies yearly
|]
|Bajrami i Madh (''Fitër Bajrami'')
|Islam
|-
|Varies yearly
|]
|Bajrami i Vogël (''Kurban Bajrami'')
|Islam
|-
|25 December
|]
|Krishtlindjet Katolike (''Katolicki Božić'')
|Catholic
|}

== See also ==

* ]
* ]
* ]

== References ==
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}{{reflist}}

=== Sources ===

* {{cite book |last1=Cocozelli |first1=Fred |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FpEwDQAAQBAJ |title=Ethnic Minorities and Politics in Post-Socialist Southeastern Europe |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316982778 |editor1-last=Ramet |editor1-first=Sabrina |chapter=The Serbs of Kosovo}}
* {{Cite book |last=Curta |first=Florin |url=https://archive.org/details/southeasterneuro0000curt |title=Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=9780521815390 |location=Cambridge |author-link=Florin Curta |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last=Herscher |first=Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pnSvZzDS0RYC |title=Violence taking place: The architecture of the Kosovo conflict |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=9780804769358 |location=Stanford}}
* {{citation |last=Lellio |first=Anna Di |title=The case for Kosova: passage to independence |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aNEW0jtOjK8C&pg=PP1 |year=2006 |publisher=Anthem Press |isbn=978-1-84331-229-1}}
* {{Citation |last=Elsie |first=Robert |title=Historical Dictionary of Kosova |year=2004 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-5309-6 |author-link=Robert Elsie}}
* {{Citation |last=Malcolm |first=Noel |title=Kosovo: A Short History |url=https://archive.org/details/kosovo-a-short-history/page/52/mode/2up |year=1998 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-333-66612-8 |author-link=Noel Malcolm}}
* {{Cite book |last=Papazoglu |first=Fanula |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Up4JAQAAIAAJ |title=The Central Balkan Tribes in pre-Roman Times: Triballi, Autariatae, Dardanians, Scordisci and Moesians |publisher=Hakkert |year=1978 |isbn=9789025607937 |location=Amsterdam |page=131 |author-link=Fanula Papazoglu}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Teichner |first1=Felix |date=2015 |title=Ulpiana - Iustiniana secunda (Kosovo) : das urbane Zentrum des dardanischen Bergbaubezirks |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325366911 |journal=Ephemeris Napocensis |volume=25}}<!-- Please do not use a scroll box. please see ] for more information.(This template should not be used in main article space, as it renders any content obscured within the template unprintable. This is especially true with text content, such as citations, according to ]. Please, if you see a scroll box in article space, remove it and put a hidden warning.)-->

== External links ==

* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110222015539/http://www.unmikonline.org/|date=22 February 2011}}
*
*
*
* {{wikiatlas|Kosovo}}
* . '']''. ].
* {{curlie|Regional/Europe/Serbia/Kosovo}}
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