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{{short description|Island country in the Indian Ocean}}
{{For||Madagascar (disambiguation)|Malagasy (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-semi|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2012}}
{{About|the island nation|the island itself|Geography of Madagascar|the film franchise|Madagascar (franchise){{!}}''Madagascar'' (franchise)|other uses|Madagascar (disambiguation)}}
{{sprotected2}}
{{featured article}}
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{{pp-move}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2021}}
{{Use American English|date=February 2017}}
{{Infobox country {{Infobox country
|native_name = Republic of Madagascar<br />Repoblikan'i Madagasikara<br />République de Madagascar | conventional_long_name = Republic of Madagascar
| common_name = Madagascar
|native_name2 =
| native_name = {{ubl|{{native name|mg|Repoblikan'i Madagasikara}}|{{native name|fr|République de Madagascar}}}}
|common_name = Madagascar
|image_flag = Flag of Madagascar.svg | image_flag = Flag of Madagascar.svg
|image_coat = Coat of arms of Madagascar.svg | image_coat = Seal of Madagascar.svg
|symbol_type = Seal | symbol_type = ]
| national_motto = {{unbulleted list
|national_motto = ''Fitiavana, Tanindrazana, Fandrosoana''{{spaces|2}}<small>(])</small><br />''Amour, patrie, progrès''{{spaces|2}}<small>(French)<br />"Love, Fatherland, Progress"</small><ref name=4thRepublic>{{cite web | last = Le Comité Consultatif Constitutionnel | title = ''Projet de Constitution de la Quatrième République de Madagascar'' | publisher = Madagascar Tribune | date = 1 October 2010 | url = http://www.madagascar-tribune.com/IMG/pdf/constitution.pdf |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/61BvMnZmH | archivedate = 24 August 2011 | accessdate =24 August 2011}} {{fr}}</ref>
| {{nowrap|{{native phrase|mg|Fitiavana, Tanindrazana, Fandrosoana|nolink=yes}}}}
|image_map = MDG orthographic.svg
| {{native phrase|fr|Amour, Patrie, Progrès|nolink=yes}}
|map_caption = Location of Madagascar
| "Love, Fatherland, Progress"<ref name=4thRepublic>{{cite web |last=Le Comité Consultatif Constitutionnel |title=''Projet de Constitution de la Quatrième République de Madagascar'' |publisher=Madagascar Tribune |date=1 October 2010 |url=http://www.madagascar-tribune.com/IMG/pdf/constitution.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628042414/http://madagascar-tribune.com/IMG/pdf/constitution.pdf |archive-date=28 June 2011|url-status=live |access-date=24 August 2011|language=fr}}</ref>
|national_anthem = "]"<small><br />''Oh, Beloved Land of our Ancestors!''</small> <br /><center></center>
|official_languages = ], ]
|capital = ]
|latd = 18
|latm = 55
|latNS = S
|longd = 47
|longm = 31
|longEW = E
|government_type = ]
|leader_title1 = <small>]</small>
|leader_name1 = <small>]</small>
|leader_title2 = ]
|leader_name2 = ]<ref name="AR">{{cite news | title=Madagascar: Rajoelina appoints a 'consensus' prime minister|newspaper=Africa Review|publisher=National Media Group, Kenya|date=29 October 2011|first=Rivonala|last=Razafison|accessdate=29 October 2011 | url=http://www.africareview.com/News/Madagascar+gets+new+premier/-/979180/1263702/-/12d32af/-/ | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/64rETpM5a |archivedate = 22 January 2012}}</ref>
|legislature = ]
|upper_house = ]
|lower_house = ]
|largest_city = ]
|area_km2 = 587,041
|area_sq_mi = 226,597 <!-- Do not remove per ] -->
|area_rank = 47th
|area_magnitude = 1 E11
|percent_water = 0.009%
|water area = 5,501
|population_estimate = 22,005,222
|population_estimate_year = 2012<ref name=cia/>
|population_estimate_rank = 53rd
|population_census = 12,238,914
|population_census_year = 1993
|population_density_km2 = 35.2
|population_density_sq_mi = 91.1 <!--Do not remove per ]-->
|population_density_rank = 174th
|GDP_PPP_year = 2011
|GDP_PPP = $20.400 billion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=25&pr.y=14&sy=2009&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=674&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a= |title=Madagascar|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=19 April 2012 |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6AJw9Rnle |archivedate = 31 August 2012}}</ref>
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $933<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_nominal = $10.025 billion<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_nominal_year = 2011
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $458<ref name=imf2/>
|HDI_year = 2010
|HDI = {{increase}} 0.435
|HDI_rank = 135th
|HDI_category = <span style="color:#e0584e">low</span>
|Gini = 47.5
|Gini_year = 2001
|Gini_category = <span style="color:#e0584e;">high</span>
|sovereignty_type = ]
|sovereignty_note = from ]
|established_event1 = Date
|established_date1 = 26 June 1960
|currency = ]
|currency_code = MGA
|time_zone = ]
|utc_offset = +3
|time_zone_DST = ''not observed''<ref name="Bradtp2">Bradt (2011), p. 2</ref>
|demonym = ]<ref name=NatGeo1/>
|utc_offset_DST = +3
|drives_on = right
|cctld = ]
|calling_code = ]<ref name="Bradtp2" />
}} }}
| national_anthem = {{native name|mg|]|nolink=yes}}<br />{{native name|fr|Ô Terre de nos ancêtres bien-aimés!|nolink=yes}}<br />"Oh, land of our beloved ancestors!"{{parabr}}{{center|]}}
'''Madagascar''', officially the '''Republic of Madagascar''' ({{lang-mg|Repoblikan'i Madagasikara}} {{IPA-mg|republiˈkʲan madaɡasˈkʲarə̥|}}; {{lang-fr|link=no|République de Madagascar}}) and previously known as the '''Malagasy Republic''', is an ] in the ], off the southeastern coast of ]. The nation comprises the island of Madagascar (the fourth-largest island in the world), as well as numerous smaller peripheral islands. Following the prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent ], Madagascar split from ] around 88&nbsp;million years ago, allowing native plants and animals to evolve in relative isolation. Consequently, Madagascar is a ]; over 90&nbsp;percent of ] is found nowhere else on Earth. The island's diverse ecosystems and unique wildlife are threatened by the encroachment of the rapidly growing human population.
| image_map = Madagascar (centered orthographic projection).svg
| map_caption = {{map caption|location_color=dark green}}
| image_map2 =
| capital = ]
| coordinates = {{Coord|18|55|S|47|31|E|type:city}}
| largest_city = ]
| official_languages = ]{{*}}]
| ethnic_groups = <!--READ FIRST: Section has been maintained in its present form since the page was awarded "Featured Article" status. Please do not alter this information without seeking general consensus on the talk page. Thank you.-->
{{unbulleted list
|26% ]
|15% ]
|12% ]
|7% ]
|6% ]
|5% ]
|5% ]
|24% ]
}}
| ethnic_groups_year = 2017
| ethnic_groups_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.populstat.info/Africa/malegasg.htm |title=MADAGASCAR: general data |publisher=Populstat.info |access-date=15 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209164131/http://populstat.info/Africa/malegasg.htm |archive-date=9 February 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| religion = {{unbulleted list
|{{Tree list}}
* 84.7% ]
** 45.8% ]
** 38.1% ]
**0.8% other ]
{{Tree list/end}}
|7.3% ]
|4.7% ]
|3.1% ]
|0.3% ]
}}
| religion_year = 2020
| religion_ref = <ref name="grf">{{cite web |url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/madagascar/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020 |title=Madagascar |work=Global Religious Futures |publisher=Pew Research Center |access-date=14 July 2021 |archive-date=14 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514155022/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/madagascar/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| demonym = ]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa030900a.htm |title=Demonyms – Names of Nationalities |publisher=Geography.about.com |access-date=15 July 2013 |archive-date=21 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821195842/http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa030900a.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Malagasy – National Geographic Style Manual|url=http://stylemanual.natgeo.com|access-date=27 February 2017|archive-date=27 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171227171359/http://stylemanual.natgeo.com/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| government_type = Unitary ]
| leader_title1 = ]
| leader_name1 = ]
| leader_title2 = ]
| leader_name2 = ]
| leader_title3 =
| leader_name3 =
| leader_title4 =
| leader_name4 =
| legislature = ]
| upper_house = ]
| lower_house = ]
| sovereignty_type = ]
| established_event1 = ]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.madamagazine.com/en/die-anfaenge-des-koenigreichs-der-merina/ |title=The beginning of the Merina Kingdom |work=Mada Magazine |date=4 August 2015 |access-date=30 March 2021 |archive-date=17 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150817071336/http://www.madamagazine.com/en/die-anfaenge-des-koenigreichs-der-merina/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
| established_date1 = {{circa|1540}}
| established_event2 = ]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/madagascar/narratives/background/history |title=Madagascar |work=Lonely Planet |access-date=30 March 2021 |archive-date=30 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330034433/https://www.lonelyplanet.com/madagascar/narratives/background/history |url-status=live}}</ref>
| established_date2 = 6 August 1896
| established_event3 = ] proclaimed
| established_date3 = 14 October 1958
| established_event4 = ]
| established_date4 = 26 June 1960
| area_km2 = 592,796<ref name="BGNote">{{cite web |author = Bureau of African Affairs |title = Background Note: Madagascar |publisher = U.S. Department of State |date = 3 May 2011 |url = https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5460.htm |access-date = 24 August 2011 |archive-date = 26 October 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201026204111/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5460.htm |url-status = live }}</ref>
| area_rank = 46th <!-- Area rank should match ] -->
| area_sq_mi = 226,597 <!--Do not remove per ]-->
| percent_water = 0.9%
| population_estimate = 31,964,956<ref>{{cite web | url=https://population.un.org/dataportal/data/indicators/49/locations/450/start/2019/end/2026/table/pivotbylocation?df=e023316d-87af-4918-8ee3-fe083aa8d4b1 | title=By Location &#124; Pivot Table &#124; Data Portal }}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2024
| population_estimate_rank = 49th
| population_density_km2 = 55
| population_density_sq_mi = 141.1 <!--Do not remove per ]-->
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $56.754 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.MG">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c=674,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2028&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Madagascar) |publisher=] |date=10 October 2023 |access-date=17 October 2023 |archive-date=1 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101014747/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c=674,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2028&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2023
| GDP_PPP_rank = 117th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $1,906<ref name="IMFWEO.MG" />
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 182nd
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $15.763 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.MG" />
| GDP_nominal_rank = 139th
| GDP_nominal_year = 2023
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $529<ref name="IMFWEO.MG" />
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 188th
| Gini = 42.6 <!--number only-->
| Gini_year = 2012
| Gini_change = decrease<!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| Gini_ref = <ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison |title=Gini Index coefficient |publisher=CIA Factbook |access-date=16 July 2021 |archive-date=7 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210707032440/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison |url-status=live }}</ref>
| Gini_rank =
| HDI = 0.487 <!--number only-->
| HDI_year = 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
| HDI_change = steady<!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=]|date=8 September 2022|access-date=8 September 2022|archive-date=9 October 2022|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 177th
| currency = ]
| currency_code = MGA
| time_zone = ]
| utc_offset = +3
| utc_offset_DST = +3
| time_zone_DST = {{nowrap|not observed<ref name="Bradtp2">Bradt (2011), p. 2.</ref>}}
| date_format = dd/mm/yyyy
| drives_on = right
| calling_code = ]<ref name="Bradtp2"/>
| cctld = ]
| area_water_km2 = 5501
}}
'''Madagascar''',{{efn |name=name| {{bulleted list |{{IPAc-en|ˌ|m|æ|d|ə|ˈ|ɡ|æ|s|k|ər|,_|-|k|ɑɹ|}} {{respell|MAD|ə|GAS|kər|,_|-|kar}} |{{langx|mg|Madagasikara}} {{IPA-mg|madaɡasikʲara|}}}}}} officially the '''Republic of Madagascar''',{{efn |name=official-name |{{bulleted list |{{langx|mg|Repoblikan'i Madagasikara|links=no}} {{IPA-mg|repuˈblikʲanʲ madaɡasʲˈkʲarə̥|}} |{{langx|fr|République de Madagascar}} {{IPA|fr|ʁepyblik də madagaskaʁ|}}}}}} is an ] that includes the ] and numerous smaller peripheral islands. Lying off the southeastern coast of ], it is the world's ], the ] and the 46th largest country overall.<ref name="world-atlas"/> Its capital and largest city is ].


Following the prehistoric breakup of the ] ], Madagascar split from Africa during the Early ] period, around 180 million years ago, and separated from the ] approximately 90&nbsp;million years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2003-07-01 |title=India-Madagascar Separation: Breakup Along a Pre-existing Mobile Belt and Chipping of the Craton |doi=10.1016/S1342-937X(05)70999-0 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1342937X05709990 |last1=Raval |first1=U. |last2=Veeraswamy |first2=K. |journal=Gondwana Research |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=467–485 |bibcode=2003GondR...6..467R |access-date=28 November 2022 |archive-date=28 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128131353/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1342937X05709990 |url-status=live |issn=1342-937X}}</ref> This isolation allowed native plants and animals to evolve in relative seclusion; as a result, Madagascar is a ] and one of the world's 17 ], with over 90% of its ] being endemic. The island has a subtropical to tropical maritime climate. Madagascar was first permanently settled during or before the mid-first millennium AD by ],<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Mitchell|first=Peter|date=2020-10-01|title=Settling Madagascar: When Did People First Colonize the World's Largest Island?|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15564894.2019.1582567|journal=The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology|language=en|volume=15|issue=4|pages=576–595|doi=10.1080/15564894.2019.1582567|s2cid=195555955|issn=1556-4894|access-date=6 December 2021|archive-date=6 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206020211/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15564894.2019.1582567|url-status=live}}</ref> presumably arriving on ] from present-day ].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Heiske|first1=Margit|last2=Alva|first2=Omar|last3=Pereda-Loth|first3=Veronica|last4=Van Schalkwyk|first4=Matthew|last5=Radimilahy|first5=Chantal|last6=Letellier|first6=Thierry|last7=Rakotarisoa|first7=Jean-Aimé|last8=Pierron|first8=Denis|title=Genetic evidence and historical theories of the Asian and African origins of the present Malagasy population|journal=Human Molecular Genetics|year=2021|volume=30|issue=R1|pages=R72–R78|language=en|doi=10.1093/hmg/ddab018|pmid=33481023|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Mohr|first=Charles|date=1 February 1971|title=In French-Tinied Madagascar, African and Asian Cultures Meet|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1971/02/01/archives/in-frenchtinged-madagascar-african-and-asian-cultures-meet.html|work=The New York Times|access-date=17 April 2023|archive-date=18 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418031014/https://www.nytimes.com/1971/02/01/archives/in-frenchtinged-madagascar-african-and-asian-cultures-meet.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|date=23 March 1942|title=MADAGASCAR: Aepyornis Island|url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,802278,00.html|magazine=TIME|access-date=17 April 2023|archive-date=18 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418030700/https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,802278,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> These were joined around the ninth century AD by ] groups crossing the ] from East Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pierron|first1=Denis|last2=Razafindrazaka|first2=Harilanto|last3=Pagani|first3=Luca|last4=Ricaut|first4=François-Xavier|last5=Antao|first5=Tiago|last6=Capredon|first6=Mélanie|last7=Sambo|first7=Clément|last8=Radimilahy|first8=Chantal|last9=Rakotoarisoa|first9=Jean-Aimé|last10=Blench|first10=Roger M.|last11=Letellier|first11=Thierry|date=21 January 2014|title=Genome-wide evidence of Austronesian–Bantu admixture and cultural reversion in a hunter-gatherer group of Madagascar|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=111|issue=3|pages=936–941|doi=10.1073/pnas.1321860111|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3903192|pmid=24395773|bibcode=2014PNAS..111..936P|doi-access=free}}</ref> Other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. Consequently, there are 18 or more classified ], the most numerous being the ] of the central highlands.
Initial human settlement of Madagascar occurred between 350&nbsp;BCE and 550&nbsp;CE by ] arriving on ]s from ]. These were joined around 1000&nbsp;CE by ] migrants crossing the ]. Other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. The ] is often divided into eighteen or more ] of which the largest are the ] of the central highlands.


Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was ruled by a fragmented assortment of shifting socio-political alliances. Beginning in the early 19th century, most of the island was united and ruled as the ] by a ] of Merina ]. The monarchy collapsed in 1897 when the island was absorbed into the ], from which the island regained independence in 1960. The autonomous state of Madagascar has since undergone four major constitutional periods, termed Republics. Since 1992 the nation has officially been governed as a constitutional democracy from its capital at ]. However, in a ] the last elected president ] was made to resign and presidential power was transferred in March 2009 to ] in a move widely viewed by the international community as a '']''. Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was ruled by a fragmented assortment of shifting sociopolitical alliances. Beginning in the early 19th century, most of it was united and ruled as the ] by a ] of Merina ]. The monarchy was ended in 1897 by the ], from which Madagascar gained independence in 1960. The country has since undergone four major constitutional periods, termed republics, and has been governed as a constitutional democracy since 1992. Following a ], Madagascar underwent a ] its fourth and current republic, with constitutional governance being restored in January 2014.


In 2012, the population of Madagascar was estimated at just over 22&nbsp;million, 90&nbsp;percent of whom live on less than two dollars per day. ] and French are both official languages of the state. The majority of the population adheres to ], Christianity, or an amalgamation of both. Ecotourism and agriculture, paired with greater investments in education, health and private enterprise, are key elements of Madagascar's development strategy. Under Ravalomanana these investments produced substantial economic growth but the benefits were not evenly spread throughout the population, producing tensions over the increasing cost of living and declining living standards among the poor and some segments of the middle class. Madagascar is a member of the ] (UN), the ] (AU), the ] (SADC), and the {{lang|fr|]}}. ] and ] are both ]s of the state. ] is the country's predominant religion, with a significant minority still practising ]. Madagascar is classified as a ] by the UN.<ref>{{cite web |title=About LDCs |url=http://unohrlls.org/about-ldcs/ |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008095327/http://unohrlls.org/about-ldcs/ |archive-date=8 October 2014 |access-date=22 February 2017 |publisher=UN-OHRLLS}}</ref> ] and agriculture, paired with greater investments in education, health and private enterprise, are key elements of its development strategy. Despite substantial economic growth since the early 2000s, income disparities have widened, and quality of life remains low for the majority of the population. As of 2021, 68.4 percent of the population is considered to be ].<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Multidimensional Poverty Index 2023: Madagascar |url=https://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/Country-Profiles/MPI/MDG.pdf |access-date=28 May 2024 |website=United Nations Development Programme: Human Development Reports |archive-date=21 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521064656/https://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/Country-Profiles/MPI/MDG.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>


==Etymology== ==Etymology==
In the ], the island of Madagascar is called ''Madagasikara'' {{IPA-mg|madaɡasʲˈkʲarə̥|}} and its people are referred to as '']''.<ref name=NatGeo1>{{cite web | last = National Geographic | title = Style Manual | url=http://stylemanual.ngs.org/home/M/madagascan-malagasy |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6053JX6vh | archivedate = 31 August 2012 | accessdate =31 August 2012}}</ref> However, the island's appellation "Madagascar" is not of local origin but rather was popularized in the ] by Europeans.<ref name=Cousins>Cousins (1895), pp. 11–12</ref> The name ''Madageiscar'' was first recorded in the memoirs of 13th-century Venetian explorer ] as a corrupted form of the name ], the ] port with which Polo had confused the island. On ]'s Day in 1500, Portuguese explorer ] landed on the island and christened it ''São Lourenço'', but Polo's name was preferred and popularized on ] maps. No single Malagasy-language name predating ''Madagasikara'' appears to have been used by the local population to refer to the island, although some communities had their own name for part or all of the land they inhabited.<ref>Room (2006), p. 230</ref> In the ], the island of Madagascar is called ''Madagasikara'' ({{IPA-mg|madaɡasʲˈkʲarə̥}}) and its people are referred to as '']''.<ref name=NatGeo1>{{cite web |last = National Geographic |title = Style Manual |url=http://stylemanual.ngs.org/home/M/madagascan-malagasy |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130525104716/http://stylemanual.ngs.org/home/M/madagascan-malagasy |archive-date = 25 May 2013 |url-status=dead |access-date =31 August 2012}}</ref><ref name=MalagasyOrNot>{{cite web|url=https://theconversation.com/malagasy-or-is-it-madagascan-our-research-provides-the-answer-128343|title=Malagasy? Or is it Madagascan? Our research provides the answer|last=Raveloson|first=Andriamiranto|date=25 March 2020|website=theconversation.com|language=en|access-date=20 August 2020|archive-date=13 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200613102719/https://theconversation.com/malagasy-or-is-it-madagascan-our-research-provides-the-answer-128343|url-status=live}}</ref> The origin of the name is uncertain,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Voarintsoa |first1=Ny Riavo G. |last2=Raveloson |first2=Andriamiranto |last3=Barimalala |first3=Rondrotiana |last4=Razafindratsima |first4=Onja H. |date=July 2019 |title='Malagasy' or 'Madagascan'? Which English term best reflects the people, the culture, and other things from Madagascar? |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=4 |pages=e00091 |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2019.e00091|bibcode=2019SciAf...400091V |s2cid=187807236 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and is likely foreign, having been propagated in the ] by Europeans.<ref name="Cousins2">Cousins (1895), pp. 11–12</ref> If this is the case, it is unknown when the name was adopted by the inhabitants of the island. No single Malagasy-language name predating ''Madagasikara'' appears to have been used by the local population to refer to the island, although some communities had their name for part or all of the lands they inhabited.<ref name="Room 2006, p. 2302">Room (2006), p. 230</ref>

One hypothesis relates ''Madagascar'' to the word '']'', referring to the ] origin of the ] in modern-day ]. In a map by ] dating from the year 1154, the island is named ''Gesira Malai'', or "Malay island" in ]. The inversion of this name to ''Malai Gesira'', as it was known by the ], is thought to be the precursor of the modern name of the island.<ref name=":022">{{Cite journal |last=Clockers |first=Alain |date=2014-12-30 |title=Histoire des noms anciens de Madagascar : réévaluations et nouvelles hypothèses |url=https://journals.openedition.org/oceanindien/1704?lang=en |journal=Études Océan Indien |language=fr |issue=51–52 |doi=10.4000/oceanindien.1704 |issn=0246-0092 |doi-access=free |access-date=1 June 2023 |archive-date=1 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601201349/https://journals.openedition.org/oceanindien/1704?lang=en |url-status=live }}</ref> The name "Malay island" was later rendered in Latin as ''Malichu'', an abbreviated form of ''Malai Insula'', in the medieval ] as the name of Madagascar.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Grandidier |first=Alfred |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9u4kwwEACAAJ |title=Histoire de la géographie de Madagascar |date=1885 |publisher=Imprimerie nationale |language=fr |access-date=23 June 2023 |archive-date=21 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230821020820/https://books.google.com/books?id=9u4kwwEACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":022"/>

Another hypothesis is that ''Madagascar'' is a corrupted transliteration of ], the capital of ] and an important medieval Indian Ocean port. This would have resulted from 13th-century Venetian explorer ] confusing the two locations in his memoirs, in which he mentions the land of ''Madageiscar'' to the south of ]. This name would then have been popularized on ] maps by Europeans.<ref name="Cousins2"/><ref name="Room 2006, p. 2302">Room (2006), p. 230</ref> One of the first documents written that might explain why Marco Polo called it ''Madagascar'' is in a 1609 book on Madagascar by Jerome Megiser.<ref name="London Missionary Society Press">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jYccAAAAMAAJ&dq=jerome+megiser+madagascar&pg=PA404 |title=The Antananarvio Annual and Madagascar Magazine |date=1893 |publisher=London Missionary Society Press |language=en |access-date=2023-06-04 |archive-date=2023-06-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604192933/https://books.google.com/books?id=jYccAAAAMAAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA404&dq=jerome+megiser+madagascar&hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Sibree 1896">{{Cite book |last=Sibree |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HRApAAAAYAAJ&dq=jerome+megiser+madagascar+magadaxo&pg=PA113 |title=Madagascar Before the Conquest: The Island, the Country, and the People, with Chapters on Travel and Topography, Folk-lore, Strange Customs and Superstitions, the Animal Life of the Island, and Mission Work and Progress Among the Inhabitants |date=1896 |publisher=Macmillan |language=en |access-date=2023-06-04 |archive-date=2023-06-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604192928/https://books.google.com/books?id=HRApAAAAYAAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA113&dq=jerome+megiser+madagascar+magadaxo&hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref> Jerome Megiser describes an event in which the kings of ] and ] traveled to Madagascar with a fleet of around twenty-five thousand men in order to invade the wealthy islands of Taprobane and Sumatra. However, a tempest threw them off course and they landed on the coasts of Madagascar, conquering the island and signing a treaty with its inhabitants. They remained for eight months and erected at different points of the island eight pillars on which they engraved "Magadoxo", a name which later, by corruption became Madagascar.<ref name="London Missionary Society Press"/><ref name="Sibree 1896"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kent |first1=Raymond K. |title=Early Kingdoms in Madagascar and the Birth of the Sakalava Empire, 1500-1700 |date=1967 |publisher=University of Wisconsin--Madison |page=186 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_XubAAAAMAAJ |access-date=2023-06-05 |archive-date=2023-06-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230605111400/https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Early_Kingdoms_in_Madagascar_and_the_Bir.html?id=_XubAAAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Warhafftige, gründliche und aussfüh">{{cite book |last1=Megiser |first1=Hieronymus |title=Warhafftige, gründliche und aussführliche, so wol historische als chorographische Beschreibung der ... Insul Madagascar. ... Samt ... angehengtem Dictionario und Dialogis der Madagascarischen Sprach |date=1609 |pages=58–60 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=srs_eP6UmhUC&dq=magadaxo+und+adel&pg=PA58 |language=de |access-date=14 January 2024 |archive-date=14 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240114164930/https://books.google.com/books?id=srs_eP6UmhUC&dq=magadaxo+und+adel&pg=PA58 |url-status=live }}</ref> ], a ] traveler who copied Portuguese works and maps, confirmed this event by saying "Madagascar has its name from 'makdishu' (Mogadishu)" whose "shayk" invaded it.<ref name="London Missionary Society Press"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Linschoten |first=Jan Huygen van |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GUxSjS0jpjwC&dq=the+voyage+of+john+huyghen+makdishu&pg=PA19 |title=The Voyage of John Huyghen Van Linschoten to the East Indies: From the Old English Translation of 1598. The First Book, Containing His Description of the East... |date=1885 |publisher=Hakluyt society |language=en |access-date=2023-06-04 |archive-date=2023-06-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604192932/https://books.google.com/books?id=GUxSjS0jpjwC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA19&dq=the+voyage+of+john+huyghen+makdishu&hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref>

The name ''Malagasikara'', or ''Malagascar'', is also historically attested. A British state paper in 1699 records the arrival of eighty to ninety passengers from "Malagaskar" to what eventually became ].<ref>'America and West Indies: June 1699, 12-20', in ''Calendar of State Papers Colonial, America and West Indies: Volume 17, 1699 and Addenda 1621-1698'', ed. Cecil Headlam (London, 1908), pp. 283-291. ''British History Online'' http://www.british-history.ac.uk/cal-state-papers/colonial/america-west-indies/vol17/pp283-291 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230216231538/https://www.british-history.ac.uk/cal-state-papers/colonial/america-west-indies/vol17/pp283-291 |date=16 February 2023 }} .</ref> An 1882 edition of the British newspaper '']'' referred to "Malagascar" as the name of the island, stating that it is etymologically a word of ] origin, and may be related to the name of ].<ref>{{Cite news |last=W. M. C. |date=December 16, 1882 |title=The Malagasy |work=The Graphic |issue=681 |url=http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/library/1882-12-16thegraphic.pdf |access-date=1 June 2023 |archive-date=1 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601201347/http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/library/1882-12-16thegraphic.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1891, Saleh bin Osman, a ]i traveler, refers to the island as "Malagaskar" when recounting his journeys, including as part of the ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Saleh Bin Osman |date=August 1891 |title=The Story of My Life |url=https://onemorevoice.org/html/transcriptions/liv_020002_TEI.html |journal=St. Nicholas: An Illustrated Magazine for Young Folks |issue=18 |pages=795–8 |access-date=1 June 2023 |archive-date=1 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601201352/https://onemorevoice.org/html/transcriptions/liv_020002_TEI.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1905, Charles Basset wrote in his doctoral thesis that ''Malagasikara'' was the way the island is referred to by its natives, who emphasized that they were ''Malagasy'', and not ''Madagasy''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Basset |first=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J5MoAAAAYAAJ |title=Madagascar et l'oeuvre du Général Galliéni |date=1903 |publisher=A. Rousseau |language=fr}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of Madagascar}}

===Early period===
] ancestry reflects a blend of Southeast Asian, Oceanian and Bantu (Southeast African) roots.]]
Traditionally, archaeologists have estimated that the earliest settlers arrived in successive waves in ]s from ], possibly throughout the period between 350&nbsp;BC and 550&nbsp;AD, while others are cautious about dates earlier than AD 250. In either case, these dates make Madagascar one of the most recent major landmasses on Earth to be settled by humans, predating the settlement of ] and ].<ref>{{cite journal |last = Crowley |first = B.E. |title = A refined chronology of prehistoric Madagascar and the demise of the megafauna |journal = Quaternary Science Reviews |volume = 29 |issue = 19–20 |pages = 2591–2603 |year = 2010
|doi = 10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.06.030|bibcode = 2010QSRv...29.2591C}}</ref> It is proposed that ] were brought as laborers and slaves by ]n and ]n-] in their trading fleets to Madagascar.<ref name="Dewar19932">{{cite journal|last1=Dewar|first1=Robert E.|last2=Wright|first2=Henry T.|date=1993|title=The culture history of Madagascar|journal=Journal of World Prehistory|volume=7|issue=4|pages=417–466|doi=10.1007/bf00997802|hdl-access=free|hdl=2027.42/45256|s2cid=21753825}}</ref><ref name="Burney20042">{{cite journal|vauthors=Burney DA, Burney LP, Godfrey LR, Jungers WL, Goodman SM, Wright HT, Jull AJ|date=August 2004|title=A chronology for late prehistoric Madagascar|journal=Journal of Human Evolution|volume=47|issue=1–2|pages=25–63|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.05.005|pmid=15288523|bibcode=2004JHumE..47...25B }}</ref><ref>Kumar, Ann (2012). 'Dominion Over Palm and Pine: Early Indonesia's Maritime Reach', in Geoff Wade (ed.), ''Anthony Reid and the Study of the Southeast Asian Past'' (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies), 101–122.</ref><ref name="Cox"/> Dates of settlement of the island earlier than the mid-first millennium AD are not strongly supported.<ref name=":4"/> However, there is scattered evidence for much earlier human visits and presence. (See ]).<ref>{{cite news|date=September 10, 2018|title=Ancient bird bones redate human activity in Madagascar by 6,000 years|url=https://www.zsl.org/science/news/ancient-bird-bones-redate-human-activity-in-madagascar-by-6000-years|newspaper=Zoological Society of London (ZSL)}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=September 12, 2018|title=Ancient bird bones redate human activity in Madagascar by 6,000 years|url=https://phys.org/news/2018-09-ancient-bird-bones-redate-human.html|website=Phys.org}}</ref> ] finds such as cut marks on bones found in the northwest and stone tools in the northeast indicate that Madagascar was visited by foragers around 2000 BCE.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gommery | first1 = D. | last2 = Ramanivosoa | first2 = B. | last3 = Faure | first3 = M. | last4 = Guérin | first4 = C. | last5 = Kerloc'h | first5 = P. | last6 = Sénégas | first6 = F. | last7 = Randrianantenaina | first7 = H. | title = Oldest evidence of human activities in Madagascar on subfossil hippopotamus bones from Anjohibe (Mahajanga Province) | journal = Comptes Rendus Palevol | volume = 10 | issue = 4 | year = 2011 | pages = 271–278 | doi = 10.1016/j.crpv.2011.01.006}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Dewar | first1 = R. E. | last2 = Radimilahy | first2 = C. | last3 = Wright | first3 = H. T. | last4 = Jacobs | first4 = Z. | last5 = Kelly | first5 = G. O. | last6 = Berna | first6 = F. | title = Stone tools and foraging in northern Madagascar challenge Holocene extinction models | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 110 | issue = 31 | year = 2013 | pages = 12583–12588 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1306100110 | pmid=23858456 | pmc=3732966| bibcode = 2013PNAS..11012583D | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>Peter Forster, Shuichi Matsumutra, Matthieu Vizuete-Forster, Petya Belinda Blumbach & Robert Dewar (2008) "The Genetic Prehistory of Madagascar's Female Asian Lineages", In: {{cite book|last1=Matsumura|first1=Shūichi|last2=Forster|first2=Peter|last3=Renfrew|first3=Colin|author-link3=Colin Renfrew|title=Simulations, Genetics and Human Prehistory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IR3bAAAAMAAJ|year=2008|publisher=McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research|isbn=978-1-902937-45-8}}, pp71-72</ref>

Upon arrival, early settlers practiced ] agriculture to clear the coastal rainforests for cultivation. The first settlers encountered Madagascar's abundance of ],<ref>{{cite news |title=Human expansion 1,000 years ago linked to Madagascar's loss of large vertebrates |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/11/221104113440.htm |work=ScienceDaily |date=4 November 2022 |access-date=6 November 2022 |archive-date=6 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221106001734/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/11/221104113440.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> including 17 species of ], the large flightless ]s (including possibly the largest bird to ever exist, '']''), the ], and several species of ], which have since become extinct because of hunting and habitat destruction.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Virah-Sawmy |first = M. |author2 = Willis, K. J.|author3=Gillson, L. |title = Evidence for drought and forest declines during the recent megafaunal extinctions in Madagascar |journal = Journal of Biogeography |volume = 37 |pages = 506–519 |year = 2010 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02203.x |issue = 3|bibcode = 2010JBiog..37..506V |s2cid = 84382916 }}</ref> By 600&nbsp;AD, groups of these early settlers had begun clearing the forests of the central highlands.<ref name=Camp93>{{cite journal |last = Campbell |first = Gwyn |title = The Structure of Trade in Madagascar, 1750–1810 |journal = The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume = 26 |issue = 1 |pages = 111–148 |year = 1993 |doi = 10.2307/219188 |jstor = 219188 }}</ref>

Arab traders first reached the island between the 7th and 9th centuries.<ref name=Wink>Wink (2004), p. 185</ref> A wave of ]-speaking migrants from southeastern Africa arrived around the year 1000.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pierron|first1=Denis|last2=Heiske|first2=Margit|last3=Razafindrazaka|first3=Harilanto|last4=Rakoto|first4=Ignace|last5=Rabetokotany|first5=Nelly|last6=Ravololomanga|first6=Bodo|last7=Rakotozafy|first7=Lucien M.-A.|last8=Rakotomalala|first8=Mireille Mialy|last9=Razafiarivony|first9=Michel|last10=Rasoarifetra|first10=Bako|last11=Raharijesy|first11=Miakabola Andriamampianina|date=8 August 2017|title=Genomic landscape of human diversity across Madagascar|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=114|issue=32|pages=E6498–E6506|doi=10.1073/pnas.1704906114|issn=0027-8424|pmc=5559028|pmid=28716916|bibcode=2017PNAS..114E6498P |doi-access=free}}</ref> Around this time, ] from ] were first brought, intermingling with ] found in East Africa.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Magnier |first=Jessica |year=2022 |title=The genetic history of Mayotte and Madagascar cattle breeds mirrors the complex pattern of human exchanges in Western Indian Ocean |url=https://academic.oup.com/g3journal/article/12/4/jkac029/6523972?login=false |journal=G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics |volume=12 |issue=4|doi=10.1093/g3journal/jkac029 |pmid=35137043 |pmc=8982424 }}</ref> Irrigated paddy fields were developed in the central highland ] Kingdom and were extended with terraced paddies throughout the neighboring Kingdom of ] a century later.<ref name=Camp93/> The rising intensity of land cultivation and the ever-increasing demand for zebu pasturage had largely transformed the central highlands from a forest ecosystem to grassland by the 17th century.<ref name="Gade 1996">{{cite journal |last=Gade |first=Daniel W. |year=1996 |title=Deforestation and its effects in Highland Madagascar |journal=Mountain Research and Development |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=101–116 |doi=10.2307/3674005 |jstor=3674005}}</ref>

The oral histories of the Merina people, who arrived in the central highlands between 600 and 1,000 years ago, describe encountering an established population they called the ]. Probably the descendants of an earlier and less technologically advanced Austronesian settlement wave, the Vazimba were assimilated or expelled from the highlands by the Merina kings ], ], and ] in the 16th and early 17th centuries.<ref name=vazimbadjp>{{cite web |last = Domenichini |first = J.P. |title = Antehiroka et Royauté Vazimba |work = Express de Madagascar |publisher = Madatana.com |url = http://www.madatana.com/article-antehiroka-et-royaute-vazimba.php |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110714013559/http://www.madatana.com/article-antehiroka-et-royaute-vazimba.php |archive-date = 14 July 2011 |url-status=live |access-date =5 November 2010|language=fr}}</ref> Today, the spirits of the Vazimba are revered as ''tompontany'' (ancestral masters of the land) by many traditional Malagasy communities.<ref name="Mythe">{{cite web |last = Razafimahazo |first = S. |title = Vazimba: Mythe ou Realité? |work = Revue de l'Océan Indien |publisher = Madatana.com |year = 2011 |url = http://www.madatana.com/article-vazimba-mythe-ou-realite.php |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110714013401/http://www.madatana.com/article-vazimba-mythe-ou-realite.php |archive-date = 14 July 2011 |url-status=dead |access-date = 8 November 2010 |language = fr }}</ref>

===Arab and European contacts===
] ] recorded the island while participating in the ].]]

The ] of Madagascar began with the Arabs, who established trading posts along the northwest coast by at least the 10th century and introduced ], the ] (used to transcribe the Malagasy language in a form of writing known as '']''), Arab astrology, and other cultural elements.<ref name="LOC"/>

European contact began in 1500, when the ] sea captain ] sighted the island, while participating in the ] of the ].<ref name="BGNote" />

] was the first Portuguese settlement on the south coast, 10&nbsp;km west of ]. In 1508, settlers there built a tower, a small village, and a stone column. This settlement was established in 1513 at the behest of the viceroy of ], ].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Leitão|first=Humberto|title=Os dois descobrimentos da ilha de São Lourenço mandados fazer pelo vice-rei D. Jeronimio de Azevedo nos anos de 1613 à 1616|journal=Caravelle. Cahiers du Monde Hispanique et Luso-Brésilien|year=1971|volume=16|issue=1|page=261|url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/carav_0008-0152_1971_num_16_1_1816_t1_0261_0000_2|access-date=9 August 2020|archive-date=30 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330034504/https://www.persee.fr/doc/carav_0008-0152_1971_num_16_1_1816_t1_0261_0000_2|url-status=live}}</ref>

]
Contacts continued from the 1550s. Several colonization and conversion missions were ordered by King ] and by the Viceroy of India, including one in 1553 by Baltazar Lobo de Sousa. In that mission, according to detailed descriptions by chroniclers Diogo do Couto and João de Barros, emissaries reached the inland via rivers and bays, exchanging goods and even converting one of the local kings.<ref>{{cite web|last=Andrada|first=Francisco|title=Cronica do mujto alto e poderoso Rey destes Reynos de Portugal, Dom João o III.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CWlJAAAAcAAJ&q=Tararango+Madagascar&pg=PT292|year=1613|access-date=27 October 2020|archive-date=30 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330034502/https://books.google.com/books?id=CWlJAAAAcAAJ&q=Tararango+Madagascar&pg=PT292|url-status=live}}</ref>

The French established trading posts along the east coast in the late 17th century.<ref name="LOC" /> From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar gained prominence among pirates and European traders, particularly those involved in the ]. The small island of ] off the northeastern coast of Madagascar has been proposed by some historians as the site of the legendary pirate utopia of ].<ref>Oliver (1886), p. 16</ref> Many European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island, among them ], whose journal is one of the few written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century.<ref>Kent (1976), pp.&nbsp;65–71</ref> European accounts until the early 20th century ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jennings |first=Eric T. |date=2017 |title=Perspectives on French Colonial Madagascar |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/978-1-137-55967-8 |journal=SpringerLink |language=en |doi=10.1057/978-1-137-55967-8 |isbn=978-1-137-59690-1 |access-date=6 March 2024 |archive-date=27 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427035701/https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/978-1-137-55967-8 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The wealth generated by maritime trade spurred the rise of organized kingdoms on the island, some of which had grown quite powerful by the 17th century.<ref name=":2">{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/madg_1/hd_madg_1.htm |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110624105133/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/madg_1/hd_madg_1.htm |archive-date = 24 June 2011 |url-status=live |title=Kingdoms of Madagascar: Maroserana and Merina |publisher=Metmuseum.org |access-date=25 April 2010}}</ref> Among these were the ] alliance of the eastern coast and the ] chiefdoms of ] and ] on the west coast. The Kingdom of Imerina, located in the central highlands with its capital at the ] of Antananarivo, emerged at around the same time under the leadership of King Andriamanelo.<ref name="Ogot">Ogot (1992), p. 418</ref>

===Kingdom of Madagascar===
{{Expand section|information about the pre-Merina Betsileo and Sakalava kingdoms|date=March 2024|small=no}}{{Main|Merina Kingdom}}
] (1787–1810)]]
Upon its emergence in the early 17th century, the highland kingdom of Imerina was initially a minor power relative to the larger coastal kingdoms<ref name="Ogot"/> and grew even weaker in the early 18th century when King ] divided it among his four sons. Following almost a century of warring and famine, Imerina was reunited in 1793 by King ] (1787–1810).<ref name="Hodder">Hodder (1982), p. 59</ref> From his initial capital ],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/950 |title=Royal Hill of Ambohimanga |publisher=] |access-date=30 April 2011|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110629070952/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/950/|url-status=live |archive-date = 29 June 2011}}</ref> and later from the ], this Merina king rapidly expanded his rule over neighbouring principalities. His ambition to bring the entire island under his control was largely achieved by his son and successor, King ] (1810–28), who was recognized by the British government as King of Madagascar. Radama concluded a treaty in 1817 with the British governor of ] to abolish the lucrative slave trade in return for British military and financial assistance. Artisan missionary envoys from the ] began arriving in 1818 and included such key figures as ], ] and ], who established schools, transcribed the ] using the ], translated the Bible, and introduced a variety of new technologies to the island.<ref name="Ade Ajayi 1998, pp. 413–422">Ade Ajayi (1998), pp.&nbsp;413–422</ref>

Radama's successor, Queen ] (1828–61), responded to increasing political and cultural encroachment on the part of Britain and France by issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of ] and pressuring most foreigners to leave the territory. ] of the ] described his visits made during her reign in his book ''Three Visits to Madagascar during the years 1853, 1854, and 1856''. The Queen made heavy use of the traditional practice of '']'' (forced labor as tax payment) to complete public works projects and develop a standing army of between 20,000 and 30,000 ] soldiers, whom she deployed to pacify outlying regions of the island and further expand the Kingdom of Merina to encompass most of Madagascar. Residents of Madagascar could accuse one another of various crimes, including theft, Christianity and especially witchcraft, for which the ordeal of '']'' was routinely obligatory. Between 1828 and 1861, the ''tangena'' ordeal caused about 3,000 deaths annually. In 1838, it was estimated that as many as 100,000 people in Imerina died as a result of the tangena ordeal, constituting roughly 20 percent of the population.<ref name="Stats">{{cite journal | last = Campbell | first = Gwyn | date = October 1991 | title = The state and pre-colonial demographic history: the case of nineteenth-century Madagascar | journal = Journal of African History | volume = 23 | issue = 3 | pages = 415–445| doi = 10.1017/S0021853700031534 }}</ref> The combination of regular warfare, disease, difficult forced labor, and harsh measures of justice resulted in a high mortality rate among soldiers and civilians alike during her 33-year reign; the population of Madagascar is estimated to have declined from around 5&nbsp;million to 2.5&nbsp;million between 1833 and 1839.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Campbell |first = Gwyn |date = October 1991 |title = The state and pre-colonial demographic history: the case of nineteenth century Madagascar |journal = Journal of African History |volume = 23 |issue = 3 |pages = 415–445|doi = 10.1017/S0021853700031534 }}</ref>

Among those who continued to reside in Imerina were ], an entrepreneur who developed munitions and other industries on behalf of the monarchy, and ], a French adventurer and slave trader, with whom then-Prince ] signed a controversial trade agreement termed the Lambert Charter. Succeeding his mother, Radama II attempted to relax the queen's stringent policies but was ] two years later by Prime Minister ] and an alliance of '']'' (noble) and '']'' (commoner) courtiers, who sought to end the absolute power of the monarch.<ref name="LOC"/>

Following the coup, the courtiers offered Radama's queen, ], the opportunity to rule, if she would accept a power-sharing arrangement with the Prime Minister: a new social contract that would be sealed by a political marriage between them.<ref>Oliver (1886), pp. 124–126</ref> Queen Rasoherina accepted, first marrying Rainivoninahitriniony, then later deposing him and marrying his brother, Prime Minister ], who would go on to marry Queen ] and Queen ] in succession.<ref>Uwechue (1981), p. 473</ref> Over the course of Rainilaiarivony's 31-year tenure as prime minister, numerous policies were adopted to modernize and consolidate the power of the central government.<ref name=TA910/> Schools were constructed throughout the island and attendance was made mandatory. Army organization was improved and British consultants were employed to train and professionalize soldiers.<ref name=FFO522>Fage, Flint & Oliver (1986), pp. 522–524</ref> ] was outlawed and Christianity declared the official religion of the court in 1869, was adopted alongside traditional beliefs among a growing portion of the populace.<ref name=TA910>Thompson & Adloff (1965), pp. 9–10</ref> Legal codes were reformed on the basis of British ] and three European-style courts were established in the capital city.<ref name=FFO522/> In his joint role as Commander-in-Chief, Rainilaiarivony also successfully ensured the defense of Madagascar against several French colonial incursions.<ref name=FFO522/>

===French colonization===
{{Main|Malagasy Protectorate|French Madagascar}} {{See also|Madagascar in World War II}}

]]]
Primarily on the basis that the Lambert Charter had not been respected, France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first ].<ref name="Boogaerde p7">Van Den Boogaerde (2008), p. 7</ref> At the end of the war, Madagascar ceded the northern port town of ] (Diego Suarez) to France and paid 560,000 francs to Lambert's heirs.<ref name="Randier p400">Randier (2006), p. 400</ref> In 1890, the British accepted the full formal imposition of a French ] on the island, but French authority was not acknowledged by the government of Madagascar. To force capitulation, the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of ] on the east coast, and ] on the west coast, in December 1894 and January 1895 respectively.<ref name=Disease>Curtin (1998), p. 186</ref>

A French military ] then marched toward Antananarivo, losing many men to malaria and other diseases. Reinforcements came from ] and ]. Upon reaching the city in September 1895, the column bombarded the royal palace with heavy artillery, causing heavy casualties and leading Queen Ranavalona III to surrender.<ref>Oliver, Fage & Sanderson (1985), p. 529</ref> Popular resistance to the French capture of ]—known as the ]—broke out in December 1895, and was not suppressed until the end of 1897.<ref>Oliver, Fage & Sanderson (1985), p. 532</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Campbell |first=Gwyn |date=1991 |title=The Menalamba Revolt and Brigandry in Imperial Madagascar, 1820-1897 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/219791 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=259–291 |doi=10.2307/219791 |jstor=219791 |issn=0361-7882 |access-date=6 June 2024 |archive-date=1 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231001210237/https://www.jstor.org/stable/219791 |url-status=live }}</ref> France annexed Madagascar in 1896 and declared the island a colony the following year, dissolving the Merina monarchy and sending the royal family into exile on ] and to Algeria.

The conquest was followed by ten years of civil war, due to the Menalamba insurrection. The "pacification" carried out by the French administration lasted more than fifteen years, in response to the rural guerrillas scattered throughout the country. In total, the repression of this resistance to colonial conquest caused several tens of thousands of Malagasy victims.<ref>Jacques Tronchon. L'insurrection malgache de 1947. Essai d'interprétation historique, p 35–45</ref>

Under colonial rule, plantations were established for the production of a variety of export crops.<ref>Campbell (2005), p. 107</ref> ] was abolished in 1896 and approximately 500,000 slaves were freed; many remained in their former masters' homes as servants<ref>Shillington (2005), p. 878</ref> or as sharecroppers; in many parts of the island strong discriminatory views against slave descendants are still held today.<ref>Regnier (2015), pp. 152–154</ref> Wide paved boulevards and gathering places were constructed in the capital city of Antananarivo<ref>Fournet-Guérin (2007), pp. 45–54</ref> and the Rova palace compound was turned into a museum.<ref name="Frémigacci">Frémigacci (1999), pp. 421–444</ref> Additional schools were built, particularly in rural and coastal areas where the schools of the Merina had not reached. Education became mandatory between the ages of 6 and 13 and focused primarily on the French language and practical skills.<ref>Gallieni (1908), pp. 341–343</ref>
] commemorating the beginning of the ] on 29 March 1947. Between 11,000 and 90,000 Malagasy died during the uprising which lasted nearly two years.<ref>{{cite book |first=Travis |last=Hannibal |year=2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NbWdlRL8WzMC&pg=PA138 |title=Genocide, Ethnonationalism, and the United Nations: Exploring the Causes of Mass Killing Since 1945 |publisher=Routledge |page=138 |isbn=9780415531252 |access-date=23 June 2021 |archive-date=24 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624212928/https://books.google.com/books?id=NbWdlRL8WzMC&pg=PA138 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

Huge mining and forestry concessions were granted to large companies. Native chiefs loyal to the French administration were also granted part of the land. Forced labor was introduced in favor of the French companies and peasants were encouraged, through taxation, to work for wages (especially in the colonial concessions) to the detriment of small individual farms. However, the colonial period was accompanied by movements fighting for independence: the Menalamba, the Vy Vato Sakelika, the Democratic Movement for Malagasy Renovation (MDRM). In 1927, major demonstrations were organized in Antananarivo, notably on the initiative of the communist activist François Vittori, who was imprisoned as a result. The 1930s saw the Malagasy anti-colonial movement gain further momentum. Malagasy trade unionism began to appear underground and the Communist Party of the Madagascar region was formed. But in 1939, all the organizations were dissolved by the administration of the colony, which opted for the Vichy regime. The MDRM was accused by the colonial regime of being at the origin of the 1947 insurrection and was pursued by violent repression.<ref>Jacques Tronchon. L'insurrection malgache de 1947. Essai d'interprétation historique, p 35-45</ref>

The Merina royal tradition of ] was continued under the French and used to construct a railway and roads linking key coastal cities to Antananarivo.<ref>Reinsch (1905), p. 377</ref> Malagasy troops fought for France in ].<ref name=BGNote/> In the 1930s, ] political thinkers developed the ] that had identified the island as a potential site for the deportation of Europe's Jews.<ref name="contemplation">Browning (2004), pp. 81–89</ref> During the ], the island was the site of the ] between the ] and an ] expeditionary force.<ref>Kennedy (2007), pp. 511–512</ref>

The occupation of France during the Second World War tarnished the prestige of the colonial administration in Madagascar and galvanized the growing independence movement, leading to the ] of 1947.<ref>Lehoullier (2010), p. 107</ref> This movement led the French to establish reformed institutions in 1956 under the '']'' (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence.<ref name="Kitchen 1962, p. 256">Kitchen (1962), p. 256</ref> The ] was proclaimed on 14 October 1958, as an ] state within the ]. A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on 26 June 1960.<ref>Pryor (1990), pp. 209–210</ref>

===Independent state===
{{Main|Malagasy Republic|Democratic Republic of Madagascar|Third Republic of Madagascar}}
], the first ] (1960–1972)]]
Since regaining independence, Madagascar has transitioned through four republics with corresponding revisions to its constitution. The ] (1960–72), under the leadership of French-appointed President ], was characterized by a continuation of strong economic and political ties to France. Many high-level technical positions were filled by French expatriates, and French teachers, textbooks and curricula continued to be used in schools around the country. Popular resentment over Tsiranana's tolerance for this "neo-colonial" arrangement inspired a ] that overturned his administration in 1972.<ref name="LOC"/>

], a major general in the army, was appointed interim president and prime minister that same year, but low public approval forced him to step down in 1975. Colonel ], appointed to succeed him, was assassinated six days into his tenure. General ] ruled after Ratsimandrava for four months before being replaced by another military appointee: Vice Admiral ], who ushered in the Marxist–Leninist ] that ran under his tenure from 1975 to 1993.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lechodusud.com/post/%C3%A9lection-pr%C3%A9sidentielle-%C3%A0-madagascar-les-ratsiraka-une-famille-divis%C3%A9e |url-status=dead |title=Élection présidentielle à Madagascar: les Ratsiraka, une famille divisée |access-date=26 August 2023 |work=] |language=fr |archive-date=26 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230826105935/https://www.lechodusud.com/post/%C3%A9lection-pr%C3%A9sidentielle-%C3%A0-madagascar-les-ratsiraka-une-famille-divis%C3%A9e }}</ref>

This period saw a political alignment with the ] countries and a shift toward economic insularity. These policies, coupled with economic pressures stemming from the ], resulted in the rapid collapse of Madagascar's economy and a sharp decline in living standards,<ref name="LOC"/> and the country had become completely bankrupt by 1979. The Ratsiraka administration accepted the conditions of transparency, anti-corruption measures and free market policies imposed by the International Monetary Fund, ] and various bilateral donors in exchange for their bailout of the nation's broken economy.<ref name=ISS/>

Ratsiraka's dwindling popularity in the late 1980s reached a critical point in 1991 when presidential guards opened fire on unarmed protesters during a rally. Within two months, a transitional government had been established under the leadership of ] (1993–96), who went on to win the 1992 presidential elections and inaugurate the ] (1992–2010).<ref name="crisisgroup">{{cite web |url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/africa/southern-africa/madagascar/166%20Madagascar%20a%20un%20tournant%20critique.ashx |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110725204902/http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/africa/southern-africa/madagascar/166%20Madagascar%20a%20un%20tournant%20critique.ashx |archive-date = 25 July 2011 |url-status=dead |title=Madagascar: La Crise a un Tournant Critique? |access-date=25 November 2010 |work=International Crisis Group |language=fr}}</ref> The new ] established a multi-party democracy and a separation of powers that placed significant control in the hands of the National Assembly. The new constitution also emphasized human rights, social and political freedoms, and free trade.<ref name="LOC"/> Zafy's term, however, was marred by economic decline, allegations of corruption, and his introduction of legislation to give himself greater powers. He was consequently impeached in 1996, and an interim president, ], was appointed for the three months prior to the next presidential election. Ratsiraka was then voted back into power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms for a second term which lasted from 1996 to 2001.<ref name=ISS>{{cite journal |last = Marcus |first = Richard |title = Political change in Madagascar: populist democracy or neopatrimonialism by another name? |journal = Occasional Paper No. 89 |publisher = Institute for Security Studies |date = August 2004 |url = http://www.issafrica.org/publications/papers/political-change-in-madagascar-populist-democracy-or-neopatrimonialism-by-another-name |access-date =15 February 2012 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040907223329/http://www.iss.org.za/pubs/papers/89/Paper89.htm |archive-date = 7 September 2004}}</ref>

The contested ] in which then-mayor of Antananarivo, Marc Ravalomanana, eventually emerged victorious, caused a seven-month standoff in 2002 between supporters of Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka. The negative economic impact of the political crisis was gradually overcome by Ravalomanana's progressive economic and political policies, which encouraged investments in education and ecotourism, facilitated foreign direct investment, and cultivated trading partnerships both regionally and internationally. National GDP grew at an average rate of 7&nbsp;percent per year under his administration. In the latter half of his second term, Ravalomanana was criticised by domestic and international observers who accused him of increasing authoritarianism and corruption.<ref name=ISS/>

Opposition leader and then-mayor of Antananarivo, ], led a ] in which Ravalomanana was pushed from power in an unconstitutional process widely condemned as a ''coup d'état''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ratsimbaharison|first=Adrien|title=The Political Crisis of March 2009 in Madagascar: A Case Study of Conflict and Conflict Mediation|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2017|isbn=978-1-4422-7235-4|location=Lanham, Boulder, New York, London}}</ref> In March 2009, Rajoelina was declared by the Supreme Court as the President of the ], an interim governing body responsible for moving the country toward presidential elections. In 2010, a new constitution was ], establishing a Fourth Republic, which sustained the democratic, multi-party structure established in the previous constitution.<ref name="crisisgroup"/> ] was declared the winner of the ], which the international community deemed fair and transparent.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/apps/newsFr/storyF.asp?NewsID=31715&Cr=Madagascar&Cr1=#.UrVg67Sp6RM |title=Centre d'actualités de l'ONU – Madagascar : l'ONU salue le bon déroulement du deuxième tour des élections présidentielles |publisher=Un.org |date=20 December 2013 |access-date=28 June 2017 |archive-date=3 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703112119/http://www.un.org/apps/newsFr/storyF.asp?NewsID=31715&Cr=Madagascar&Cr1=#.UrVg67Sp6RM |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2018 the first round of the ] was held on 7 November and the second round was held on 10 December. Three former presidents and the most recent president were the main candidates of the elections. Rajoelina won the second round of the elections. Ravalomana lost the second round and he did not accept the results because of allegations of fraud. Rajaonarimampianina received very modest support in the first round. In January 2019 the High Constitutional Court declared Rajoelina as the winner of the elections and the new president.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/11/6/madagascar-presidential-election-what-you-need-to-know |title=All you need to know about high-stakes Madagascar poll |access-date=30 March 2021 |archive-date=30 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330034449/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/11/6/madagascar-presidential-election-what-you-need-to-know |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/1/8/madagascar-court-declares-rajoelina-as-election-winner |title=Madagascar court declares Rajoelina as election winner |access-date=30 March 2021 |archive-date=21 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121032738/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/1/8/madagascar-court-declares-rajoelina-as-election-winner |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.africanews.com/2018/12/28/madagascar-starts-voting-in-tight-presidential-race/ |title=Madagascar: Ravalomanana challenges results in court, Rajoelina calls for calm |date=28 December 2018 |access-date=30 March 2021 |archive-date=8 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108124618/https://www.africanews.com/2018/12/28/madagascar-starts-voting-in-tight-presidential-race// |url-status=live }}</ref>
In June 2019 ] the Rajoelina's won absolute majority of the seats of the National Assembly. It received 84 seats and the supporters of former president Ravalomana got only 16 seats of 151 seats of the National Assembly. 51 seats of deputies were independent or represented small parties. Rajoelina could rule as a ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.africanews.com/2019/06/15/madagascar-president-assured-of-winning-majority-seats-in-parliament/ |title=Madagascar President assured of winning majority seats in parliament |date=15 June 2019 |access-date=30 March 2021 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030200649/https://www.africanews.com/2019/06/15/madagascar-president-assured-of-winning-majority-seats-in-parliament/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

Mid-2021 marked the beginning of the ] which, due to a severe drought, caused hundreds of thousands of people to face ] and over one million people were on the verge of a ].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Januta |first1=Andrea |title=Madagascar food crisis caused more by poverty, natural weather than climate change – study |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/cop/madagascar-food-crisis-caused-more-by-poverty-natural-weather-than-climate-2021-12-01/ |work=Reuters |date=1 December 2021 |language=en |access-date=25 January 2022 |archive-date=25 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125102959/https://www.reuters.com/business/cop/madagascar-food-crisis-caused-more-by-poverty-natural-weather-than-climate-2021-12-01/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In November 2023, Rajoelina was re-elected to another term with 58.95% of the vote in the first round of the ] amidst an opposition boycott and a controversy about his acquisition of French citizenship and subsequent eligibility. Turnout was 46.36%, the lowest in a presidential election in the country's history.<ref>{{cite web |date=25 November 2023 |title=Andry Rajoelina: Madagascar president re-elected in contested poll |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-67517143 |access-date=26 November 2023 |work=BBC News |archive-date=5 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231205020853/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-67517143 |url-status=live }}</ref>


==Geography== ==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Madagascar|Ecoregions of Madagascar}} {{Main|Geography of Madagascar|Geology of Madagascar}}
]
{{multiple image
At {{convert|592800|km2}},<ref name="BGNote"/> Madagascar is the world's 46th ],<ref name="cia">{{cite web |author=Central Intelligence Agency |author-link=CIA |publisher=] |title=Madagascar |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/madagascar/ |year=2011 |access-date=24 August 2011 |archive-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214064652/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/madagascar/ |url-status=live }}</ref> the second-largest ]<ref name="world-atlas">{{cite web|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/which-are-the-island-countries-of-the-world.html |title=Island Countries of the World |publisher=WorldAtlas.com |access-date=10 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171207094959/http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/which-are-the-island-countries-of-the-world.html | archive-date=7 December 2017}}</ref> and the ].<ref name="BGNote" /> The country lies mostly between latitudes ] and ], and longitudes ] and ].<ref name="georeport">Moriarty (1891), pp. 1–2</ref> Neighboring islands include the French territory of ] and the country of ] to the east, as well as the state of ] and the French territory of ] to the north west. The nearest mainland state is ], located to the west.
|footer = The terraced rice paddies of the ] of Madagascar (left) give way to tropical rainforest along the eastern coast (center) bordered by the shores of the Indian Ocean (right).
|align = right
|image1 = Imerina countryside riziere rice paddies Madagascar.jpg
|width1 = 180
|alt1 = terraced emerald rice paddies checker softly rolling hills
|image2 = Rainforestmadagascar04.tif
|width2 = 190
|alt2 = Hills covered with dense blue green tropical forests
|image3 = Beach in Madagascar with pirogues and palm trees.jpg
|width3 = 155
|alt3 = White sand beach lined with palm trees along a turquoise sea
}}
At {{convert|592800|km2}},<ref name=BGNote>{{cite web | last = Bureau of African Affairs | title = Background Note: Madagascar | publisher = U.S. Department of State | date = 3 May 2011 | url = http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5460.htm | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/61Be3ZCkK | archivedate = 24 August 2011 | accessdate =24 August 2011}}</ref> Madagascar is the world's 47th largest country<ref name=cia>{{cite web |author=Central Intelligence Agency |authorlink=CIA |publisher=]|title=Madagascar |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ma.html |year=2011|accessdate=24 August 2011 |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/61BpMkYSR |archivedate =24 August 2011}}</ref> and the ].<ref name=BGNote/> The country lies mostly between latitudes ] and ], and longitudes ] and ].<ref name=georeport>Moriarty (1891), pp. 1–2</ref> Neighboring islands include the French territory of ] and the country of ] to the east, as well as the state of ] and the French territory of ] to the north west. The nearest mainland state is ], located to the west.


The prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent ] separated the Madagascar-Antarctica-India landmass from the Africa-South America landmass around 135&nbsp;million years ago. Madagascar later split from India about 88&nbsp;million years ago, allowing plants and animals on the island to evolve in relative isolation.<ref>{{cite web | last = University of Berkeley: Understanding Evolution | title = Where did all of Madagascar's species come from? | url=http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/news/091001_madagascar |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/5xIlRolGu|archivedate = 19 March 2011|date = October 2009 | accessdate =19 March 2011}}</ref> Along the length of the eastern coast runs a narrow and steep ] containing much of the island's remaining tropical ]. To the west of this ridge lies a ] in the center of the island ranging in altitude from {{Convert|750|to|1500|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}} above sea level. These ], traditionally the homeland of the ] and the location of their historic capital at ], are the most densely populated part of the island and are characterized by terraced, rice-growing valleys lying between grassy hills and patches of the ] that formerly covered the highland region. To the west of the highlands, the increasingly arid terrain gradually slopes down to the ] and ] along the coast.<ref name=endemicstats>{{cite journal | last1 = Vences | first1 = Miguel| last2 = Wollenberg| first2 = Katharina | last3 = Vieites | first3 = David | last4 = Lees | first4 = David| title = Madagascar as a model region of species diversification | journal = Trends in Ecology and Evolution | volume = 24 | issue = 8 | pages = 456–465 | date = June 2009 | doi = 10.1016/j.tree.2009.03.011 |url = http://www.mvences.de/p/p1/Vences_A163.pdf |accessdate=11 February 2012 |archivedate = 11 February 2012 | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/65N9YtmnD | pmid = 19500874}}</ref> The prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana resulted in the separation of East Gondwana (comprising Madagascar, Antarctica, Australia and the Indian subcontinent) and West Gondwana (Africa–South America) during the ] period, around 185&nbsp;million years ago. The Indo-Madagascar landmass separated from Antarctica and Australia around 125 million years ago<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reeves|first=Colin V.|date=February 2018|title=The development of the East African margin during Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous times: a perspective from global tectonics|url=http://pg.lyellcollection.org/lookup/doi/10.1144/petgeo2017-021|journal=Petroleum Geoscience|language=en|volume=24|issue=1|pages=41–56|doi=10.1144/petgeo2017-021|bibcode=2018PetGe..24...41R |s2cid=133869410|issn=1354-0793|access-date=6 December 2021|archive-date=3 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303033237/https://pg.lyellcollection.org/content/24/1/41|url-status=live}}</ref> and Madagascar separated from the Indian landmass about 84–92&nbsp;million years ago during the Late ].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Torsvik|first1=T.H.|last2=Tucker|first2=R.D.|last3=Ashwal|first3=L.D.|last4=Carter|first4=L.M.|last5=Jamtveit|first5=B.|last6=Vidyadharan|first6=K.T.|last7=Venkataramana|first7=P.|date=October 2000|title=Late Cretaceous India-Madagascar fit and timing of break-up related magmatism|journal=Terra Nova|language=en|volume=12|issue=5|pages=220–224|doi=10.1046/j.1365-3121.2000.00300.x|bibcode=2000TeNov..12..220T|s2cid=128896193}}</ref> This long history of separation from other continents has allowed plants and animals on the island to evolve in relative isolation. Along the length of the eastern coast runs a narrow and steep ] containing much of the island's remaining tropical ]. To the west of this ridge lies a ] in the center of the island ranging in altitude from {{convert|750|to|1500|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}} above sea level. These ], traditionally the homeland of the ] and the location of their historic capital at ], are the most densely populated part of the island and are characterized by terraced, rice-growing valleys lying between grassy hills and patches of the ] that formerly covered the highland region. To the west of the highlands, the increasingly arid terrain gradually slopes down to the ] and ] along the coast.<ref name=endemicstats>{{cite journal|vauthors=Vences M, Wollenberg KC, Vieites DR, Lees DC |title = Madagascar as a model region of species diversification |journal = Trends in Ecology and Evolution |volume = 24 |issue = 8 |pages = 456–465 |date = June 2009 |doi = 10.1016/j.tree.2009.03.011 |url = http://www.mvences.de/p/p1/Vences_A163.pdf |access-date=11 February 2012 |archive-date = 9 May 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130509070414/http://www.mvences.de/p/p1/Vences_A163.pdf |pmid = 19500874|bibcode = 2009TEcoE..24..456V }}</ref>

{{multiple image
Madagascar's highest peaks rise from three prominent highland ]s: ] {{convert|2876|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in the ] is the island's highest point, followed by Boby Peak {{convert|2658|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in the ], and Tsiafajavona {{convert|2643|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in the ] Massif. To the east, the '']'' is a chain of human-made and natural lakes connected by canals built by the French just inland from the east coast and running parallel to it for some {{convert|600|km|mi|-1|abbr=on}}.<ref name=EBLand/>
|footer = The grassy plains that dominate the western landscape are dotted with stony massifs (left), patches of deciduous forest, and ] (center), while the south is characterized by desert and ] (right).

|align = left
The western and southern sides, which lie in the ] of the central highlands, are home to ], ], and ]. Due to their lower population densities, Madagascar's dry deciduous forests have been better preserved than the eastern rain forests or the original woodlands of the central plateau. The western coast features many protected harbors, but silting is a major problem caused by sediment from the high levels of inland erosion carried by rivers crossing the broad western plains.<ref name=EBLand>{{cite encyclopedia |last = Encyclopædia Britannica|title = Madagascar |encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher = Eb.com |year = 2011 |url = https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/355562/Madagascar |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111219010104/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/355562/Madagascar |archive-date = 19 December 2011 |url-status=live|access-date =25 August 2011}}</ref>
|image1 = Isalo canyons.jpg
|width1 = 163
|alt1 = Pastel striated stone outcroppings jut from the plains
|image2 = Allée des Baobabs near Morondava, Madagascar.jpg
|width2 = 155
|alt2 = Giant baobabs clustered against the sky
|image3 = Spiny Forest Ifaty Madagascar.jpg
|width3 = 175
|alt3 = Bizarre succulents growing sparsely from deep red earth
}}
Madagascar's highest peaks rise from three prominent highland ]s: ] {{Convert|2876|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} on the ] is the island's highest point, followed by Boby Peak {{Convert|2658|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} on the ] and Tsiafajavona {{Convert|2643|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} on the Ankaratra Massif. To the east, the '']'' is a chain of man-made and natural lakes connected by canals built by the French just inland from the east coast and running parallel to it for some {{Convert|600|km|mi|-1|abbr=on}}. The western and southern sides, which lie in the ] of the central highlands, are home to ], ], and ]. Due to their lower population densities, Madagascar's dry deciduous forests have been better preserved than the eastern rain forests or the original woodlands of the central plateau. The western coast features many protected harbors, but silting is a major problem caused by ] from the high levels of inland ] carried by rivers crossing the broad western plains.<ref name=EBLand>{{cite web | last = Encyclopaedia Britannica| title = Madagascar | work = Encyclopaedia Britannica | publisher = Eb.com | year = 2011 | url = http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/355562/Madagascar | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/64fD1P7X2 | archivedate = 25 August 2011 | accessdate =25 August 2011}}</ref>


===Climate=== ===Climate===
] map of Madagascar]]
{{See also|Geography of Madagascar#Climate}}
The combination of southeastern ] and northwestern ]s produces a hot rainy season (November–April) with frequently destructive ]s, and a relatively cooler dry season (May–October). Rain clouds originating over the Indian Ocean discharge much of their moisture over the island's eastern coast; the heavy precipitation supports the area's ] ecosystem. The central highlands are both drier and cooler while the west is drier still, and a ] prevails in the southwest and southern interior of the island.<ref name=endemicstats/>
]s cause damage to infrastructure and local economies as well as loss of life.<ref name="LOC">{{cite web|last = Metz |first = Helen Chapin |author-link = Helen Chapin Metz |year = 1994 |title = Library of Congress Country Studies: Madagascar |url=http://countrystudies.us/madagascar/ |access-date =1 February 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20051109090930/http://countrystudies.us/madagascar/ |url-status=dead |archive-date = 9 November 2005}}</ref> In 2004, ] became the strongest cyclone ever recorded to hit Madagascar. The storm killed 172 people, left 214,260 homeless<ref name=gafilo>{{cite web|author= International Federation of Red Cross And Red Crescent Societies |publisher=ReliefWeb|date=25 February 2005|access-date=31 March 2011|title=Madagascar: Cyclone Gafilo, Final Report, Appeal 08/04|url=http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900sid/DDAD-69XMQW?OpenDocument&rc=1&emid=2004-0103 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130830093808/http://reliefweb.int/report/madagascar/madagascar-cyclone-gafilo-final-report-appeal-0804 |url-status=live |archive-date = 30 August 2013}}</ref> and caused more than US$250&nbsp;million in damage.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web|author= Integrated Regional Information Networks|publisher=ReliefWeb|date=2 July 2004|access-date=9 September 2012|title= Madagascar: Saving the children from Gafilo's aftermath |url=http://reliefweb.int/report/madagascar/madagascar-saving-children-gafilos-aftermath |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20140226232225/http://reliefweb.int/report/madagascar/madagascar-saving-children-gafilos-aftermath |url-status=live|archive-date = 26 February 2014}}</ref> In February 2022, ] killed 121 people,<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-02-15|title=Southern Africa: Cyclone Season Flash Update No. 6 (Tropical Cyclone Batsirai) (13 February 2022) - Madagascar|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/madagascar/southern-africa-cyclone-season-flash-update-no-6-tropical-cyclone-batsirai-13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220215102344/https://reliefweb.int/report/madagascar/southern-africa-cyclone-season-flash-update-no-6-tropical-cyclone-batsirai-13|archive-date=2022-02-15|access-date=2022-02-15|website=ReliefWeb|language=en}}</ref> weeks after ] killed 55 and displaced 130,000 people on the island.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rabary |first1=Lovasoa |title=Cyclone kills at least 10 in Madagascar, destroying homes and cutting power |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/least-three-dead-after-cyclone-batsirai-causes-devastation-southeast-madagascar-2022-02-06/ |work=Reuters |date=6 February 2022 |language=en |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=6 February 2022 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220206233516/https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/least-three-dead-after-cyclone-batsirai-causes-devastation-southeast-madagascar-2022-02-06/ |url-status=live }}</ref>


A 2022 analysis found that the expected costs for Madagascar, to adapt to and avert the environmental consequences of ], are going to be high.<ref>{{cite web |last=Laville |first=Sandra |date=2022-07-13 |title=Climate adaptation bill for African countries to dwarf health spending |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jul/13/climate-adaptation-bill-african-countries-dwarf-health-spending |access-date=2022-07-14 |website=The Guardian |language=en |archive-date=12 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220912120732/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jul/13/climate-adaptation-bill-african-countries-dwarf-health-spending |url-status=live }}</ref>
The combination of southeastern ] and northwestern ] produces a hot rainy season (November–April) with frequently destructive ], and a relatively cooler dry season (May–October). Rain clouds originating over the Indian Ocean discharge much of their moisture over the island's eastern coast; the heavy precipitation supports the area's ] ecosystem. The central highlands are both drier and cooler while the west is drier still, and a ] prevails in the southwest and southern interior of the island.<ref name=endemicstats/> ]s annually cause damage to infrastructure and local economies as well as loss of life.<ref name="LOC">{{cite web| last = Metz | first = Helen Chapin |year = 1994 | title = Library of Congress Country Studies: Madagascar | url=http://countrystudies.us/madagascar/ | accessdate =1 February 2011 |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/64jOW1dDD |archivedate = 1 February 2011}}</ref> In 2004 ] became the strongest cyclone ever recorded to hit Madagascar. The storm killed 172 people, left 214,260 homeless<ref name=gafilo>{{cite web|author= International Federation of Red Cross And Red Crescent Societies |publisher=ReliefWeb|date=25 February 2005|accessdate=31 March 2011|title=Madagascar: Cyclone Gafilo, Final Report, Appeal 08/04|url=http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900sid/DDAD-69XMQW?OpenDocument&rc=1&emid=2004-0103 |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6AJwJLJ5X |archivedate = 31 August 2012}}</ref> and caused more than US$250&nbsp;million in damage.<ref name=gafilo>{{cite web|author= Integrated Regional Information Networks|publisher=ReliefWeb|date=2 July 2004|accessdate=9 September 2012|title= Madagascar: Saving the children from Gafilo's aftermath |url=http://reliefweb.int/report/madagascar/madagascar-saving-children-gafilos-aftermath |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6AXdqXMlF |archivedate = 9 September 2012}}</ref>


===Biodiversity and conservation===
===Ecology===
{{Main|Wildlife of Madagascar|Flora of Madagascar|Fauna of Madagascar|Agroecology in Madagascar}} {{Main|Wildlife of Madagascar|Flora of Madagascar|Fauna of Madagascar|Agriculture in Madagascar|Ecoregions of Madagascar|List of World Heritage Sites in Madagascar|Deforestation in Madagascar|Illegal logging in Madagascar|}}
]''), the flowers of this orchid have a very long spur and are pollinated by a species of ] with a proboscis of matching length.]]
As a result of the island's long isolation from neighbouring continents, Madagascar is home to various ] plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth.<ref name=CIHotSpot/><ref name=tattersall>{{cite book|last=Tattersall|first=Ian|title=Origin of the Malagasy Strepshirhine Primates|year=2006|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-387-34585-7|pages=1–6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nsBtrhsMU5EC&pg=PA3|access-date=14 October 2015|archive-date=6 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406113920/https://books.google.com/books?id=nsBtrhsMU5EC&pg=PA3|url-status=live}}</ref> Approximately 90% of all plant and animal species found in Madagascar are ].<ref>Hobbes & Dolan (2008), p. 517</ref> This distinctive ecology has led some ecologists to refer to Madagascar as the "eighth continent",<ref>Hillstrom & Collier Hillstrom (2003), p. 50</ref> and the island has been classified by ] as a biodiversity hotspot.<ref name=CIHotSpot>{{cite web |last=Conservation International |title=Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands |work=Biodiversity Hotspots |publisher=Conservation International |year=2007 |url=http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/madagascar/pages/biodiversity.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110824110451/http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/madagascar/Pages/biodiversity.aspx |archive-date = 24 August 2011 |url-status=dead |access-date = 24 August 2011 }}</ref> Madagascar is classed as one of 17 ]. The country is home to seven terrestrial ecoregions: ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal |last1=Dinerstein |first1=Eric |last2=Olson |first2=David |last3=Joshi |first3=Anup |last4=Vynne |first4=Carly |last5=Burgess |first5=Neil D. |last6=Wikramanayake |first6=Eric |last7=Hahn |first7=Nathan |last8=Palminteri |first8=Suzanne |last9=Hedao |first9=Prashant |last10=Noss |first10=Reed |last11=Hansen |first11=Matt |last12=Locke |first12=Harvey |last13=Ellis |first13=Erle C. |last14=Jones |first14=Benjamin |last15=Barber |first15=Charles Victor |last16=Hayes |first16=Randy |last17=Kormos |first17=Cyril |last18=Martin |first18=Vance |last19=Crist |first19=Eileen |last20=Sechrest |first20=Wes |last21=Price |first21=Lori |last22=Baillie |first22=Jonathan E. M. |last23=Weeden |first23=Don |last24=Suckling |first24=Kierán |last25=Davis |first25=Crystal |last26=Sizer |first26=Nigel |last27=Moore |first27=Rebecca |last28=Thau |first28=David |last29=Birch |first29=Tanya |last30=Potapov |first30=Peter |last31=Turubanova |first31=Svetlana |last32=Tyukavina |first32=Alexandra |last33=de Souza |first33=Nadia |last34=Pintea |first34=Lilian |last35=Brito |first35=José C. |last36=Llewellyn |first36=Othman A. |last37=Miller |first37=Anthony G. |last38=Patzelt |first38=Annette |last39=Ghazanfar|first39=Shahina A. |last40=Timberlake |first40=Jonathan |last41=Klöser |first41=Heinz|last42=Shennan-Farpón |first42=Yara |last43=Kindt |first43=Roeland |last44=Lillesø |first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow |last45=van Breugel |first45=Paulo |last46=Graudal |first46=Lars |last47=Voge |first47=Maianna |last48=Al-Shammari |first48=Khalaf F. |last49=Saleem |first49=Muhammad |display-authors=1 |title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm |journal=BioScience |volume=67 |issue=6 |year=2017 |pages=534–545 |issn=0006-3568 |doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014 |pmid=28608869 |pmc=5451287 |doi-access=free}}</ref>


More than 80&nbsp;percent of Madagascar's 14,883 ] are found nowhere else in the world, including five plant families.<ref name=endemism>{{cite journal |last1=Callmander |first1=Martin |display-authors=etal |title=The endemic and non-endemic vascular flora of Madagascar updated |journal=Plant Ecology and Evolution |volume=144 |issue=2 |pages=121–125 |year=2011 |doi=10.5091/plecevo.2011.513 |url=http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/curators/pdf/PLECEVO_2011.pdf |access-date=11 February 2012 |archive-date=31 August 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130831072620/http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/curators/pdf/PLECEVO_2011.pdf}}</ref> The family '']'', composed of four genera and 11 species, is limited to the ] of southwestern Madagascar.<ref name=endemicstats/> Four-fifths of the world's '']'' species are endemic to the island.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Lavranos |first1 = John |year = 2004 |title = Pachypodium makayense: A New Species From Madagascar |journal = Cactus and Succulent Journal |volume = 76 |issue = 2|pages = 85–88}}</ref> Three-fourths<ref name=B2011plant/> of Madagascar's 860<ref name=endemism/> ] species are found here alone, as are six of the world's nine ] species.<ref>{{cite journal |doi = 10.1080/106351598260879 |vauthors=Baum DA, Small RL, Wendel JF |year = 1998 |title = Biogeography and floral evolution of baobabs (Adansonia, Bombacaceae) as inferred from multiple data sets |journal = Systematic Biology |volume = 47 |issue = 2|pages = 181–207 |pmid = 12064226|doi-access = free }}</ref> The island is home to around 170 ] species, three times as many as on all of mainland Africa; 165 of them are endemic.<ref name=B2011plant>Bradt (2011), p. 38</ref> Many native plant species are used as herbal remedies for a variety of afflictions. The drugs ]<ref name = MoleculesReview>{{cite journal|journal = ]|year = 2012|volume = 17|issue = 5|pages = 5893–5914|doi = 10.3390/molecules17055893|title = Modifications on the basic skeletons of vinblastine and vincristine|first1 = Péter|last1 = Keglevich|first2 = Laszlo|last2 = Hazai|first3 = György|last3 = Kalaus|first4 = Csaba|last4 = Szántay|pmid = 22609781|pmc = 6268133|doi-access = free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first1 = Justin E.|last1 = Sears|first2 = Dale L.|last2 = Boger|author-link2 = Dale L. Boger|title = Total Synthesis of Vinblastine, Related Natural Products, and Key Analogues and Development of Inspired Methodology Suitable for the Systematic Study of Their Structure-Function Properties|journal = ]|year = 2015|volume = 48|issue = 3|pages = 653–662|doi = 10.1021/ar500400w|pmid = 25586069|pmc = 4363169}}</ref> and ]<ref name = MoleculesReview /><ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Kuboyama|first1 = Takeshi|last2 = Yokoshima|first2 = Satoshi|last3 = Tokuyama|first3 = Hidetoshi|last4 = Fukuyama|first4 = Tohru|title = Stereocontrolled total synthesis of (+)-vincristine|journal = ]|year = 2004|volume = 101|issue = 33|pages = 11966–11970|doi = 10.1073/pnas.0401323101|pmid = 15141084|bibcode = 2004PNAS..10111966K|pmc = 514417|doi-access = free}}</ref> are ],<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = van der Heijden|first1 = Robert|last2 = Jacobs|first2 = Denise I.|last3 = Snoeijer|first3 = Wim|last4 = Hallard|first4 = Didier|last5 = Verpoorte|first5 = Robert|year = 2004|title = The ''Catharanthus'' alkaloids: Pharmacognosy and biotechnology|journal = ]|volume = 11|issue = 5|pages = 607–628|pmid = 15032608|doi = 10.2174/0929867043455846}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last = Raviña|first = Enrique|title = The evolution of drug discovery: From traditional medicines to modern drugs|year = 2011|publisher = ]|isbn = 9783527326693|pages = 157–159|chapter = ''Vinca'' alkaloids|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=iDNy0XxGqT8C&pg=PA157|access-date = 4 September 2017|archive-date = 16 December 2019|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191216205648/https://books.google.com/books?id=iDNy0XxGqT8C&pg=PA157|url-status = live}}</ref> used to treat ],<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.cancer.org/cancer/hodgkin-lymphoma/treating/chemotherapy.html|date = 29 March 2017|access-date = 22 June 2017|title = Chemotherapy for Hodgkin Lymphoma|publisher = ]|website = ]|archive-date = 29 August 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170829125716/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/hodgkin-lymphoma/treating/chemotherapy.html|url-status = live}}<br />{{cite web|url = https://www.cancer.org/cancer/non-hodgkin-lymphoma/treating/chemotherapy.html|date = 31 May 2016|access-date = 22 June 2017|title = Chemotherapy for Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma|publisher = ]|website = ]|archive-date = 29 August 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170829124015/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/non-hodgkin-lymphoma/treating/chemotherapy.html|url-status = live}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.cancer.org/cancer/acute-lymphocytic-leukemia/treating/chemotherapy.html|date = 18 February 2016|access-date = 22 June 2017|title = Chemotherapy for Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia|publisher = ]|website = ]|archive-date = 29 August 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170829130745/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/acute-lymphocytic-leukemia/treating/chemotherapy.html|url-status = live}}<br />{{cite web|url = https://www.cancer.org/cancer/chronic-myeloid-leukemia/treating/chemotherapy.html|date = 22 February 2016|access-date = 22 June 2017|title = Chemotherapy for Chronic Myeloid Leukemia|publisher = ]|website = ]|archive-date = 29 August 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170829125626/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/chronic-myeloid-leukemia/treating/chemotherapy.html|url-status = live}}<br />{{cite web|title = Chemotherapy for Childhood Leukemia|date = 3 February 2016|access-date = 22 June 2017|url = https://www.cancer.org/cancer/leukemia-in-children/treating/chemotherapy.html|publisher = ]|website = ]|archive-date = 29 August 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170829130958/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/leukemia-in-children/treating/chemotherapy.html|url-status = live}}</ref> and other cancers,<ref>{{cite web|title = Chemotherapy for Neuroblastoma|publisher = ]|website = ]|url = https://www.cancer.org/cancer/neuroblastoma/treating/chemotherapy.html|date = 22 January 2016|access-date = 22 June 2017|archive-date = 29 August 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170829124717/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/neuroblastoma/treating/chemotherapy.html|url-status = live}}<br />{{cite web|url = https://www.cancer.org/cancer/brain-spinal-cord-tumors-children/treating/chemotherapy.html|date = 21 January 2016|access-date = 22 June 2017|title = Chemotherapy for Brain and Spinal Cord Tumors in Children|publisher = ]|website = ]|archive-date = 29 August 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170829125050/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/brain-spinal-cord-tumors-children/treating/chemotherapy.html|url-status = live}}<br />{{cite web|url = https://www.cancer.org/cancer/non-small-cell-lung-cancer/treating/chemotherapy.html|date = 16 May 2016|access-date = 22 June 2017|title = Chemotherapy for Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer|publisher = ]|website = ]|archive-date = 29 August 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170829124227/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/non-small-cell-lung-cancer/treating/chemotherapy.html|url-status = live}}<br />{{cite web|url = https://www.cancer.org/cancer/testicular-cancer/treating/chemotherapy.html|date = 12 February 2016|access-date = 22 June 2017|title = Chemotherapy for Testicular Cancer|publisher = ]|website = ]|archive-date = 28 July 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170728012354/https://www.cancer.org/cancer/testicular-cancer/treating/chemotherapy.html|url-status = live}}</ref> were derived from the ].<ref name=periw>{{cite journal |last = Foster |first = Steven |title = From Herbs to Medicines: The Madagascar Periwinkle's Impact on Childhood Leukemia: A Serendipitous Discovery for Treatment |journal = Alternative and Complementary Therapies |volume = 16 |issue = 6 |pages = 347–350 |year = 2010 |doi = 10.1089/act.2010.16609|pmid = 20423206 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter = Africa's gift to the world|pages = 46–51|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=aXGmCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA46|title = Botanical Miracles: Chemistry of Plants That Changed the World|first1 = Raymond|last1 = Cooper|first2 = Jeffrey John|last2 = Deakin|publisher = ]|year = 2016|isbn = 9781498704304|access-date = 4 September 2017|archive-date = 21 May 2020|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200521173802/https://books.google.com/books?id=aXGmCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA46|url-status = live}}</ref> The ], known locally as ''ravinala''<ref>Ellis (1859), p. 302</ref> and endemic to the eastern rain forests,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.floridata.com/ref/R/rave_mad.cfm|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110307131656/http://www.floridata.com/ref/r/rave_mad.cfm |archive-date = 7 March 2011|url-status=live|title= Ravenala madagascariensis |publisher=Floridata.com |access-date=14 September 2009 |date=16 May 2000|last = McLendon |first = Chuck}}</ref> is highly iconic of Madagascar and is featured in the national emblem as well as the ] logo.<ref>{{cite web |last = Lambahoany Ecotourism Centre |title = Nature of Madagascar |publisher = Lambahoany Ecotourism Centre |date = 24 August 2011 |url = http://www.lambahoany.org/madagascar/nature-of-madagascar/ |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111213210103/http://www.lambahoany.org/madagascar/nature-of-madagascar/ |archive-date = 13 December 2011 |url-status=dead |access-date =24 August 2011}}</ref>
] (''ravinala'') features in the national emblem.]]


] is one of over 100 known species and subspecies of lemur found only in Madagascar.<ref name="2009Mittermeier">{{cite web |editor1-last = Mittermeier |editor1-first = R.A. |editor2-last = Wallis |editor2-first = J. |editor3-last = Rylands |editor3-first = A.B. |editor4-last = Ganzhorn |editor4-first = J.U. |editor5-last = Oates |editor5-first = J.F. |editor6-last = Williamson |editor6-first = E.A. |editor7-last = Palacios |editor7-first = E. |editor8-last = Heymann |editor8-first = E.W. |editor9-last = Kierulff |editor9-first = M.C.M. |editor11-first = J. |editor12-last = Roos |editor12-first = C. |editor13-last = Walker |editor13-first = S. |editor14-last = Cortés-Ortiz |editor14-first = L. |editor15-last = Schwitzer |editor15-first = C. |others = Illustrated by S.D. Nash |year = 2009 |title = Primates in Peril: The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates 2008–2010 |publisher = ], ], and ] |pages = 1–92 |url = http://www.primate-sg.org/storage/PDF/Primates.in.Peril.2008-2010.pdf |editor10-first = Long |editor10-last = Yongcheng |editor11-last = Supriatna |access-date = 27 August 2012 |archive-date = 1 February 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140201174835/http://www.primate-sg.org/storage/PDF/Primates.in.Peril.2008-2010.pdf |url-status = live }}</ref>]]
As a result of the island's long isolation from neighboring continents, Madagascar is home to an abundance of plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth.<ref name=CIHotSpot/><ref name=tattersall>{{cite book|last=Tattersall|first=Ian|title=Origin of the Malagasy Strepshirhine Primates|year=2006|publisher=Springer|isbn=0-387-34585-X|pages=1–6|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=nsBtrhsMU5EC&pg=PA3#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> Approximately 90&nbsp;percent of all plant and animal species found in Madagascar are ],<ref>Hobbes & Dolan (2008), p. 517</ref> including the ]s (a type of ] primate), the carnivorous ] and many birds. This distinctive ecology has led some ecologists to refer to Madagascar as the "eighth continent",<ref>Hillstrom & Collier Hillstrom (2003), p. 50</ref> and the island has been classified by ] as a biodiversity hotspot.<ref name=CIHotSpot>{{cite web | last = Conservation International | title = Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands | work = Biodiversity Hotspots | publisher = Conservation International | year = 2007 | url = http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/madagascar/pages/biodiversity.aspx |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/61BgLGwzk |archivedate = 24 August 2011 | accessdate =24 August 2011}}</ref>


Like its flora, Madagascar's fauna is diverse and exhibits a high rate of endemism. Lemurs have been characterized as "Madagascar's flagship mammal species" by Conservation International.<ref name=CIHotSpot/> In the absence of monkeys and other competitors, these ]s have adapted to a wide range of habitats and diversified into numerous species. {{As of|2012}}, there were officially ],<ref name=lemurextinction>{{cite news |last=Black |first=Richard |title=Lemurs sliding toward extinction |newspaper=BBC News |date=13 July 2012 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-18825901 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120729093708/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-18825901 |archive-date=29 July 2012 |url-status=live |access-date=26 August 2012}}</ref> 39 of which were described by zoologists between 2000 and 2008.<ref name=Mittermeier2008>{{cite journal |title=Lemur diversity in Madagascar |author=Mittermeier, R. |author2=Ganzhorn, J. |author3=Konstant, W. |author4=Glander, K. |author5=Tattersall, I. |author6-link=Colin Groves |author6=Groves, C. |author7=Rylands, A. |author8=Hapke, A. |author9=Ratsimbazafy, J. |author10=Mayor, M. |author11=Louis, E. |author12=Rumpler, Y. |author13=Schwitzer, C. |author14=Rasoloarison, R. |s2cid=17614597 |journal=International Journal of Primatology |doi=10.1007/s10764-008-9317-y |pages=1607–1656 |volume=29 |issue=6 |date=December 2008 |hdl=10161/6237 |author-link=Russell Mittermeier |url=https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/10161/6237/1/08%20lemur%20diversity.pdf |access-date=24 September 2019 |archive-date=15 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215163911/https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/10161/6237/08 |url-status=dead }}</ref> They are almost all classified as rare, vulnerable, or endangered. At least 17 species of lemur have become extinct since humans arrived on Madagascar, all of which were larger than the surviving lemur species.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Jungers, W.L. |author2=Godfrey, L.R. |author3=Simons, E.L. |author4=Chatrath, P.S. |title=Phalangeal curvature and positional behaviour in extinct sloth lemurs (Primates, Palaeopropithecidae) |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA |volume=94 |issue=22 |pages=11998–2001 |year=1997|pmid=11038588 |pmc=23681 |doi=10.1073/pnas.94.22.11998 |bibcode=1997PNAS...9411998J|doi-access=free }}</ref>
More than 80&nbsp;percent of Madagascar's 14,883 ] are found nowhere else in the world, including five plant families.<ref name=endemism>{{cite journal | last1 = Callmander | first1 = Martin| last2 = et. al| title = The endemic and non-endemic vascular flora of Madagascar updated | journal = Plant Ecology and Evolution | volume = 144 | issue = 2 | pages = 121–125| year = 2011 | doi = 10.5091/plecevo.2011.513 |url = http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/curators/pdf/PLECEVO_2011.pdf |accessdate=11 February 2012 |archivedate = 11 February 2012 | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/65NBBr5AX}}</ref> The family '']'', composed of four genera and 11 species, is limited to the ] of southwestern Madagascar.<ref name=endemicstats/> Four-fifths of the world's '']'' species are endemic to the island.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Lavranos | first1 = John | year = 2004 | title = Pachypodium makayense: A New Species From Madagascar | url = | journal = Cactus and Succulent Journal | volume = 76 | issue = 2| pages = 85–88}}</ref> Three-fourths<ref name=B2011plant/> of Madagascar's 860<ref name=endemism/> ] species are found here alone, as are six of the world's eight ] species.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1080/106351598260879 | last1 = Baum | first1 = D. A. | last2 = Small | first2 = R. L. | last3 = Wendel | first3 = J. F. | year = 1998 | title = Biogeography and floral evolution of baobabs (Adansonia, Bombacaceae) as inferred from multiple data sets | url = | journal = Systematic Biology | volume = 47 | issue = 2| pages = 181–207 | pmid = 12064226 }}</ref> The island is home to around 170 palm species, three times as many as on all of mainland Africa; 165 of them are endemic.<ref name=B2011plant>Bradt (2011), p. 38</ref> Many native plant species are used as herbal remedies for a variety of afflictions. The drugs ] and ], used to treat ], ] and other cancers, were derived from the ].<ref name=periw>{{cite journal | last = Foster | first = Steven | title = From Herbs to Medicines: The Madagascar Periwinkle's Impact on Childhood Leukemia: A Serendipitous Discovery for Treatment | journal = Alternative and Complementary Therapies | volume = 16 | issue = 6 | pages = 347–350 | date = December 2010 | doi = 10.1089/act.2010.16609 }}</ref> The ], known locally as ''ravinala''<ref>Ellis (1859), p. 302</ref> and endemic to the eastern rain forests,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.floridata.com/ref/R/rave_mad.cfm|archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/5xJNG5WcZ | archivedate = 20 March 2011| title= Ravenala madagascariensis |publisher=Floridata.com |accessdate=14 September 2009 |date=16 May 2000| last = McLendon |first = Chuck}}</ref> is highly iconic of Madagascar and is featured in the national emblem as well as the ] logo.<ref>{{cite web | last = Lambahoany Ecotourism Centre | title = Nature of Madagascar | publisher = Lambahoany Ecotourism Centre | date = 24 August 2011 | url = http://www.lambahoany.org/madagascar/nature-of-madagascar/ |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/61Bemker1 |archivedate = 24 August 2011 | accessdate =24 August 2011}}</ref>


A number of other mammals, including the catlike ], are endemic to Madagascar. Over 300 species of birds have been recorded on the island, of which over 60&nbsp;percent (including four families and 42 genera) are endemic.<ref name=CIHotSpot/> The few families and genera of ]s that have reached Madagascar have diversified into more than 260 species, with over 90&nbsp;percent of these being endemic<ref name="Okajima"/> (including one endemic family).<ref name=CIHotSpot/> The island is home to two-thirds of the world's ] species,<ref name="Okajima">{{cite journal |vauthors=Okajima Y, Kumazawa Y |title = Mitogenomic perspectives into iguanid phylogeny and biogeography: Gondwanan vicariance for the origin of Madagascan oplurines |journal = ] |volume = 441 |issue = 1–2 |pages = 28–35 |year = 2009 |pmid = 18598742|doi = 10.1016/j.gene.2008.06.011}}</ref> including the ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1 = Glaw |first1 = F. |last2 = Köhler |first2 = J. R. |last3 = Townsend |first3 = T. M. |last4 = Vences |first4 = M. |editor1-last = Salamin |editor1-first = Nicolas |title = Rivaling the World's Smallest Reptiles: Discovery of Miniaturized and Microendemic New Species of Leaf Chameleons (Brookesia) from Northern Madagascar |doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0031314 |journal = PLOS ONE |volume = 7 |issue = 2 |pages = e31314 |year = 2012 |pmid =22348069|pmc =3279364|bibcode = 2012PLoSO...731314G |doi-access = free }}</ref>
] is one of over 100 known species and subspecies of lemur found only in Madagascar.<ref name="2009Mittermeier">{{cite journal | editor1-last = Mittermeier | editor1-first = R.A. | editor2-last = Wallis | editor2-first = J. | editor3-last = Rylands | editor3-first = A.B. | editor4-last = Ganzhorn | editor4-first = J.U. | editor5-last = Oates | editor5-first = J.F. | editor6-last = Williamson | editor6-first = E.A. | editor7-last = Palacios | editor7-first = E. | editor8-last = Heymann | editor8-first = E.W. | editor9-last = Kierulff | editor9-first = M.C.M. | editor11-last = Supriatna | editor11-first = J. | editor12-last = Roos | editor12-first = C. | editor13-last = Walker | editor13-first = S. | editor14-last = Cortés-Ortiz | editor14-first = L. | editor15-last = Schwitzer | editor15-first = C. | others = Illustrated by S.D. Nash | editor-link = Russell Mittermeier | year = 2009 | title = Primates in Peril: The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates 2008–2010 | publisher = ], ], and ] | pages = 1–92 | url = http://www.primate-sg.org/storage/PDF/Primates.in.Peril.2008-2010.pdf| format = PDF | editor-last = Long Yongcheng}}</ref>]]


Endemic fish of Madagascar include two families, 15 genera and over 100 species, primarily inhabiting the island's freshwater lakes and rivers. Although invertebrates remain poorly studied in Madagascar, researchers have found high rates of endemism among the known species. All 651 species of terrestrial snail are endemic, as are a majority of the island's butterflies, ], ], spiders, and dragonflies.<ref name=CIHotSpot/>
Like its flora, Madagascar's fauna is diverse and exhibits a high rate of endemism. Lemurs have been characterized as "Madagascar's flagship mammal species" by Conservation International.<ref name=CIHotSpot/> In the absence of ]s and other competitors, these ]s have adapted to a wide range of habitats and diversified into numerous species. As of 2012, there were officially ],<ref name=lemurextinction/> 39 of which were described by zoologists between 2000 and 2008.<ref name=Mittermeier2008>{{cite journal|title=Lemur diversity in Madagascar|author=]; Ganzhorn, J.; Konstant, W.; Glander, K.; Tattersall, I.; ]; Rylands, A.; Hapke, A.; Ratsimbazafy, J.; Mayor, M.; Louis, E.; Rumpler, Y.; Schwitzer, C.; Rasoloarison, R.|journal=International Journal of Primatology| doi=10.1007/s10764-008-9317-y| pages=1607–1656| volume=29| issue=6| date=December 2008}}</ref> They are almost all classified as rare, vulnerable, or endangered. At least 17 species of lemur have become extinct since man arrived on Madagascar, all of which were larger than the surviving lemur species.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Jungers, W.L.; Godfrey, L.R.; Simons, E.L.; Chatrath, P.S. |title=Phalangeal curvature and positional behavior in extinct sloth lemurs (Primates, Palaeopropithecidae) |journal=Procedures of the National Academy of Science (U.S.A.) |volume=94 |issue=22 |pages=11998–2001 |year=1997 |month=October |pmid=11038588 |pmc=23681 |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/94/22/11998.full?sid=da4606f1-9aab-4966-b761-f6ea2e39add0 |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/5xJO53Gq0 |archivedate = 20 March 2011 |doi=10.1073/pnas.94.22.11998 |bibcode=1997PNAS...9411998J}}</ref>
A number of other mammals, including the cat-like ], are endemic to Madagascar. Over 300 species of birds have been recorded on the island, of which over 60&nbsp;percent (including four families and 42 genera) are endemic.<ref name=CIHotSpot/> The few families and genera of ] that have reached Madagascar have diversified into more than 260 species, with over 90&nbsp;percent of these being endemic<ref name="Okajima" /> (including one endemic family).<ref name=CIHotSpot/> The island is home to two-thirds of the world's ] species,<ref name="Okajima">{{cite journal | last = Okajima | first = Yasuhisa | last2 = Kumazawa |first2 = Yoshinori | title = Mitogenomic perspectives into iguanid phylogeny and biogeography: Gondwanan vicariance for the origin of Madagascan oplurines | journal = ] | volume = 441 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 28–35 | publisher = ] | date = 15 July 2009 | pmid = 18598742| doi = 10.1016/j.gene.2008.06.011}}</ref> including the ],<ref>{{cite doi|10.1371/journal.pone.0031314}}</ref> and researchers have proposed that Madagascar may be the origin of all chameleons. Endemic fish of Madagascar include two families, 14 genera and over 100 species, primarily inhabiting the island's freshwater lakes and rivers. Although invertebrates remain poorly studied on Madagascar, researchers have found high rates of endemism among the known species. All 651 species of terrestrial snail are endemic, as are a majority of the island's butterflies, ], ]s, spiders and dragonflies.<ref name=CIHotSpot/>


===Environmental challenges===
{{Main|Deforestation in Madagascar|Illegal logging in Madagascar}}
Madagascar's varied fauna and flora are endangered by human activity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory?id=11291024|title=Everglades, Madagascar Rain Forest on UNESCO List|publisher=ABC News|date= 30 July 2010|accessdate=11 February 2011 |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/5xJOOgK9M |archivedate = 20 March 2011}}</ref> Since the arrival of humans around 2,350&nbsp;years ago, Madagascar has lost more than 90&nbsp;percent of its original forest.<ref>{{NatGeo ecoregion|name = Madagascar subhumid forests|id=at0118|accessdate =30 April 2006}}</ref> This forest loss is largely fueled by ''tavy'' ("fat"), a traditional ] agricultural practice imported to Madagascar by the earliest settlers.<ref name="Gade 1996" /> Malagasy farmers embrace and perpetuate the practice not only for its practical benefits as an agricultural technique, but for its cultural associations with prosperity, health and venerated ancestral custom (''fomba malagasy'').<ref>Kull (2004), p. 153</ref> As human population density rose on the island, deforestation accelerated beginning around 1400 years ago.<ref name=autogenerated4>{{cite journal |last=Campbell |first=Gwyn |title=The Structure of Trade in Madagascar, 1750–1810 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=111–148 |year=1993 |doi=10.2307/219188}}</ref> By the 16th century, the central highlands had been largely cleared of their original forests.<ref name="Gade 1996" /> More recent contributors to the loss of forest cover include the growth in cattle herd size since their introduction around 1000 years ago, a continued reliance on charcoal as a fuel for cooking, and the increased prominence of coffee as a cash crop over the past century.<ref name="spittingwind">Emoff (2004), pp. 51–62</ref> According to a conservative estimate, about 40&nbsp;percent of the island's original forest cover was lost from the 1950s to 2000, with a thinning of remaining forest areas by 80&nbsp;percent.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Harper | first1 = Grady J. | last2 = Steininger |first2 = Marc | last3 = Tucker | first3 = Compton| last4 = Juhn| first4 = Daniel | last5 = Hawkins | first5 = Frank | title = Fifty years of deforestation and forest fragmentation in Madagascar | journal = Environmental Conservation | volume = 34 | issue = 4 | pages = 325–333 | publisher = Cambridge Journals | date = December 2007 | doi = 10.1017/S0376892907004262}}</ref> In addition to traditional agricultural practice, wildlife conservation is challenged by the illicit harvesting of protected forests, as well as the state-sanctioned harvesting of precious woods within national parks. Although banned by then-President ] from 2000 to 2009, the collection of small quantities of precious timber from national parks was re-authorized in January 2009 and has dramatically intensified under the administration of current head of state ] as a key source of state revenues to offset cuts in donor support following Ravalomanana's ouster.<ref name=CrossroadsMarcus/> It is anticipated that all the island's rainforests, excluding those in protected areas and the steepest eastern mountain slopes, will have been deforested by 2025.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Green | first1 = Glen | last2 = Sussmand |first2 = Robert | title = Deforestation history of the eastern rainforests of Madagascar from satellite images | journal = Science | volume = 248 |issue = 4952 | pages = 212–215| date = April 1990 | doi = 10.1126/science.248.4952.212 |bibcode = 1990Sci...248..212G | pmid = 17740137 }}</ref>
{{multiple image {{multiple image
|
|footer = Tavy (]) destruction of native forest habitat is widespread (left), causing massive erosion (center) and silting of rivers (right).
|footer = Tavy (]) destruction of native forest habitat is widespread (top), causing massive erosion (bottom).
|align = right
|align = left
|image1 = Manantenina bushfire.jpg |image1 = Manantenina bushfire.jpg
|width1 = 170 |width1 = 200
|alt1 = Burning Malagasy rainforest |alt1 = Burning Malagasy rainforest
|image2 = Madagascar erosion.jpg |image2 = Madagascar erosion.jpg
|width2 = 170 |width2 = 200
|alt2 = A vast, red soil gully caused by erosion |alt2 = A vast, red soil gully caused by erosion
| direction =vertical
|image3 = Bombetoka Bay, April 2005.jpg
|width3 = 170
|alt3 = Aerial photograph of a forked river that has turned red due to red soil runoff.
}} }}
Habitat destruction and hunting have threatened many of Madagascar's endemic species or driven them to extinction. The island's ]s, a family of endemic giant ]s, went extinct in 17th century or earlier, most probably due to human hunting of adult birds and poaching of their large eggs for food.<ref name="Davies">Davies (2003), pp. 99–101</ref> Numerous ] species vanished with the arrival of human settlers to the island, while others became extinct over the course of the centuries as a growing human population put greater pressures on lemur habitats and, among some populations, increased the rate of lemur hunting for food.<ref>{{cite web | last = Handwerk | first = Brian | title = Lemurs Hunted, Eaten Amid Civil Unrest, Group Says | publisher = National Geographic News |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/08/090821-lemurs-killing-madagascar.html | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/5xJPPb7Ap | date = 21 August 2009 |archivedate =20 March 2011 | accessdate =15 March 2011}}</ref> A July 2012 assessment found that the exploitation of natural resources since the 2009 coup has had dire consequences for the island's wildlife: 90&nbsp;percent of lemur species were found to be threatened with extinction, the highest proportion of any mammalian group. Of these, 23 species were classified as critically endangered. By contrast, a previous study in 2008 had found only 38&nbsp;percent of lemur species were at risk of extinction.<ref name=lemurextinction>{{cite news | last = Black | first = Richard | title = Lemurs sliding toward extinction | newspaper = BBC News | date = 13 July 2012 | url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-18825901 |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6ADneLepE | archivedate = 26 August 2012 | accessdate = 26 August 2012}}</ref>


Madagascar's varied fauna and flora are endangered by human activity.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory?id=11291024 |title=Everglades, Madagascar Rain Forest on UNESCO List |work=ABC News |date=30 July 2010|access-date=11 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511063211/https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory?id=11291024 |url-status=live |archive-date=11 May 2011}}</ref> Since the arrival of humans around 2,350&nbsp;years ago, Madagascar has lost more than 90&nbsp;percent of its original forest.<ref>{{NatGeo ecoregion|name = Madagascar subhumid forests|id=at0118|access-date =30 April 2006}}</ref> This forest loss is largely fueled by ''tavy'' ("fat"), a traditional ] agricultural practice imported to Madagascar by the earliest settlers.<ref name="Gade 1996"/> Malagasy farmers embrace and perpetuate the practice not only for its practical benefits as an agricultural technique, but for its cultural associations with prosperity, health and venerated ancestral custom (''fomba malagasy'').<ref>Kull (2004), p. 153</ref> As human population density rose on the island, deforestation accelerated beginning around 1,400 years ago.<ref name=autogenerated4>{{cite journal |last=Campbell |first=Gwyn |title=The Structure of Trade in Madagascar, 1750–1810 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=111–148 |year=1993 |doi=10.2307/219188|jstor=219188 }}</ref> By the 16th century, the central highlands had been largely cleared of their original forests.<ref name="Gade 1996"/> More recent contributors to the loss of forest cover include the growth in cattle herd size since their introduction around 1,000 years ago, a continued reliance on charcoal as a fuel for cooking, and the increased prominence of coffee as a ] over the past century.<ref name="spittingwind">Emoff (2004), pp. 51–62</ref>
In 2003 Ravalomanana announced the Durban Vision, an initiative to more than triple the island's ] to over {{convert|60000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} or 10&nbsp;percent of Madagascar's land surface. As of 2011, areas protected by the state included five Strict Nature Reserves (''Réserves Naturelles Intégrales''), 21 Wildlife Reserves (''Réserves Spéciales'') and 21 National Parks (''Parcs Nationaux'').<ref>{{cite web | last = Madagascar National Parks | title = The Conservation | publisher = parcs-madagascar.com | year = 2011 | url = http://www.parcs-madagascar.com/madagascar-national-parks_en.php?Navigation=26 | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/61F71nCWI | archivedate = 25 August 2011 | accessdate =25 August 2011}}</ref> In 2007 six of the national parks were declared a joint ] under the name ]. These parks are ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1257 |title=Rainforests of the Atsinanana |publisher=] |accessdate=30 April 2011 |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/61F7YBBDB |archivedate = 25 August 2011}}</ref> Local timber merchants are harvesting scarce species of rosewood trees from protected rainforests within Marojejy National Park and exporting the wood to China for the production of luxury furniture and musical instruments.<ref>{{cite news | last = Bearak | first = Barry | title = Shaky Rule in Madagascar Threatens Trees | newspaper = New York Times | date = 24 May 2010 |accessdate =20 March 2011 | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/25/world/africa/25madagascar.html |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/5xJPiZaaW | archivedate = 20 March 2011}}</ref> To raise public awareness of Madagascar's environmental challenges, the ] opened an exhibit entitled "''Madagascar!''" in June 2008 at the ] in New York.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.treehugger.com/files/2008/06/madagascar-opens-at-bronx-zoo.php |title=Madagascar! to Open at Bronx Zoo in Green, Refurbished Lion House |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/604iG5iy7 |archivedate = 10 July 2011 |publisher=Treehugger |last = Luna|first = Kenny |accessdate=11 June 2011}}</ref>
According to a conservative estimate, about 40&nbsp;percent of the island's original forest cover was lost from the 1950s to 2000, with a thinning of remaining forest areas by 80&nbsp;percent.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harper |first1=Grady J. |last2=Steininger |first2=Marc |last3=Tucker |first3=Compton |last4=Juhn |first4=Daniel |last5=Hawkins |first5=Frank |title=Fifty years of deforestation and forest fragmentation in Madagascar |journal=Environmental Conservation |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=325–333 |year=2007 |doi=10.1017/S0376892907004262 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |s2cid=86120326}}</ref> In addition to traditional agricultural practice, wildlife conservation is challenged by the illicit harvesting of protected forests, as well as the state-sanctioned harvesting of precious woods within national parks. Although banned by then-President ] from 2000 to 2009, the collection of small quantities of precious timber from national parks was re-authorized in January 2009 and dramatically intensified under the administration of ] as a key source of state revenues to offset cuts in donor support following Ravalomanana's ousting.<ref name="CrossroadsMarcus" />


{{anchor|Invasive species}}Invasive species have likewise been introduced by human populations. Following the 2014 discovery in Madagascar of the ], a relative of a toad species that has severely harmed wildlife in Australia since the 1930s, researchers warned the toad could "wreak havoc on the country's unique fauna."<ref>{{cite news |last=Morelle |first=Rebecca |author-link=Rebecca Morelle |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-27607978 |title=Asian relative of cane toad threatens Madagascar havoc |work=BBC News |date=29 May 2014 |access-date=29 July 2014 |archive-date=10 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140710130139/http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-27607978 |url-status=live}}</ref> Habitat destruction and hunting have threatened many of Madagascar's endemic species or driven them to extinction. The island's ]s, a family of endemic giant ]s, became extinct in the 17th century or earlier, most probably because of human hunting of adult birds and poaching of their large eggs for food.<ref name="Davies">Davies (2003), pp. 99–101</ref> Numerous ] species vanished with the arrival of human settlers to the island, while others became extinct over the course of the centuries as a growing human population put greater pressures on lemur habitats and, among some populations, increased the rate of lemur hunting for food.<ref>{{cite web |last=Handwerk |first=Brian |title=Lemurs Hunted, Eaten Amid Civil Unrest, Group Says |publisher=National Geographic News |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/08/090821-lemurs-killing-madagascar.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110510012833/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/08/090821-lemurs-killing-madagascar.html |date=21 August 2009 |archive-date=10 May 2011 |url-status=dead |access-date=15 March 2011}}</ref> A July 2012 assessment found that the exploitation of natural resources since 2009 has had dire consequences for the island's wildlife: 90&nbsp;percent of lemur species were found to be threatened with extinction, the highest proportion of any mammalian group. Of these, 23 species were classified as critically endangered. A 2023 study published in '']'' found that 120 of the 219 mammal species only found on Madagascar are threatened with extinction.<ref>{{cite news |last=Weston |first=Phoebe |date=January 10, 2023 |title=Madagascar's unique wildlife faces imminent wave of extinction, say scientists |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jan/10/madagascar-unique-wildlife-extinction-aoe |work=The Guardian |location= |access-date=January 16, 2023 |archive-date=18 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518175716/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jan/10/madagascar-unique-wildlife-extinction-aoe |url-status=live }}</ref>
==History==
{{Main|History of Madagascar}}


In 2003, Ravalomanana announced the Durban Vision, an initiative to more than triple the island's ] to over {{convert|60000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} or 10&nbsp;percent of Madagascar's land surface. {{As of|2011}}, areas protected by the state included five Strict Nature Reserves (''Réserves Naturelles Intégrales''), 21 Wildlife Reserves (''Réserves Spéciales'') and 21 National Parks (''Parcs Nationaux'').<ref>{{cite web|last = Madagascar National Parks |title = The Conservation |publisher = parcs-madagascar.com |year = 2011 |url = http://www.parcs-madagascar.com/madagascar-national-parks_en.php?Navigation=26 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110731040310/http://www.parcs-madagascar.com/madagascar-national-parks_en.php?Navigation=26 |archive-date = 31 July 2011 |url-status=dead |access-date =25 August 2011}}</ref> In 2007 six of the national parks were declared a joint ] under the name ]. These parks are ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1257 |title=Rainforests of the Atsinanana |publisher=] |access-date=30 April 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110903171219/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1257 |url-status=live |archive-date = 3 September 2011}}</ref> Local timber merchants are harvesting scarce species of rosewood trees from protected rainforests within Marojejy National Park and exporting the wood to China for the production of luxury furniture and musical instruments.<ref>{{cite news |last = Bearak |first = Barry |title = Shaky Rule in Madagascar Threatens Trees |newspaper = New York Times |date = 24 May 2010 |access-date =20 March 2011 |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/25/world/africa/25madagascar.html |archive-url = https://archive.today/20120906105104/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/25/world/africa/25madagascar.html?_r=1 |url-status=live |archive-date = 6 September 2012}}</ref>
===Early period===
] ancestry reflects a blend of Southeast Asian and East African roots]]
Most archaeologists estimate that the earliest settlers arrived in ]s from southern ] in successive waves throughout the period between 350&nbsp;BCE and 550&nbsp;CE, making Madagascar one of the last major landmasses on Earth to be settled by humans.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Crowley | first = B.E. | title = A refined chronology of prehistoric Madagascar and the demise of the megafauna | journal = Quaternary Science Reviews | volume = 29 | issue = 19–20 | pages = 2591–2603 | year = 2010 | doi = 10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.06.030|bibcode = 2010QSRv...29.2591C }}</ref> Upon arrival, early settlers practiced slash-and-burn agriculture to clear the coastal ]s for cultivation. The first settlers encountered Madagascar's abundance of megafauna, including ], elephant birds, ] and the ], which have since become extinct due to hunting and habitat destruction.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Virah-Sawmy | first = M. | coauthors = Willis, K.J.; Gillson, L. | title = Evidence for drought and forest declines during the recent megafaunal extinctions in Madagascar | journal = Journal of Biogeography | volume = 37 | pages = 506–519 | year = 2010 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02203.x | issue = 3}}</ref> By 600&nbsp;CE groups of these early settlers had begun clearing the forests of the central highlands.<ref name=Camp93>{{cite journal | last = Campbell | first = Gwyn | title = The Structure of Trade in Madagascar, 1750–1810 | journal = The International Journal of African Historical Studies | volume = 26 | issue = 1 | year = 1993 | doi = 10.2307/219188 | page = 111}}</ref> ]s first reached the island between the seventh and ninth centuries,<ref name=Wink>Wink (2004), p. 185</ref> and a wave of ]-speaking East African migrants arrived around 1000&nbsp;CE and introduced ], a type of long-horned humped cattle, which were kept in large herds.<ref name="Gade 1996" />


==Government==
Irrigated rice paddies emerged in the central highland ] Kingdom by 1600 and were extended with terraced paddies throughout the neighboring Kingdom of ] a century later.<ref name=Camp93/> The rising intensity of land cultivation and the ever-increasing demand for zebu pasturage had largely transformed the central highlands from a forest ecosystem to grassland by the 17th century.<ref name="Gade 1996" /> The oral histories of the Merina people, who may have arrived in the central highlands between 600 and 1000 years ago, describe encountering an established population they called the ]. Probably the descendants of an earlier and less technologically advanced Austronesian settlement wave, the Vazimba were assimilated or expelled from the highlands by Merina kings ], ] and ] in the 16th and early 17th centuries.<ref name=vazimbadjp>{{cite web | last = Domenichini | first = J.P. | title = Antehiroka et Royauté Vazimba | work = Express de Madagascar | publisher = Madatana.com | url = http://www.madatana.com/article-antehiroka-et-royaute-vazimba.php |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/604VDG1dG |archivedate = 10 July 2011 | accessdate =5 November 2010}} {{fr}}</ref> Today the spirits of the Vazimba are revered as ''tompontany'' (ancestral masters of the land) by many traditional Malagasy communities.<ref name="Mythe">{{cite web | last = Razafimahazo | first = S. | title = Vazimba: Mythe ou Realité? | work = Revue de l'Océan Indien | publisher = Madatana.com | year = 2011 | url = http://www.madatana.com/article-vazimba-mythe-ou-realite.php |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/604cdM4qI |archivedate = 10 July 2011 | accessdate =8 November 2010}} {{fr}}</ref>
===Structure===
]]]
{{Main|Government of Madagascar|Cabinet of Madagascar}}
Madagascar was an important transoceanic trading hub connecting ports of the Indian Ocean in the early centuries following human settlement. The written history of Madagascar began with the Arabs, who established trading posts along the northwest coast by at least the 10th century and introduced Islam, the Arabic script (used to transcribe the Malagasy language in a form of writing known as '']''), Arab astrology and other cultural elements.<ref name="LOC" /> European contact began in 1500, when the ] sea captain ] sighted the island.<ref name=BGNote/> The French established trading posts along the east coast in the late 17th century.<ref name="LOC" />
] is the political and economic capital of Madagascar.]]
Madagascar is a ] ] ] republic, wherein the popularly elected president is the head of state and selects a ], who recommends candidates to the president to form his cabinet of ministers. According to the ], executive power is exercised by the government while legislative power is vested in the ministerial cabinet,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mg.mofcom.gov.cn/article/chinanews/202110/20211003206640.shtml|title=Liste des institutions gouvernementales de Madagascar (août 2021)|website=mofcom.gov.cn|access-date=13 October 2021|archive-date=13 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211013121808/http://mg.mofcom.gov.cn/article/chinanews/202110/20211003206640.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref> the ] and the ], although in reality these two latter bodies have very little power or legislative role. The constitution establishes independent executive, legislative and judicial branches and mandates a popularly elected president limited to three five-year terms.<ref name=BGNote/>


The public directly elects the president and the 151 members of the National Assembly to five-year terms. All 18 members of the Senate serve six-year terms, with 12 senators elected by local officials and 6 appointed by the president.
From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar gained prominence among pirates and European traders, particularly those involved in the ]. The small island of ] off the northeastern coast of Madagascar has been proposed by some historians as the site of the legendary pirate utopia of ].<ref>Oliver (1886), p. 16</ref> Many European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island, among them ], whose journal is one of the few written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century.<ref>Kent (1976), pp.&nbsp;65–71</ref> The wealth generated by maritime trade spurred the rise of organized kingdoms on the island, some of which had grown quite powerful by the 17th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/madg_1/hd_madg_1.htm |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/604iN3JCP |archivedate = 10 July 2011 |title=Kingdoms of Madagascar: Maroserana and Merina |publisher=Metmuseum.org |accessdate=25 April 2010}}</ref> Among these were the ] alliance of the eastern coast and the ] chiefdoms of ] and ] on the west coast. The Kingdom of Imerina, located in the central highlands with its capital at the ] of Antananarivo, emerged at around the same time under the leadership of King Andriamanelo.<ref name="Ogot">Ogot (1992), p. 418</ref>


At the local level, the island's 22 provinces are administered by a governor and provincial council. Provinces are further subdivided into regions and communes. The judiciary is modeled on the French system, with a High Constitutional Court, High Court of Justice, Supreme Court, Court of Appeals, criminal tribunals, and tribunals of first instance.<ref name=justiceMada>Nalla (2010), pp. 122–128</ref> The courts, which adhere to ], lack the capacity to quickly and transparently try the cases in the judicial system, often forcing defendants to pass lengthy pretrial detentions in unsanitary and overcrowded prisons.<ref name=mediainfo/>
===Kingdom of Madagascar===
{{Main|Merina Kingdom}}
] (1787–1810)]]
Upon its emergence in the early 17th century, the highland kingdom of Imerina was initially a minor power relative to the larger coastal kingdoms<ref name="Ogot" /> and grew even weaker in the early 18th century when King ] divided it among his four sons. Following a century of warring and famine, Imerina was reunited in 1793 by King ] (1787–1810).<ref name="Hodder">Hodder (1982), p. 59</ref> From his initial capital ],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/950 |title=Royal Hill of Ambohimanga |publisher=] |accessdate=30 April 2011|archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/604iRR1dZ|archivedate = 10 July 2011}}</ref> and later from the ], this Merina king rapidly expanded his rule over neighboring principalities. His ambition to bring the entire island under his control was largely achieved by his son and successor, King ] (1810–28), who was recognized by the British government as King of Madagascar. Radama concluded a treaty in 1817 with the British governor of ] to abolish the lucrative slave trade in return for British military and financial assistance. Artisan missionary envoys from the ] began arriving in 1818 and included such key figures as ], ] and ], who established schools, transcribed the ] using the ], translated the Bible, and introduced a variety of new technologies to the island.<ref>Ade Ajayi (1998), pp.&nbsp;413–422</ref>


Antananarivo is the administrative capital and largest city of Madagascar.<ref name=BGNote/> It is located in the highlands region, near the geographic center of the island. King Andrianjaka founded Antananarivo as the capital of his Imerina Kingdom around 1610 or 1625 upon the site of a captured Vazimba capital on the hilltop of ].<ref name=vazimbadjp/> As Merina dominance expanded over neighboring Malagasy peoples in the early 19th century to establish the Kingdom of Madagascar, Antananarivo became the center of administration for virtually the entire island. In 1896 the French colonizers of Madagascar adopted the Merina capital as their center of colonial administration. The city remained the capital of Madagascar after regaining independence in 1960. In 2017, the capital's population was estimated at 1,391,433 inhabitants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/madagascar-population/cities/|title=Population of Cities in Madagascar (2017)|website=worldpopulationreview.com|access-date=27 February 2017|archive-date=15 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015204227/http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/madagascar-population/cities/|url-status=live}}</ref> The next largest cities are ] (500,000), ] (450,000) and ] (400,000).<ref name=BGNote/>
Radama's successor, Queen ] (1828–61), responded to increasing political and cultural encroachment on the part of Britain and France by issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity in Madagascar and pressuring most foreigners to leave the territory. Among those who continued to reside in Imerina were ], an entrepreneur who developed munitions and other industries on behalf of the monarchy, and ], with whom then-Prince ] signed a controversial trade agreement termed the Lambert Charter. Succeeding his mother, Radama II (1861–63) attempted to relax the queen's stringent policies, but was ] two years later by Prime Minister ] (1852–1865) and an alliance of '']'' (noble) and '']'' (commoner) courtiers, who sought to end the absolute power of the monarch.<ref name="LOC" /> Following the coup, the courtiers offered Radama's queen ] (1863–68) the opportunity to rule, if she would accept a power sharing arrangement with the Prime Minister—a new social contract that would be sealed by a political marriage between them.<ref>Oliver (1886), pp. 124–126</ref> Queen Rasoherina accepted, first wedding Rainivoninahitriniony, then later deposing him and wedding his brother, Prime Minister ] (1864–95), who would go on to marry Queen ] (1868–83) and Queen ] (1883–97) in succession.<ref>Uwechue (1981), p. 473</ref>


===Politics===
Over the course of Rainilaiarivony's 31-year tenure as prime minister, numerous policies were adopted to modernize and consolidate the power of the central government.<ref name=TA910/> Schools were constructed throughout the island and attendance was made mandatory. Army organization was improved, and British consultants were employed to train and professionalize soldiers.<ref name=FFO522>Fage, Flint & Oliver (1986), pp. 522–524</ref> ] was outlawed and Christianity, declared the official religion of the court in 1869, was adopted alongside traditional beliefs among a growing portion of the populace.<ref name=TA910>Thompson & Adloff (1965), pp. 9–10</ref> Legal codes were reformed on the basis of British ] and three European-style courts were established in the capital city.<ref name=FFO522/> In his joint role as Commander-in-Chief, Rainilaiarivony also successfully ensured the defense of Madagascar against several French colonial incursions.<ref name=FFO522/>
{{Main|Politics of Madagascar|Foreign relations of Madagascar|Human rights in Madagascar}}


]]]
===French colonization===
Primarily on the basis that the Lambert Charter had not been respected, France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first ].<ref name="Boogaerde p7">Van Den Boogaerde (2008), p. 7</ref> At the end of the war, Madagascar ceded the northern port town of ] (Diego Suarez) to France and paid 560,000 francs to Lambert's heirs.<ref name="Randier p400">Randier (2006), p. 400</ref> In 1890, the British accepted the full formal imposition of a French ] on the island, but French authority was not acknowledged by the government of Madagascar. To force capitulation, the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of ] on the east coast, and ] on the west coast, in December 1894 and January 1895 respectively.<ref name=Disease>Curtin (1998), p. 186</ref> A French military ] then marched toward Antananarivo, losing many men to malaria and other diseases. Reinforcements came from ] and ]. Upon reaching the city in September 1895, the column bombarded the royal palace with heavy artillery, causing heavy casualties and leading Queen Ranavalona III to surrender.<ref>Oliver, Fage & Sanderson (1985), p. 529</ref> France annexed Madagascar in 1896 and declared the island a colony the following year, dissolving the Merina monarchy and sending the royal family into exile on ] and to Algeria. A two-year ] organized in response to the French capture of the royal palace was effectively put down at the end of 1897.<ref>Oliver, Fage & Sanderson (1985), p. 532</ref>


Since Madagascar gained independence from France in 1960, the island's political transitions have been marked by numerous popular protests, several disputed elections, an impeachment, two military coups and one assassination. The island's recurrent political crises are often prolonged, with detrimental effects on the local economy, international relations and Malagasy living standards. The eight-month standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana following the 2001 presidential elections cost Madagascar millions of dollars in lost tourism and trade revenue as well as damage to infrastructure, such as bombed bridges and buildings damaged by arson.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=47721 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110613014315/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=47721 |archive-date = 13 June 2011|url-status=live |title=MADAGASCAR: Former president sentenced to five years in prison |publisher=Irinnews.org |date= 17 December 2003 |access-date=25 April 2010}}</ref> ] led by Andry Rajoelina against Ravalomanana in early 2009 became violent, with more than 170 people killed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=83838 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110613015554/http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=83838 |archive-date = 13 June 2011 |url-status=live |title=Madagascar: Appeal launched despite political uncertainty |publisher=Irinnews.org |date= 7 April 2009 |access-date=25 April 2010}}</ref> Modern politics in Madagascar are colored by the history of Merina subjugation of coastal communities under their rule in the 19th century. The consequent tension between the highland and coastal populations has periodically flared up into isolated events of violence.<ref name=ethnicstrife>{{cite news |last = Leithead |first = Alastair |title = Ethnic strife rocks Madagascar |newspaper=BBC News |date = 14 May 2002 |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1987383.stm |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120326234124/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1987383.stm |archive-date = 26 March 2012 |url-status=live |access-date =22 January 2012}}</ref>
Under colonial rule, plantations were established for the production of a variety of export crops.<ref>Campbell (2005), p. 107</ref> Slavery was abolished in 1896, but many of the 500,000 liberated slaves remained in their former masters' homes as servants.<ref>Shillington (2005), p. 878</ref> Wide paved boulevards and gathering places were constructed in the capital city of Antananarivo<ref>Fournet-Guérin (2007), pp. 45–54</ref> and the Rova palace compound was turned into a museum.<ref name="Frémigacci">Frémigacci (1999), pp. 421–444</ref> Additional schools were built, particularly in rural and coastal areas where the schools of the Merina had not reached. Education became mandatory between the ages of 6 to 13 and focused primarily on French language and practical skills.<ref>Gallieni (1908), pp. 341–343</ref> The Merina royal tradition of ] was continued under the French and used to construct a railway and roads linking key coastal cities to Antananarivo.<ref>Reinsch (1905), p. 377</ref> Malagasy troops fought for France in ].<ref name=BGNote/> In the 1930s, ] political thinkers developed the ] on the basis of earlier proposals from Poland and elsewhere in Europe that had identified the island as a potential site for the deportation of Europe's Jews.<ref name="contemplation">Browning (2004), pp. 81–89</ref> During the ], the island was the site of the ] between the ] and the British.<ref>Kennedy (2007), pp. 511–512</ref> The occupation of France during the Second World War tarnished the prestige of the colonial administration in Madagascar and galvanized the growing independence movement, leading to the ] of 1947.<ref>Lehoullier (2010), p. 107</ref> This movement led the French to establish reformed institutions in 1956 under the '']'' (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence.<ref name="Kitchen 1962, p. 256">Kitchen (1962), p. 256</ref> The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on 14 October 1958, as an ] state within the ]. A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on 26 June 1960.<ref>Pryor (1990), pp. 209–210</ref>


Madagascar has historically been perceived as being on the margin of mainstream African affairs despite being a founding member of the ], which was established in 1963 and dissolved in 2002 to be replaced by the ]. Madagascar was not permitted to attend the first African Union summit because of a dispute over the results of the 2001 presidential election, but rejoined the African Union in July 2003 after a 14-month hiatus. Madagascar was again suspended by the African Union in March 2009 following the ] to Rajoelina.<ref>{{cite news |title = Pressure grows on Madagascar coup |work=BBC News |date = 20 March 2009 |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7954356.stm |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110629015627/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7954356.stm |archive-date = 29 June 2011 |url-status=live |access-date =30 March 2009}}</ref> Madagascar is a member of the ] with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the ].<ref name=BGNote/> Eleven countries have established embassies in Madagascar, including France, the United Kingdom, the United States, China and India,<ref>{{cite web|title=Numéros utiles |publisher=AirMadagascar.com |date=28 January 2012 |url=http://www.airmadagascar.com/contact/numeros-utiles |access-date=28 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111226120416/http://www.airmadagascar.com/contact/numeros-utiles |archive-date=26 December 2011 |language=fr |url-status=dead}}</ref> while Madagascar has ].
===Independent state===
], first ] (1960–72)]]
Since regaining independence, Madagascar has transitioned through four republics with corresponding revisions to its constitution. The First Republic (1960–72), under the leadership of French-appointed President ], was characterized by a continuation of strong economic and political ties to France. Many high-level technical positions were filled by French expatriates, and French teachers, textbooks and curricula continued to be used in schools around the country. Popular resentment over Tsiranana's tolerance for this "neo-colonial" arrangement inspired a series of student protests that overturned his administration in 1972.<ref name="LOC" />


Human rights in Madagascar are protected under the constitution and the state is a signatory to numerous international agreements including the ] and the ].<ref name=DOS/> Religious, ethnic and sexual minorities are protected under the law. Freedom of association and assembly are also guaranteed under the law, although in practice the denial of permits for public assembly has occasionally been used to impede political demonstrations.<ref name=CrossroadsMarcus/><ref name=DOS>{{cite web |author = ((Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor)) |title = 2010 Human Rights Report: Madagascar |publisher = U.S. Department of State |date = 8 April 2011 |url = https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/160130.pdf |access-date = 10 July 2011 |archive-date = 20 March 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200320140731/https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/160130.pdf |url-status = live }}</ref> Torture by security forces is rare and state repression is low relative to other countries with comparably few legal safeguards, although arbitrary arrests and the corruption of military and police officers remain problems. Ravalomanana's 2004 creation of BIANCO, an anti-corruption bureau, resulted in reduced corruption among Antananarivo's lower-level bureaucrats in particular, although high-level officials have not been prosecuted by the bureau.<ref name=CrossroadsMarcus/> Accusations of media ] have risen due to the alleged restrictions on the coverage of government opposition.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200904230849.html|title=''Madagascar: Media Under Attack One Month After New President Installed'', allafrica.com|access-date=2 May 2020|archive-date=13 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121013163152/http://allafrica.com/stories/200904230849.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Some journalists have been arrested for allegedly spreading ].<ref>{{cite news |title=Madagascar journalist Arphine Helisoa jailed on false news, incitement allegation |url=https://cpj.org/2020/04/madagascar-journalist-arphine-helisoa-jailed-on-fa.php |work=Committee to Protect Journalists |date=22 April 2020 |access-date=2 May 2020 |archive-date=1 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200501132014/https://cpj.org/2020/04/madagascar-journalist-arphine-helisoa-jailed-on-fa.php |url-status=live }}</ref>
], a Major General in the army, was appointed interim President and Prime Minister that same year, but low public approval forced him to step down in 1975. Colonel ], appointed to succeed him, was assassinated six days into his tenure. General ] ruled after Ratsimandrava for four months before being replaced by another military appointee: Vice Admiral ], who ushered in the socialist-Marxist Second Republic that ran under his tenure from 1975 to 1993. This period saw a political alignment with the ] countries and a shift toward economic insularity. These policies, coupled with economic pressures stemming from the ], resulted in the rapid collapse of Madagascar's economy and a sharp decline in living standards,<ref name="LOC" /> and the country had become completely bankrupt by 1979. The Ratsiraka administration accepted the conditions of transparency, anti-corruption measures and free market policies imposed by the International Monetary Fund, World Bank and various bilateral donors in exchange for their bailout of the nation's broken economy.<ref name=ISS/>


===Military and law enforcement===
Ratsiraka's dwindling popularity in the late 1980s reached a critical point in 1991 when presidential guards opened fire on unarmed protesters during a rally. Within two months, a transitional government had been established under the leadership of ] (1993–96), who went on to win the 1992 presidential elections and inaugurate the Third Republic (1992–2010).<ref name="crisisgroup" /> The new ] established a multi-party democracy and a separation of powers that placed significant control in the hands of the National Assembly. The new constitution also emphasized human rights, social and political freedoms, and free trade.<ref name="LOC" /> Zafy's term, however, was marred by economic decline, allegations of corruption, and his introduction of legislation to give himself greater powers. He was consequently impeached in 1996, and an interim president, ], was appointed for the three months prior to the next presidential election. Ratsiraka was then voted back into power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms for a second term which lasted from 1996 to 2001.<ref name=ISS>{{cite journal | last = Marcus | first = Richard | title = Political change in Madagascar: populist democracy or neopatrimonialism by another name? | issue = Occasional Paper no. 89 | publisher = Institute for Security Studies | date = August 2004 | url = http://www.iss.org.za/pubs/papers/89/Paper89.htm | accessdate =15 February 2012}}</ref>
{{Main|Military of Madagascar|Law enforcement in Madagascar}}
The rise of centralized kingdoms among the Sakalava, Merina and other ethnic groups produced the island's first standing armies by the 16th century, initially equipped with spears but later with muskets, cannons and other firearms.<ref>Barendse (2002), pp. 259–274</ref> By the early 19th century, the Merina sovereigns of the Kingdom of Madagascar had brought much of the island under their control by mobilizing an army of trained and armed soldiers numbering as high as 30,000.<ref name="army">Freeman & Johns (1840), p. 25</ref> French attacks on coastal towns in the later part of the century prompted then-Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony to solicit British assistance to provide training to the Merina monarchy's army. Despite the training and leadership provided by British military advisers, the Malagasy army was unable to withstand French weaponry and was forced to surrender following an attack on the royal palace at Antananarivo. Madagascar was declared a colony of France in 1897.<ref>Chapus & Mondain (1953), p. 377</ref>


The political independence and sovereignty of the Malagasy armed forces, which comprises an army, navy and air force, was restored with independence from France in 1960.<ref>{{cite web |title = The Military Balance 2010 |publisher = ] |pages = 314–315, 467 |url = http://moorishwanderer.files.wordpress.com/2010/09/2010_report.pdf |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110511202850/http://moorishwanderer.files.wordpress.com/2010/09/2010_report.pdf |archive-date = 11 May 2011 |url-status=dead |access-date =1 April 2011}}</ref> Since this time the Malagasy military has never engaged in armed conflict with another state or within its own borders, but has occasionally intervened to restore order during periods of political unrest. Under the socialist Second Republic, Admiral Didier Ratsiraka instated mandatory national armed or civil service for all young citizens regardless of sex, a policy that remained in effect from 1976 to 1991.<ref>Sharp (2002), p. 87</ref><ref>Strakes (2006), p. 86</ref> The armed forces are under the direction of the Minister of Defense and have remained largely neutral during times of political crisis, as during the protracted standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana in the disputed 2001 presidential elections, when the military refused to intervene in favor of either candidate. This tradition was broken in 2009, when a segment of the army defected to the side of Andry Rajoelina, then-mayor of Antananarivo, in support of his attempt to force President Ravalomanana from power.<ref name=CrossroadsMarcus/>
The contested ] in which then-mayor of Antananarivo, Marc Ravalomanana, eventually emerged victorious, caused a seven-month standoff in 2002 between supporters of Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka. The negative economic impact of the political crisis was gradually overcome by Ravalomanana's progressive economic and political policies, which encouraged investments in education and ecotourism, facilitated foreign direct investment, and cultivated trading partnerships both regionally and internationally. National GDP grew at an average rate of 7&nbsp;percent per year under his administration. In the later half of his second term, Ravalomanana was criticised by domestic and international observers who accused him of increasing authoritarianism and corruption.<ref name=ISS/>


The Minister of Interior is responsible for the national police force, paramilitary force (''gendarmerie'') and the secret police.<ref name=justiceMada/> The police and gendarmerie are stationed and administered at the local level. However, in 2009 fewer than a third of all communes had access to the services of these security forces, with most lacking local-level headquarters for either corps.<ref name=INSTAT/> Traditional community tribunals, called ''dina'', are presided over by elders and other respected figures and remain a key means by which justice is served in rural areas where state presence is weak. Historically, security has been relatively high across the island.<ref name=CrossroadsMarcus/> Violent crime rates are low, and criminal activities are predominantly crimes of opportunity such as pickpocketing and petty theft, although child prostitution, human trafficking and the production and sale of marijuana and other illegal drugs are increasing.<ref name=justiceMada/> Budget cuts since 2009 have severely impacted the national police force, producing a steep increase in criminal activity in recent years.<ref name=CrossroadsMarcus/>
Opposition leader and then-mayor of Antananarivo, Andry Rajoelina, led a ] in which Ravalomanana was pushed from power in an unconstitutional process widely condemned as a ''coup d'état''. In March 2009, Rajoelina was declared by the Supreme Court as the President of the ], an interim governing body responsible for moving the country toward presidential elections. In 2010, a new constitution was ], establishing a Fourth Republic, which sustained the democratic, multi-party structure established in the previous constitution.<ref name="crisisgroup" /> Having been repeatedly postponed, presidential elections were last scheduled for 8 May 2013, while parliamentary elections and second-round presidential elections were set for 3 July 2013.<ref name=PresidentialElections>{{cite news |first = Gaelle | last = Borgia | url = http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gajx9iPEAU1LYPvpYYRaS1Mxlb0Q?docId=CNG.d5514f749a7ad3759a659047be4df987.951 | title = Madagascar sets presidential vote for May 8 | publisher = AFP | date = 1 August 2012 | accessdate = 24 August 2012 |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6A9xDGsU0 |archivedate = 24 August 2012}}</ref>


===Administrative divisions===
==Government==
{{Main|Regions of Madagascar|Districts of Madagascar}}


Madagascar is subdivided into 22 regions (''faritra'').<ref name=BGNote/> The regions are further subdivided into 119 districts, 1,579 communes, and 17,485 ''fokontany''.<ref name=INSTAT>{{cite press release |title = Presentation des resultats de la cartographie numerique en preparation du troisieme recensement generale de la population et de l'habitation |publisher = Institut nationale de la statistique (INSTAT), Government of Madagascar |year = 2010|url = http://www.instat.mg/pdf/carto_poly.pdf |access-date =15 January 2012 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120126200807/http://www.instat.mg/pdf/carto_poly.pdf |archive-date = 26 January 2012|url-status=dead |language=fr}}</ref>
===Structure===
{{Main|Government of Madagascar|Antananarivo}}
] is the political and economic capital of Madagascar.]]
Madagascar is a ] ] ] republic, wherein the popularly elected president is the head of state and selects a ], who recommends candidates to the president to form his cabinet of ministers. According to the ], executive power is exercised by the government while legislative power is vested in the ministerial cabinet, the ] and the ], although in reality these two latter bodies have very little power or legislative role. The constitution establishes independent executive, legislative and judicial branches and mandates a popularly elected president limited to three five-year terms.<ref name=BGNote/>

The last presidential election was held on 3 December 2006 and resulted in the re-election of Marc Ravalomanana, from whom executive power was unconstitutionally transferred to Andry Rajoelina in March 2009. There is currently no legitimately elected head of state in Madagascar. The public also elects the 127 members of the National Assembly to five-year terms. The last National Assembly election was held on 23 September 2007. All 33 members of the Senate serve six year terms, with 22 senators elected by local officials and 11 appointed by the president. After taking power, Rajoelina dissolved both the National Assembly and the Senate, leaving the nation without a constitutional legislative body.<ref name=BGNote/> At the local level, the island's 22 provinces are administered by a governor and provincial council. Provinces are further sub-divided into regions and communes. The judiciary is modeled on the French system, with a High Constitutional Court, High Court of Justice, Supreme Court, Court of Appeals, criminal tribunals, and tribunals of first instance.<ref name=justiceMada>Nalla (2010), pp. 122–128</ref> The courts, which adhere to ], lack the capacity to quickly and transparently try the cases in the judicial system, often forcing defendants to pass lengthy pretrial detentions in unsanitary and overcrowded prisons.<ref name=mediainfo/>

Antananarivo is the administrative capital and largest city of Madagascar.<ref name=BGNote/> It is located in the highlands region, near the geographic center of the island. King Andrianjaka founded Antananarivo as the capital of his Imerina Kingdom around 1610 or 1625 upon the site of a captured Vazimba capital on the hilltop of ].<ref name=vazimbadjp/> As Merina dominance expanded over neighboring Malagasy peoples in the early 19th century to establish the Kingdom of Madagascar, Antananarivo became the center of administration for virtually the entire island. In 1896 the French colonizers of Madagascar adopted the Merina capital as their center of colonial administration. The city remained the capital of Madagascar after regaining independence in 1960. In 2011, the capital's population was estimated at 1,300,000 inhabitants. The next largest cities are ] (500,000), ] (450,000) and ] (400,000).<ref name=BGNote/>

===Administrative divisions===
{{Main|Provinces of Madagascar|Regions of Madagascar}}
] and ] of Madagascar]]
As part of an effort to decentralize administration, Madagascar's six administrative provinces (''faritany mizakatena''), established under the French colonial authority in 1946,<ref>Deschamps (1965), pp. 268, 274.</ref> were subdivided into 22 regions (''faritra'') in 2004. The regions became the highest subdivision level when the provinces were dissolved in accordance with the results of the ].<ref name=BGNote/> The regions are further subdivided into 119 districts, 1,579 communes, and 17,485 ''fokontany''.<ref name=INSTAT>{{cite press release | title = Presentation des resultats de la cartographie numerique en preparation du troisieme recensement generale de la population et de l'habitation | publisher = Institut nationale de la statistique (INSTAT), Government of Madagascar | year = 2010| url = http://www.instat.mg/pdf/carto_poly.pdf | accessdate =15 January 2012 |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/64jHAqXGw |archivedate = 15 January 2012}} {{fr}}</ref>


]]]
<!--do the numbers in the table have official status, the way French department numbers to, or are they only to correspond to the map?-->
<!--do the numbers in the table have official status, the way French department numbers do, or are they only to correspond to the map?-->
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
|+ '''Regions and former provinces<ref>{{cite book | first = Eliane | last = Ralison | first2 = Frans | last2 = Goossens | editor-last = World Food Programme | contribution = Madagascar: profile des marches pour les evaluations d'urgence de la securite alimentaire | series = Strengthening Emergency Needs Assessment Capacity | date = January 2006 | page = 3 | place = Rome, Italy | publisher = Katholieke Universiteit Leuven | url = http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/ena/wfp086538.pdf |accessdate =14 January 2012 | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/64jbiYSCf | archivedate = 14 January 2012 }} {{fr}}</ref> '''
|+ '''Regions and former provinces'''<ref>{{cite book |first1=Eliane |last1=Ralison |first2=Frans |last2=Goossens |editor-last=World Food Programme |title=Madagascar: profile des marches pour les evaluations d'urgence de la securite alimentaire |series=Strengthening Emergency Needs Assessment Capacity |date=January 2006 |page=3 |place=Rome, Italy |publisher=Katholieke Universiteit Leuven |url=http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/ena/wfp086538.pdf |access-date=14 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207020754/http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/ena/wfp086538.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2012 |url-status=live |language=fr}}</ref>
!New regions !! Former provinces !! Population 2004 estimate
!New regions !! Former<br />provinces !! Area in<br />km<sup>2</sup> !! Population<br />2018<ref>, Institut National de la Statistique, Madagascar.</ref>
|- |-
| ] (1), ] (2) || ]|| 1,291,100 |] ||]||align="right"|19,993 ||align="right"|889,962
|- |-
|] ||]||align="right"|23,794 ||align="right"|1,123,772
| ] (3), ] (4), ] (5), ] (6)|| ]|| 5,370,900
|- |-
|] ||]||align="right"|6,579 ||align="right"|898,549
| ] (7), ] (8), ] (9), ] (10) || ]|| 1,896,000
|- |-
|] ||]||align="right"|17,346 ||align="right"|3,623,925
| ] (11), ] (12), ] (13) || ]|| 2,855,600
|- |-
|] ||]||align="right"|17,884 ||align="right"|2,079,659
| ] (14), ] (15), ] (16), ] (17), ] (18)|| ]|| 3,730,200
|- |-
|] ||]||align="right"|18,096 ||align="right"|670,993
| ] (19), ] (20), ] (21), ] (22) || ]|| 2,430,100
|-
|] (7) ||]||align="right"|50,973 ||align="right"|1,507,591
|-
|] ||]||align="right"|31,250 ||align="right"|929,312
|-
|] ||]||align="right"|28,964 ||align="right"|393,278
|-
|] ||]||align="right"|40,863 ||align="right"|308,944
|-
|] ||]||align="right"|27,846 ||align="right"|1,249,931
|-
|] ||]||align="right"|22,031 ||align="right"|1,478,472
|-
|] ||]||align="right"|21,666 ||align="right"|1,150,089
|-
|] ||]||align="right"|16,480 ||align="right"|837,116
|-
|] ||]||align="right"|20,820 ||align="right"|1,444,587
|-
|]-] ||]||align="right"|20,740 ||align="right"|1,440,657
|-
|] ||]||align="right"|16,632 ||align="right"|1,030,404
|-
|] ||]||align="right"|26,046 ||align="right"|418,520
|-
|] ||]||align="right"|48,814 ||align="right"|692,463
|-
|] ||]||align="right"|66,627 ||align="right"|1,797,894
|-
|] ||]||align="right"|18,949 ||align="right"|900,235
|-
|] ||]||align="right"|29,505 ||align="right"|809,051
|-
|'''''Totals''''' ||||align="right"|591,896 ||align="right"|25,674,196
|} |}


=== United Nations involvement ===
===Politics===
Madagascar became a member state of the United Nations on 20 September 1960, shortly after gaining its independence on 26 June 1960.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/press/en/2006/org1469.doc.htm|title=United Nations Member States {{!}} Meetings Coverage and Press Releases|website=www.un.org|language=en|access-date=2 February 2017|archive-date=5 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305033119/http://www.un.org/press/en/2006/org1469.doc.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> As of January 2017, 34 police officers from Madagascar are deployed in Haiti as part of the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/contributors/2017/jan17_5.pdf|title=UN Mission's Contributions by Country|last=United Nations|date=31 January 2017|website=www.un.org|access-date=27 February 2017|archive-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223133954/http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/contributors/2017/jan17_5.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Starting in 2015, under the direction of and with assistance from the UN, the World Food Programme started the Madagascar Country Programme with the two main goals of long-term development and reconstruction efforts, and addressing the food insecurity issues in the southern regions of Madagascar.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://www1.wfp.org/operations/200733-madagascar-country-programme-2015-2019|title=Madagascar Country Programme (2015–2019) {{!}} World Food Programme |website=www1.wfp.org|language=en|access-date=22 February 2017|archive-date=22 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222195051/http://www1.wfp.org/operations/200733-madagascar-country-programme-2015-2019|url-status=live}}</ref> These goals plan to be accomplished by providing meals for specific schools in rural and urban priority areas and by developing national school feeding policies to increase consistency of nourishment throughout the country. Small and local farmers have also been assisted in increasing both the quantity and quality of their production, as well as improving their crop yield in unfavorable weather conditions.<ref name=":0" /> In 2017, Madagascar signed the UN ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&clang=_en |title=Chapter XXVI: Disarmament&nbsp;– No. 9 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons |publisher=United Nations Treaty Collection |date=7 July 2017 |access-date=16 August 2019 |archive-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806220546/https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&clang=_en |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{Main|Politics of Madagascar|Foreign relations of Madagascar|Human rights in Madagascar}}
Since Madagascar gained independence from France in 1960, the island's political transitions have been marked by numerous popular protests, several disputed elections, an impeachment, two military coups and one assassination. The island's recurrent political crises are often prolonged, with detrimental effects on the local economy, international relations and Malagasy living standards. The eight-month standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana, following the 2001 presidential elections, cost Madagascar millions of dollars in lost tourism and trade revenue as well as damage to infrastructure, such as bombed bridges and buildings damaged by arson.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=47721 |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/604iepG98 |archivedate = 10 July 2011|title=MADAGASCAR: Former president sentenced to five years in prison |publisher=Irinnews.org |date= 17 December 2003 |accessdate=25 April 2010}}</ref> ] led by Andry Rajoelina against Ravalomanana in early 2009 became violent, with more than 170 people killed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=83838 |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/604j587uf |archivedate = 10 July 2011 |title=Madagascar: Appeal launched despite political uncertainty |publisher=Irinnews.org |date= 7 April 2009 |accessdate=25 April 2010}}</ref> The installation of Rajoelina's ] has, since March 2009, caused many bilateral donors and intergovernmental organizations to freeze aid and suspend regular diplomatic relations with Madagascar, causing economic development to stagnate and reversing many of the gains achieved under the previous administration. In addition, modern politics in Madagascar are colored by the history of Merina subjugation of coastal communities under their rule in the 19th century. The consequent tension between the highland and coastal populations has periodically flared up into isolated events of violence.<ref name=ethnicstrife>{{cite news | last = Leithead | first = Alastair | title = Ethnic strife rocks Madagascar |newspaper=BBC News | date = 14 May 2002 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1987383.stm |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/64rGphWDh | archivedate = 22 January 2012 | accessdate =22 January 2012}}</ref>


== Economy ==
Madagascar has historically been perceived as being on the margin of mainstream African affairs despite being a founding member of the ], which was established in 1963 and dissolved in 2002 to be replaced by the ]. Madagascar was not permitted to attend the first African Union summit because of a dispute over the results of the 2001 presidential election, but rejoined the African Union in July 2003 after a 14-month hiatus. However, Madagascar was again suspended by the African Union in March 2009 following the ] to Rajoelina.<ref>{{cite web | title = Pressure grows on Madagascar coup |publisher=BBC News | date = 20 March 2009 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7954356.stm |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/604XDz2yB |archivedate = 10 July 2011 | accessdate =30 March 2009}}</ref> Madagascar is a member of the ] with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the ].<ref name=BGNote/> ] have established embassies in Madagascar, including France, the United Kingdom, the United States, China and India.<ref>{{cite web | title = Numéros utiles | publisher = AirMadagascar.com | date = 28 January 2012 | url = http://www.webcitation.org/651QcKNqa | accessdate =28 January 2012 |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/651QcKNqa |archivedate = 28 January 2012}} {{fr}}</ref>
{{Main|Economy of Madagascar|Tourism in Madagascar}}
]
] is one of the international tourism destinations in Madagascar]]
Madagascar's GDP in 2015 was estimated at US$9.98&nbsp;billion, with a per capita GDP of $411.82.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.google.com/publicdata/explore?ds=d5bncppjof8f9_&met_y=ny_gdp_mktp_cd&idim=country:MDG:MUS:MOZ&hl=en&dl=en|title=World Bank|access-date=27 February 2017|archive-date=29 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029052604/http://www.google.com/publicdata/explore?ds=d5bncppjof8f9_|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.google.com/publicdata/explore?ds=d5bncppjof8f9_&met_y=ny_gdp_mktp_cd&idim=country:MDG:MUS:MOZ&hl=en&dl=en#!ctype=l&strail=false&bcs=d&nselm=h&met_y=ny_gdp_pcap_cd&scale_y=lin&ind_y=false&rdim=region&idim=country:MDG:MUS:MOZ&ifdim=region&hl=en_US&dl=en&ind=false|title=World Development Indicators – Google Public Data Explorer|website=www.google.com|access-date=22 February 2017|archive-date=29 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029052604/http://www.google.com/publicdata/explore?ds=d5bncppjof8f9_#!ctype=l&strail=false&bcs=d&nselm=h&met_y=ny_gdp_pcap_cd&scale_y=lin&ind_y=false&rdim=region&idim=country:MDG:MUS:MOZ&ifdim=region&hl=en_US&dl=en&ind=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Approximately 69&nbsp;percent of the population lives below the national poverty line threshold of one dollar per day.<ref>{{cite web |title = Madagascar at a glance |publisher = World Bank |date = 25 February 2011 |url = http://devdata.worldbank.org/AAG/mdg_aag.pdf |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120313084616/http://devdata.worldbank.org/AAG/mdg_aag.pdf |archive-date = 13 March 2012 |url-status=dead |access-date=4 February 2012 }}</ref> According to the ], as of 2021, 68.4 percent of the population is ].<ref name=":3" /> During 2011–15, the average growth rate was 2.6% but was expected to have reached 4.1% in 2016, due to public works programs and a growth of the service sector.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/madagascar/overview|title=Madagascar Overview|website=www.worldbank.org|language=en|access-date=22 February 2017|archive-date=9 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200409090650/https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/madagascar/overview|url-status=live}}</ref> The agriculture sector constituted 29&nbsp;percent of Malagasy GDP in 2011, while manufacturing formed 15&nbsp;percent of GDP. Madagascar's other sources of growth are tourism, agriculture and the extractive industries.<ref name=AEO2011>{{cite web|title=African Economic Outlook 2011: Madagascar |vauthors=AFDB, OECD, UNDP, UNECA |publisher=AfricanEconomicOutlook.org |year=2011 |url=http://www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/fileadmin/uploads/aeo/Country_Notes/2011/Full/Madagascar.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111109020440/http://www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/fileadmin/uploads/aeo/Country_Notes/2011/Full/Madagascar.pdf |archive-date=9 November 2011 |access-date=28 January 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The fishing sector represents 800 millions USD or 6% of GNP with 200 000 direct jobs.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.lexpress.mg/2024/01/filiere-peche-la-transparence-comme.html |title=La filiere Peche |date=27 January 2024 |access-date=30 January 2024 |archive-date=30 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130044353/https://www.lexpress.mg/2024/01/filiere-peche-la-transparence-comme.html |url-status=live }}</ref>


Tourism focuses on the niche eco-tourism market, capitalizing on Madagascar's unique biodiversity, unspoiled natural habitats, national parks and lemur species.<ref name="tourismsector">{{cite journal |first1 = Iain |last1 = Christie |first2 = Elizabeth |last2=Crompton |title = Republic of Madagascar: Tourism Sector Study |journal = Africa Region Working Paper No. 63 |publisher = World Bank |date = November 2003 |location = Antananarivo |url = http://www.worldbank.org/afr/wps/wp63.pdf |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120210070045/http://www.worldbank.org/afr/wps/wp63.pdf |archive-date = 10 February 2012 |url-status=live |access-date =28 January 2012 }}</ref> An estimated 365,000 tourists visited Madagascar in 2008, but the sector declined during the political crisis with 180,000 tourists visiting in 2010.<ref name=AEO2011/> However, the sector has been growing steadily for a few years. In 2016, 293,000 tourists landed in the African island with an increase of 20% compared to 2015. For 2017 the country has the goal of reaching 366,000 visitors, while for 2018 government estimates are expected to reach 500,000 annual tourists.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.guidaviaggi.it/notizie/183551/madagascar-obiettivo- |title=Madagascar: obiettivo 500mila visitatori nel 2018 |work=Guida Viaggi |date=10 February 2017 |language=it |trans-title=Madagascar: Targeting 500 Thousand Visitors in 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808193816/http://www.guidaviaggi.it/notizie/183551/madagascar-obiettivo- |archive-date=8 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
Human rights in Madagascar are protected under the constitution and the state is a signatory to numerous international agreements including the ] and the ].<ref name=DOS/> Religious, ethnic and sexual minorities are protected under the law. Freedom of association and assembly are also guaranteed under the law, although in practice the denial of permits for public assembly has occasionally been used to impede political demonstrations.<ref name=CrossroadsMarcus/><ref name=DOS>{{cite web | last = Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor | title = 2010 Human Rights Report: Madagascar | publisher = U.S. Department of State | date = 8 April 2011 | url = http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/160130.pdf |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/604YfHcMq | archivedate = 10 July 2011 | accessdate =10 July 2011}}</ref> Torture by security forces is rare and state repression is low relative to other countries with comparably few legal safeguards, although arbitrary arrests and the corruption of military and police officers remain challenges. Ravalomanana's 2004 creation of BIANCO, an anti-corruption bureau, resulted in reduced corruption among Antananarivo's lower-level bureaucrats in particular, although high-level officials have not been prosecuted by the bureau.<ref name=CrossroadsMarcus/>


The island is still a very poor country in 2018; structural brakes remain in the development of the economy: corruption and the shackles of the public administration, lack of legal certainty, and backwardness of land legislation. The economy, however, has been growing since 2011, with GDP growth exceeding 4% per year;<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indexmundi.com/g/g.aspx?v=66&c=ma&l=en|title=Madagascar – GDP – real growth rate – Historical Data Graphs per Year|website=www.indexmundi.com|access-date=16 June 2018|archive-date=13 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613210626/https://www.indexmundi.com/g/g.aspx?v=66&c=ma&l=en|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.agenzianova.com/a/0/1532830/2017-03-26/business-news-fmi-economia-del-madagascar-manifesta-segnali-incoraggianti|title=Business news: Fmi, economia del Madagascar manifesta segnali "incoraggianti"|website=Agenzia Nova|access-date=16 June 2018|archive-date=28 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328195756/http://www.agenzianova.com/a/0/1532830/2017-03-26/business-news-fmi-economia-del-madagascar-manifesta-segnali-incoraggianti|url-status=live}}</ref> almost all economic indicators are growing, the GDP per capita was around $1600 (PPP) for 2017,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.indexmundi.com/g/g.aspx?v=67&c=ma&l=en | title=Madagascar – GDP – per capita (PPP) – Historical Data Graphs per Year | access-date=24 November 2018 | archive-date=13 June 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613210611/https://www.indexmundi.com/g/g.aspx?v=67&c=ma&l=en | url-status=live }}</ref> one of the lowest in the world, although growing since 2012; unemployment was also cut, which in 2016 was equal to 2.1%<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indexmundi.com/g/g.aspx?v=74&c=ma&l=en|title=Madagascar – Unemployment rate – Historical Data Graphs per Year|website=indexmundi.com|access-date=16 June 2018|archive-date=13 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613210651/https://www.indexmundi.com/g/g.aspx?v=74&c=ma&l=en|url-status=live}}</ref> with a work force of 13.4&nbsp;million as of 2017.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indexmundi.com/g/g.aspx?v=72&c=ma&l=en|title=Madagascar – Labor force – Historical Data Graphs per Year|website=www.indexmundi.com|access-date=16 June 2018|archive-date=13 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613234209/https://www.indexmundi.com/g/g.aspx?v=72&c=ma&l=en|url-status=live}}</ref> The main economic resources of Madagascar are ], ], ], and ].
===Security===
{{Main|Military of Madagascar}}
The rise of centralized kingdoms among the Sakalava, Merina and other ethnic groups produced the island's first standing armies by the 16th century, initially equipped with spears but later with muskets, cannon and other firearms.<ref>Barendse (2002), pp. 259–274</ref> By the early 19th century, the Merina sovereigns of the Kingdom of Madagascar had brought much of the island under their control by mobilizing an army of trained and armed soldiers numbering as high as 30,000.<ref name="army">Freeman & Johns (1840), p. 25</ref> French attacks on coastal towns in the later part of the century prompted then-Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony to solicit British assistance to provide training to the Merina monarchy's army. Despite the training and leadership provided by British military advisers, the Malagasy army was unable to withstand French weaponry and was forced to surrender following an attack on the royal palace at Antananarivo. Madagascar was declared a colony of France in 1897.<ref>Chapus & Mondain (1953), p. 377</ref>


Poverty affects 92% of the population in 2017. The country ranks fourth in the world in terms of chronic malnutrition. Nearly one in two children under the age of five is stunted. In addition, Madagascar is among the five countries where access to water is the most difficult for the population. Twelve million people do not have access to clean water, according to the NGO WaterAid.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.unicef.org/madagascar/en/programme/pse|title=Social policy and social protection|access-date=19 December 2021|archive-date=19 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219014609/https://www.unicef.org/madagascar/en/programme/pse|url-status=live}}</ref>
The political independence and sovereignty of the Malagasy armed forces, which comprises an army, navy and air force, was restored with independence from France in 1960.<ref>{{cite web | title = The Military Balance 2010 | publisher = ] | pages = 314–315, 467 | url = http://moorishwanderer.files.wordpress.com/2010/09/2010_report.pdf | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/5xceWrXPC |archivedate = 1 April 2011 | accessdate =1 April 2011}}</ref> Since this time the Malagasy military has never engaged in armed conflict with another state or within its own borders, but has occasionally intervened to restore order during periods of political unrest. Under the socialist Second Republic, Admiral Didier Ratsiraka instated mandatory national armed or civil service for all young citizens regardless of gender, a policy that remained in effect from 1976 to 1991.<ref>Sharp (2002), p. 87</ref><ref>Strakes (2006), p. 86</ref> The armed forces are under the direction of the Minister of the Interior<ref name=justiceMada/> and have remained largely neutral during times of political crisis, as during the protracted standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana in the disputed 2001 presidential elections, when the military refused to intervene in favor of either candidate. This tradition was broken in 2009, when a segment of the army defected to the side of Andry Rajoelina, then-mayor of Antananarivo, in support of his attempt to force President Ravalomanana from power.<ref name=CrossroadsMarcus/>


===Natural resources and trade===
The Minister of the Interior is responsible for the national police force, paramilitary force (''gendarmerie'') and the secret police.<ref name=justiceMada/> The police and gendarmerie are stationed and administered at the local level. However, in 2009 fewer than a third of all communes had access to the services of these security forces, with most lacking local-level headquarters for either corps.<ref name=INSTAT/> Traditional community tribunals, called ''dina'', are presided over by elders and other respected figures and remain a key means by which justice is served in rural areas where state presence is weak. Historically, security has been relatively high across the island.<ref name=CrossroadsMarcus/> Violent crime rates are low, and criminal activities are predominantly crimes of opportunity such as pickpocketing and petty theft, although child prostitution, human trafficking and the production and sale of marijuana and other illegal drugs are increasing.<ref name=justiceMada/> Budget cuts since 2009 have severely impacted the national police force, producing a steep increase in criminal activity in recent years.<ref name=CrossroadsMarcus/>
], a native palm<ref>Rodd & Stackhouse (2008), p. 246</ref>]]
Madagascar's natural resources include a variety of agricultural and mineral products. Agriculture (including the growing of ]), mining, fishing and ] are mainstays of the economy. In 2017 the top exports were vanilla (US$894M), nickel metal (US$414M), cloves (US$288M), knitted sweaters (US$184M) and cobalt (US$143M).<ref>{{cite web |title=Madagascar Economic Statistics |url=https://tradecouncil.org/madagascar-economics-statistics-2019/ |publisher=International Trade Council |access-date=16 April 2020 |location=Washington D.C. |date=2019 }}{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>


Madagascar is the world's principal supplier of ], cloves<ref>{{cite web |author = United Nations |title = FAO Stat |publisher = Food and Agriculture Organization |url = http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx |year = 2013 |access-date = 13 April 2013 |archive-date = 13 July 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110713020710/http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx |url-status = live }}</ref> and ].<ref name=gafilo/> The island supplies 80% of the world's natural vanilla.<ref>{{cite news|last=Pilling|first=David|date=5 June 2018|title=The real price of Madagascar's vanilla boom|work=Financial Times|url=https://www.ft.com/content/02042190-65bc-11e8-90c2-9563a0613e56|access-date=20 September 2018|archive-date=20 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920195743/https://www.ft.com/content/02042190-65bc-11e8-90c2-9563a0613e56|url-status=live}}</ref> Other key agricultural resources include coffee, ]s and shrimp. Key mineral resources include various types of precious and semi-precious stones, and it currently provides half of the world's supply of sapphires, which were discovered near ] in the late 1990s.<ref>Pezzotta (2001), p. 32</ref>
==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Madagascar|Tourism in Madagascar}}
]
During Madagascar's First Republic, France heavily influenced Madagascar's economic planning and policy and served as its key trading partner. Key products were cultivated and distributed nationally through producers' and consumers' cooperatives. Government initiatives such as a rural development program and state farms were established to boost production of commodities such as rice, coffee, cattle, silk and palm oil. Popular dissatisfaction over these policies was a key factor in launching the socialist-Marxist Second Republic, in which the formerly private bank and insurance industries were nationalized; state monopolies were established for such industries as textiles, cotton and power; and import–export trade and shipping were brought under state control. Madagascar's economy quickly deteriorated as exports fell, industrial production dropped by 75&nbsp;percent, inflation spiked and government debt increased; the rural population was soon reduced to living at subsistence levels. Over 50&nbsp;percent of the nation's export revenue was spent on debt servicing.<ref name=EBLand/>


Madagascar has one of the world's largest reserves of ] (titanium ore), as well as important reserves of chromite, coal, iron, cobalt, copper and nickel.<ref name=EBLand/> Several major projects are underway in the mining, ] and ] sectors that are anticipated to give a significant boost to the Malagasy economy. These include such projects as ilmenite and zircon mining at the ] mine by ],<ref name="RioTinto">{{cite web |title= About QMM |publisher= Rio Tinto |year= 2009 |access-date= 19 September 2012 |url= http://www.sherritt.com/Operations/Metals/Ambatovy-Joint-Venture |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120702181446/http://www.sherritt.com/Operations/Metals/Ambatovy-Joint-Venture |url-status=dead |archive-date= 2 July 2012 }}</ref> extraction of nickel by the ] near ] and its processing near Toamasina by ],<ref>{{cite web |title= Metals – Ambatovy Joint Venture |publisher= Sherritt International Corporation |year= 2012 |access-date= 19 September 2012 |url= http://www.sherritt.com/Operations/Metals/Ambatovy-Joint-Venture |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120702181446/http://www.sherritt.com/Operations/Metals/Ambatovy-Joint-Venture |url-status=dead |archive-date= 2 July 2012 }}</ref> and the development of the giant onshore ] deposits at ] and ] by ].<ref>{{cite web |title= Madagascar's oil fortunes evolving slowly |publisher= PennWell Corporation |date= 7 February 2012 |access-date= 19 September 2012 |url= http://www.ogj.com/articles/print/vol-110/issue-2/exploration-developmet/madagascar-s-oil.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130208082330/http://www.ogj.com/articles/print/vol-110/issue-2/exploration-developmet/madagascar-s-oil.html |url-status=live |archive-date = 8 February 2013}}</ref>
The IMF forced Madagascar's government to accept structural adjustment policies and liberalization of the economy when the state became bankrupt in 1982 and state-controlled industries were gradually privatized over the course of the 1980s. The political crisis of 1991 led to the suspension of IMF and World Bank assistance. Conditions for the resumption of aid were not met under Zafy, who tried unsuccessfully to attract other forms of revenue for the State before aid was once again resumed under the interim government established upon Zafy's impeachment. The IMF agreed to write off half Madagascar's debt in 2004 under the Ravalomanana administration. Having met a set of stringent economic, governance and human rights criteria, Madagascar became the first country to benefit from the ] in 2005.<ref name=BGNote/>

Madagascar's GDP in 2009 was estimated at 8.6 billion USD, with a per capita GDP of $438.<ref name=BGNote/> Approximately 69&nbsp;percent of the population lives below the national poverty line threshold of one dollar per day.<ref>{{cite web | title = Madagascar at a glance |publisher = World Bank | date = 25 February 2011 | url = http://devdata.worldbank.org/AAG/mdg_aag.pdf |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/65E3A2dF3 | archivedate = 4 February 2012 | accessdate =4 February 2012}}</ref> The agriculture sector constituted 29&nbsp;percent of Malagasy GDP in 2011, while manufacturing formed 15&nbsp;percent of GDP. Madagascar's sources of growth are tourism, agriculture and the extractive industries.<ref name=AEO2011>{{cite web | title = African Economic Outlook 2011: Madagascar | last = AFDB, OECD, UNDP, UNECA |publisher = AfricanEconomicOutlook.org | year = 2011 | url = http://www.webcitation.org/651TPJaOc |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/651TPJaOc |archivedate = 28 January 2012 | accessdate =28 January 2012}}</ref> Tourism focuses on the niche eco-tourism market, capitalizing on Madagascar's unique biodiversity, unspoiled natural habitats, national parks and lemur species.<ref name="tourismsector">{{cite document | first1 = Iain | last1 = Christie |first2 = Elizabeth |last2= Crompton | title = Republic of Madagascar: Tourism Sector Study |series = Africa Region Working Paper No. 63 | publisher = World Bank | date = November 2003 | location = Antananarivo | url = http://www.worldbank.org/afr/wps/wp63.pdf |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/651T9jMDr |archivedate = 28 January 2012 | accessdate =28 January 2012. }}</ref> An estimated 365,000 tourists visited Madagascar in 2008, but the sector has declined as a result of the political crisis with 180,000 tourists visiting in 2010.<ref name=AEO2011/>

===Natural resources and trade===
], a native palm<ref>Rodd & Stackhouse (2008), p. 246</ref>]]
Madagascar's natural resources include a variety of unprocessed agricultural and mineral resources. Agriculture, including ], fishing and ], is a mainstay of the economy. Madagascar is the world's principal supplier of vanilla, cloves and ].<ref name=gafilo/> Other key agricultural resources include coffee, ]s and shrimp. Key mineral resources include various types of precious and semi-precious stones, and Madagascar currently provides half of the world's supply of sapphires, which were discovered near ] in the late 1990s.<ref>Pezzotta (2001), p. 32</ref> The island also holds one of the world's largest reserves of ] (titanium ore), as well as important reserves of chromite, coal, iron, cobalt, copper and nickel.<ref name=EBLand/> Several major projects are underway in the mining, ] and ] sectors that are anticipated to give a significant boost to the Malagasy economy. These include such projects as ilmenite and zircon mining from heavy mineral sands near ] by ],<ref name = RioTinto>{{cite web |title= About QMM |publisher= Rio Tinto |year= 2009 |accessdate= 19 September 2012 |url= http://www.sherritt.com/Operations/Metals/Ambatovy-Joint-Venture|archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6AmlYC0UV |archivedate = 19 September 2012}}</ref> extraction of nickel near ] and its processing near Toamasina by ],<ref>{{cite web |title= Metals - Ambatovy Joint Venture |publisher= Sherritt International Corporation |year= 2012 |accessdate= 19 September 2012 |url= http://www.sherritt.com/Operations/Metals/Ambatovy-Joint-Venture |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6AmlwHsbZ |archivedate = 19 September 2012}}</ref> and the development of the giant onshore ] deposits at ] and ] by ].<ref>{{cite web |title= Madagascar's oil fortunes evolving slowly |publisher= PennWell Corporation |date= 6 February 2012 |accessdate= 19 September 2012 |url= http://www.ogj.com/articles/print/vol-110/issue-2/exploration-developmet/madagascar-s-oil.html |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6Ammp424j |archivedate = 19 September 2012}}</ref>


Exports formed 28&nbsp;percent of GDP in 2009.<ref name=BGNote/> Most of the country's export revenue is derived from the textiles industry, fish and shellfish, vanilla, cloves and other foodstuffs.<ref name=AEO2011/> France is Madagascar's main trading partner, although the United States, Japan and Germany also have strong economic ties to the country.<ref name=EBLand/> The ] was formed in May 2003, as a collaboration between ] and Malagasy artisan producers to support the export of local handicrafts to foreign markets.<ref name=handicrafts>{{cite web | last1 = Ashamu | first1 = Charlotte | first2 = Diego | last2 = Gomez-Pickering | first3 = Amanda | last3 = Luke | last4 = Morrison | first4 = Paul | first5 = Mark | last5 = Pedersen | first6 = Mara | last6 = Symes | first7 = Marthe | last7 = Weyandt | title = Made in Madagascar: Exporting Handicrafts to the U.S. Market: Final Report | publisher = United Nations Public-Private Alliance for Rural Development | year = 2005 | url = http://www.sipa.columbia.edu/academics/concentrations/epd/documents/2004-5/MalagasyHandicrafts_Report.pdf |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/604ZDmy4U | archivedate = 10 July 2011 | accessdate =10 July 2011}}</ref> Imports of such items as foodstuffs, fuel, capital goods, vehicles, consumer goods and electronics consume an estimated 52&nbsp;percent of GDP. The main sources of Madagascar's imports include France, China, Iran, Mauritius and Hong Kong.<ref name=BGNote/> Exports formed 28&nbsp;percent of GDP in 2009.<ref name=BGNote/> Most of the country's export revenue is derived from the textiles industry, fish and shellfish, vanilla, cloves and other foodstuffs.<ref name=AEO2011/> France is the nation's main trading partner, although the United States, Japan and Germany also have strong economic ties.<ref name=EBLand/> The ] was formed in May 2003, as a collaboration between ] and Malagasy artisan producers to support the export of local handicrafts to foreign markets.<ref name=handicrafts>{{cite web |last1 = Ashamu |first1 = Charlotte |first2 = Diego |last2 = Gomez-Pickering |first3 = Amanda |last3 = Luke |last4 = Morrison |first4 = Paul |first5 = Mark |last5 = Pedersen |first6 = Mara |last6 = Symes |first7 = Marthe |last7 = Weyandt |title = Made in Madagascar: Exporting Handicrafts to the U.S. Market: Final Report |publisher = United Nations Public-Private Alliance for Rural Development |year=2005 |url = http://www.sipa.columbia.edu/academics/concentrations/epd/documents/2004-5/MalagasyHandicrafts_Report.pdf |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120320070928/http://www.sipa.columbia.edu/academics/concentrations/epd/documents/2004-5/MalagasyHandicrafts_Report.pdf |archive-date=20 March 2012 |url-status=dead |access-date =10 July 2011}}</ref> Imports of such items as foodstuffs, fuel, capital goods, vehicles, consumer goods and electronics consume an estimated 52&nbsp;percent of GDP. The main sources of Madagascar's imports include ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mg2.mofcom.gov.cn/article/bilateralcooperation/201908/20190802895188.shtml|title=Aperçu de la coopération économique entre la Chine et Madagascar|website=mofcom.gov.cn|access-date=30 November 2019|archive-date=4 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191204131452/http://mg2.mofcom.gov.cn/article/bilateralcooperation/201908/20190802895188.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref> France, Iran, Mauritius and Hong Kong.<ref name=BGNote/>


===Infrastructure and media=== ===Infrastructure and media===
{{Main|Transport in Madagascar|Telecommunications in Madagascar}} {{Main|Transport in Madagascar|Telecommunications in Madagascar|List of newspapers in Madagascar}}
]
]]]
In 2010, Madagascar had approximately {{convert|7617|km|mi|-1|abbr=on}} of paved roads, {{convert|854|km|mi|-1|abbr=on}} of railways and {{convert|432|km|mi|-1|abbr=on}} of navigable waterways.<ref name="Bradtp2"/> The majority of ] are unpaved, with many becoming impassable in the rainy season. Largely paved ] connect the six largest regional towns to Antananarivo, with minor paved and unpaved routes providing access to other population centers in each district.<ref name="LOC"/> Construction of the ], the country's first ], began in December 2022. The approximately {{Currency|1000000000|first=}} infrastructure project, which will connect Madagascar's capital to its largest seaport, is expected to take four years to complete.<ref name=":12">{{Cite news |date=5 December 2022 |title=Madagascar starts works on first motorway |work=] |url=https://www.africanews.com/2022/12/04/madagascar-starts-works-on-first-motorway// |access-date=19 February 2023 |archive-date=19 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219235236/https://www.africanews.com/2022/12/04/madagascar-starts-works-on-first-motorway// |url-status=live }}</ref> Another project meant to create 348 kilometers of roads and create better connections costs €235.5 million. This includes a €116 million grant from the ], a €110 million loan from the ], and €4.8 million in finance from the Republic of Madagascar.<ref name=":1403">{{Cite web |title=Road projects to combat climate events in Madagascar |url=https://www.eib.org/en/stories/madagascar-climate-roads |access-date=2023-04-24 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en |archive-date=24 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424081522/https://www.eib.org/en/stories/madagascar-climate-roads |url-status=live }}</ref> Since 2016, €100.4 million has been paid to the Republic of Madagascar through this project.<ref name=":1403"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Madagascar: Project to modernise the RN13 and RN6 national highways - €73.6 million disbursement from EIB and European Union |url=https://www.eib.org/en/press/all/2022-550-projet-de-modernisation-des-routes-nationales-rn13-et-rn6-a-madagascar-decaissement-de-736-millions-d-euros-de-la-bei-et-de-l-union-europeenne |access-date=2023-04-24 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en |archive-date=24 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424101606/https://www.eib.org/en/press/all/2022-550-projet-de-modernisation-des-routes-nationales-rn13-et-rn6-a-madagascar-decaissement-de-736-millions-d-euros-de-la-bei-et-de-l-union-europeenne |url-status=live }}</ref>


In 2010, Madagascar had approximately {{Convert|7,617|km|mi|-1|abbr=on}} of paved roads, {{Convert|854|km|mi|-1|abbr=on}} of railways and {{Convert|432|km|mi|-1|abbr=on}} of navigable waterways.<ref name="Bradtp2" /> The majority of roads in Madagascar are unpaved, with many becoming impassable in the rainy season. Largely paved national routes connect the six largest regional towns to Antananarivo, with minor paved and unpaved routes providing access to other population centers in each district. There are several rail lines on the island. Antananarivo is connected to Toamasina, Ambatondrazaka and Antsirabe by rail, and another rail line connects Fianarantsoa to Manakara. The most important seaport in Madagascar is located on the east coast at Toamasina. Ports at Mahajanga and Antsiranana are significantly less used due to their remoteness.<ref name="LOC" /> The island's newest port at Ehoala, constructed in 2008 and privately managed by Rio Tinto, will come under state control upon completion of the company's mining project near Tôlanaro around 2038.<ref name = RioTinto/> Air Madagascar services the island's many small regional airports, which offer the only practical means of access to many of the more remote regions during rainy season road washouts.<ref name="LOC" /> There are several ]. Antananarivo is connected to Toamasina, Ambatondrazaka and Antsirabe by rail, and another rail line connects Fianarantsoa to Manakara. The most important seaport in Madagascar is located on the east coast at Toamasina. Ports at Mahajanga and Antsiranana are significantly less used because of their remoteness.<ref name="LOC"/> Madagascar's government hopes to expand the ports of Antsiranana in the north and Taolagnaro in the south, connecting them to improved road networks, since many imports are every day necessities and Madagascar also relies on export money.'''<ref name=":1403"/>'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=High prices in Southern Madagascar limit poor households' food access {{!}} FEWS NET |url=https://fews.net/southern-africa/madagascar/food-security-outlook/february-2019 |access-date=2023-04-24 |website=fews.net |language=en |archive-date=24 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424085751/https://fews.net/southern-africa/madagascar/food-security-outlook/february-2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Madagascar - COUNTRY ECONOMIC MEMORANDUM |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/699781575279412305/pdf/Madagascar-Country-Economic-Memorandum-Scaling-Success-Building-a-Resilient-Economy.pdf |access-date=24 April 2023 |archive-date=24 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424085750/https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/699781575279412305/pdf/Madagascar-Country-Economic-Memorandum-Scaling-Success-Building-a-Resilient-Economy.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The island's newest port at Ehoala, constructed in 2008 and privately managed by ], will come under state control upon completion of the company's mining project near Tôlanaro around 2038.<ref name = RioTinto/> ] services the island's many small regional airports, which offer the only practical means of access to many of the more remote regions during rainy season road washouts.<ref name="LOC"/>


Running water and electricity is supplied at the national level by a government service provider, Jirama, which is unable to service the entire population. As of 2009, only 6.8&nbsp;percent of Madagascar's ''fokontany'' had access to water provided by Jirama, while 9.5&nbsp;percent had access to its electricity services.<ref name=INSTAT/> Two-thirds of Madagascar's power is supplied by hydroelectric power plants with the remaining one-third supplied by coal-burning plants.<ref name=EBLand/> Mobile telephone and internet access are widespread in urban areas but remain limited in rural parts of the island. Approximately 30&nbsp;percent of the districts are able to access the nations' several private telecommunications networks via mobile telephones or land lines.<ref name=INSTAT/> Running water and electricity are supplied at the national level by a government service provider, ], which is unable to service the entire population. {{As of|2009}}, only 6.8&nbsp;percent of Madagascar's ''fokontany'' had access to water provided by Jirama, while 9.5&nbsp;percent had access to its electricity services.<ref name=INSTAT/> Fifty-six percent of Madagascar's power is provided by hydroelectric power plants, with the remaining 44% provided by diesel engine generators.<ref>{{cite web |title = Production Electricité |publisher = Jirama |year = 2011 |url = http://www.jirama.mg/index.php?w=scripts&f=Jirama-page.php&act=pdcelec |access-date = 28 August 2013 |language = fr |archive-date = 16 August 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130816055715/http://www.jirama.mg/index.php?w=scripts&f=Jirama-page.php&act=pdcelec |url-status = live }}</ref> Mobile telephone and internet access are widespread in urban areas but remain limited in rural parts of the island. Approximately 30% of the districts are able to access the nations' several private telecommunications networks via mobile telephones or land lines.<ref name=INSTAT/> The ] estimates that 17 million people in Madagascar's rural areas live more than two kilometres away from an all-season road.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The World Bank Connectivity for Rural Livelihood Improvement Project |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/fr/810821574132477851/pdf/Madagascar-Connectivity-for-Rural-Livelihood-Improvement-Project.pdf |access-date=24 April 2023 |archive-date=24 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424091253/https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/fr/810821574132477851/pdf/Madagascar-Connectivity-for-Rural-Livelihood-Improvement-Project.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In Madagascar, 11% of the rural population has access to power.'''<ref name=":1403"/>'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Madagascar Set to Expand Access to Renewable Energy and Digital Services thanks to $400 Million Credit |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2023/04/07/madagascar-afe-set-to-expand-access-to-renewable-energy-and-digital-services-thanks-to-400-million-credit |access-date=2023-04-24 |website=World Bank |language=en |archive-date=24 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424085751/https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2023/04/07/madagascar-afe-set-to-expand-access-to-renewable-energy-and-digital-services-thanks-to-400-million-credit |url-status=live }}</ref>


Radio broadcasts remain the principal means by which the Malagasy population access international, national and local news. Only state radio broadcasts are transmitted across the entire island. Hundreds of public and private stations with local or regional range provide alternatives to state broadcasting.<ref name=mediainfo/> In addition to the state television channel, a variety of privately owned television stations broadcast local and international programming throughout Madagascar. Several media outlets are owned by political partisans or politicians themselves, including the media groups MBS (owned by Ravalomanana) and Viva (owned by Rajoelina),<ref name=CrossroadsMarcus>{{cite web | last1 = Bachelard | first1 = Jerome |last2 = Marcus |first2 = Richard | title = Countries at the Crossroads 2011: Madagascar | publisher = Freedom House | year = 2011 | url =http://www.freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/inline_images/MADAGASCARfinal.pdf | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6AAqjglXX | archivedate = 25 August 2012 | accessdate = 25 August 2012}}</ref> contributing to political polarization in reporting. The media has historically come under varying degrees of pressure over time to censor their criticism of the government. Reporters are occasionally threatened or harassed and media outlets are periodically forced to close.<ref name=mediainfo/> Accusations of media censorship have increased since 2009 due to the alleged intensification of restrictions on political criticism.<ref name=DOS/> Access to the internet has grown dramatically over the past decade, with an estimated 352,000 residents of Madagascar accessing the internet from home or in one of the nation's many internet cafes in December 2011.<ref name=mediainfo>{{cite web | title = Madagascar Profile: Media | publisher = BBC News | date = 20 June 2012 | url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13861846 |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6AAq6YwuA | archivedate = 25 August 2012 | accessdate = 25 August 2012}}</ref> Radio broadcasts remain the principal means by which the Malagasy population access international, national, and local news. Only state radio broadcasts are transmitted across the entire island. Hundreds of public and private stations with local or regional range provide alternatives to state broadcasting.<ref name=mediainfo/> In addition to the state television channel, a variety of privately owned television stations broadcast local and international programming throughout Madagascar. Several media outlets are owned by political partisans or politicians themselves, including the media groups MBS (owned by Ravalomanana) and Viva (owned by Rajoelina),<ref name=CrossroadsMarcus>{{cite web |last1 = Bachelard |first1 = Jerome |last2 = Marcus |first2 = Richard |title = Countries at the Crossroads 2011: Madagascar |publisher = Freedom House |year = 2011 |url =http://www.freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/inline_images/MADAGASCARfinal.pdf |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120608195355/http://www.freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/inline_images/MADAGASCARfinal.pdf |archive-date = 8 June 2012 |url-status=live |access-date = 25 August 2012}}</ref> contributing to political polarization in reporting.


The media have historically come under varying degrees of pressure to censor their criticism of the government. Reporters are occasionally threatened or harassed, and media outlets are periodically forced to close.<ref name=mediainfo/> Accusations of media censorship have increased since 2009 because of the alleged intensification of restrictions on political criticism.<ref name=DOS/> Access to the internet has grown dramatically over the past decade, with an estimated 352,000 residents of Madagascar accessing the internet from home or in one of the nation's many internet cafés in December 2011.<ref name=mediainfo>{{cite news |title = Madagascar Profile: Media |work = BBC News |date = 20 June 2012 |url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13861846 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120816011234/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13861846 |archive-date = 16 August 2012 |url-status=live |access-date = 25 August 2012}}</ref>
==Health==
]
Medical centers, dispensaries and hospitals are found throughout the island, although they are concentrated in urban areas and particularly in Antananarivo. Access to medical care remains beyond the reach of many Malagasy. In addition to the high expense of medical care relative to the average Malagasy income, the prevalence of trained medical professionals remains extremely low. In 2010 Madagascar had an average of three hospital beds per 10,000&nbsp;people and a total of 3,150&nbsp;doctors, 5,661&nbsp;nurses, 385&nbsp;community health workers, 175&nbsp;pharmacists and 57&nbsp;dentists for a population of 22&nbsp;million. 14.6&nbsp;percent of government spending in 2008 was directed toward the health sector. Approximately 70&nbsp;percent of spending on health was contributed by the government, while 30&nbsp;percent originated with international donors and other private sources.<ref name=WHO2011/> The government provides at least one basic health center per commune. Private health centers are concentrated within urban areas and particularly those of the central highlands.<ref name=INSTAT/>


==Demographics==
Despite these barriers to access, health services have shown a trend toward improvement over the past twenty years. Child immunizations against such diseases as ], ] and ] increased an average of 60&nbsp;percent in this period, indicating low but increasing availability of basic medical services and treatments. The Malagasy fertility rate in 2009 was 4.6&nbsp;children per woman, declining from 6.3 in 1990. Teen pregnancy rates of 14.8&nbsp;percent in 2011, much higher than the African average, are a contributing factor to rapid population growth.<ref name=WHO2011>{{cite book | title = World Health Statistics 2011 | publisher = World Health Organization | year = 2011 | location = Paris | url = http://www.unfpa.org/sowmy/resources/docs/main_report/en_SOWMR_Full.pdf | isbn = 978-92-4-156419-9 | accessdate =21 January 2012| archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/64qsWUjYm | archivedate = 21 January 2012 }}</ref> In 2010 the maternal mortality rate was 440 per 100,000 births, compared to 373.1 in 2008 and 484.4 in 1990, indicating a decline in perinatal care following the 2009 coup. The infant mortality rate in 2011 was 41 per 1,000 births,<ref name=BGNote/> with an under-five mortality rate at 61 per 1,000 births.<ref name="SOWMY">{{cite document|url=http://www.unfpa.org/sowmy/report/home.html|title=The State Of The World's Midwifery|publisher=United Nations Population Fund|date= August 2011 |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/64rH7WUJi |accessdate =22 January 2012 |archivedate = 22 January 2012 }}</ref> ], ] and sexually transmitted diseases are common in Madagascar, although infection rates of AIDS remain low relative to many countries in mainland Africa, at only 0.2&nbsp;percent of the adult population. The malaria mortality rate is also among the lowest in Africa at 8.5 deaths per 100,000&nbsp;people, in part due to the highest frequency use of insecticide treated nets in Africa.<ref name=WHO2011/> Adult life expectancy in 2009 was 63 years for men and 67&nbsp;years for women.<ref name=WHO2011/>
{{Main|Demographics of Madagascar|List of cities in Madagascar}}


]]]
==Education==
{{Main|Education in Madagascar}}
] access and quality were prioritized under ].]]
Prior to the 19th century, all education in Madagascar was informal and typically served to teach practical skills as well as social and cultural values, including respect for ancestors and elders.<ref name="LOC" /> The first formal European-style school was established in 1818 at ] by members of the ] (LMS). The LMS was invited by King Radama I (1810–28) to expand its schools throughout Imerina to teach basic literacy and numeracy to aristocratic children. The schools were closed by Ranavalona I in 1835<ref name="Ralibera">Ralibera (1993), p. 196</ref> but reopened and expanded in the decades after her death. By the end of the 19th century Madagascar had the most developed and modern school system in pre-colonial Sub-Saharan Africa. Access to schooling was expanded in coastal areas during the colonial period, with French language and basic work skills becoming the focus of the curriculum. During the post-colonial First Republic, a continued reliance on French nationals as teachers, and French as the language of instruction, displeased those desiring a complete separation from the former colonial power.<ref name="LOC" /> Consequently, under the socialist Second Republic, French instructors and other nationals were expelled, Malagasy was declared the language of instruction and a large cadre of young Malagasy were rapidly trained to teach at remote rural schools under the mandatory two-year national service policy.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Ranaivoson | first = Samuel| title = La formation du personnel enseignant de l'éducation de base à Madagascar: Une etude de cas. Quelques reflections intéressant la programmation de l'assistance de l'UNICEF |location = Paris |publisher = UNESCO | url = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0004/000404/040436Fb.pdf |accessdate =10 July 2011 | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/604ferPRD | archivedate = 10 July 2011 | year = 1980}} {{fr}}</ref> This policy, known as ''malgachization'', coincided with a severe economic downturn and a dramatic decline in the quality of education. Those schooled during this period generally failed to master the French language or many other subjects and struggled to find employment, forcing many to take low-paying jobs in the informal or black market that mired them in deepening poverty. Excepting the brief presidency of Albert Zafy, from 1992 to 1996, Ratsiraka remained in power from 1975 to 2001 and failed to achieve significant improvements in education throughout his tenure.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Mukonoweshuro | first = E.G. | title = State "resilience" and chronic political instability in Madagascar | journal = Canadian Journal of African Studies | volume = 24 |issue = 3 | pages = 376–398 | year = 1990 | doi = 10.2307/485627}}</ref>


Agriculture has long influenced settlement on the island. Almost 60% of the nation's population live in rural areas.<ref>{{Citation |title=Madagascar |date=2024-08-07 |work=The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/madagascar/#people-and-society |access-date=2024-09-08 |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=en}}</ref>
Education was prioritized under the Ravalomanana administration (2002–09), and is currently free and compulsory from ages 6 to 13.<ref name=WBeducation>{{cite journal | first1 = Gerard | last1 = Lassibille | first2 = Jee-Peng | last2 = Tan | first3 = Cornelia | last3 = Jesse | first4 = Trang Van | last4 = Nguyen | title = Managing for results in primary education in Madagascar: Evaluating the impact of selected workflow interventions | journal = The World Bank Economic Review | volume = 24 | issue = 2 | pages = 303–329 | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = 6 August 2010 | url = http://www.povertyactionlab.org/publication/managing-results-primary-education-madagascar-evaluating-impact-selected-workflow-interventions | doi = 10.1093/wber/lhq009 | accessdate =10 February 2012 |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/65MknBr6d | archivedate = 11 February 2012}}</ref> The primary schooling cycle is five years, followed by four years at the lower secondary level and three years at the upper secondary level.<ref name="LOC" /> During Ravalomanana's first term, thousands of new primary schools and additional classrooms were constructed, older buildings were renovated, and tens of thousands of new primary teachers were recruited and trained. Primary school fees were eliminated and kits containing basic school supplies were distributed to primary students.<ref name=WBeducation/> Government school construction initiatives have ensured at least one primary school per ''fokontany'' and one lower secondary school within each commune. At least one upper secondary school is located in each of the larger urban centers.<ref name=INSTAT/> The three branches of the national public university are located at Antananarivo (founded in 1961), Mahajanga (1977) and Fianarantsoa (1988). These are complemented by public teacher-training colleges and several private universities and technical colleges.<ref name="LOC" />


In 2024, the population of Madagascar was estimated at 32 million, up from 2.2 million in 1900.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Division |first=United Nations Population |title=By Location {{!}} Pivot Table {{!}} Data Portal |url=https://population.un.org/dataportal/data/indicators/49/locations/450/start/2019/end/2026/table/pivotbylocation?df=e023316d-87af-4918-8ee3-fe083aa8d4b1 |access-date=2024-09-08 |website=Population Division Data Portal |language=en}}</ref><ref name="LOC" /> The annual population growth rate in Madagascar was approximately 2.4% in 2024.<ref name=":5" />
As a result of increased educational access, enrollment rates more than doubled between 1996 and 2006. However, education quality is weak, producing high rates of grade repetition and dropout.<ref name=WBeducation/> Education policy in Ravalomanana's second term focused on quality issues, including an increase in minimum education standards for the recruitment of primary teachers from a middle school leaving certificate (BEPC) to a high school leaving certificate (BAC), and a reformed teacher training program to support the transition from traditional didactic instruction to student-centered teaching methods to boost student learning and participation in the classroom.<ref>{{cite document | last = Ministère de l'Education Secondaire et l'Education de Base | title = Curriculum de formation des élèves-maîtres | publisher = Government Printing Office |location = Antananarivo, Madagascar |year = 2005 }} {{fr}}</ref> Public expenditure on education was 13.4&nbsp;percent of total government expenditure and 2.9&nbsp;percent of GDP in 2008. Primary classrooms are crowded, with average pupil to teacher ratios of 47:1 in 2008.<ref>{{cite web | title = Public spending on education; total ( percent of government expenditure) in Madagascar | publisher = TradingEconomics.com | year = 2011 | url = http://www.webcitation.org/651UUMlrW |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/651UUMlrW |archivedate = 28 January 2012 | accessdate =28 January 2012 }}</ref>


Approximately 39.3 percent of the population is younger than 15 years of age, while 57.3 percent are between the ages of 15 and 64. Those aged 65 and older form 3.4 percent of the total population.<ref name=":5" /> Only two general censuses, in 1975 and 1993, have been carried out after independence. The most densely populated regions of the island are the eastern highlands and the eastern coast, contrasting most dramatically with the sparsely populated western plains.<ref name="LOC" />
==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Madagascar}}


===Ethnic diversity=== ===Ethnic groups===
{{Main|Ethnic groups of Madagascar}} {{Main|Ethnic groups of Madagascar}}
The ] ethnic group forms over 90&nbsp;percent of Madagascar's population and is typically divided into 18 ethnic subgroups.<ref name=BGNote/> Recent DNA research revealed that the genetic makeup of the average Malagasy person constitutes an approximately equal blend of ]n, ]n and East African genes,<ref>{{cite journal |title = The dual origin of the Malagasy in Island Southeast Asia and East Africa: evidence from maternal and paternal lineages |journal = American Journal of Human Genetics |volume = 76 |issue = 5 |pages = 894–901 |year = 2005|vauthors=Hurles ME, Sykes BC, Jobling MA, Forster P|access-date =30 April 2011 |archive-date = 3 March 2011 |url-status=live |url=http://www.sanger.ac.uk/about/press/2005/050504.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110303210750/http://www.sanger.ac.uk/about/press/2005/050504.html |doi =10.1086/430051 |pmid = 15793703 |pmc=1199379}}</ref><ref name="Tofanelli">{{cite journal |vauthors = Tofanelli S, Bertoncini S, Castrì L, Luiselli D, Calafell F, Donati G, Paoli G |year = 2009 |title = On the origins and admixture of Malagasy: new evidence from high-resolution analyses of paternal and maternal lineages |journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume = 26 |issue = 9|pages = 2109–2124 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msp120 |pmid = 19535740|doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Cox">{{cite journal|last1=Cox|first1=Murray P.|last2=Nelson|first2=Michael G.|last3=Tumonggor|first3=Meryanne K.|last4=Ricaut|first4=François-X.|last5=Sudoyo|first5=Herawati|date=2012|title=A small cohort of Island Southeast Asian women founded Madagascar|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=279|issue=1739|pages=2761–2768|doi=10.1098/rspb.2012.0012 |doi-access=free|pmc=3367776|pmid=22438500}}</ref> although the genetics of some communities show a predominance of Southeast Asian or East African origins or some Arab, ], or European ancestry.<ref name=Adelaar>Adelaar (2006), pp. 205–235</ref>
]]]
In 2012, the population of Madagascar was estimated at 22&nbsp;million.<ref name=cia/> The Malagasy ethnic group forms over 90&nbsp;percent of Madagascar's population and is typically divided into eighteen ethnic sub-groups.<ref name=BGNote/> Recent DNA research revealed that the genetic makeup of the average Malagasy person constitutes an approximately equal blend of Austronesian and East African genes,<ref>{{cite journal | title = The dual origin of the Malagasy in Island Southeast Asia and East Africa: evidence from maternal and paternal lineages | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 76 | issue = 5 | pages = 894–901 | year = 2005| last1 = Hurles |first1 = M.E. |last2 = Sykes | first2 = B.C. | last3 = Jobling | first3 = M.A. |last4 = Forster |first4 = P.| accessdate =30 April 2011 |archivedate = 6 May 2011 | url=http://www.sanger.ac.uk/about/press/2005/050504.html | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/5xKUHogZj | doi =10.1086/430051 |pmid = 15793703 | pmc=1199379}}</ref><ref name="Tofanelli">{{cite journal | author = Tofanelli S. ''et al.'' | year = 2009 | title = On the origins and admixture of Malagasy: new evidence from high-resolution analyses of paternal and maternal lineages | url = | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | volume = 26 | issue = 9| pages = 2109–2124 | doi=10.1093/molbev/msp120 | pmid = 19535740}}</ref> although the genetics of some communities show a predominance of Austronesian or African origins or some Arab, ] or European ancestry.<ref name=Adelaar>Adelaar (2006), pp. 205–235</ref> Austronesian origins are most predominant among the Merina of the central highlands,<ref name=ethnicstrife/> who form the largest Malagasy ethnic sub-group at approximately 26&nbsp;percent of the population, while certain communities among the coastal peoples (collectively called ''côtiers'') have relatively stronger African origins. The largest coastal ethnic sub-groups are the ] (14.9&nbsp;percent) and the ] and ] (6&nbsp;percent each).<ref name="LOC" />


Southeast Asian features – specifically from the southern part of ] – are most predominant among the ] of the central highlands,<ref name=ethnicstrife/> who form the largest Malagasy ethnic subgroup at approximately 26&nbsp;percent of the population, while certain communities among the western coastal peoples (collectively called ''côtiers'') have relatively stronger East African features. The largest coastal ethnic subgroups are the ] (14.9&nbsp;percent) and the ] and ] (6&nbsp;percent each).<ref name="LOC"/> Peoples along the east and southeastern coasts often have a roughly equal blend of Austronesian and Bantu ancestry; coastal peoples also usually show the largest genetic influence from the centuries of Arab, Somali, Gujarati, and Tamil traders and merchants of the area, compared to the inland highlander peoples.
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"

!Malagasy ethnic sub-groups !!Regional concentration
{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
|-
!Malagasy ethnic subgroups !!Regional concentration
|- |-
| ], ], ] || Former ] |], ], ] ||Former ]; north and northwestern coasts
|- |-
| ], ] || Former ] |], ] ||Former ]; western coast
|- |-
| ], ], ] || Former ] |], ], ] ||Former ]; eastern coast
|- |-
| ] || Former ] |] ||Former ]; central highlands
|- |-
| ], ], ], ], ], ] || Former ] |], ], ], ], ], ] ||Former ]; southeastern coast
|- |-
| ], ], ], ], ] || Former ] |], ], ], ], ] ||Former ]; southern inland regions and coast
|} |}


], ] and ] minorities are present in Madagascar, as well as a small European (primarily French) expatriate community. Emigration in the late 20th century has reduced these minority populations, occasionally in abrupt waves, such as the exodus of ] in 1976, following anti-Comoran riots in Mahajanga.<ref name="LOC" /> By comparison, there has been no significant emigration of Malagasy peoples.<ref name=EBLand/> The number of Europeans has declined since independence 68,430 in 1958,<ref name="Kitchen 1962, p. 256"/> to 17,000 three decades later. There were an estimated 25,000&nbsp;Comorans, 18,000&nbsp;Indians, and 9,000&nbsp;Chinese living in Madagascar in the mid-1980s.<ref name="LOC" /> ], ] and ] minorities are present in Madagascar, as well as a small European (primarily ]) populace. Emigration in the late 20th century has reduced these minority populations, occasionally in abrupt waves, such as the exodus of Comorans in 1976, following anti-Comoran riots in Mahajanga.<ref name="LOC"/> By comparison, there has been no significant emigration of Malagasy peoples.<ref name=EBLand/> The number of ] has declined since independence, reduced from 68,430 in 1958<ref name="Kitchen 1962, p. 256"/> to 17,000 three decades later. There were an estimated 25,000&nbsp;Comorans, 18,000&nbsp;Indians, and 9,000&nbsp;Chinese living in Madagascar in the mid-1980s.<ref name="LOC"/>


=== Largest cities ===
The annual population growth rate in Madagascar was approximately 2.9&nbsp;percent in 2009.<ref name=BGNote/> The population grew from 2.2 million in 1900<ref name="LOC" /> to an estimated 22&nbsp;million in 2012.<ref name=cia/> Approximately 42.5&nbsp;percent of the population is younger than 15 years of age, while 54.5&nbsp;percent are between the ages of 15 and 64. Those aged 65 and older form three percent of the total population.<ref name=AEO2011/> Only two general censuses, in 1975 and 1993, have been carried out after independence. The most densely populated regions of the island are the eastern highlands and the eastern coast, contrasting most dramatically with the sparsely populated western plains.<ref name="LOC" />
{{Largest cities of Madagascar}}


===Language=== ===Languages===
]
{{Main|Malagasy language|Languages of Madagascar}} {{Main|Malagasy language|Languages of Madagascar}}
The Malagasy language is of ] origin and is generally spoken throughout the island. The numerous dialects of Malagasy, which are generally mutually intelligible,<ref>Rajaonarimanana (2001), p. 8</ref> can be clustered under one of two sub-groups: eastern Malagasy, spoken along the eastern forests and highlands including the Merina dialect of Antananarivo; and western Malagasy, spoken across the western coastal plains. French became the official language during the colonial period, when Madagascar came under the authority of France. In the first national Constitution of 1958, Malagasy and French were named the official languages of the Malagasy Republic. Madagascar is a ] country, and French is spoken among the educated population.<ref name="LOC" /> The ] is of ] origin and is generally spoken throughout the island. The numerous dialects of Malagasy, which are generally mutually intelligible,<ref>Rajaonarimanana (2001), p. 8</ref> can be clustered under one of two subgroups: eastern Malagasy, spoken along the eastern forests and highlands including the Merina dialect of Antananarivo, and western Malagasy, spoken across the western coastal plains. The ] derives from the Southeast ], with the ] being its closest relative, incorporating numerous ] and ] loanwords.<ref>Otto Chr. Dahl, ''Malgache et Maanjan: une comparaison linguistique'', Egede-Instituttet Avhandlinger, no. 3 (Oslo: Egede-Instituttet, 1951), p. 13.</ref><ref>There are also some Sulawesi loanwords, which Adelaar attributes to contact prior to the migration to Madagascar: See K. Alexander Adelaar, "The Indonesian Migrations to Madagascar: Making Sense of the Multidisciplinary Evidence", in Truman Simanjuntak, Ingrid Harriet Eileen Pojoh and Muhammad Hisyam (eds.), ''Austronesian Diaspora and the Ethnogeneses of People in Indonesian Archipelago'', (Jakarta: Indonesian Institute of Sciences, 2006), pp. 8–9.</ref>


] became the official language during the colonial period, when Madagascar came under the authority of France. In the first national Constitution of 1958, Malagasy and French were named the official languages of the Malagasy Republic. Madagascar is a ] country, and French is mostly spoken as a second language among the educated population and used for international communication.<ref name="LOC"/>
No official languages were recorded in the Constitution of 1992, although Malagasy was identified as the national language. Nonetheless, many sources still claimed that Malagasy and French were official languages, eventually leading a citizen to initiate a legal case against the state in April 2000, on the grounds that the publication of official documents only in the French language was unconstitutional. The High Constitutional Court observed in its decision that, in the absence of a language law, French still had the character of an official language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saflii.org/mg/cases/MGHCC/2000/1.html |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/604mI1Vre |archivedate = 10 July 2011 |title=Haute Cour Constitutionnelle De Madagascar, Décision n°03-HCC/D2 Du 12 avril 2000 |publisher=Saflii.org |date=12 April 2000 |accessdate=25 April 2010 }} {{fr}}</ref> In the Constitution of 2007, Malagasy remained the national language while official languages were reintroduced: Malagasy, French, and English.<ref>{{cite web | title = Madagascar: 2007 Constitutional referendum | publisher = Electoral Institute for the Sustainability of Democracy in Africa | date = June 2010 | url = http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/mad2007results.htm |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/64rImMRzV |archivedate = 22 January 2012 | accessdate =22 January 2012}}</ref> English was removed as an official language from the constitution approved by voters in the ].<ref name=4thRepublic/> The outcome of the referendum, and its consequences for official and national language policy, are not recognized by the political opposition or by the ], who cite lack of transparency and inclusiveness in the organization of the election by the ].<ref name="crisisgroup">{{cite web |url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/africa/southern-africa/madagascar/166%20Madagascar%20a%20un%20tournant%20critique.ashx |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/604mS5hLn |archivedate = 10 July 2011 |title=Madagascar: La Crise a un Tournant Critique? |accessdate=25 November 2010 |work=International Crisis Group }} {{fr}}</ref>


Among the upper class in large cities, French is spoken as a native language.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Øyvind |first=Dahl |date=June 19, 2024 |title=Linguistic policy challenges in Madagascar |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/225930576.pdf }}</ref>
===Religion===

No official languages were mentioned in the Constitution of 1992, although Malagasy was identified as the national language. Nonetheless, many sources still claimed that Malagasy and French were official languages, eventually leading a citizen to initiate a legal case against the state in April 2000, on the grounds that the publication of official documents only in the French language was unconstitutional. The High Constitutional Court observed in its decision that, in the absence of a language law, French still had the character of an official language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saflii.org/mg/cases/MGHCC/2000/1.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110727232647/http://www.saflii.org/mg/cases/MGHCC/2000/1.html |archive-date = 27 July 2011 |url-status=live |title=Haute Cour Constitutionnelle De Madagascar, Décision n°03-HCC/D2 Du 12 avril 2000 |publisher=Saflii.org |date=12 April 2000 |access-date=25 April 2010 |language=fr}}</ref>

The Constitution of 2007 recognised three official languages, Malagasy, French, and English.<ref>{{cite web |title = Madagascar: 2007 Constitutional referendum |publisher = Electoral Institute for the Sustainability of Democracy in Africa |date = June 2010 |url = http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/mad2007results.htm |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080828215517/http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/mad2007results.htm |archive-date = 28 August 2008 |url-status=dead |access-date =22 January 2012}}</ref> A fourth Constitution, adopted in 2010 following ],<ref name=4thRepublic/> recognised only Malagasy and French.

=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Madagascar}} {{Main|Religion in Madagascar}}
] in ]]]
] reburial ceremony]]
] Church in ]]]
Approximately half of the country's population practice traditional religion,<ref name=BGNote/> which tends to emphasize links between the living and the ''razana'' (ancestors). The ] has led to the widespread tradition of tomb building, as well as the highlands practice of the '']'', whereby a deceased family member's remains may be exhumed to be periodically re-wrapped in fresh silk shrouds before being replaced in the tomb. The famadihana is an occasion to celebrate the beloved ancestor's memory, reunite with family and community, and enjoy a festive atmosphere. Residents of surrounding villages are often invited to attend the party, where food and rum are typically served and a ] troupe or other musical entertainment is commonly present.<ref name=famadihana>{{cite news | last = Bearak | first = Barry | title = Dead Join the Living in a Family Celebration | newspaper = New York Times |page = A7 | date = 5 September 2010 | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/06/world/africa/06madagascar.html|archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/64fFKK5JL |archivedate = 13 January 2012 | accessdate =13 January 2012}}</ref> Consideration for ancestors is also demonstrated through adherence to ''fady'', taboos that are respected during and after the lifetime of the person who establishes them. It is widely believed that by showing respect for ancestors in these ways, they may intervene on behalf of the living. Conversely, misfortunes are often attributed to ancestors whose memory or wishes have been neglected. The sacrifice of zebu is a traditional method used to appease or honor the ancestors. In addition, the Malagasy traditionally believe in a creator god, called Zanahary or Andriamanitra.<ref name=Bradtbeliefs>Bradt (2011), pp.&nbsp;13–20</ref>
] is the most widely professed religion in Madagascar. According to the most recent national census completed in 1993, a majority of the population (52 percent) adhered to indigenous beliefs, with Christianity being the largest single religion at 41 percent, followed by ] at 7 percent. However, according to the ] in 2020, 85% of the population identified as ], while just 4.5% exclusively practiced folk religions; ] comprise a plurality of Christians, followed by ].<ref name="pew">{{cite web|url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/madagascar#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020&region_name=All%20Countries&restrictions_year=2015 |title=Religions in Madagascar &#124; PEW-GRF |publisher=Globalreligiousfutures.org |access-date=20 September 2017 |archive-date=9 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109064122/http://globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/madagascar#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2010&region_name=All%20Countries&restrictions_year=2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> In contrast, a 2020 study conducted by the ] found 58.1% of the population was ], 2.1% ], 39.2% practiced traditional faiths, and 0.6% was ] or adhered to other faiths.<ref name="National Profiles">{{cite web | url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u=137c | title=National Profiles | access-date=29 September 2022 | archive-date=27 December 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227190017/https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u=137c | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="BGNote" />


The inconsistency in religious data reflects the common practice of alternating between religious identities or ] different faith traditions. Christians integrate and combine their religious beliefs with the deeply rooted practice of honoring ancestors. For instance, they may bless their dead at church before proceeding with traditional burial rites or invite a ] to consecrate a ''famadihana'' reburial.<ref name="famadihana" /> Christianity is predominant in the highlands.<ref>{{cite web |title=Madagascar |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/madagascar/ |access-date=2022-10-15 |website=United States Department of State |language=en-US |archive-date=29 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929132734/https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/madagascar/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Malagasy Council of Churches comprises the four oldest and most prominent Christian denominations of Madagascar (Roman Catholic, ], ], and ]) and has been influential in Malagasy politics.<ref name="USSD">{{cite web |author=((Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor)) |year=2006 |title=International Religious Freedom Report: Madagascar |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71310.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20120123150701/http%3A//www%2Estate%2Egov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71310%2Ehtm |archive-date=23 January 2012 |access-date=22 January 2012 |publisher=U.S. Department of State}}</ref>
Almost half the Malagasy are Christian, with practitioners of Protestantism slightly outnumbering adherents to ].<ref name=BGNote/> In 1818 the ] sent the first Christian missionaries to the island, where they built churches, translated the Bible into the Malagasy language and began to gain converts. Beginning in 1835 Queen ] persecuted these converts as part of an attempt to halt European cultural and political influence on the island. In 1869 a successor, Queen ], converted the court to Christianity and encouraged Christian missionary activity, burning the '']'' (royal idols) in a symbolic break with traditional beliefs.<ref>Ade Ajayi (1989), p. 437</ref>


The ] has led to the widespread tradition of tomb building, as well as the highlands practice of the '']'', whereby a deceased family member's remains are exhumed and re-wrapped in fresh silk shrouds, before being replaced in the tomb. The ''famadihana'' is an occasion to celebrate the beloved ancestor's memory, reunite with family and community, and enjoy a festive atmosphere. Residents of surrounding villages are often invited to attend the party, where food and rum are typically served, and a '']'' troupe or other musical entertainment is commonly present.<ref name=famadihana>{{cite news |last = Bearak |first = Barry |title = Dead Join the Living in a Family Celebration |newspaper = New York Times |page = A7 |date = 5 September 2010 |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/06/world/africa/06madagascar.html|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120127041227/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/06/world/africa/06madagascar.html |archive-date = 27 January 2012 |url-status=live |access-date =13 January 2012}}</ref> Consideration for ancestors is also demonstrated through adherence to '']'', taboos that are respected during and after the lifetime of the person who establishes them. It is widely believed that by showing respect for ancestors in these ways, they may intervene on behalf of the living. Conversely, misfortunes are often attributed to ancestors whose memory or wishes have been neglected. The sacrifice of ] is a traditional method used to appease or honor the ancestors. In addition, the Malagasy traditionally believe in a creator god, called ] or Andriamanitra.<ref name=Bradtbeliefs>Bradt (2011), pp.&nbsp;13–20</ref>
Today, many Christians integrate their religious beliefs with traditional ones related to honoring the ancestors. For instance, they may bless their dead at church before proceeding with traditional burial rites or invite a ] to consecrate a ''famadihana'' reburial.<ref name=famadihana/> The Malagasy Council of Churches comprises the four oldest and most prominent Christian denominations (Roman Catholic, ], ], and ]) and has been an influential force in Malagasy politics.<ref name=USSD>{{cite web | last = Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor | title = International Religious Freedom Report: Madagascar | publisher = U.S. Department of State | year = 2006 | url = http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71310.htm |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/64rJD9LRN | archivedate = 22 January 2012 | accessdate =22 January 2012}}</ref>


] and ] are also practiced on the island. Islam was first brought to the island in the Middle Ages by ] and ] ] traders, who established several Islamic schools along the eastern coast. While the use of Arabic script and loan words and the adoption of Islamic astrology would spread across the island, the Islamic religion failed to take hold in all but a handful of southeastern coastal communities. Today, Muslims constitute 7&nbsp;percent of the population of Madagascar and are largely concentrated in the northwestern provinces of ] and ]. Muslims are divided between those of Malagasy ethnicity, ], ] and ]. More recently, Hinduism was introduced to Madagascar through ] people immigrating from the ] region of ] in the late 19th century. Most Hindus in Madagascar speak ] or ] at home.<ref name="id">{{cite web | title = Report of the High Level Committee on the Indian Diaspora | publisher = Ministry of External Affairs, India | year = 2004 | url = http://indiandiaspora.nic.in/diasporapdf/chapter8.pdf | accessdate =22 January 2012 |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6AJxU0geu | archivedate = 31 August 2012}}</ref> Islam was first brought to Madagascar in the Middle Ages by ] and ] Muslim traders, who established several Islamic schools along the eastern coast. While the use of Arabic script and loan words, and the adoption of Islamic astrology, would spread across the island, Islam took hold in only a handful of southeastern coastal communities. In 2020, ] constituted 2% of the population of Madagascar.<ref name="National Profiles"/><ref name="BGNote" /> They are largely concentrated in the northwestern provinces of ] and ]. Muslims are divided between ethnic Malagasy and Indians, Pakistanis and Comorans.
] was introduced to Madagascar through ] immigrating from the ] region of ] in the late 19th century. Most Hindus in Madagascar speak ] or ] at home, reflecting the faiths concentration among those of Indian ancestry.<ref name="id">{{cite web |title = Report of the High Level Committee on the Indian Diaspora |publisher = Ministry of External Affairs, India |year = 2004 |url = http://indiandiaspora.nic.in/diasporapdf/chapter8.pdf |access-date = 22 January 2012 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20030629092115/http://indiandiaspora.nic.in/diasporapdf/chapter8.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date = 29 June 2003 }}</ref>

] emerged on the island in the 21st century, as the common belief in a myth of Jewish origin for the Malagasy peoples inspired ] in Antananarivo to begin researching Judaism and studying the ]. In 2016, 121 members of the ] were formally converted to Orthodox Judaism.<ref>{{Citation |title=FACES OF AFRICA: The Jews of Madagascar | date=27 February 2017 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-9ra7mq7wBM |access-date=2024-01-13 |language=en |archive-date=13 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240113014116/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-9ra7mq7wBM |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Health===
{{main|Healthcare in Madagascar}}
Medical centers, dispensaries, and hospitals are found throughout the island, although they are concentrated in urban areas and particularly in Antananarivo. Access to medical care remains beyond the reach of many Malagasy, especially in the rural areas, and many recourse to traditional healers.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Legrip-Randriambelo|first1=Olivia|last2=Regnier|first2=Denis|title=The place of healers-diviners (ombiasa) in Betsileo medical pluralism|journal=Health, Culture and Society|volume=7|issue=1|pages=28–37|url=http://hcs.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/hcs/article/viewFile/188/219|doi=10.5195/hcs.2014.188|year=2014|doi-access=free|access-date=21 July 2016|archive-date=29 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160829070004/http://hcs.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/hcs/article/viewFile/188/219|url-status=live}}</ref> In addition to the high expense of medical care relative to the average Malagasy income, the prevalence of trained medical professionals remains extremely low. In 2010, Madagascar had an average of three hospital beds per 10,000 people and a total of 3,150 doctors, 5,661 nurses, 385 community health workers, 175 pharmacists, and 57 dentists for a population of 22&nbsp;million. Fifteen percent of government spending in 2008 was directed toward the health sector. Approximately 70 percent of spending on health was contributed by the government, while 30 percent originated with international donors and other private sources.<ref name=WHO2011/> The government provides at least one basic health center per commune. Private health centers are concentrated within urban areas and particularly those of the central highlands.<ref name=INSTAT/>

Despite these barriers to access, health services have shown a trend toward improvement over the past twenty years. Child immunizations against such diseases as ], ], and ] increased an average of 60 percent in this period, indicating low but increasing availability of basic medical services and treatments. The Malagasy fertility rate in 2009 was 4.6 children per woman, declining from 6.3 in 1990. Teen pregnancy rates of 14.8 percent in 2011, much higher than the African average, are a contributing factor to rapid population growth.<ref name=WHO2011>{{cite book | title = World Health Statistics 2011 | publisher = World Health Organization | year = 2011 | location = Paris | url = http://www.unfpa.org/sowmy/resources/docs/main_report/en_SOWMR_Full.pdf | isbn = 978-92-4-156419-9 | access-date =21 January 2012| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111125020623/http://www.who.int/whosis/whostat/EN_WHS2011_Full.pdf | url-status=live | archive-date = 25 November 2011 }}</ref> In 2010, the maternal mortality rate was 440 per 100,000 births, compared to 373.1 in 2008 and 484.4 in 1990, indicating a decline in perinatal care following the 2009 coup. The infant mortality rate in 2011 was 41 per 1,000 births,<ref name=BGNote/> with an under-five mortality rate at 61 per 1,000 births.<ref name="SOWMY">{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/sowmy/report/home.html|title=The State of the World's Midwifery|publisher=United Nations Population Fund|date= August 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111225024306/http://www.unfpa.org/sowmy/report/home.html |access-date =22 January 2012 |url-status=live|archive-date = 25 December 2011 }}</ref> ], ], and sexually transmitted diseases are common in Madagascar, although infection rates of ] remain low relative to many countries in mainland Africa, at 0.2 percent of the adult population. The malaria mortality rate is also among the lowest in Africa at 8.5 deaths per 100,000 people, in part because of the highest frequency use of insecticide treated nets in Africa.<ref name=WHO2011/> Adult life expectancy in 2009 was 63 years for men and 67 years for women.<ref name=WHO2011/>

Madagascar had ] of the ] and ] in 2017 (2575 cases, 221 deaths) and 2014 (263 confirmed cases, 71 deaths).<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/oct/19/madagascar-plague-death-toll-reaches-74 |title='It is a dangerous moment': Madagascar plague death toll reaches 74 |first=Peter |last=Beaumont |work=The Guardian |date=19 October 2017 |access-date=21 October 2017 |language=en-GB |archive-date=19 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519165330/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/oct/19/madagascar-plague-death-toll-reaches-74 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2019, Madagascar had a ], resulting in 118,000 cases and 1,688 deaths. In 2020, Madagascar was also affected by the ]. Undernourishment and hunger rates were at 42% in 2018.<ref>{{cite report |date=February 2021 |title=WFP Madagascar Country Brief |url=https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000125015/download/?_ga=2.216094418.577338328.1616525997-700118633.1616525997 |publisher=World Food Programme |access-date=23 March 2021 |archive-date=30 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330034436/https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000125015/download/?_ga=2.216094418.577338328.1616525997-700118633.1616525997 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to the United Nations, more than one million people in southern Madagascar are struggling to get enough to eat,<ref>{{cite web|date=2021-10-21|title=Madagascar: Severe drought could spur world's first climate change famine|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/10/1103712|access-date=2022-02-09|website=UN News|language=en|archive-date=8 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208102451/https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/10/1103712|url-status=live}}</ref> due to what could become the first ] caused by climate change.<ref>{{cite news |title=How climate change is turning once green Madagascar into a desert |url=https://www.euronews.com/green/2022/03/20/how-climate-change-is-turning-once-green-madagascar-into-a-desert |work=Euronews |date=20 March 2022 |access-date=23 October 2022 |archive-date=23 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221023215848/https://www.euronews.com/green/2022/03/20/how-climate-change-is-turning-once-green-madagascar-into-a-desert |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Education===
{{Main|Education in Madagascar}}
] access and quality were prioritized under ].]]
Prior to the 19th century, all education in Madagascar was informal and typically served to teach practical skills as well as social and cultural values, including respect for ancestors and elders.<ref name="LOC"/> The first formal European-style school was established in 1818 at ] by members of the ] (LMS). The LMS was invited by King Radama I to expand its schools throughout Imerina to teach basic literacy and numeracy to aristocratic children. The schools were closed by Ranavalona I in 1835,<ref name="Ralibera">Ralibera (1993), p. 196</ref> but reopened and expanded in the decades after her death.

By the end of the 19th century, Madagascar had the most developed and modern school system in pre-colonial Sub-Saharan Africa. Access to schooling was expanded in coastal areas during the colonial period, with French language and basic work skills becoming the focus of the curriculum. During the post-colonial First Republic, a continued reliance on French nationals as teachers, and French as the language of instruction, displeased those desiring a complete separation from the former colonial power.<ref name="LOC"/> Consequently, under the socialist Second Republic, French instructors and other nationals were expelled, Malagasy was declared the language of instruction, and a large cadre of young Malagasy were rapidly trained to teach at remote rural schools under the mandatory two-year national service policy.<ref>{{cite web |last = Ranaivoson |first = Samuel|title = La formation du personnel enseignant de l'éducation de base à Madagascar: Une etude de cas. Quelques reflections intéressant la programmation de l'assistance de l'UNICEF |location = Paris |website = UNESCO |url = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0004/000404/040436Fb.pdf |access-date =10 July 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120604233852/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0004/000404/040436Fb.pdf |archive-date = 4 June 2012 |url-status=live |year = 1980|language=fr}}</ref>

This policy, known as ''malgachization'', coincided with a severe economic downturn and a dramatic decline in the quality of education. Those schooled during this period generally failed to master the French language or many other subjects and struggled to find employment, forcing many to take low-paying jobs in the informal or black market that mired them in deepening poverty. Excepting the brief presidency of Albert Zafy, from 1992 to 1996, Ratsiraka remained in power from 1975 to 2001 and failed to achieve significant improvements in education throughout his tenure.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Mukonoweshuro |first = E.G. |title = State "resilience" and chronic political instability in Madagascar |journal = Canadian Journal of African Studies |volume = 24 |issue = 3 |pages = 376–398 |year = 1990 |doi = 10.2307/485627|jstor = 485627}}</ref>

Education was prioritized under the Ravalomanana administration (2002–09), and is currently free and compulsory from ages 6 to 13.<ref name=WBeducation>{{cite journal |first1 = Gerard |last1 = Lassibille |first2 = Jee-Peng |last2 = Tan |first3 = Cornelia |last3 = Jesse |first4 = Trang Van |last4 = Nguyen |title = Managing for results in primary education in Madagascar: Evaluating the impact of selected workflow interventions |journal = The World Bank Economic Review |volume = 24 |issue = 2 |pages = 303–329 |date = 6 August 2010 |url = http://www.povertyactionlab.org/publication/managing-results-primary-education-madagascar-evaluating-impact-selected-workflow-interventions |doi = 10.1093/wber/lhq009 |access-date =10 February 2012 |archive-url = https://www.webcitation.org/65MknBr6d?url=http://www.povertyactionlab.org/publication/managing-results-primary-education-madagascar-evaluating-impact-selected-workflow-interventions |url-status=dead |archive-date = 11 February 2012|hdl = 10986/4523 |hdl-access = free }}</ref> The primary schooling cycle is five years, followed by four years at the lower secondary level and three years at the upper secondary level.<ref name="LOC"/> During Ravalomanana's first term, thousands of new primary schools and additional classrooms were constructed, older buildings were renovated, and tens of thousands of new primary teachers were recruited and trained. Primary school fees were eliminated, and kits containing basic school supplies were distributed to primary students.<ref name=WBeducation/>

Government school construction initiatives have ensured at least one primary school per ''fokontany'' and one lower secondary school within each commune. At least one upper secondary school is located in each of the larger urban centers.<ref name=INSTAT/> The three branches of the national public university are located at Antananarivo, Mahajanga, and Fianarantsoa. These are complemented by public teacher-training colleges and several private universities and technical colleges.<ref name="LOC"/>

As a result of increased educational access, enrollment rates more than doubled between 1996 and 2006. However, education quality is weak, producing high rates of grade repetition and dropout.<ref name=WBeducation/> Education policy in Ravalomanana's second term focused on quality issues, including an increase in minimum education standards for the recruitment of primary teachers from a middle school leaving certificate (BEPC) to a high school leaving certificate (BAC), and a reformed teacher training program to support the transition from traditional didactic instruction to student-centered teaching methods to boost student learning and participation in the classroom.<ref>{{cite book |last = Ministère de l'Education Secondaire et l'Education de Base |title = Curriculum de formation des élèves-maîtres |publisher = Government Printing Office |location = Antananarivo, Madagascar |year = 2005 |language=fr}}</ref> Public expenditure on education was 2.8&nbsp;percent of GDP in 2014. The literacy rate is estimated at 64.7%.<ref name=cia/>


==Culture== ==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Madagascar}}
Each of the many ethnic sub-groups in Madagascar adhere to their own set of beliefs, practices and ways of life that have historically contributed to their unique identities. However, there are a number of core cultural features that are common throughout the island, creating a strongly unified Malagasy cultural identity. In addition to a common language and shared traditional religious beliefs around a creator god and veneration of the ancestors, the traditional Malagasy worldview is shaped by values that emphasize ''fihavanana'' (solidarity), ''vintana'' (destiny), ''tody'' (karma), and '']'', a sacred life force that traditional communities believe imbues and thereby legitimates authority figures within the community or family. Other cultural elements commonly found throughout the island include the practice of male circumcision; strong kinship ties; a widespread belief in the power of magic, diviners, astrology and witch doctors; and a traditional division of social classes into nobles, commoners, and slaves.<ref name="LOC" /><ref name=Bradtbeliefs/> Although social castes are no longer legally recognized, ancestral caste affiliation often continues to affect social status, economic opportunity and roles within the community.<ref>Middleton (1999), pp.&nbsp;259–262, 272, 309</ref> Malagasy people traditionally consult ''Mpanandro'' ("Makers of the Days") to identify the most auspicious days for important events such as weddings or ''famadihana'', according to a traditional astrological system introduced by Arabs. Similarly, the nobles of many Malagasy communities in the pre-colonial period would commonly employ advisers known as the ''ombiasy'' (from ''olona-be-hasina'', "man of much virtue") of the southeastern ] ethnic group, who trace their ancestry back to early Arab settlers.<ref>Ames (2003), p. 101</ref>
Each of the many ethnic subgroups in Madagascar adhere to their own set of beliefs, practices and ways of life that have historically contributed to their unique identities. However, there are a number of core cultural features that are common throughout the island, creating a strongly unified Malagasy cultural identity. In addition to a common language and shared traditional religious beliefs around a creator god and veneration of the ancestors, the traditional Malagasy worldview is shaped by values that emphasize ''fihavanana'' (solidarity), ''vintana'' (destiny), ''tody'' (karma), and '']'', a sacred life force that traditional communities believe imbues and thereby legitimates authority figures within the community or family. Other cultural elements commonly found throughout the island include the practice of male circumcision; strong kinship ties; a widespread belief in the power of magic, diviners, astrology and witch doctors; and a traditional division of social classes into nobles, commoners, and slaves.<ref name="LOC"/><ref name=Bradtbeliefs/>


Although social castes are no longer legally recognized, ancestral caste affiliation often continues to affect social status, economic opportunity, and roles within the community.<ref>Middleton (1999), pp.&nbsp;259–262, 272, 309</ref> Malagasy people traditionally consult ''Mpanandro'' ("Makers of the Days") to identify the most auspicious days for important events such as weddings or ''famadihana'', according to a traditional astrological system introduced by Arabs. Similarly, the nobles of many Malagasy communities in the pre-colonial period would commonly employ advisers known as the ''ombiasy'' (from ''olona-be-hasina'', "man of much virtue") of the southeastern ] ethnic group, who trace their ancestry back to early Somali settlers.<ref>Ames (2003), p. 101</ref>
The diverse origins of Malagasy culture are evident in its tangible expressions. The most emblematic instrument of Madagascar, the '']'', is a ] tube ] carried to Madagascar by early settlers from ], and is very similar in form to those found in ] and the ] today.<ref name="Blench, R. 1982 pp. 81-93">{{cite journal | last = Blench | first = Roger | title = Evidence for the Indonesian origins of certain elements of African culture | journal = African Music | volume = 6 | issue = 2 | pages = 81–93 | year = 1982 | format=Subscription required | jstor = 30249759}}</ref> Traditional ] are likewise similar to those of southern Borneo in terms of symbolism and construction, featuring a rectangular layout with a peaked roof and central support pillar.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Kus |first1 = Susan |last2 = Raharijaona |first2 = Victor | title = House to Palace, Village to State: Scaling up Architecture and Ideology |journal = American Anthropologist, New Series |issue = 102 |volume = 1 |pages = 98–113 |year = 2000 |doi = 10.1525/aa.2000.102.1.98}}</ref> Reflecting a widespread veneration of the ancestors, tombs are culturally significant in many regions and tend to be built of more durable material, typically stone, and display more elaborate decoration than the houses of the living.<ref name="Acquier, Jean-Louis.">Acquier (1997), pp.&nbsp;143–175</ref> The production and weaving of silk can be traced back to the island's earliest settlers, and Madagascar's national dress, the woven '']'', has evolved into a varied and refined art.<ref>Kusimba, Odland & Bronson (2004), p. 12</ref> The Southeast Asian cultural influence is also evident in ], in which rice is consumed at every meal, typically accompanied by one of a variety of flavorful vegetable or meat dishes.<ref>Bradt (2011), p. 312</ref> African influence is reflected in the sacred importance of zebu cattle and their embodiment of their owner's wealth, traditions originating on the African mainland. ], originally a rite of passage for young men in the plains areas of Madagascar where the largest herds of cattle are kept, has become a dangerous and sometimes deadly criminal enterprise as herdsmen in the southwest attempt to defend their cattle with traditional spears against increasingly armed professional rustlers.<ref name=Camp93/>

The diverse origins of Malagasy culture are evident in its tangible expressions. The most emblematic instrument of Madagascar, the '']'', is a ] ] carried to Madagascar by early settlers from ], and is very similar in form to those found in ] and the ] today.<ref name="Blench, R. 1982 pp. 81-93">{{cite journal |last = Blench |first = Roger |title = Evidence for the Indonesian origins of certain elements of African culture |journal = African Music |volume = 6 |issue = 2 |pages = 81–93 |year = 1982 |jstor = 30249759|doi = 10.21504/amj.v6i2.1118 |doi-access = }}</ref> Traditional ] are likewise similar to those of southern Borneo in terms of symbolism and construction, featuring a rectangular layout with a peaked roof and central support pillar.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Kus |first1 = Susan |last2 = Raharijaona |first2 = Victor |title = House to Palace, Village to State: Scaling up Architecture and Ideology |journal = American Anthropologist |series=New Series |issue = 102 |volume = 1 |pages = 98–113 |year = 2000 |doi = 10.1525/aa.2000.102.1.98}}</ref> Reflecting a widespread veneration of the ancestors, tombs are culturally significant in many regions and tend to be built of more durable material, typically stone, and display more elaborate decoration than the houses of the living.<ref name="Acquier, Jean-Louis.">Acquier (1997), pp.&nbsp;143–175</ref> The production and weaving of silk can be traced back to the island's earliest settlers, and Madagascar's national dress, the woven '']'', has evolved into a varied and refined art.<ref>Kusimba, Odland & Bronson (2004), p. 12</ref>

The Southeast Asian cultural influence is also evident in ], in which rice is consumed at every meal, typically accompanied by one of a variety of flavorful vegetable or meat dishes.<ref name="Antal"/> African influence is reflected in the sacred importance of zebu cattle and their embodiment of their owner's wealth, traditions originating on the African mainland. ], originally a rite of passage for young men in the plains areas of Madagascar where the largest herds of cattle are kept, has become a dangerous and sometimes deadly criminal enterprise as herdsmen in the southwest attempt to defend their cattle with traditional spears against increasingly armed professional rustlers.<ref name=Camp93/>

===Media===
{{main|Media of Madagascar}}


===Arts=== ===Arts===
{{Main|Music of Madagascar}}
] dancer]]
A wide range of aural artistic traditions have developed in Madagascar. One of the island's foremost artistic traditions is its ], as expressed in the forms of ''hainteny'' (poetry), ''kabary'' (public discourse) and ''ohabolana'' (proverbs).<ref>Fox (1990), p. 39</ref><ref name="Madatana">{{cite web | last = Ravalitera | first = P | title = Origine Confuse des Vazimba du Betsiriry |work = Journal Express |publisher = Madatana.com | url=http://www.madatana.com/article-origine-confuse-des-vazimba-du-betsiriry.php |archiveurl =http://www.webcitation.org/604hJwBma |accessdate =11 November 2010 |archivedate = 10 July 2011}} {{fr}}</ref> An epic poem exemplifying these traditions, the '']'', has been handed down over the centuries in several different forms across the island, and offers insight into the diverse mythologies and beliefs of traditional Malagasy communities.<ref>{{cite web | title = Ibonia: the text in 17 sections |last = Unknown |publisher = University of Virginia | accessdate =15 November 2010 |url = http://xroads.virginia.edu/~Public/Ibonia/text.html |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/604h5KUmV |archivedate = 10 July 2011}}</ref> This tradition was continued in the 20th century by such artists as ], who is considered Africa's first modern poet,<ref>Rabearivelo (2007), p. x</ref> and ], an exemplar of the new wave of Malagasy poetry.<ref>Auzias & Labourdette (2007), p. 142</ref> Madagascar has also developed a rich ], embodied in dozens of regional musical genres such as the coastal '']'' or highland '']'' that enliven village gatherings, local dance floors and national airwaves.<ref name="Randrianary">Randrianary (2001), pp.&nbsp;109–137</ref>


] dancer.]]
The plastic arts are also widespread throughout the island. In addition to the tradition of silk weaving and lamba production, the weaving of ] and other local plant materials has been used to create a wide array of practical items such as floor mats, baskets, purses and hats.<ref name=handicrafts/> Wood carving is a highly developed art form, with distinct regional styles evident in the decoration of balcony railings and other architectural elements. Sculptors create a variety of furniture and household goods, ''aloalo'' funerary posts, and wooden sculptures, many of which are produced for the tourist market.<ref name=Terrible>Heale & Abdul Latif (2008), pp.&nbsp;108–111</ref> The decorative and functional woodworking traditions of the ] people of the central highlands was inscribed on UNESCO's ] in 2008.<ref>{{cite web | title = Woodcrafting Knowledge of the Zafimaniry |publisher = UNESCO | accessdate = 24 August 2012 |url = http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/00080 |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6AA5SHVms |archivedate = 24 August 2012}}</ref>
A wide variety of oral and written ] has developed in Madagascar. One of the island's foremost artistic traditions is its oratory, as expressed in the forms of '']'' (poetry), ''kabary'' (public discourse) and ''ohabolana'' (proverbs).<ref>Fox (1990), p. 39</ref><ref name="Madatana">{{cite web |last = Ravalitera |first = P |title = Origine Confuse des Vazimba du Betsiriry |work = Journal Express |publisher = Madatana.com |url=http://www.madatana.com/article-origine-confuse-des-vazimba-du-betsiriry.php |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20110714013534/http://www.madatana.com/article-origine-confuse-des-vazimba-du-betsiriry.php |access-date =11 November 2010 |archive-date = 14 July 2011|url-status=live |language=fr}}</ref> An epic poem exemplifying these traditions, the '']'', has been handed down over the centuries in several different forms across the island, and offers insight into the diverse mythologies and beliefs of traditional Malagasy communities.<ref>{{cite web |title = Ibonia: the text in 17 sections |last = Unknown |publisher = University of Virginia |access-date =15 November 2010 |url = http://xroads.virginia.edu/~Public/Ibonia/text.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110605051817/http://xroads.virginia.edu/~Public/Ibonia/text.html |url-status=dead |archive-date = 5 June 2011}}</ref> This tradition was continued in the 20th century by such artists as ], who is considered Africa's first modern poet,<ref>Rabearivelo (2007), p. x</ref> and ], an exemplar of the new wave of Malagasy poetry.<ref>Auzias & Labourdette (2007), p. 142</ref> Madagascar has also developed a rich ], embodied in dozens of regional musical genres such as the coastal '']'' or highland '']'' that enliven village gatherings, local dance floors and national airwaves.<ref name="Randrianary">Randrianary (2001), pp.&nbsp;109–137</ref> Madagascar also has a growing culture of classical music fostered through youth academies, organizations and orchestras that promote youth involvement in classical music.


The plastic arts are also widespread throughout the island. In addition to the tradition of silk weaving and lamba production, the weaving of ] and other local plant materials has been used to create a wide array of practical items such as floor mats, baskets, purses and hats.<ref name=handicrafts/> Wood carving is a highly developed art form, with distinct regional styles evident in the decoration of balcony railings and other architectural elements. Sculptors create a variety of furniture and household goods, ''aloalo'' funerary posts, and wooden sculptures, many of which are produced for the tourist market.<ref name=Terrible>Heale & Abdul Latif (2008), pp.&nbsp;108–111</ref> The decorative and functional woodworking traditions of the ] people of the central highlands was inscribed on UNESCO's ] in 2008.<ref>{{cite web |title = Woodcrafting Knowledge of the Zafimaniry |publisher = UNESCO |access-date = 24 August 2012 |url = http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/00080 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121023071416/http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/00080 |url-status=live |archive-date = 23 October 2012}}</ref>
Among the Antaimoro people, the production of paper embedded with flowers and other decorative natural materials is a long-established tradition that the community has begun to market to eco-tourists.<ref name=Terrible/> ] and ] are done by hand to produce clothing, as well as tablecloths and other home textiles for sale in local crafts markets.<ref name=handicrafts/> A small but growing number of fine art galleries in Antananarivo, and several other urban areas, offer paintings by local artists, and annual art events, such as the Hosotra open-air exhibition in the capital, contribute to the continuing development of fine arts in Madagascar.<ref>{{cite news | title = Des nouveaux talents mis en relief | newspaper = L'Express de Madagascar | publisher = l'expressmada.com | date = 7 August 2009 | url = http://www.lexpressmada.com/4376/hosotra-2009-madagascar/284-des-nouveaux-talents-mis-en-relief.html | accessdate = 24 August 2012 |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6AACBykvX| archivedate = 24 August 2012}} {{fr}}</ref>


Among the Antaimoro people, the production of paper embedded with flowers and other decorative natural materials is a long-established tradition that the community has begun to market to eco-tourists.<ref name=Terrible/> Embroidery and ] are done by hand to produce clothing, as well as tablecloths and other home textiles for sale in local crafts markets.<ref name=handicrafts/> Malagasy artists such as ] have incorporated textile traditions of Madagascar directly into their work.<ref name="Artnet News">{{cite web|url= https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2023/05/04/is-antananarivo-the-capital-of-madagascar-africas-new-art-capital|title= Is Antananarivo, the capital of Madagascar, Africa's newest art hub?|website= theartnewspaper.com|date= 4 May 2023|access-date= 9 Jul 2023|archive-date= 12 June 2023|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230612102331/https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2023/05/04/is-antananarivo-the-capital-of-madagascar-africas-new-art-capital|url-status= live}}</ref> A small but growing number of fine art galleries in Antananarivo, and several other urban areas, offer paintings by local artists, and annual art events, such as the Hosotra open-air exhibition in the capital, contribute to the continuing development of fine arts in Madagascar.<ref>{{cite news |title = Des nouveaux talents mis en relief |newspaper = L'Express de Madagascar |publisher = l'expressmada.com |date = 7 August 2009 |url = http://www.lexpressmada.com/4376/hosotra-2009-madagascar/284-des-nouveaux-talents-mis-en-relief.html |access-date = 24 August 2012 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130509031614/http://www.lexpressmada.com/4376/hosotra-2009-madagascar/284-des-nouveaux-talents-mis-en-relief.html|archive-date = 9 May 2013|url-status=dead |language=fr}}</ref>
===Sport and recreation===
A number of traditional pastimes have emerged in Madagascar. '']'', a type of hand-to-hand combat, is a popular spectator sport in coastal regions. It is traditionally practiced by men, but women have recently begun to participate.<ref>Ratsimbazafy (2010), pp.&nbsp;14–18</ref> The wrestling of zebu cattle (''tolon-omby'') is also practiced in many regions.<ref name=lambatradition>Kusimba, Odland & Bronson (2004), p. 87</ref> In addition to sports, a wide variety of games are played. Among the most emblematic is '']'', a board game widespread throughout the Highland regions. According to folk legend, the succession of King ] after his father ] was partially due to the obsession that Andrianjaka's older brother may have had with playing ''fanorona'' to the detriment of his other responsibilities.<ref name="iarivo">{{cite web |last=City of Antananarivo |title=Antananarivo: Histoire de la commune |url=http://www.iarivo-town.mg/histoire.php |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5wZeOMH4e |accessdate=2 August 2010 |archivedate=17 February 2011}} {{fr}}</ref>


===Sport===
Western recreational activities were introduced to Madagascar over the past two centuries.
]'' is a traditional martial art of Madagascar.]]
Rugby is considered the national sport of Madagascar.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/regional/newsid=53025.html |accessdate=24 July 2012 |title=Madagascar take Sevens honours |date = 23 August 2007 | publisher = International Rugby Board |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6AGpxxkZd |archivedate = 29 August 2012}}</ref> Football (soccer) is also popular. Madagascar has produced a world champion in ], a French game similar to ], which is widely played in urban areas and throughout the Highlands.<ref>{{cite web | last = Vegar | first = Ness | title = Madagascar won the World Championship | publisher = petanque.org | date = 4 October 1999 | url = http://www.petanque.org/news/admin/61.shtml | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/64g5qw5nC | archivedate = 14 January 2011 | accessdate =14 January 2011}}</ref> School athletics programs typically include soccer, track and field, judo, boxing, women's basketball and women's tennis. Madagascar sent its first competitors to the Olympic Games in 1964 and has also competed in the African Games.<ref name=EBLand/> ] is represented in Madagascar by its ] of three scouting clubs. Membership in 2011 was estimated at 14,905.<ref name="Census_2010">{{cite web |title=Triennal review: Census as at 1 December 2010|url=http://scout.org/en/content/download/22261/199900/file/Census.pdf |publisher=World Organization of the Scout Movement |accessdate=13 January 2011 |date = 1 December 2010 |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/6AJxh3uLm | archivedate = 31 August 2012}}</ref>
A number of traditional pastimes have emerged in Madagascar. '']'', a type of hand-to-hand combat, is a popular spectator sport in coastal regions. It is traditionally practiced by men, but women have recently begun to participate.<ref>Ratsimbazafy (2010), pp.&nbsp;14–18</ref> The wrestling of ] cattle, which is named savika or ''tolon-omby'', is also practiced in many regions.<ref name=lambatradition>Kusimba, Odland & Bronson (2004), p. 87</ref> In addition to sports, a wide variety of games are played. Among the most emblematic is '']'', a board game widespread throughout the Highland regions. According to folk legend, the succession of King ] after his father ] was partially the result of the obsession that Andrianjaka's older brother may have had with playing ''fanorona'' to the detriment of his other responsibilities.<ref name="iarivo">{{cite web |last=City of Antananarivo |title=Antananarivo: Histoire de la commune |url=http://www.iarivo-town.mg/histoire.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100223014034/http://www.iarivo-town.mg/histoire.php |access-date=2 August 2010 |archive-date=23 February 2010|url-status=dead |language=fr}}</ref>


Western recreational activities were introduced to Madagascar over the past two centuries. ] is considered the national sport of Madagascar.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/regional/newsid=53025.html |access-date=24 July 2012 |title=Madagascar take Sevens honours |date = 23 August 2007 |publisher = International Rugby Board |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121024222252/http://www.irb.com/newsmedia/regional/newsid=53025.html |url-status=dead |archive-date = 24 October 2012}}</ref> ] is also popular. Madagascar has produced a world champion in ], a French game similar to ], which is widely played in urban areas and throughout the Highlands.<ref>{{cite web |last = Vegar |first = Ness |title = Madagascar won the World Championship |publisher = petanque.org |date = 4 October 1999 |url = http://www.petanque.org/news/admin/61.shtml |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110317032530/http://www.petanque.org/news/admin/61.shtml |archive-date = 17 March 2011 |url-status=dead |access-date =14 January 2011}}</ref> School athletics programs typically include soccer, track and field, judo, boxing, women's basketball and women's tennis. Madagascar sent its first competitors to the ] in 1964, and has also competed in the ].<ref name=EBLand/> ] is represented in Madagascar by its ] of three scouting clubs. Membership in 2011 was estimated at 14,905.<ref name="Census_2010">{{cite web |title=Triennal review: Census as of 1 December 2010|url=http://scout.org/en/content/download/22261/199900/file/Census.pdf |publisher=World Organization of the Scout Movement |access-date=13 January 2011 |date = 1 December 2010 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120508035838/http://www.scout.org/en/content/download/22261/199900/file/Census.pdf |url-status=dead|archive-date = 8 May 2012}}</ref>
{{clear}}

Because of its advanced sports facilities, Antananarivo gained the hosting rights for several of Africa's top international basketball events, including the ],<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110828040545/http://madagascar2011.fiba.com/ |date=28 August 2011 }}, FIBA.com, Retrieved 26 October 2015.</ref> the ],<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208025248/http://archive.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/event/p/sid/6996/_/2009_FIBA_Africa_Championship_for_Women/index.html |date=8 February 2015 }}, FIBA.com, Retrieved 26 October 2015.</ref> the ],<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812204620/http://u18madagascar2014.fibaafrica.com/ |date=12 August 2014 }}, FIBA.com, Retrieved 26 October 2015.</ref> the ],<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021181708/http://archive.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/event/p/cid/AFMCM/sid/9678/_/2013_FIBA_Africa_U16_Championship_for_Men/index.html |date=21 October 2013 }}, FIBA.com, Retrieved 26 October 2015.</ref> and the ].<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160130021741/http://archive.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/event/p/cid/sid/11791/_/2015_FIBA_Africa_U16_Championship_for_Women/index.html |date=30 January 2016 }}, FIBA.com, Retrieved 26 October 2015.</ref> ] won the gold medal at the ].

===Cuisine===
{{Main|Malagasy cuisine}}
Malagasy cuisine reflects the diverse influences of ], ], ], ], ], and ] culinary traditions. The complexity of Malagasy meals can range from the simple, traditional preparations introduced by the earliest settlers, to the refined festival dishes prepared for the island's 19th-century monarchs. Throughout almost the entire island, the contemporary cuisine of Madagascar typically consists of a base of rice (''vary'') served with an accompaniment (''laoka''). The many varieties of ''laoka'' may be ] or include animal proteins, and typically feature a sauce flavored with such ingredients as ginger, onion, garlic, tomato, vanilla, coconut milk, salt, curry powder, green peppercorns or, less commonly, other spices or herbs. In parts of the arid south and west, pastoral families may replace rice with maize, ], or ]s made from fermented ] milk. A wide variety of sweet and savory ]s as well as other street foods are available across the island, as are diverse tropical and temperate-climate fruits. Locally produced beverages include fruit juices, coffee, herbal teas and teas, and alcoholic drinks such as ], wine, and beer.<ref name=Antal>Bradt (2011), p. 312</ref> ] is the most popular beer on the island<ref name = THBpilsner>{{cite web | title = THB Pilsener | url = http://www.brasseries-star.com/produits/bieres/thb-pilsener | work = Brasseries Star| year = 2015 | access-date = 5 June 2015 | language = fr | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150605195142/http://www.brasseries-star.com/produits/bieres/thb-pilsener | archive-date = 5 June 2015 | url-status=dead }}</ref> and is considered emblematic of Madagascar.<ref name =promos>{{cite web | last = Marsaud | first = Olivia | title = THB, star de la bière à Madagascar | url = https://www.afrik.com/thb-star-de-la-biere-a-madagascar | publisher = Afrik.com | date = 12 July 2008 | access-date = 5 June 2015 | language = fr | archive-date = 6 November 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181106195645/https://www.afrik.com/thb-star-de-la-biere-a-madagascar | url-status = live }}</ref>


==See also== ==See also==
{{portal|Geography|Africa|Madagascar}} {{portal|Madagascar}}
* ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
{{clear}}


==Notes== ==Notes==
{{Notelist}}
{{reflist
| colwidth = 30em
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==References==
<ref name="Gade 1996">
{{reflist}}
{{cite doi | 10.2307/3674005 }}
</ref>


==Bibliography==
}}
{{Refbegin|30em}}

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* {{cite book |last = Acquier |first = Jean-Louis |title = Architectures de Madagascar |publisher = Berger-Levrault | location = Berlin |year = 1997 |isbn = 978-2-7003-1169-3}} {{fr}}
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* {{cite book |last = Bradt |first= Hilary |title=Madagascar, 10th Ed.: The Bradt Travel Guide |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides |location=London |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-84162-341-2 |url = http://books.google.com/books?id=uTRPnMlOcwgC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book |last=Campbell |first=Gwyn |title=An economic history of Imperial Madagascar, 1750–1895: the rise and fall of an island empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=London |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-521-83935-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=13Yt9jLuKzsC |access-date=14 October 2015 |archive-date=19 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130319020757/http://books.google.com/books?id=13Yt9jLuKzsC |url-status=live }}
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* {{cite book | last = Browning | first = Christopher R. | title = The Origins of the Final Solution | publisher = Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority | location = Jerusalem | year = 2004 | isbn = 3-540-63293-X |url = http://books.google.com/books?id=jHQdRHNdK44C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}}
* {{cite book |last=Campbell |first=Gwyn |title=An economic history of Imperial Madagascar, 1750–1895: the rise and fall of an island empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location = London|year=2005 |isbn=0-521-83935-1 |url = http://books.google.com/books?id=13Yt9jLuKzsC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book |last = Cousins |first = William Edward |title = Madagascar of to-day: A sketch of the island, with chapters on its past history and present prospects |publisher = The Religious Tract Society |location = London |year = 1895 |url = https://archive.org/details/madagascartoday01cousgoog }}
* {{cite book | last1= Chapus | first1 = G.S. | last2= Mondain | first2 = G. | year = 1953 | title = Un homme d'etat malgache: Rainilaiarivony | publisher = Editions Diloutremer | location = Paris}} {{fr}} * {{cite book |last = Curtin |first = Philip D. |title = Disease and empire: the health of European troops in the conquest of Africa |publisher = Cambridge University Press |year = 1998 |location = Cambridge, MA |isbn = 978-0-521-59835-4}}
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* {{cite book | last = Cousins | first = William Edward | title = Madagascar of to-day: A sketch of the island, with chapters on its past history and present prospects | publisher = The Religious Tract Society | location = London | year = 1895 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=gvREAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}}
* {{cite book | last = Curtin | first = Philip D. | title = Disease and empire: the health of European troops in the conquest of Africa | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1998 | location = Cambridge, MA | isbn = 978-0-521-59835-4}} * {{cite book |last = Deschamps |first = Hubert Jules |title = Histoire de Madagascar |publisher = Berger-Levrault |location = Ann Arbor, MI |year = 1965 |language=fr}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last = Davies | first = S.J.J.F. |contribution = Birds I: Tinamous and Ratites to Hoatzins | title = Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia | editor-first = Michael | editor-last = Hutchins | volume = 8 |edition = 2 | publisher = Gale Group |location = Farmington Hills, MI |isbn = 0-7876-5784-0 | year = 2003}} * {{cite book |last = Ellis |first = William |title = Three visits to Madagascar during&nbsp;... 1853-1854-1856 |publisher = Oxford University |location = London |year = 1859 |url = https://archive.org/details/threevisitstoma04elligoog }}
*{{cite book |author=William Ellis |title=Madagascar revisited, describing the events of a new reign and the revolution which followed |url=https://archive.org/details/madagascarrevis00elligoog |publisher=John Murray |year=1867 |isbn=0-548-22734-9 }}
* {{cite book | last = Deschamps | first = Hubert Jules | title = Histoire de Madagascar | publisher = Berger-Levrault | location = Ann Arbor, MI | year = 1965 }} {{fr}}
*{{cite book |author=William Ellis |title=The martyr church: a narrative of the introduction, progress, and triumph of Christianity in Madagascar |url=https://archive.org/details/martyrchurchana00elligoog |publisher=J. Snow |year=1870 |isbn=0-8370-0407-1 }}
* {{cite book | last = Ellis | first = William | title = Three visits to Madagascar during&nbsp;... 1853-1854-1856
* {{cite book |last1=Emoff |first1=Ron |year=2004 |title=Island Musics |chapter=Spitting into the wind: Multi-edged environmentalism in Malagasy song |editor-last=Dawe |editor-first=Kevin |publisher=Berg |location=New York |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=owU3-pCIvyYC |isbn=978-1-85973-703-3 |access-date=4 July 2020 |archive-date=15 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715221327/https://books.google.com/books?id=owU3-pCIvyYC |url-status=live }}
| publisher = Oxford University | location = London | year = 1859 |url = http://books.google.com/?id=nPoGAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}}
* {{cite book |last1=Emoff |first1=Ron |year=2004 |title =Island Musics |chapter = Spitting into the wind: Multi-edged environmentalism in Malagasy song | editor-last = Dawe | editor-first = Kevin |publisher=Berg |location = New York |url=http://books.google.com/?id=owU3-pCIvyYC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn = 978-1-85973-703-3}} * {{cite book |last1 = Fage |first1 = J.D. |last2 = Flint |first2 = J.E. |last3 = Oliver |first3 = R.A. |year = 1986 |title = The Cambridge History of Africa: From c. 1790 to c. 1870 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |location = London |isbn = 978-0-521-20413-2 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BOHYn7J4YzQC |access-date = 14 October 2015 |archive-date = 15 July 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200715223158/https://books.google.com/books?id=BOHYn7J4YzQC |url-status = live }}
* {{cite book |last=Fournet-Guérin |first=Catherine |title=Vivre à Tananarive: géographie du changement dans la capitale malgache |publisher=Karthala Editions |location=Antananarivo, Madagascar |year=2007 |isbn=978-2-84586-869-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U_NHlyeI3mcC |language=fr |access-date=14 October 2015 |archive-date=6 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706233607/https://books.google.com/books?id=U_NHlyeI3mcC |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book | last1= Fage | first1 = J.D. | last2= Flint| first2 = J.E. |last3=Oliver |first3=R.A. | year = 1986 | title = The Cambridge History of Africa: From c. 1790 to c. 1870 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = London | isbn = 0-521-20413-5 |url = http://books.google.com/books?id=BOHYn7J4YzQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false }}
* {{cite book |last=Fournet-Guérin |first=Catherine |title=Vivre à Tananarive: géographie du changement dans la capitale malgache |publisher=Karthala Editions |location = Antananarivo, Madagascar |year=2007 |isbn=978-2-84586-869-4 |url = http://books.google.com/books?id=U_NHlyeI3mcC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} {{fr}} * {{cite book |last = Fox |first = Leonard |title = Hainteny: the traditional poetry of Madagascar |publisher = Bucknell University Press |year = 1990 |location = Lewisburg, PA |isbn = 978-0-8387-5175-6}}
* {{cite book | last = Fox | first = Leonard | title = Hainteny: the traditional poetry of Madagascar | publisher = Bucknell University Press | year = 1990 | location = Lewisburg, PA | isbn = 978-0-8387-5175-6}} * {{cite book |last1 = Freeman |first1 = Joseph John |last2 = Johns |first2 = David |title = A narrative of the persecution of the Christians in Madagascar: with details of the escape of six Christian refugees now in England |publisher = J. Snow |location = London |year = 1840 |url = https://archive.org/details/anarrativeperse01johngoog }}
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* {{cite book | last1 = Freeman | first1 = Joseph John |last2 = Johns |first2 = David | title = A narrative of the persecution of the Christians in Madagascar: with details of the escape of six Christian refugees now in England | publisher = J. Snow | location = London | year = 1840 |url = http://books.google.com/books?id=rAMNAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}}
* {{cite book |last = Gallieni |first = Joseph-Simon |title = Neuf ans à Madagascar |publisher = Librairie Hachette |location = Paris |year = 1908 |url = https://archive.org/details/neufansamadagas01gallgoog |language = fr }}
* {{cite book | last = Frémigacci | first = Jean | chapter = Le Rova de Tananarive: Destruction d'un lieu saint ou constitution d'une référence identitaire? | title = Histoire d'Afrique | editor-last = Chrétien | editor-first = Jean-Pierre | year = 1999 | publisher = Editions Karthala | location = Paris |isbn = 978-2-86537-904-0}} {{Fr icon}}
* {{cite book | last = Gallieni | first = Joseph-Simon | title = Neuf ans à Madagascar | publisher = Librairie Hachette | location = Paris | year = 1908 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=AL8RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} {{fr}} * {{cite book |last1 = Heale |first1 = Jay |last2 = Abdul Latif |first2 = Zawiah |title = Cultures of the World: Madagascar |publisher = Marshall Cavendish |location = Tarrytown, NY |year = 2008 |isbn = 978-0-7614-3036-0 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=PJWLCYGo2RgC |access-date = 14 October 2015 |archive-date = 12 March 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210312201506/https://books.google.com/books?id=PJWLCYGo2RgC |url-status = live }}
* {{cite book | last1 = Heale | first1 = Jay | last2 = Abdul Latif | first2 =Zawiah | title = Cultures of the World: Madagascar | publisher = Marshall Cavendish | location = Tarrytown, NY | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-0-7614-3036-0 |url = http://books.google.rw/books?id=PJWLCYGo2RgC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false }} * {{cite book |last1 = Hillstrom |first1 = Kevin |last2 = Collier Hillstrom |first2 = Laurie |title = Africa and the Middle East: a continental overview of environmental issues |publisher = ABC-CLIO |location = Santa Barbara, CA |year = 2003 |isbn = 978-1-57607-688-0 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XxIk9zTm_e8C |access-date = 14 October 2015 |archive-date = 15 July 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200715221012/https://books.google.com/books?id=XxIk9zTm_e8C |url-status = live }}
* {{cite book | last1 = Hillstrom | first1 = Kevin | last2 = Collier Hillstrom | first2 =Laurie | title = Africa and the Middle East: a continental overview of environmental issues | publisher = ABC-CLIO | location = Santa Barbara, CA | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-1-57607-688-0 |url = http://books.google.com/books?id=XxIk9zTm_e8C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book |last1 = Hobbes |first1 = Joseph |last2 = Dolan |first2 = Andrew |title = World Regional Geography |publisher = Cengage Learning |location = Belmont, CA |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yAgGHnENHjoC |year = 2008 |isbn = 978-0-495-38950-7 |access-date = 14 October 2015 |archive-date = 6 July 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200706233546/https://books.google.com/books?id=yAgGHnENHjoC |url-status = live }}
* {{cite book| last1 = Hobbes | first1 = Joseph |last2 = Dolan| first2 = Andrew | title = World Regional Geography | publisher = Cengage Learning | location = Belmont, CA | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=yAgGHnENHjoC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-0-495-38950-7}} * {{cite book |last = Hodder |first = Ian |title = Symbolic and structural archaeology |publisher = Cambridge University Press |year = 1982 |location = New York |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=dWdwiY7ziRYC |isbn = 978-0-521-24406-0 |access-date = 14 October 2015 |archive-date = 15 July 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200715220640/https://books.google.com/books?id=dWdwiY7ziRYC |url-status = live }}
* {{cite book | last = Hodder | first = Ian | title = Symbolic and structural archaeology | publisher = Cambridge University Press| year = 1982 |location = New York | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=dWdwiY7ziRYC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false | isbn = 978-0-521-24406-0}} * {{cite book |last = Kennedy |first = David |title = The Library of Congress World War II companion |publisher = Simon and Schuster |year = 2007 |location = New York |isbn = 978-0-7432-5219-5 |url-access = registration |url = https://archive.org/details/libraryofcongres0000wagn }}
* {{cite book | last = Kennedy | first = David | title = The Library of Congress World War II companion | publisher = Simon and Schuster | year = 2007 |location = New York | isbn = 978-0-7432-5219-5}} * {{cite book |last = Kent |first = Raymond |title = From Madagascar to the Malagasy Republic |publisher = Greenwood Press |location = Ann Arbor, MI |year = 1976 |isbn = 978-0-8371-8421-0 |url-access = registration |url = https://archive.org/details/frommadagascarto0000kent }}
* {{cite book | last = Kent| first = Raymond | title = From Madagascar to the Malagasy Republic | publisher = Greenwood Press | location = Ann Arbor, MI | year = 1976 |isbn = 978-0-8371-8421-0}} * {{cite book |last1 = Kitchen |first1 = Helen A. |title = The Educated African: a Country-by-Country Survey of Educational Development in Africa |location = Washington, D.C. |publisher = Praeger |year= 1962}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Kitchen | first1 = Helen A. | title = The Educated African: a Country-by-Country Survey of Educational Development in Africa | location = Washington, D.C. | publisher = Praeger | year= 1962}} * {{cite book |last1 = Kull |first1 = Christian |title = Isle of Fire: The Political Ecology of Landscape Burning in Madagascar, Issue 246 |location = Chicago |publisher = University of Chicago Press |year= 2004 |isbn = 978-0-226-46141-0}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Kull | first1 = Christian | title = Isle of Fire: The Political Ecology of Landscape Burning in Madagascar, Issue 246 | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | year= 2004 |isbn = 978-0-226-46141-0 |url = Isle of Fire: The Political Ecology of Landscape Burning in Madagascar, Issue 246}} * {{cite book |last1 = Kusimba |first1 = Chapurukha |last2 = Odland |first2 = J. Claire |last3 = Bronson |first3 = Bennet |title = Unwrapping the textile traditions of Madagascar |publisher = Regents of the University of California |series = Textile Series |location = Los Angeles |year = 2004 |isbn = 978-0-930741-95-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Lehoullier |first=Sara |title=Madagascar: Travel Companion |publisher=Other Places Publishing |location=New York |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-9822619-5-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QhAbnvPKaVUC }}
* {{cite book |last1 = Kusimba |first1 = Chapurukha |last2 = Odland |first2 = J. Claire |last3 = Bronson |first3 = Bennet | title = Unwrapping the textile traditions of Madagascar | publisher = Regents of the University of California | series = Textile Series | location = Los Angeles | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-930741-95-1}}
* {{cite book |last = Lehoullier |first= Sara |title=Madagascar: Travel Companion |publisher=Other Places Publishing |location=New York |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-9822619-5-8 |url = http://books.google.com/books?id=QhAbnvPKaVUC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book |last = Middleton |first = Karen |title = Ancestors, Power, and History in Madagascar |publisher = Brill |location = Los Angeles |year = 1999 |isbn = 978-90-04-11289-6 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=My4B9q9FTiYC }}
*{{cite book | last = Middleton | first = Karen | title = Ancestors, Power, and History in Madagascar | publisher = Brill | location = Los Angeles |year = 1999 | isbn = 978-90-04-11289-6 |url = http://books.google.rw/books?id=My4B9q9FTiYC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false }} * {{cite book |last1 = Moriarty |first1 = H.A. |title = Islands in the southern Indian Ocean, westward of longitude 80 ̊east, including Madagascar |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=-NmhAAAAMAAJ |location = London |publisher = J. D. Potter |year = 1891 |access-date = 14 October 2015 |archive-date = 29 September 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200929074055/https://books.google.com/books?id=-NmhAAAAMAAJ |url-status = live }}
* {{cite book | last1 = Moriarty |first1 = H.A. | title = Islands in the southern Indian Ocean, westward of longitude 80 ̊east, including Madagascar |url = http://books.google.com/books?id=-NmhAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false | location = London | publisher = J. D. Potter | year= 1891}} * {{cite book |last1 = Nalla |first1 = Mahesh |title = Crime and Punishment Around the World: Volume 1, Africa |location = Los Angeles |publisher = ABC-CLIO|year= 2010 |isbn = 978-0-313-35133-4}}
* {{cite book |last = Ogot |first = Bethwell |title = Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century |publisher = UNESCO |location = Paris |year = 1992 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=WAQbp7aLpZkC |isbn = 978-92-3-101711-7 |access-date = 14 October 2015 |archive-date = 15 July 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200715221905/https://books.google.com/books?id=WAQbp7aLpZkC |url-status = live }}
* {{cite book | last1 = Nalla |first1 = Mahesh | title = Crime and Punishment Around the World: Volume 1, Africa | location = Los Angeles | publisher = ABC-CLIO| year= 2010 |isbn = 978-0-313-35133-4}}
* {{cite book | last = Ogot | first = Bethwell | title = Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century | publisher = UNESCO|location = Paris| year = 1992 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=WAQbp7aLpZkC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false| isbn = 978-92-3-101711-7}} * {{cite book |last1 = Oliver |first1 = Roland |first2 = John Donnelly |last2 = Fage |first3 = G.N. |last3 = Sanderson |date = 1983 |title = The Cambridge History of Africa |journal = Journal of Arid Environments |publisher = Cambridge University Press |volume = 6 |issue = 2 |page = 195 |location = Cambridge, U.K. |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xh-QcHRG3OwC |isbn = 978-0-521-22803-9 |bibcode = 1983JArEn...6..195S |doi = 10.1016/S0140-1963(18)31535-0 }}
* {{cite book | last1 = Oliver | first1 = Roland | first2 = John Donnelly | last2 = Fage | first3 =G.N. | last3 = Sanderson | title = The Cambridge History of Africa | publisher = Cambridge University Press | volume = 6 | year = 1985 | location = Cambridge, U.K. | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=xh-QcHRG3OwC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false | isbn = 978-0-521-22803-9}} * {{cite book |first = Samuel Pasfield |last = Oliver |author-link = Samuel Pasfield Oliver |title = Madagascar: an historical and descriptive account of the island and its former dependencies, Volume 1 |place = London |publisher = Macmillan |year = 1886 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lKtBAAAAIAAJ |access-date = 14 October 2015 |archive-date = 26 July 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200726123956/https://books.google.com/books?id=lKtBAAAAIAAJ |url-status = live }}
* {{cite book | first = Samuel Pasfield | last = Oliver | authorlink = Samuel Pasfield Oliver | title = Madagascar: an historical and descriptive account of the island and its former dependencies, Volume 1 | place = London | publisher = Macmillan | year = 1886 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=lKtBAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book |last = Pezzotta |first = Federico |title = Madagascar: a mineral and gemstone paradise |place = Ann Arbor, MI |publisher = University of Michigan |year = 2001 |isbn = 978-0-9715371-0-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Pryor |first=Frederic L. |title=The political economy of poverty, equity, and growth: Malawi and Madagascar |publisher=World Bank |location=Washington, D.C. |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-19-520823-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0P0fDzMA5lEC |access-date=14 October 2015 |archive-date=10 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200110044240/https://books.google.com/books?id=0P0fDzMA5lEC |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book | last = Pezzotta | first = Federico | title = Madagascar: a mineral and gemstone paradise | place = Ann Arbor, MI | publisher = University of Michigan | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-0-9715371-0-1}}
* {{cite book |last = Pryor |first= Frederic L. |title=The political economy of poverty, equity, and growth: Malawi and Madagascar |publisher=World Bank |location=Washington, D.C. |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-19-520823-8 |url = http://books.google.com/books?id=0P0fDzMA5lEC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book |last1 = Rabearivelo |first1 = Jean-Joseph |title = Translated from the Night |location = Pittsburgh, PA |publisher = Lascaux Editions |year = 2007 |orig-year = 1936 (translation by Robert Ziller) |isbn = 978-1-60461-552-4 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=F-5I6QlMfJEC |access-date = 14 October 2015 |archive-date = 15 July 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200715221903/https://books.google.com/books?id=F-5I6QlMfJEC |url-status = live }}
* {{cite book | last1 = Rabearivelo | first1 = Jean-Joseph | title = Translated from the Night | location = Pittsburgh, PA | publisher = Lascaux Editions | year= 2007 |origyear = 1936 (translation by Robert Ziller) | isbn = 978-1-60461-552-4 |url = http://books.google.rw/books?id=F-5I6QlMfJEC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book |last = Rajaonarimanana |first = Narivelo |title = Grammaire moderne de la langue malgache |publisher = Langues et mondes – l'Asiatheque |series = Langues INALCO |year = 2001 |location = Paris |isbn = 978-2-911053-79-5|language=fr}}
* {{cite book |last = Ralibera |first = Daniel |title = Madagascar et le christianisme |location = Paris |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GOeAT76TGN0C |publisher = Editions Karthala |year = 1993 |isbn = 978-92-9028-211-2 |language = fr |access-date = 14 October 2015 |archive-date = 15 July 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200715221351/https://books.google.com/books?id=GOeAT76TGN0C |url-status = live }}
* {{cite book | last = Rajaonarimanana | first = Narivelo | title = Grammaire moderne de la langue malgache | publisher = Langues et mondes – l'Asiatheque | series = Langues INALCO | year = 2001 | location = Paris | isbn = 2-911053-79-6}} {{fr}}
* {{cite book | last = Ralibera | first = Daniel | title = Madagascar et le christianisme | location = Paris| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=GOeAT76TGN0C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false| publisher = Editions Karthala | year = 1993 | isbn = 978-92-9028-211-2}} {{fr}} * {{cite book |last=Randier |first=Jean |title=La Royale: L'histoire illustrée de la Marine nationale française |year=2006 |publisher=Babouji |location= Maîtres du Vent – La Falaise |isbn=978-2-35261-022-9|language=fr}}
* {{cite book |last=Randier |first=Jean |title=La Royale: L'histoire illustrée de la Marine nationale française |year=2006 |publisher=Babouji |location= Maîtres du Vent – La Falaise |isbn=2-35261-022-2}} {{fr}} * {{cite book |last = Randrianary |first = Victor |title = Madagascar: les chants d'une île |publisher = Actes Sud |location = Paris |year = 2001 |isbn = 978-2-7427-3556-3|language=fr}}
* {{cite book | last = Randrianary | first = Victor | title = Madagascar: les chants d'une île | publisher = Actes Sud |location = Paris | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-2-7427-3556-3}} {{fr}} * {{cite book |last1=Ratsimbaharison |first1=Adrien |title=The Political Crisis of March 2009 in Madagascar: A Case Study of Conflict and Conflict Mediation |date=2017 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |location=Lanham, Boulder, New York, London |isbn=978-1-4422-7235-4}}
* {{cite book | last = Ratsimbazafy | first = Ernest | editor-last = Green | editor-first = Thomas | editor2-last = Svinth | editor2-first = Joseph | title = Martial Arts of the World: An Encyclopedia of History and Innovation, Volume 2 | contribution = Moraingy | publisher = ABC CLIO | location = Santa Barbara, CA | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-1-59884-243-2 |url = http://books.google.rw/books?id=P-Nv_LUi6KgC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book |last = Ratsimbazafy |first = Ernest |editor-last = Green |editor-first = Thomas |editor2-last = Svinth |editor2-first = Joseph |title = Martial Arts of the World: An Encyclopedia of History and Innovation, Volume 2 |contribution = Moraingy |publisher = ABC CLIO |location = Santa Barbara, CA |year = 2010 |isbn = 978-1-59884-243-2 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=P-Nv_LUi6KgC |access-date = 14 October 2015 |archive-date = 8 March 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170308220952/https://books.google.com/books?id=P-Nv_LUi6KgC |url-status = live }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Regnier|first1=Denis|title=Clean people, unclean people: the essentialisation of 'slaves' among the southern Betsileo of Madagascar|journal=Social Anthropology|volume=23|issue=2|year=2015|pages=152–158|doi=10.1111/1469-8676.12107|url=https://philpapers.org/rec/REGCPU|access-date=24 October 2018|archive-date=25 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181025070918/https://philpapers.org/rec/REGCPU|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book | last = Reinsch | first = Paul Samuel | title = Colonial Administration | publisher = Macmillan | location = New York | year = 1905 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=bfsmAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Rodd | first1 = Tony |last2 = Stackhouse |first2 = Jennifer | title = Trees: A Visual Guide | publisher = University of California Press | location = Los Angeles | year = 2008 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=Mpsc2hsYk1YC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false | isbn = 978-0-520-25650-7}} * {{cite book |last = Reinsch |first = Paul Samuel |title = Colonial Administration |publisher = Macmillan |location = New York |year = 1905 |url = https://archive.org/details/colonialadminis00reingoog }}
* {{cite book | last = Room | first = Adrian | title = Placenames of the world: origins and meanings of the names for 6,600 countries, cities, territories, natural features, and historic sites | publisher = McFarland | location = Jefferson, NC | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0-7864-2248-7 |url = http://books.google.com/books?id=M1JIPAN-eJ4C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book |last1 = Rodd |first1 = Tony |last2 = Stackhouse |first2 = Jennifer |title = Trees: A Visual Guide |publisher = University of California Press |location = Los Angeles |year = 2008 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Mpsc2hsYk1YC |isbn = 978-0-520-25650-7 |access-date = 4 July 2020 |archive-date = 30 March 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210330034513/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mpsc2hsYk1YC |url-status = live }}
* {{cite book |last = Room |first = Adrian |title = Placenames of the world: origins and meanings of the names for 6,600 countries, cities, territories, natural features, and historic sites |publisher = McFarland |location = Jefferson, NC |year = 2006 |isbn = 978-0-7864-2248-7 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=M1JIPAN-eJ4C |access-date = 14 October 2015 |archive-date = 29 March 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170329060933/https://books.google.com/books?id=M1JIPAN-eJ4C |url-status = live }}
* {{cite book | last = Sharp | first = Leslie | title = The Sacrificed Generation: Youth, History, and the Colonized Mind in Madagascar |url = http://books.google.com/books?id=5IFbKsKxYQYC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false | location = Berkeley, CA |publisher = University of California Press | year = 2002 |isbn = 978-0-520-22951-8}}
* {{cite book |last = Sharp |first = Leslie |title = The Sacrificed Generation: Youth, History, and the Colonized Mind in Madagascar |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=5IFbKsKxYQYC |location = Berkeley, CA |publisher = University of California Press |year = 2002 |isbn = 978-0-520-22951-8 |access-date = 14 October 2015 |archive-date = 14 July 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200714114457/https://books.google.com/books?id=5IFbKsKxYQYC |url-status = live }}
* {{cite book|last=Shillington|first= Kevin|title=Encyclopedia of African history|publisher=CRC Press|location = New York | year=2005 |isbn=1-57958-453-5}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | last = Strakes | first = Jason | contribution = Armed Forces of the People | year = 2006 | title = Encyclopedia of the developing world | editor-last = Leonard | editor-first = Thomas M. | volume = 1 | place = New York | publisher = Taylor & Francis | isbn = 978-1-57958-388-0 |url = http://books.google.com/books?id=3mE04D9PMpAC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book|last=Shillington|first= Kevin|title=Encyclopedia of African history|publisher=CRC Press|location = New York |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-57958-453-5}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last = Strakes |first = Jason |contribution = Armed Forces of the People |year = 2006 |title = Encyclopedia of the developing world |editor-last = Leonard |editor-first = Thomas M. |volume = 1 |place = New York |publisher = Taylor & Francis |isbn = 978-1-57958-388-0 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3mE04D9PMpAC |access-date = 14 October 2015 |archive-date = 19 May 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150519041852/https://books.google.com/books?id=3mE04D9PMpAC |url-status = live }}
* {{cite book | last1= Thompson | first1 = Virginia | last2= Adloff | first2 = Richard | year = 1965 | title = The Malagasy Republic: Madagascar today | publisher = Stanford University Press |isbn = 978-0-8047-0279-9 | location = San Francisco, CA}}
* {{cite book |last1 = Thompson |first1 = Virginia |last2 = Adloff |first2 = Richard |year = 1965 |title = The Malagasy Republic: Madagascar today |url = https://archive.org/details/malagasyrepublic0000thom |url-access = registration |publisher = Stanford University Press |isbn = 978-0-8047-0279-9 |location = San Francisco, CA }}
* {{cite book | last = Uwechue | first = Raph | title = Makers of modern Africa: profiles in history, Volume 1 | publisher = Africa Books Ltd | location = Dearborne, MI | year = 1981 |isbn = 978-0-903274-14-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Van Den Boogaerde |first=Pierre|title=Shipwrecks of Madagascar |year=2008 |publisher=AEG Publishing Group |location= New York |isbn=978-1-60693-494-4 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=I_S1D8cnTiEC&pg=PT19 }} * {{cite book |last = Uwechue |first = Raph |title = Makers of modern Africa: profiles in history, Volume 1 |publisher = Africa Books Ltd |location = Dearborne, MI |year = 1981 |isbn = 978-0-903274-14-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Van Den Boogaerde |first=Pierre |title=Shipwrecks of Madagascar |year=2008 |publisher=AEG Publishing Group |location=New York |isbn=978-1-60693-494-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I_S1D8cnTiEC&pg=PT19 |access-date=4 July 2020 |archive-date=2 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802074021/https://books.google.com/books?id=I_S1D8cnTiEC&pg=PT19 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last = Wink|first = André |title = Volume 3 of Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Indo-Islamic society, 14th–15th centuries |publisher = Brill | location = Leiden, The Netherlands |year = 2004 |isbn = 978-90-04-13561-1 |url = http://books.google.rw/books?id=nyYslywJUE8C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}}
* {{cite book |last = Wink |first = André |title = Volume 3 of Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Indo-Islamic society, 14th–15th centuries |publisher = Brill |location = Leiden, The Netherlands |year = 2004 |isbn = 978-90-04-13561-1 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=nyYslywJUE8C |access-date = 14 October 2015 |archive-date = 29 May 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160529144236/https://books.google.com/books?id=nyYslywJUE8C |url-status = live }}
{{Refend}} {{Refend}}


==External links== ==External links==
{{Sister project links|Madagascar}} {{Sister project links|Madagascar|voy=Madagascar|d=Q1019}}
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180729052321/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13861843 |date=29 July 2018 }} from ]
* (official website) {{fr}}
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214064652/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/madagascar/ |date=14 February 2021 }}. '']''. ].
* from ]
* from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
* {{CIA_World_Factbook link|ma|Madagascar}}
* {{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Madagascar}}
* from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
* {{wikiatlas|Madagascar}} * {{wikiatlas|Madagascar}}
* from ] * {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119105615/http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=MG |date=19 November 2020 }} from ]
* {{osmrelation-inline|447325}}

* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203131355/https://www.nli.org.il/en/maps/NNL_ALEPH002492934/NLI#$FL13737163 |date=3 February 2021 }}, (in French). Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The ]
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Latest revision as of 17:29, 29 December 2024

Island country in the Indian Ocean

This article is about the island nation. For the island itself, see Geography of Madagascar. For the film franchise, see Madagascar (franchise). For other uses, see Madagascar (disambiguation).

Republic of Madagascar
  • Repoblikan'i Madagasikara (Malagasy)
  • République de Madagascar (French)
Flag of Madagascar Flag Seal of Madagascar Seal
Motto: 
  • Fitiavana, Tanindrazana, Fandrosoana (Malagasy)
  • Amour, Patrie, Progrès (French)
  • "Love, Fatherland, Progress"
Anthem: Ry Tanindrazanay malala ô! (Malagasy)
Ô Terre de nos ancêtres bien-aimés! (French)
"Oh, land of our beloved ancestors!"
Location of Madagascar (dark green)Location of Madagascar (dark green)
Capitaland largest cityAntananarivo
18°55′S 47°31′E / 18.917°S 47.517°E / -18.917; 47.517
Official languagesMalagasy • French
Ethnic groups (2017)
Religion (2020)
Demonym(s)Malagasy
GovernmentUnitary semi-presidential republic
• President Andry Rajoelina
• Prime Minister Christian Ntsay
LegislatureParliament
• Upper houseSenate
• Lower houseNational Assembly
Formation
• Kingdom c. 1540
• French colony 6 August 1896
• Republic proclaimed 14 October 1958
• Declaration of independence 26 June 1960
Area
• Total592,796 km (228,880 sq mi) (46th)
• Water5,501 km (2,124 sq mi)
• Water (%)0.9%
Population
• 2024 estimate31,964,956 (49th)
• Density55/km (142.4/sq mi)
GDP (PPP)2023 estimate
• TotalIncrease $56.754 billion (117th)
• Per capitaIncrease $1,906 (182nd)
GDP (nominal)2023 estimate
• TotalIncrease $15.763 billion (139th)
• Per capitaIncrease $529 (188th)
Gini (2012)Positive decrease 42.6
medium inequality
HDI (2022)Steady 0.487
low (177th)
CurrencyAriary (MGA)
Time zoneUTC+3 (EAT)
• Summer (DST)UTC+3 (not observed)
Date formatdd/mm/yyyy
Drives onRight
Calling code+261
ISO 3166 codeMG
Internet TLD.mg

Madagascar, officially the Republic of Madagascar, is an island country that includes the island of Madagascar and numerous smaller peripheral islands. Lying off the southeastern coast of Africa, it is the world's fourth largest island, the second-largest island country and the 46th largest country overall. Its capital and largest city is Antananarivo.

Following the prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana, Madagascar split from Africa during the Early Jurassic period, around 180 million years ago, and separated from the Indian subcontinent approximately 90 million years ago. This isolation allowed native plants and animals to evolve in relative seclusion; as a result, Madagascar is a biodiversity hotspot and one of the world's 17 megadiverse countries, with over 90% of its wildlife being endemic. The island has a subtropical to tropical maritime climate. Madagascar was first permanently settled during or before the mid-first millennium AD by Austronesian peoples, presumably arriving on outrigger canoes from present-day Indonesia. These were joined around the ninth century AD by Bantu groups crossing the Mozambique Channel from East Africa. Other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. Consequently, there are 18 or more classified peoples of Madagascar, the most numerous being the Merina of the central highlands.

Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was ruled by a fragmented assortment of shifting sociopolitical alliances. Beginning in the early 19th century, most of it was united and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of Merina nobles. The monarchy was ended in 1897 by the annexation by France, from which Madagascar gained independence in 1960. The country has since undergone four major constitutional periods, termed republics, and has been governed as a constitutional democracy since 1992. Following a political crisis and military coup in 2009, Madagascar underwent a protracted transition towards its fourth and current republic, with constitutional governance being restored in January 2014.

Madagascar is a member of the United Nations (UN), the African Union (AU), the Southern African Development Community (SADC), and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. Malagasy and French are both official languages of the state. Christianity is the country's predominant religion, with a significant minority still practising traditional faiths. Madagascar is classified as a least developed country by the UN. Ecotourism and agriculture, paired with greater investments in education, health and private enterprise, are key elements of its development strategy. Despite substantial economic growth since the early 2000s, income disparities have widened, and quality of life remains low for the majority of the population. As of 2021, 68.4 percent of the population is considered to be multidimensionally poor.

Etymology

In the Malagasy language, the island of Madagascar is called Madagasikara (Malagasy pronunciation: [madaɡasʲˈkʲarə̥]) and its people are referred to as Malagasy. The origin of the name is uncertain, and is likely foreign, having been propagated in the Middle Ages by Europeans. If this is the case, it is unknown when the name was adopted by the inhabitants of the island. No single Malagasy-language name predating Madagasikara appears to have been used by the local population to refer to the island, although some communities had their name for part or all of the lands they inhabited.

One hypothesis relates Madagascar to the word Malay, referring to the Austronesian origin of the Malagasy people in modern-day Indonesia. In a map by Muhammad al-Idrisi dating from the year 1154, the island is named Gesira Malai, or "Malay island" in Arabic. The inversion of this name to Malai Gesira, as it was known by the Greeks, is thought to be the precursor of the modern name of the island. The name "Malay island" was later rendered in Latin as Malichu, an abbreviated form of Malai Insula, in the medieval Hereford Mappa Mundi as the name of Madagascar.

Another hypothesis is that Madagascar is a corrupted transliteration of Mogadishu, the capital of Somalia and an important medieval Indian Ocean port. This would have resulted from 13th-century Venetian explorer Marco Polo confusing the two locations in his memoirs, in which he mentions the land of Madageiscar to the south of Socotra. This name would then have been popularized on Renaissance maps by Europeans. One of the first documents written that might explain why Marco Polo called it Madagascar is in a 1609 book on Madagascar by Jerome Megiser. Jerome Megiser describes an event in which the kings of Mogadishu and Adal traveled to Madagascar with a fleet of around twenty-five thousand men in order to invade the wealthy islands of Taprobane and Sumatra. However, a tempest threw them off course and they landed on the coasts of Madagascar, conquering the island and signing a treaty with its inhabitants. They remained for eight months and erected at different points of the island eight pillars on which they engraved "Magadoxo", a name which later, by corruption became Madagascar. Jan Huyghen van Linschoten, a Dutch traveler who copied Portuguese works and maps, confirmed this event by saying "Madagascar has its name from 'makdishu' (Mogadishu)" whose "shayk" invaded it.

The name Malagasikara, or Malagascar, is also historically attested. A British state paper in 1699 records the arrival of eighty to ninety passengers from "Malagaskar" to what eventually became New York City. An 1882 edition of the British newspaper The Graphic referred to "Malagascar" as the name of the island, stating that it is etymologically a word of Malay origin, and may be related to the name of Malacca. In 1891, Saleh bin Osman, a Zanzibari traveler, refers to the island as "Malagaskar" when recounting his journeys, including as part of the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition. In 1905, Charles Basset wrote in his doctoral thesis that Malagasikara was the way the island is referred to by its natives, who emphasized that they were Malagasy, and not Madagasy.

History

Main article: History of Madagascar

Early period

Malagasy ancestry reflects a blend of Southeast Asian, Oceanian and Bantu (Southeast African) roots.

Traditionally, archaeologists have estimated that the earliest settlers arrived in successive waves in outrigger canoes from South Borneo, possibly throughout the period between 350 BC and 550 AD, while others are cautious about dates earlier than AD 250. In either case, these dates make Madagascar one of the most recent major landmasses on Earth to be settled by humans, predating the settlement of Iceland and New Zealand. It is proposed that Ma'anyan people were brought as laborers and slaves by Javan and Sumatran-Malays in their trading fleets to Madagascar. Dates of settlement of the island earlier than the mid-first millennium AD are not strongly supported. However, there is scattered evidence for much earlier human visits and presence. (See History of Madagascar). Archaeological finds such as cut marks on bones found in the northwest and stone tools in the northeast indicate that Madagascar was visited by foragers around 2000 BCE.

Upon arrival, early settlers practiced slash-and-burn agriculture to clear the coastal rainforests for cultivation. The first settlers encountered Madagascar's abundance of megafauna, including 17 species of giant lemurs, the large flightless elephant birds (including possibly the largest bird to ever exist, Aepyornis maximus), the giant fossa, and several species of Malagasy hippopotamus, which have since become extinct because of hunting and habitat destruction. By 600 AD, groups of these early settlers had begun clearing the forests of the central highlands.

Arab traders first reached the island between the 7th and 9th centuries. A wave of Bantu-speaking migrants from southeastern Africa arrived around the year 1000. Around this time, zebu from South India were first brought, intermingling with sanga found in East Africa. Irrigated paddy fields were developed in the central highland Betsileo Kingdom and were extended with terraced paddies throughout the neighboring Kingdom of Imerina a century later. The rising intensity of land cultivation and the ever-increasing demand for zebu pasturage had largely transformed the central highlands from a forest ecosystem to grassland by the 17th century.

The oral histories of the Merina people, who arrived in the central highlands between 600 and 1,000 years ago, describe encountering an established population they called the Vazimba. Probably the descendants of an earlier and less technologically advanced Austronesian settlement wave, the Vazimba were assimilated or expelled from the highlands by the Merina kings Andriamanelo, Ralambo, and Andrianjaka in the 16th and early 17th centuries. Today, the spirits of the Vazimba are revered as tompontany (ancestral masters of the land) by many traditional Malagasy communities.

Arab and European contacts

European contact began in 1500 when Portuguese explorer Diogo Dias recorded the island while participating in the 2nd Portuguese India Armadas.

The written history of Madagascar began with the Arabs, who established trading posts along the northwest coast by at least the 10th century and introduced Islam, the Arabic script (used to transcribe the Malagasy language in a form of writing known as sorabe), Arab astrology, and other cultural elements.

European contact began in 1500, when the Portuguese sea captain Diogo Dias sighted the island, while participating in the 2nd Armada of the Portuguese India Armadas.

Matatana was the first Portuguese settlement on the south coast, 10 km west of Fort Dauphin. In 1508, settlers there built a tower, a small village, and a stone column. This settlement was established in 1513 at the behest of the viceroy of Portuguese India, Jeronimo de Azevedo.

Matatana, represented in a picture of 1613, regarding a settlement of the beginning of the 16th century, in the Book of Humberto Leitão"

Contacts continued from the 1550s. Several colonization and conversion missions were ordered by King João III and by the Viceroy of India, including one in 1553 by Baltazar Lobo de Sousa. In that mission, according to detailed descriptions by chroniclers Diogo do Couto and João de Barros, emissaries reached the inland via rivers and bays, exchanging goods and even converting one of the local kings.

The French established trading posts along the east coast in the late 17th century. From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar gained prominence among pirates and European traders, particularly those involved in the trans-Atlantic slave trade. The small island of Nosy Boroha off the northeastern coast of Madagascar has been proposed by some historians as the site of the legendary pirate utopia of Libertalia. Many European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island, among them Robert Drury, whose journal is one of the few written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century. European accounts until the early 20th century identified Malagasy people as being of Jewish origin.

The wealth generated by maritime trade spurred the rise of organized kingdoms on the island, some of which had grown quite powerful by the 17th century. Among these were the Betsimisaraka alliance of the eastern coast and the Sakalava chiefdoms of Menabe and Boina on the west coast. The Kingdom of Imerina, located in the central highlands with its capital at the royal palace of Antananarivo, emerged at around the same time under the leadership of King Andriamanelo.

Kingdom of Madagascar

This section needs expansion with: information about the pre-Merina Betsileo and Sakalava kingdoms. You can help by making an edit requestadding to it . (March 2024)
Main article: Merina Kingdom
King Andrianampoinimerina (1787–1810)

Upon its emergence in the early 17th century, the highland kingdom of Imerina was initially a minor power relative to the larger coastal kingdoms and grew even weaker in the early 18th century when King Andriamasinavalona divided it among his four sons. Following almost a century of warring and famine, Imerina was reunited in 1793 by King Andrianampoinimerina (1787–1810). From his initial capital Ambohimanga, and later from the Rova of Antananarivo, this Merina king rapidly expanded his rule over neighbouring principalities. His ambition to bring the entire island under his control was largely achieved by his son and successor, King Radama I (1810–28), who was recognized by the British government as King of Madagascar. Radama concluded a treaty in 1817 with the British governor of Mauritius to abolish the lucrative slave trade in return for British military and financial assistance. Artisan missionary envoys from the London Missionary Society began arriving in 1818 and included such key figures as James Cameron, David Jones and David Griffiths, who established schools, transcribed the Malagasy language using the Roman alphabet, translated the Bible, and introduced a variety of new technologies to the island.

Radama's successor, Queen Ranavalona I (1828–61), responded to increasing political and cultural encroachment on the part of Britain and France by issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity in Madagascar and pressuring most foreigners to leave the territory. William Ellis of the London Missionary Society described his visits made during her reign in his book Three Visits to Madagascar during the years 1853, 1854, and 1856. The Queen made heavy use of the traditional practice of fanompoana (forced labor as tax payment) to complete public works projects and develop a standing army of between 20,000 and 30,000 Merina soldiers, whom she deployed to pacify outlying regions of the island and further expand the Kingdom of Merina to encompass most of Madagascar. Residents of Madagascar could accuse one another of various crimes, including theft, Christianity and especially witchcraft, for which the ordeal of tangena was routinely obligatory. Between 1828 and 1861, the tangena ordeal caused about 3,000 deaths annually. In 1838, it was estimated that as many as 100,000 people in Imerina died as a result of the tangena ordeal, constituting roughly 20 percent of the population. The combination of regular warfare, disease, difficult forced labor, and harsh measures of justice resulted in a high mortality rate among soldiers and civilians alike during her 33-year reign; the population of Madagascar is estimated to have declined from around 5 million to 2.5 million between 1833 and 1839.

Among those who continued to reside in Imerina were Jean Laborde, an entrepreneur who developed munitions and other industries on behalf of the monarchy, and Joseph-François Lambert, a French adventurer and slave trader, with whom then-Prince Radama II signed a controversial trade agreement termed the Lambert Charter. Succeeding his mother, Radama II attempted to relax the queen's stringent policies but was overthrown two years later by Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony and an alliance of Andriana (noble) and Hova (commoner) courtiers, who sought to end the absolute power of the monarch.

Following the coup, the courtiers offered Radama's queen, Rasoherina, the opportunity to rule, if she would accept a power-sharing arrangement with the Prime Minister: a new social contract that would be sealed by a political marriage between them. Queen Rasoherina accepted, first marrying Rainivoninahitriniony, then later deposing him and marrying his brother, Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony, who would go on to marry Queen Ranavalona II and Queen Ranavalona III in succession. Over the course of Rainilaiarivony's 31-year tenure as prime minister, numerous policies were adopted to modernize and consolidate the power of the central government. Schools were constructed throughout the island and attendance was made mandatory. Army organization was improved and British consultants were employed to train and professionalize soldiers. Polygamy was outlawed and Christianity declared the official religion of the court in 1869, was adopted alongside traditional beliefs among a growing portion of the populace. Legal codes were reformed on the basis of British common law and three European-style courts were established in the capital city. In his joint role as Commander-in-Chief, Rainilaiarivony also successfully ensured the defense of Madagascar against several French colonial incursions.

French colonization

Main articles: Malagasy Protectorate and French Madagascar See also: Madagascar in World War II
A French poster about the Franco-Hova War

Primarily on the basis that the Lambert Charter had not been respected, France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first Franco-Hova War. At the end of the war, Madagascar ceded the northern port town of Antsiranana (Diego Suarez) to France and paid 560,000 francs to Lambert's heirs. In 1890, the British accepted the full formal imposition of a French protectorate on the island, but French authority was not acknowledged by the government of Madagascar. To force capitulation, the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of Toamasina on the east coast, and Mahajanga on the west coast, in December 1894 and January 1895 respectively.

A French military flying column then marched toward Antananarivo, losing many men to malaria and other diseases. Reinforcements came from Algeria and Sub-Saharan Africa. Upon reaching the city in September 1895, the column bombarded the royal palace with heavy artillery, causing heavy casualties and leading Queen Ranavalona III to surrender. Popular resistance to the French capture of Antananarivo—known as the Menalamba rebellion—broke out in December 1895, and was not suppressed until the end of 1897. France annexed Madagascar in 1896 and declared the island a colony the following year, dissolving the Merina monarchy and sending the royal family into exile on Réunion Island and to Algeria.

The conquest was followed by ten years of civil war, due to the Menalamba insurrection. The "pacification" carried out by the French administration lasted more than fifteen years, in response to the rural guerrillas scattered throughout the country. In total, the repression of this resistance to colonial conquest caused several tens of thousands of Malagasy victims.

Under colonial rule, plantations were established for the production of a variety of export crops. Slavery was abolished in 1896 and approximately 500,000 slaves were freed; many remained in their former masters' homes as servants or as sharecroppers; in many parts of the island strong discriminatory views against slave descendants are still held today. Wide paved boulevards and gathering places were constructed in the capital city of Antananarivo and the Rova palace compound was turned into a museum. Additional schools were built, particularly in rural and coastal areas where the schools of the Merina had not reached. Education became mandatory between the ages of 6 and 13 and focused primarily on the French language and practical skills.

National monument in Moramanga commemorating the beginning of the Malagasy Uprising on 29 March 1947. Between 11,000 and 90,000 Malagasy died during the uprising which lasted nearly two years.

Huge mining and forestry concessions were granted to large companies. Native chiefs loyal to the French administration were also granted part of the land. Forced labor was introduced in favor of the French companies and peasants were encouraged, through taxation, to work for wages (especially in the colonial concessions) to the detriment of small individual farms. However, the colonial period was accompanied by movements fighting for independence: the Menalamba, the Vy Vato Sakelika, the Democratic Movement for Malagasy Renovation (MDRM). In 1927, major demonstrations were organized in Antananarivo, notably on the initiative of the communist activist François Vittori, who was imprisoned as a result. The 1930s saw the Malagasy anti-colonial movement gain further momentum. Malagasy trade unionism began to appear underground and the Communist Party of the Madagascar region was formed. But in 1939, all the organizations were dissolved by the administration of the colony, which opted for the Vichy regime. The MDRM was accused by the colonial regime of being at the origin of the 1947 insurrection and was pursued by violent repression.

The Merina royal tradition of taxes paid in the form of labor was continued under the French and used to construct a railway and roads linking key coastal cities to Antananarivo. Malagasy troops fought for France in World War I. In the 1930s, Nazi political thinkers developed the Madagascar Plan that had identified the island as a potential site for the deportation of Europe's Jews. During the Second World War, the island was the site of the Battle of Madagascar between the Vichy French and an Allied expeditionary force.

The occupation of France during the Second World War tarnished the prestige of the colonial administration in Madagascar and galvanized the growing independence movement, leading to the Malagasy Uprising of 1947. This movement led the French to establish reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence. The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on 14 October 1958, as an autonomous state within the French Community. A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on 26 June 1960.

Independent state

Main articles: Malagasy Republic, Democratic Republic of Madagascar, and Third Republic of Madagascar
Philibert Tsiranana, the first president of Madagascar (1960–1972)

Since regaining independence, Madagascar has transitioned through four republics with corresponding revisions to its constitution. The First Republic (1960–72), under the leadership of French-appointed President Philibert Tsiranana, was characterized by a continuation of strong economic and political ties to France. Many high-level technical positions were filled by French expatriates, and French teachers, textbooks and curricula continued to be used in schools around the country. Popular resentment over Tsiranana's tolerance for this "neo-colonial" arrangement inspired a series of farmer and student protests that overturned his administration in 1972.

Gabriel Ramanantsoa, a major general in the army, was appointed interim president and prime minister that same year, but low public approval forced him to step down in 1975. Colonel Richard Ratsimandrava, appointed to succeed him, was assassinated six days into his tenure. General Gilles Andriamahazo ruled after Ratsimandrava for four months before being replaced by another military appointee: Vice Admiral Didier Ratsiraka, who ushered in the Marxist–Leninist Second Republic that ran under his tenure from 1975 to 1993.

This period saw a political alignment with the Eastern Bloc countries and a shift toward economic insularity. These policies, coupled with economic pressures stemming from the 1973 oil crisis, resulted in the rapid collapse of Madagascar's economy and a sharp decline in living standards, and the country had become completely bankrupt by 1979. The Ratsiraka administration accepted the conditions of transparency, anti-corruption measures and free market policies imposed by the International Monetary Fund, World Bank and various bilateral donors in exchange for their bailout of the nation's broken economy.

Ratsiraka's dwindling popularity in the late 1980s reached a critical point in 1991 when presidential guards opened fire on unarmed protesters during a rally. Within two months, a transitional government had been established under the leadership of Albert Zafy (1993–96), who went on to win the 1992 presidential elections and inaugurate the Third Republic (1992–2010). The new Madagascar constitution established a multi-party democracy and a separation of powers that placed significant control in the hands of the National Assembly. The new constitution also emphasized human rights, social and political freedoms, and free trade. Zafy's term, however, was marred by economic decline, allegations of corruption, and his introduction of legislation to give himself greater powers. He was consequently impeached in 1996, and an interim president, Norbert Ratsirahonana, was appointed for the three months prior to the next presidential election. Ratsiraka was then voted back into power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms for a second term which lasted from 1996 to 2001.

The contested 2001 presidential elections in which then-mayor of Antananarivo, Marc Ravalomanana, eventually emerged victorious, caused a seven-month standoff in 2002 between supporters of Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka. The negative economic impact of the political crisis was gradually overcome by Ravalomanana's progressive economic and political policies, which encouraged investments in education and ecotourism, facilitated foreign direct investment, and cultivated trading partnerships both regionally and internationally. National GDP grew at an average rate of 7 percent per year under his administration. In the latter half of his second term, Ravalomanana was criticised by domestic and international observers who accused him of increasing authoritarianism and corruption.

Opposition leader and then-mayor of Antananarivo, Andry Rajoelina, led a movement in early 2009 in which Ravalomanana was pushed from power in an unconstitutional process widely condemned as a coup d'état. In March 2009, Rajoelina was declared by the Supreme Court as the President of the High Transitional Authority, an interim governing body responsible for moving the country toward presidential elections. In 2010, a new constitution was adopted by referendum, establishing a Fourth Republic, which sustained the democratic, multi-party structure established in the previous constitution. Hery Rajaonarimampianina was declared the winner of the 2013 presidential election, which the international community deemed fair and transparent.

In 2018 the first round of the presidential election was held on 7 November and the second round was held on 10 December. Three former presidents and the most recent president were the main candidates of the elections. Rajoelina won the second round of the elections. Ravalomana lost the second round and he did not accept the results because of allegations of fraud. Rajaonarimampianina received very modest support in the first round. In January 2019 the High Constitutional Court declared Rajoelina as the winner of the elections and the new president. In June 2019 parliamentary elections the Rajoelina's won absolute majority of the seats of the National Assembly. It received 84 seats and the supporters of former president Ravalomana got only 16 seats of 151 seats of the National Assembly. 51 seats of deputies were independent or represented small parties. Rajoelina could rule as a strongman.

Mid-2021 marked the beginning of the 2021–2022 Madagascar famine which, due to a severe drought, caused hundreds of thousands of people to face food insecurity and over one million people were on the verge of a famine.

In November 2023, Rajoelina was re-elected to another term with 58.95% of the vote in the first round of the election amidst an opposition boycott and a controversy about his acquisition of French citizenship and subsequent eligibility. Turnout was 46.36%, the lowest in a presidential election in the country's history.

Geography

Main articles: Geography of Madagascar and Geology of Madagascar
Land coverage (left) and topographical (right) maps of Madagascar

At 592,800 square kilometres (228,900 sq mi), Madagascar is the world's 46th largest country, the second-largest island country and the fourth-largest island. The country lies mostly between latitudes 12°S and 26°S, and longitudes 43°E and 51°E. Neighboring islands include the French territory of Réunion and the country of Mauritius to the east, as well as the state of Comoros and the French territory of Mayotte to the north west. The nearest mainland state is Mozambique, located to the west.

The prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana resulted in the separation of East Gondwana (comprising Madagascar, Antarctica, Australia and the Indian subcontinent) and West Gondwana (Africa–South America) during the Jurassic period, around 185 million years ago. The Indo-Madagascar landmass separated from Antarctica and Australia around 125 million years ago and Madagascar separated from the Indian landmass about 84–92 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous. This long history of separation from other continents has allowed plants and animals on the island to evolve in relative isolation. Along the length of the eastern coast runs a narrow and steep escarpment containing much of the island's remaining tropical lowland forest. To the west of this ridge lies a plateau in the center of the island ranging in altitude from 750 to 1,500 m (2,460 to 4,920 ft) above sea level. These central highlands, traditionally the homeland of the Merina people and the location of their historic capital at Antananarivo, are the most densely populated part of the island and are characterized by terraced, rice-growing valleys lying between grassy hills and patches of the subhumid forests that formerly covered the highland region. To the west of the highlands, the increasingly arid terrain gradually slopes down to the Mozambique Channel and mangrove swamps along the coast.

Madagascar's highest peaks rise from three prominent highland massifs: Maromokotro 2,876 m (9,436 ft) in the Tsaratanana Massif is the island's highest point, followed by Boby Peak 2,658 m (8,720 ft) in the Andringitra Massif, and Tsiafajavona 2,643 m (8,671 ft) in the Ankaratra Massif. To the east, the Canal des Pangalanes is a chain of human-made and natural lakes connected by canals built by the French just inland from the east coast and running parallel to it for some 600 km (370 mi).

The western and southern sides, which lie in the rain shadow of the central highlands, are home to dry deciduous forests, spiny forests, and deserts and xeric shrublands. Due to their lower population densities, Madagascar's dry deciduous forests have been better preserved than the eastern rain forests or the original woodlands of the central plateau. The western coast features many protected harbors, but silting is a major problem caused by sediment from the high levels of inland erosion carried by rivers crossing the broad western plains.

Climate

A Köppen climate classification map of Madagascar
See also: Geography of Madagascar § Climate

The combination of southeastern trade winds and northwestern monsoons produces a hot rainy season (November–April) with frequently destructive cyclones, and a relatively cooler dry season (May–October). Rain clouds originating over the Indian Ocean discharge much of their moisture over the island's eastern coast; the heavy precipitation supports the area's rainforest ecosystem. The central highlands are both drier and cooler while the west is drier still, and a semi-arid climate prevails in the southwest and southern interior of the island.

Tropical cyclones cause damage to infrastructure and local economies as well as loss of life. In 2004, Cyclone Gafilo became the strongest cyclone ever recorded to hit Madagascar. The storm killed 172 people, left 214,260 homeless and caused more than US$250 million in damage. In February 2022, Cyclone Batsirai killed 121 people, weeks after Cyclone Ana killed 55 and displaced 130,000 people on the island.

A 2022 analysis found that the expected costs for Madagascar, to adapt to and avert the environmental consequences of climate change, are going to be high.

Biodiversity and conservation

Main articles: Wildlife of Madagascar, Flora of Madagascar, Fauna of Madagascar, Agriculture in Madagascar, Ecoregions of Madagascar, List of World Heritage Sites in Madagascar, Deforestation in Madagascar, and Illegal logging in Madagascar
Comet orchid (Angraecum sesquipedale), the flowers of this orchid have a very long spur and are pollinated by a species of hawkmoth with a proboscis of matching length.

As a result of the island's long isolation from neighbouring continents, Madagascar is home to various endemic plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth. Approximately 90% of all plant and animal species found in Madagascar are endemic. This distinctive ecology has led some ecologists to refer to Madagascar as the "eighth continent", and the island has been classified by Conservation International as a biodiversity hotspot. Madagascar is classed as one of 17 megadiverse countries. The country is home to seven terrestrial ecoregions: Madagascar lowland forests, Madagascar subhumid forests, Madagascar dry deciduous forests, Madagascar ericoid thickets, Madagascar spiny forests, Madagascar succulent woodlands, and Madagascar mangroves.

More than 80 percent of Madagascar's 14,883 plant species are found nowhere else in the world, including five plant families. The family Didiereaceae, composed of four genera and 11 species, is limited to the spiny forests of southwestern Madagascar. Four-fifths of the world's Pachypodium species are endemic to the island. Three-fourths of Madagascar's 860 orchid species are found here alone, as are six of the world's nine baobab species. The island is home to around 170 palm species, three times as many as on all of mainland Africa; 165 of them are endemic. Many native plant species are used as herbal remedies for a variety of afflictions. The drugs vinblastine and vincristine are vinca alkaloids, used to treat Hodgkin lymphoma, leukemia, and other cancers, were derived from the Madagascar periwinkle. The traveler's palm, known locally as ravinala and endemic to the eastern rain forests, is highly iconic of Madagascar and is featured in the national emblem as well as the Air Madagascar logo.

Two ring-tailed lemurs curled up together
The ring-tailed lemur is one of over 100 known species and subspecies of lemur found only in Madagascar.

Like its flora, Madagascar's fauna is diverse and exhibits a high rate of endemism. Lemurs have been characterized as "Madagascar's flagship mammal species" by Conservation International. In the absence of monkeys and other competitors, these primates have adapted to a wide range of habitats and diversified into numerous species. As of 2012, there were officially 103 species and subspecies of lemur, 39 of which were described by zoologists between 2000 and 2008. They are almost all classified as rare, vulnerable, or endangered. At least 17 species of lemur have become extinct since humans arrived on Madagascar, all of which were larger than the surviving lemur species.

A number of other mammals, including the catlike fossa, are endemic to Madagascar. Over 300 species of birds have been recorded on the island, of which over 60 percent (including four families and 42 genera) are endemic. The few families and genera of reptiles that have reached Madagascar have diversified into more than 260 species, with over 90 percent of these being endemic (including one endemic family). The island is home to two-thirds of the world's chameleon species, including the smallest known.

Endemic fish of Madagascar include two families, 15 genera and over 100 species, primarily inhabiting the island's freshwater lakes and rivers. Although invertebrates remain poorly studied in Madagascar, researchers have found high rates of endemism among the known species. All 651 species of terrestrial snail are endemic, as are a majority of the island's butterflies, scarab beetles, lacewings, spiders, and dragonflies.

Burning Malagasy rainforestA vast, red soil gully caused by erosionTavy (slash-and-burn) destruction of native forest habitat is widespread (top), causing massive erosion (bottom).

Madagascar's varied fauna and flora are endangered by human activity. Since the arrival of humans around 2,350 years ago, Madagascar has lost more than 90 percent of its original forest. This forest loss is largely fueled by tavy ("fat"), a traditional slash-and-burn agricultural practice imported to Madagascar by the earliest settlers. Malagasy farmers embrace and perpetuate the practice not only for its practical benefits as an agricultural technique, but for its cultural associations with prosperity, health and venerated ancestral custom (fomba malagasy). As human population density rose on the island, deforestation accelerated beginning around 1,400 years ago. By the 16th century, the central highlands had been largely cleared of their original forests. More recent contributors to the loss of forest cover include the growth in cattle herd size since their introduction around 1,000 years ago, a continued reliance on charcoal as a fuel for cooking, and the increased prominence of coffee as a cash crop over the past century. According to a conservative estimate, about 40 percent of the island's original forest cover was lost from the 1950s to 2000, with a thinning of remaining forest areas by 80 percent. In addition to traditional agricultural practice, wildlife conservation is challenged by the illicit harvesting of protected forests, as well as the state-sanctioned harvesting of precious woods within national parks. Although banned by then-President Marc Ravalomanana from 2000 to 2009, the collection of small quantities of precious timber from national parks was re-authorized in January 2009 and dramatically intensified under the administration of Andry Rajoelina as a key source of state revenues to offset cuts in donor support following Ravalomanana's ousting.

Invasive species have likewise been introduced by human populations. Following the 2014 discovery in Madagascar of the Asian common toad, a relative of a toad species that has severely harmed wildlife in Australia since the 1930s, researchers warned the toad could "wreak havoc on the country's unique fauna." Habitat destruction and hunting have threatened many of Madagascar's endemic species or driven them to extinction. The island's elephant birds, a family of endemic giant ratites, became extinct in the 17th century or earlier, most probably because of human hunting of adult birds and poaching of their large eggs for food. Numerous giant lemur species vanished with the arrival of human settlers to the island, while others became extinct over the course of the centuries as a growing human population put greater pressures on lemur habitats and, among some populations, increased the rate of lemur hunting for food. A July 2012 assessment found that the exploitation of natural resources since 2009 has had dire consequences for the island's wildlife: 90 percent of lemur species were found to be threatened with extinction, the highest proportion of any mammalian group. Of these, 23 species were classified as critically endangered. A 2023 study published in Nature Communications found that 120 of the 219 mammal species only found on Madagascar are threatened with extinction.

In 2003, Ravalomanana announced the Durban Vision, an initiative to more than triple the island's protected natural areas to over 60,000 km (23,000 sq mi) or 10 percent of Madagascar's land surface. As of 2011, areas protected by the state included five Strict Nature Reserves (Réserves Naturelles Intégrales), 21 Wildlife Reserves (Réserves Spéciales) and 21 National Parks (Parcs Nationaux). In 2007 six of the national parks were declared a joint World Heritage Site under the name Rainforests of the Atsinanana. These parks are Marojejy, Masoala, Ranomafana, Zahamena, Andohahela and Andringitra. Local timber merchants are harvesting scarce species of rosewood trees from protected rainforests within Marojejy National Park and exporting the wood to China for the production of luxury furniture and musical instruments.

Government

Structure

Main articles: Government of Madagascar and Cabinet of Madagascar
Antananarivo is the political and economic capital of Madagascar.

Madagascar is a semi-presidential representative democratic multi-party republic, wherein the popularly elected president is the head of state and selects a prime minister, who recommends candidates to the president to form his cabinet of ministers. According to the constitution, executive power is exercised by the government while legislative power is vested in the ministerial cabinet, the Senate and the National Assembly, although in reality these two latter bodies have very little power or legislative role. The constitution establishes independent executive, legislative and judicial branches and mandates a popularly elected president limited to three five-year terms.

The public directly elects the president and the 151 members of the National Assembly to five-year terms. All 18 members of the Senate serve six-year terms, with 12 senators elected by local officials and 6 appointed by the president.

At the local level, the island's 22 provinces are administered by a governor and provincial council. Provinces are further subdivided into regions and communes. The judiciary is modeled on the French system, with a High Constitutional Court, High Court of Justice, Supreme Court, Court of Appeals, criminal tribunals, and tribunals of first instance. The courts, which adhere to civil law, lack the capacity to quickly and transparently try the cases in the judicial system, often forcing defendants to pass lengthy pretrial detentions in unsanitary and overcrowded prisons.

Antananarivo is the administrative capital and largest city of Madagascar. It is located in the highlands region, near the geographic center of the island. King Andrianjaka founded Antananarivo as the capital of his Imerina Kingdom around 1610 or 1625 upon the site of a captured Vazimba capital on the hilltop of Analamanga. As Merina dominance expanded over neighboring Malagasy peoples in the early 19th century to establish the Kingdom of Madagascar, Antananarivo became the center of administration for virtually the entire island. In 1896 the French colonizers of Madagascar adopted the Merina capital as their center of colonial administration. The city remained the capital of Madagascar after regaining independence in 1960. In 2017, the capital's population was estimated at 1,391,433 inhabitants. The next largest cities are Antsirabe (500,000), Toamasina (450,000) and Mahajanga (400,000).

Politics

Main articles: Politics of Madagascar, Foreign relations of Madagascar, and Human rights in Madagascar
Madagascar's President Andry Rajoelina

Since Madagascar gained independence from France in 1960, the island's political transitions have been marked by numerous popular protests, several disputed elections, an impeachment, two military coups and one assassination. The island's recurrent political crises are often prolonged, with detrimental effects on the local economy, international relations and Malagasy living standards. The eight-month standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana following the 2001 presidential elections cost Madagascar millions of dollars in lost tourism and trade revenue as well as damage to infrastructure, such as bombed bridges and buildings damaged by arson. A series of protests led by Andry Rajoelina against Ravalomanana in early 2009 became violent, with more than 170 people killed. Modern politics in Madagascar are colored by the history of Merina subjugation of coastal communities under their rule in the 19th century. The consequent tension between the highland and coastal populations has periodically flared up into isolated events of violence.

Madagascar has historically been perceived as being on the margin of mainstream African affairs despite being a founding member of the Organisation of African Unity, which was established in 1963 and dissolved in 2002 to be replaced by the African Union. Madagascar was not permitted to attend the first African Union summit because of a dispute over the results of the 2001 presidential election, but rejoined the African Union in July 2003 after a 14-month hiatus. Madagascar was again suspended by the African Union in March 2009 following the unconstitutional transfer of executive power to Rajoelina. Madagascar is a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the United States military. Eleven countries have established embassies in Madagascar, including France, the United Kingdom, the United States, China and India, while Madagascar has embassies in sixteen other countries.

Human rights in Madagascar are protected under the constitution and the state is a signatory to numerous international agreements including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Religious, ethnic and sexual minorities are protected under the law. Freedom of association and assembly are also guaranteed under the law, although in practice the denial of permits for public assembly has occasionally been used to impede political demonstrations. Torture by security forces is rare and state repression is low relative to other countries with comparably few legal safeguards, although arbitrary arrests and the corruption of military and police officers remain problems. Ravalomanana's 2004 creation of BIANCO, an anti-corruption bureau, resulted in reduced corruption among Antananarivo's lower-level bureaucrats in particular, although high-level officials have not been prosecuted by the bureau. Accusations of media censorship have risen due to the alleged restrictions on the coverage of government opposition. Some journalists have been arrested for allegedly spreading fake news.

Military and law enforcement

Main articles: Military of Madagascar and Law enforcement in Madagascar

The rise of centralized kingdoms among the Sakalava, Merina and other ethnic groups produced the island's first standing armies by the 16th century, initially equipped with spears but later with muskets, cannons and other firearms. By the early 19th century, the Merina sovereigns of the Kingdom of Madagascar had brought much of the island under their control by mobilizing an army of trained and armed soldiers numbering as high as 30,000. French attacks on coastal towns in the later part of the century prompted then-Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony to solicit British assistance to provide training to the Merina monarchy's army. Despite the training and leadership provided by British military advisers, the Malagasy army was unable to withstand French weaponry and was forced to surrender following an attack on the royal palace at Antananarivo. Madagascar was declared a colony of France in 1897.

The political independence and sovereignty of the Malagasy armed forces, which comprises an army, navy and air force, was restored with independence from France in 1960. Since this time the Malagasy military has never engaged in armed conflict with another state or within its own borders, but has occasionally intervened to restore order during periods of political unrest. Under the socialist Second Republic, Admiral Didier Ratsiraka instated mandatory national armed or civil service for all young citizens regardless of sex, a policy that remained in effect from 1976 to 1991. The armed forces are under the direction of the Minister of Defense and have remained largely neutral during times of political crisis, as during the protracted standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana in the disputed 2001 presidential elections, when the military refused to intervene in favor of either candidate. This tradition was broken in 2009, when a segment of the army defected to the side of Andry Rajoelina, then-mayor of Antananarivo, in support of his attempt to force President Ravalomanana from power.

The Minister of Interior is responsible for the national police force, paramilitary force (gendarmerie) and the secret police. The police and gendarmerie are stationed and administered at the local level. However, in 2009 fewer than a third of all communes had access to the services of these security forces, with most lacking local-level headquarters for either corps. Traditional community tribunals, called dina, are presided over by elders and other respected figures and remain a key means by which justice is served in rural areas where state presence is weak. Historically, security has been relatively high across the island. Violent crime rates are low, and criminal activities are predominantly crimes of opportunity such as pickpocketing and petty theft, although child prostitution, human trafficking and the production and sale of marijuana and other illegal drugs are increasing. Budget cuts since 2009 have severely impacted the national police force, producing a steep increase in criminal activity in recent years.

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Regions of Madagascar and Districts of Madagascar

Madagascar is subdivided into 22 regions (faritra). The regions are further subdivided into 119 districts, 1,579 communes, and 17,485 fokontany.

A map of Madagascar's regions
Regions and former provinces
New regions Former
provinces		 Area in
km		 Population
2018
Diana Antsiranana 19,993 889,962
Sava Antsiranana 23,794 1,123,772
Itasy Antananarivo 6,579 898,549
Analamanga Antananarivo 17,346 3,623,925
Vakinankaratra Antananarivo 17,884 2,079,659
Bongolava Antananarivo 18,096 670,993
Sofia (7) Mahajanga 50,973 1,507,591
Boeny Mahajanga 31,250 929,312
Betsiboka Mahajanga 28,964 393,278
Melaky Mahajanga 40,863 308,944
Alaotra Mangoro Toamasina 27,846 1,249,931
Atsinanana Toamasina 22,031 1,478,472
Analanjirofo Toamasina 21,666 1,150,089
Amoron'i Mania Fianarantsoa 16,480 837,116
Haute-Matsiatra Fianarantsoa 20,820 1,444,587
Vatovavy-Fitovinany Fianarantsoa 20,740 1,440,657
Atsimo-Atsinanana Fianarantsoa 16,632 1,030,404
Ihorombe Fianarantsoa 26,046 418,520
Menabe Toliara 48,814 692,463
Atsimo-Andrefana Toliara 66,627 1,797,894
Androy Toliara 18,949 900,235
Anosy Toliara 29,505 809,051
Totals 591,896 25,674,196

United Nations involvement

Madagascar became a member state of the United Nations on 20 September 1960, shortly after gaining its independence on 26 June 1960. As of January 2017, 34 police officers from Madagascar are deployed in Haiti as part of the United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti. Starting in 2015, under the direction of and with assistance from the UN, the World Food Programme started the Madagascar Country Programme with the two main goals of long-term development and reconstruction efforts, and addressing the food insecurity issues in the southern regions of Madagascar. These goals plan to be accomplished by providing meals for specific schools in rural and urban priority areas and by developing national school feeding policies to increase consistency of nourishment throughout the country. Small and local farmers have also been assisted in increasing both the quantity and quality of their production, as well as improving their crop yield in unfavorable weather conditions. In 2017, Madagascar signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.

Economy

Main articles: Economy of Madagascar and Tourism in Madagascar
Historical change in per capita GDP of Madagascar since 1950
Nosy Iranja is one of the international tourism destinations in Madagascar

Madagascar's GDP in 2015 was estimated at US$9.98 billion, with a per capita GDP of $411.82. Approximately 69 percent of the population lives below the national poverty line threshold of one dollar per day. According to the United Nations Development Programme, as of 2021, 68.4 percent of the population is multidimensionally poor. During 2011–15, the average growth rate was 2.6% but was expected to have reached 4.1% in 2016, due to public works programs and a growth of the service sector. The agriculture sector constituted 29 percent of Malagasy GDP in 2011, while manufacturing formed 15 percent of GDP. Madagascar's other sources of growth are tourism, agriculture and the extractive industries. The fishing sector represents 800 millions USD or 6% of GNP with 200 000 direct jobs.

Tourism focuses on the niche eco-tourism market, capitalizing on Madagascar's unique biodiversity, unspoiled natural habitats, national parks and lemur species. An estimated 365,000 tourists visited Madagascar in 2008, but the sector declined during the political crisis with 180,000 tourists visiting in 2010. However, the sector has been growing steadily for a few years. In 2016, 293,000 tourists landed in the African island with an increase of 20% compared to 2015. For 2017 the country has the goal of reaching 366,000 visitors, while for 2018 government estimates are expected to reach 500,000 annual tourists.

The island is still a very poor country in 2018; structural brakes remain in the development of the economy: corruption and the shackles of the public administration, lack of legal certainty, and backwardness of land legislation. The economy, however, has been growing since 2011, with GDP growth exceeding 4% per year; almost all economic indicators are growing, the GDP per capita was around $1600 (PPP) for 2017, one of the lowest in the world, although growing since 2012; unemployment was also cut, which in 2016 was equal to 2.1% with a work force of 13.4 million as of 2017. The main economic resources of Madagascar are tourism, textiles, agriculture, and mining.

Poverty affects 92% of the population in 2017. The country ranks fourth in the world in terms of chronic malnutrition. Nearly one in two children under the age of five is stunted. In addition, Madagascar is among the five countries where access to water is the most difficult for the population. Twelve million people do not have access to clean water, according to the NGO WaterAid.

Natural resources and trade

Toy animals made from raffia, a native palm

Madagascar's natural resources include a variety of agricultural and mineral products. Agriculture (including the growing of raffia), mining, fishing and forestry are mainstays of the economy. In 2017 the top exports were vanilla (US$894M), nickel metal (US$414M), cloves (US$288M), knitted sweaters (US$184M) and cobalt (US$143M).

Madagascar is the world's principal supplier of vanilla, cloves and ylang-ylang. The island supplies 80% of the world's natural vanilla. Other key agricultural resources include coffee, lychees and shrimp. Key mineral resources include various types of precious and semi-precious stones, and it currently provides half of the world's supply of sapphires, which were discovered near Ilakaka in the late 1990s.

Madagascar has one of the world's largest reserves of ilmenite (titanium ore), as well as important reserves of chromite, coal, iron, cobalt, copper and nickel. Several major projects are underway in the mining, oil and gas sectors that are anticipated to give a significant boost to the Malagasy economy. These include such projects as ilmenite and zircon mining at the Mandena mine by Rio Tinto, extraction of nickel by the Ambatovy mine near Moramanga and its processing near Toamasina by Sherritt International, and the development of the giant onshore heavy oil deposits at Tsimiroro and Bemolanga by Madagascar Oil.

Exports formed 28 percent of GDP in 2009. Most of the country's export revenue is derived from the textiles industry, fish and shellfish, vanilla, cloves and other foodstuffs. France is the nation's main trading partner, although the United States, Japan and Germany also have strong economic ties. The Madagascar-U.S. Business Council was formed in May 2003, as a collaboration between USAID and Malagasy artisan producers to support the export of local handicrafts to foreign markets. Imports of such items as foodstuffs, fuel, capital goods, vehicles, consumer goods and electronics consume an estimated 52 percent of GDP. The main sources of Madagascar's imports include China, France, Iran, Mauritius and Hong Kong.

Infrastructure and media

Main articles: Transport in Madagascar, Telecommunications in Madagascar, and List of newspapers in Madagascar
A news stand in Antananarivo
In many places oxcarts are an important medium of transport, like in Ambatolampy

In 2010, Madagascar had approximately 7,617 km (4,730 mi) of paved roads, 854 km (530 mi) of railways and 432 km (270 mi) of navigable waterways. The majority of roads in Madagascar are unpaved, with many becoming impassable in the rainy season. Largely paved national routes connect the six largest regional towns to Antananarivo, with minor paved and unpaved routes providing access to other population centers in each district. Construction of the Antananarivo–Toamasina toll highway, the country's first toll highway, began in December 2022. The approximately US$1,000,000,000 infrastructure project, which will connect Madagascar's capital to its largest seaport, is expected to take four years to complete. Another project meant to create 348 kilometers of roads and create better connections costs €235.5 million. This includes a €116 million grant from the European Union, a €110 million loan from the European Investment Bank, and €4.8 million in finance from the Republic of Madagascar. Since 2016, €100.4 million has been paid to the Republic of Madagascar through this project.

There are several rail lines in Madagascar. Antananarivo is connected to Toamasina, Ambatondrazaka and Antsirabe by rail, and another rail line connects Fianarantsoa to Manakara. The most important seaport in Madagascar is located on the east coast at Toamasina. Ports at Mahajanga and Antsiranana are significantly less used because of their remoteness. Madagascar's government hopes to expand the ports of Antsiranana in the north and Taolagnaro in the south, connecting them to improved road networks, since many imports are every day necessities and Madagascar also relies on export money. The island's newest port at Ehoala, constructed in 2008 and privately managed by Rio Tinto, will come under state control upon completion of the company's mining project near Tôlanaro around 2038. Air Madagascar services the island's many small regional airports, which offer the only practical means of access to many of the more remote regions during rainy season road washouts.

Running water and electricity are supplied at the national level by a government service provider, Jirama, which is unable to service the entire population. As of 2009, only 6.8 percent of Madagascar's fokontany had access to water provided by Jirama, while 9.5 percent had access to its electricity services. Fifty-six percent of Madagascar's power is provided by hydroelectric power plants, with the remaining 44% provided by diesel engine generators. Mobile telephone and internet access are widespread in urban areas but remain limited in rural parts of the island. Approximately 30% of the districts are able to access the nations' several private telecommunications networks via mobile telephones or land lines. The World Bank estimates that 17 million people in Madagascar's rural areas live more than two kilometres away from an all-season road. In Madagascar, 11% of the rural population has access to power.

Radio broadcasts remain the principal means by which the Malagasy population access international, national, and local news. Only state radio broadcasts are transmitted across the entire island. Hundreds of public and private stations with local or regional range provide alternatives to state broadcasting. In addition to the state television channel, a variety of privately owned television stations broadcast local and international programming throughout Madagascar. Several media outlets are owned by political partisans or politicians themselves, including the media groups MBS (owned by Ravalomanana) and Viva (owned by Rajoelina), contributing to political polarization in reporting.

The media have historically come under varying degrees of pressure to censor their criticism of the government. Reporters are occasionally threatened or harassed, and media outlets are periodically forced to close. Accusations of media censorship have increased since 2009 because of the alleged intensification of restrictions on political criticism. Access to the internet has grown dramatically over the past decade, with an estimated 352,000 residents of Madagascar accessing the internet from home or in one of the nation's many internet cafés in December 2011.

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Madagascar and List of cities in Madagascar
map of Madagascar showing distribution of Malagasy ethnic subgroups
The regional distribution of Malagasy ethnic subgroups

Agriculture has long influenced settlement on the island. Almost 60% of the nation's population live in rural areas.

In 2024, the population of Madagascar was estimated at 32 million, up from 2.2 million in 1900. The annual population growth rate in Madagascar was approximately 2.4% in 2024.

Approximately 39.3 percent of the population is younger than 15 years of age, while 57.3 percent are between the ages of 15 and 64. Those aged 65 and older form 3.4 percent of the total population. Only two general censuses, in 1975 and 1993, have been carried out after independence. The most densely populated regions of the island are the eastern highlands and the eastern coast, contrasting most dramatically with the sparsely populated western plains.

Ethnic groups

Main article: Ethnic groups of Madagascar

The Malagasy ethnic group forms over 90 percent of Madagascar's population and is typically divided into 18 ethnic subgroups. Recent DNA research revealed that the genetic makeup of the average Malagasy person constitutes an approximately equal blend of Southeast Asian, Oceanian and East African genes, although the genetics of some communities show a predominance of Southeast Asian or East African origins or some Arab, Indian, or European ancestry.

Southeast Asian features – specifically from the southern part of Borneo – are most predominant among the Merina of the central highlands, who form the largest Malagasy ethnic subgroup at approximately 26 percent of the population, while certain communities among the western coastal peoples (collectively called côtiers) have relatively stronger East African features. The largest coastal ethnic subgroups are the Betsimisaraka (14.9 percent) and the Tsimihety and Sakalava (6 percent each). Peoples along the east and southeastern coasts often have a roughly equal blend of Austronesian and Bantu ancestry; coastal peoples also usually show the largest genetic influence from the centuries of Arab, Somali, Gujarati, and Tamil traders and merchants of the area, compared to the inland highlander peoples.

Malagasy ethnic subgroups Regional concentration
Antankarana, Sakalava, Tsimihety Former Antsiranana Province; north and northwestern coasts
Sakalava, Vezo Former Mahajanga Province; western coast
Betsimisaraka, Sihanaka, Bezanozano Former Toamasina Province; eastern coast
Merina Former Antananarivo Province; central highlands
Betsileo, Antaifasy, Antambahoaka, Antaimoro, Antaisaka, Tanala Former Fianarantsoa Province; southeastern coast
Mahafaly, Antandroy, Antanosy people, Bara, Vezo Former Toliara Province; southern inland regions and coast

Chinese, Indian and Comoran minorities are present in Madagascar, as well as a small European (primarily French) populace. Emigration in the late 20th century has reduced these minority populations, occasionally in abrupt waves, such as the exodus of Comorans in 1976, following anti-Comoran riots in Mahajanga. By comparison, there has been no significant emigration of Malagasy peoples. The number of Europeans has declined since independence, reduced from 68,430 in 1958 to 17,000 three decades later. There were an estimated 25,000 Comorans, 18,000 Indians, and 9,000 Chinese living in Madagascar in the mid-1980s.

Largest cities

  Largest cities or towns in Madagascar
According to the 2018 Census
Rank Name Region Pop.
1 Antananarivo Analamanga 1,275,207
2 Toamasina Atsinanana 326,286
3 Antsirabe Vakinankaratra 245,592
4 Mahajanga Boeny 244,722
5 Fianarantsoa Haute Matsiatra 189,879
6 Toliara Atsimo-Andrefana 169,760
7 Antsiranana Diana 131,165
8 Hell-Ville Diana 109,365
9 Sambava Sava 85,659
10 Taolagnaro Anosy 67,188

Languages

A Malagasy child
Main articles: Malagasy language and Languages of Madagascar

The Malagasy language is of Malayo-Polynesian origin and is generally spoken throughout the island. The numerous dialects of Malagasy, which are generally mutually intelligible, can be clustered under one of two subgroups: eastern Malagasy, spoken along the eastern forests and highlands including the Merina dialect of Antananarivo, and western Malagasy, spoken across the western coastal plains. The Malagasy language derives from the Southeast Barito languages, with the Ma'anyan language being its closest relative, incorporating numerous Malay and Javanese loanwords.

French became the official language during the colonial period, when Madagascar came under the authority of France. In the first national Constitution of 1958, Malagasy and French were named the official languages of the Malagasy Republic. Madagascar is a francophone country, and French is mostly spoken as a second language among the educated population and used for international communication.

Among the upper class in large cities, French is spoken as a native language.

No official languages were mentioned in the Constitution of 1992, although Malagasy was identified as the national language. Nonetheless, many sources still claimed that Malagasy and French were official languages, eventually leading a citizen to initiate a legal case against the state in April 2000, on the grounds that the publication of official documents only in the French language was unconstitutional. The High Constitutional Court observed in its decision that, in the absence of a language law, French still had the character of an official language.

The Constitution of 2007 recognised three official languages, Malagasy, French, and English. A fourth Constitution, adopted in 2010 following a referendum, recognised only Malagasy and French.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Madagascar
Our Lady of La Salette Cathedral in Antsirabe
Faravohitra Catholic Church in Antananarivo

Christianity is the most widely professed religion in Madagascar. According to the most recent national census completed in 1993, a majority of the population (52 percent) adhered to indigenous beliefs, with Christianity being the largest single religion at 41 percent, followed by Islam at 7 percent. However, according to the Pew Research Center in 2020, 85% of the population identified as Christian, while just 4.5% exclusively practiced folk religions; Protestants comprise a plurality of Christians, followed by Roman Catholics. In contrast, a 2020 study conducted by the Association of Religion Data Archives found 58.1% of the population was Christian, 2.1% Muslim, 39.2% practiced traditional faiths, and 0.6% was nonreligious or adhered to other faiths.

The inconsistency in religious data reflects the common practice of alternating between religious identities or syncretizing different faith traditions. Christians integrate and combine their religious beliefs with the deeply rooted practice of honoring ancestors. For instance, they may bless their dead at church before proceeding with traditional burial rites or invite a Christian minister to consecrate a famadihana reburial. Christianity is predominant in the highlands. The Malagasy Council of Churches comprises the four oldest and most prominent Christian denominations of Madagascar (Roman Catholic, Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar, Lutheran, and Anglican) and has been influential in Malagasy politics.

The veneration of ancestors has led to the widespread tradition of tomb building, as well as the highlands practice of the famadihana, whereby a deceased family member's remains are exhumed and re-wrapped in fresh silk shrouds, before being replaced in the tomb. The famadihana is an occasion to celebrate the beloved ancestor's memory, reunite with family and community, and enjoy a festive atmosphere. Residents of surrounding villages are often invited to attend the party, where food and rum are typically served, and a hiragasy troupe or other musical entertainment is commonly present. Consideration for ancestors is also demonstrated through adherence to fady, taboos that are respected during and after the lifetime of the person who establishes them. It is widely believed that by showing respect for ancestors in these ways, they may intervene on behalf of the living. Conversely, misfortunes are often attributed to ancestors whose memory or wishes have been neglected. The sacrifice of zebu is a traditional method used to appease or honor the ancestors. In addition, the Malagasy traditionally believe in a creator god, called Zanahary or Andriamanitra.

Islam was first brought to Madagascar in the Middle Ages by Arab and Somali Muslim traders, who established several Islamic schools along the eastern coast. While the use of Arabic script and loan words, and the adoption of Islamic astrology, would spread across the island, Islam took hold in only a handful of southeastern coastal communities. In 2020, Muslims constituted 2% of the population of Madagascar. They are largely concentrated in the northwestern provinces of Mahajanga and Antsiranana. Muslims are divided between ethnic Malagasy and Indians, Pakistanis and Comorans.

Hinduism was introduced to Madagascar through Gujarati people immigrating from the Saurashtra region of India in the late 19th century. Most Hindus in Madagascar speak Gujarati or Hindi at home, reflecting the faiths concentration among those of Indian ancestry.

Rabbinic Judaism emerged on the island in the 21st century, as the common belief in a myth of Jewish origin for the Malagasy peoples inspired Messianic Jews in Antananarivo to begin researching Judaism and studying the Torah. In 2016, 121 members of the Malagasy Jewish community were formally converted to Orthodox Judaism.

Health

Main article: Healthcare in Madagascar

Medical centers, dispensaries, and hospitals are found throughout the island, although they are concentrated in urban areas and particularly in Antananarivo. Access to medical care remains beyond the reach of many Malagasy, especially in the rural areas, and many recourse to traditional healers. In addition to the high expense of medical care relative to the average Malagasy income, the prevalence of trained medical professionals remains extremely low. In 2010, Madagascar had an average of three hospital beds per 10,000 people and a total of 3,150 doctors, 5,661 nurses, 385 community health workers, 175 pharmacists, and 57 dentists for a population of 22 million. Fifteen percent of government spending in 2008 was directed toward the health sector. Approximately 70 percent of spending on health was contributed by the government, while 30 percent originated with international donors and other private sources. The government provides at least one basic health center per commune. Private health centers are concentrated within urban areas and particularly those of the central highlands.

Despite these barriers to access, health services have shown a trend toward improvement over the past twenty years. Child immunizations against such diseases as hepatitis B, diphtheria, and measles increased an average of 60 percent in this period, indicating low but increasing availability of basic medical services and treatments. The Malagasy fertility rate in 2009 was 4.6 children per woman, declining from 6.3 in 1990. Teen pregnancy rates of 14.8 percent in 2011, much higher than the African average, are a contributing factor to rapid population growth. In 2010, the maternal mortality rate was 440 per 100,000 births, compared to 373.1 in 2008 and 484.4 in 1990, indicating a decline in perinatal care following the 2009 coup. The infant mortality rate in 2011 was 41 per 1,000 births, with an under-five mortality rate at 61 per 1,000 births. Schistosomiasis, malaria, and sexually transmitted diseases are common in Madagascar, although infection rates of AIDS remain low relative to many countries in mainland Africa, at 0.2 percent of the adult population. The malaria mortality rate is also among the lowest in Africa at 8.5 deaths per 100,000 people, in part because of the highest frequency use of insecticide treated nets in Africa. Adult life expectancy in 2009 was 63 years for men and 67 years for women.

Madagascar had outbreaks of the bubonic plague and pneumonic plague in 2017 (2575 cases, 221 deaths) and 2014 (263 confirmed cases, 71 deaths). In 2019, Madagascar had a measles outbreak, resulting in 118,000 cases and 1,688 deaths. In 2020, Madagascar was also affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Undernourishment and hunger rates were at 42% in 2018. According to the United Nations, more than one million people in southern Madagascar are struggling to get enough to eat, due to what could become the first famine caused by climate change.

Education

Main article: Education in Madagascar
Students working in groups in classroom as teacher observes
Education access and quality were prioritized under Ravalomanana.

Prior to the 19th century, all education in Madagascar was informal and typically served to teach practical skills as well as social and cultural values, including respect for ancestors and elders. The first formal European-style school was established in 1818 at Toamasina by members of the London Missionary Society (LMS). The LMS was invited by King Radama I to expand its schools throughout Imerina to teach basic literacy and numeracy to aristocratic children. The schools were closed by Ranavalona I in 1835, but reopened and expanded in the decades after her death.

By the end of the 19th century, Madagascar had the most developed and modern school system in pre-colonial Sub-Saharan Africa. Access to schooling was expanded in coastal areas during the colonial period, with French language and basic work skills becoming the focus of the curriculum. During the post-colonial First Republic, a continued reliance on French nationals as teachers, and French as the language of instruction, displeased those desiring a complete separation from the former colonial power. Consequently, under the socialist Second Republic, French instructors and other nationals were expelled, Malagasy was declared the language of instruction, and a large cadre of young Malagasy were rapidly trained to teach at remote rural schools under the mandatory two-year national service policy.

This policy, known as malgachization, coincided with a severe economic downturn and a dramatic decline in the quality of education. Those schooled during this period generally failed to master the French language or many other subjects and struggled to find employment, forcing many to take low-paying jobs in the informal or black market that mired them in deepening poverty. Excepting the brief presidency of Albert Zafy, from 1992 to 1996, Ratsiraka remained in power from 1975 to 2001 and failed to achieve significant improvements in education throughout his tenure.

Education was prioritized under the Ravalomanana administration (2002–09), and is currently free and compulsory from ages 6 to 13. The primary schooling cycle is five years, followed by four years at the lower secondary level and three years at the upper secondary level. During Ravalomanana's first term, thousands of new primary schools and additional classrooms were constructed, older buildings were renovated, and tens of thousands of new primary teachers were recruited and trained. Primary school fees were eliminated, and kits containing basic school supplies were distributed to primary students.

Government school construction initiatives have ensured at least one primary school per fokontany and one lower secondary school within each commune. At least one upper secondary school is located in each of the larger urban centers. The three branches of the national public university are located at Antananarivo, Mahajanga, and Fianarantsoa. These are complemented by public teacher-training colleges and several private universities and technical colleges.

As a result of increased educational access, enrollment rates more than doubled between 1996 and 2006. However, education quality is weak, producing high rates of grade repetition and dropout. Education policy in Ravalomanana's second term focused on quality issues, including an increase in minimum education standards for the recruitment of primary teachers from a middle school leaving certificate (BEPC) to a high school leaving certificate (BAC), and a reformed teacher training program to support the transition from traditional didactic instruction to student-centered teaching methods to boost student learning and participation in the classroom. Public expenditure on education was 2.8 percent of GDP in 2014. The literacy rate is estimated at 64.7%.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Madagascar

Each of the many ethnic subgroups in Madagascar adhere to their own set of beliefs, practices and ways of life that have historically contributed to their unique identities. However, there are a number of core cultural features that are common throughout the island, creating a strongly unified Malagasy cultural identity. In addition to a common language and shared traditional religious beliefs around a creator god and veneration of the ancestors, the traditional Malagasy worldview is shaped by values that emphasize fihavanana (solidarity), vintana (destiny), tody (karma), and hasina, a sacred life force that traditional communities believe imbues and thereby legitimates authority figures within the community or family. Other cultural elements commonly found throughout the island include the practice of male circumcision; strong kinship ties; a widespread belief in the power of magic, diviners, astrology and witch doctors; and a traditional division of social classes into nobles, commoners, and slaves.

Although social castes are no longer legally recognized, ancestral caste affiliation often continues to affect social status, economic opportunity, and roles within the community. Malagasy people traditionally consult Mpanandro ("Makers of the Days") to identify the most auspicious days for important events such as weddings or famadihana, according to a traditional astrological system introduced by Arabs. Similarly, the nobles of many Malagasy communities in the pre-colonial period would commonly employ advisers known as the ombiasy (from olona-be-hasina, "man of much virtue") of the southeastern Antemoro ethnic group, who trace their ancestry back to early Somali settlers.

The diverse origins of Malagasy culture are evident in its tangible expressions. The most emblematic instrument of Madagascar, the valiha, is a bamboo tube zither carried to Madagascar by early settlers from southern Borneo, and is very similar in form to those found in Indonesia and the Philippines today. Traditional houses in Madagascar are likewise similar to those of southern Borneo in terms of symbolism and construction, featuring a rectangular layout with a peaked roof and central support pillar. Reflecting a widespread veneration of the ancestors, tombs are culturally significant in many regions and tend to be built of more durable material, typically stone, and display more elaborate decoration than the houses of the living. The production and weaving of silk can be traced back to the island's earliest settlers, and Madagascar's national dress, the woven lamba, has evolved into a varied and refined art.

The Southeast Asian cultural influence is also evident in Malagasy cuisine, in which rice is consumed at every meal, typically accompanied by one of a variety of flavorful vegetable or meat dishes. African influence is reflected in the sacred importance of zebu cattle and their embodiment of their owner's wealth, traditions originating on the African mainland. Cattle rustling, originally a rite of passage for young men in the plains areas of Madagascar where the largest herds of cattle are kept, has become a dangerous and sometimes deadly criminal enterprise as herdsmen in the southwest attempt to defend their cattle with traditional spears against increasingly armed professional rustlers.

Media

Main article: Media of Madagascar

Arts

Main article: Music of Madagascar
A Hiragasy dancer.

A wide variety of oral and written literature has developed in Madagascar. One of the island's foremost artistic traditions is its oratory, as expressed in the forms of hainteny (poetry), kabary (public discourse) and ohabolana (proverbs). An epic poem exemplifying these traditions, the Ibonia, has been handed down over the centuries in several different forms across the island, and offers insight into the diverse mythologies and beliefs of traditional Malagasy communities. This tradition was continued in the 20th century by such artists as Jean-Joseph Rabearivelo, who is considered Africa's first modern poet, and Elie Rajaonarison, an exemplar of the new wave of Malagasy poetry. Madagascar has also developed a rich musical heritage, embodied in dozens of regional musical genres such as the coastal salegy or highland hiragasy that enliven village gatherings, local dance floors and national airwaves. Madagascar also has a growing culture of classical music fostered through youth academies, organizations and orchestras that promote youth involvement in classical music.

The plastic arts are also widespread throughout the island. In addition to the tradition of silk weaving and lamba production, the weaving of raffia and other local plant materials has been used to create a wide array of practical items such as floor mats, baskets, purses and hats. Wood carving is a highly developed art form, with distinct regional styles evident in the decoration of balcony railings and other architectural elements. Sculptors create a variety of furniture and household goods, aloalo funerary posts, and wooden sculptures, many of which are produced for the tourist market. The decorative and functional woodworking traditions of the Zafimaniry people of the central highlands was inscribed on UNESCO's list of Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2008.

Among the Antaimoro people, the production of paper embedded with flowers and other decorative natural materials is a long-established tradition that the community has begun to market to eco-tourists. Embroidery and drawn thread work are done by hand to produce clothing, as well as tablecloths and other home textiles for sale in local crafts markets. Malagasy artists such as Madame Zo have incorporated textile traditions of Madagascar directly into their work. A small but growing number of fine art galleries in Antananarivo, and several other urban areas, offer paintings by local artists, and annual art events, such as the Hosotra open-air exhibition in the capital, contribute to the continuing development of fine arts in Madagascar.

Sport

Moraingy is a traditional martial art of Madagascar.

A number of traditional pastimes have emerged in Madagascar. Moraingy, a type of hand-to-hand combat, is a popular spectator sport in coastal regions. It is traditionally practiced by men, but women have recently begun to participate. The wrestling of zebu cattle, which is named savika or tolon-omby, is also practiced in many regions. In addition to sports, a wide variety of games are played. Among the most emblematic is fanorona, a board game widespread throughout the Highland regions. According to folk legend, the succession of King Andrianjaka after his father Ralambo was partially the result of the obsession that Andrianjaka's older brother may have had with playing fanorona to the detriment of his other responsibilities.

Western recreational activities were introduced to Madagascar over the past two centuries. Rugby union is considered the national sport of Madagascar. Soccer is also popular. Madagascar has produced a world champion in pétanque, a French game similar to lawn bowling, which is widely played in urban areas and throughout the Highlands. School athletics programs typically include soccer, track and field, judo, boxing, women's basketball and women's tennis. Madagascar sent its first competitors to the Olympic Games in 1964, and has also competed in the African Games. Scouting is represented in Madagascar by its own local federation of three scouting clubs. Membership in 2011 was estimated at 14,905.

Because of its advanced sports facilities, Antananarivo gained the hosting rights for several of Africa's top international basketball events, including the 2011 FIBA Africa Championship, the 2009 FIBA Africa Championship for Women, the 2014 FIBA Africa Under-18 Championship, the 2013 FIBA Africa Under-16 Championship, and the 2015 FIBA Africa Under-16 Championship for Women. Madagascar's national 3x3 basketball team won the gold medal at the 2019 African Games.

Cuisine

Main article: Malagasy cuisine

Malagasy cuisine reflects the diverse influences of Southeast Asian, African, Oceania, Indian, Chinese, and European culinary traditions. The complexity of Malagasy meals can range from the simple, traditional preparations introduced by the earliest settlers, to the refined festival dishes prepared for the island's 19th-century monarchs. Throughout almost the entire island, the contemporary cuisine of Madagascar typically consists of a base of rice (vary) served with an accompaniment (laoka). The many varieties of laoka may be vegetarian or include animal proteins, and typically feature a sauce flavored with such ingredients as ginger, onion, garlic, tomato, vanilla, coconut milk, salt, curry powder, green peppercorns or, less commonly, other spices or herbs. In parts of the arid south and west, pastoral families may replace rice with maize, cassava, or curds made from fermented zebu milk. A wide variety of sweet and savory fritters as well as other street foods are available across the island, as are diverse tropical and temperate-climate fruits. Locally produced beverages include fruit juices, coffee, herbal teas and teas, and alcoholic drinks such as rum, wine, and beer. Three Horses Beer is the most popular beer on the island and is considered emblematic of Madagascar.

See also

Notes

References

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