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Revision as of 22:31, 28 October 2023 edit2601:196:180:dc0:71d7:3b9a:98e0:fc21 (talk) →Medicinal elixir: GrammarTags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit← Previous edit Latest revision as of 11:48, 2 January 2025 edit undoArtoria2e5 (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users, IP block exemptions34,394 edits →Niche uses: Also rocket fuel. Also possible car fuel, because someone thinks ethanol doesn't pack enough punch. 
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'''Turpentine''' (which is also called '''spirit of turpentine''', '''oil of turpentine''', '''terebenthine''', '''terebenthene''', '''terebinthine''' and, colloquially, '''turps''')<ref>{{cite book |title=The Artist's Handbook of Materials and Techniques |last=Mayer |first=Ralph |year=1991 |edition=Fifth |publisher=Viking |location=New York |isbn=0-670-83701-6 |page= |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/artistshandbooko00maye_0/page/404 }}</ref> is a fluid obtained by the ] of ] harvested from living trees, mainly ]s. Principally used as a specialized ], it is also a source of material for ]. '''Turpentine''' (which is also called '''spirit of turpentine''', '''oil of turpentine''', '''terebenthine''', '''terebenthene''', '''terebinthine''' and, colloquially, '''turps''')<ref>{{cite book |title=The Artist's Handbook of Materials and Techniques |last=Mayer |first=Ralph |year=1991 |edition=Fifth |publisher=Viking |location=New York |isbn=0-670-83701-6 |page= |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/artistshandbooko00maye_0/page/404 }}</ref> is a fluid obtained by the ] of ] harvested from living trees, mainly ]s. Principally used as a specialized ], it is also a source of material for ].


Turpentine is composed of ]s, primarily the monoterpenes ] and ], with lesser amounts of ], ], ], and ].<ref name="k69">Kent, James A. ''Riegel's Handbook of Industrial Chemistry'' (Eighth Edition) Van Nostrand Reinhold Company (1983) {{ISBN|0-442-20164-8}} p.569</ref> ] or other ] distillates are used to replace turpentine – although the constituent chemicals are very different.<ref>{{Ullmann|authorDieter Stoye|title=Solvents|year=2002|doi=10.1002/14356007.a24_437}}</ref> Turpentine is composed of ]s, primarily the monoterpenes ] and ], with lesser amounts of ], ], ], and ].<ref name="k69">Kent, James A. ''Riegel's Handbook of Industrial Chemistry'' (Eighth Edition) Van Nostrand Reinhold Company (1983) {{ISBN|0-442-20164-8}} p.569</ref>
Substitutes include ] or other ] distillates – although the constituent chemicals are very different.<ref>{{Ullmann|authorDieter Stoye|title=Solvents|year=2002|doi=10.1002/14356007.a24_437}}</ref>


== Etymology == == Etymology ==
The word ''turpentine'' derives (via ] and ]) from the ] word τερεβινθίνη ''terebinthine'', in turn the feminine form (to conform to the ] of the Greek word, which means "resin") of an adjective (τερεβίνθινος) derived from the Greek noun (τερέβινθος) for the ] tree.<ref>{{cite book | last=Barnhart | first=R. K. | title=The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology | location=New York | publisher=Harper Collins | year=1995 | isbn=0-06-270084-7}}</ref> The word ''turpentine'' derives (via ] and ]) from the ] word τερεβινθίνη ''terebinthine'', in turn the feminine form (to conform to the ] of the Greek word, which means 'resin') of an adjective (τερεβίνθινος) derived from the Greek noun (τερέβινθος) for the ] tree.<ref>{{cite book | last=Barnhart | first=R. K. | title=The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology | location=New York | publisher=Harper Collins | year=1995 | isbn=0-06-270084-7}}</ref>


Although the word originally referred to the resinous exudate of terebinth trees (e.g. ], ], and ]),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Skeat |first=Walter W. |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseetymologi002983mbp/page/579/mode/2up |title=A Concise Etymological Dictionary of the English Language |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1882 |location=Oxford, UK |pages=579}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mills |first1=John S. |last2=White |first2=Raymond |date=1977 |title=Natural Resins of Art and Archaeology Their Sources, Chemistry, and Identification |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1505670 |journal=Studies in Conservation |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=12–31 |doi=10.2307/1505670 |issn=0039-3630 |jstor=1505670}}</ref> it now refers to that of ]ous trees, namely ] (e.g. Venice turpentine is the oleoresin of ]),<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mahood |first=S. A. |date=1921-03-01 |title=Larch (Venice) Turpentine from Western Larch (Larix occidentalis) |url=https://academic.oup.com/jof/article-abstract/19/3/274/4752261 |journal=Journal of Forestry |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=274–282 |doi=10.1093/jof/19.3.274 |doi-broken-date=1 August 2023 |issn=0022-1201}}</ref> or the ] part thereof, namely oil (spirit) of turpentine; the later usage is much more common today.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turpentine |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/turpentine |access-date=2022-03-02 |website=Britannica}}</ref> Although the word originally referred to the resinous exudate of terebinth trees (e.g. ], ], and ]),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Skeat |first=Walter W. |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseetymologi002983mbp/page/579/mode/2up |title=A Concise Etymological Dictionary of the English Language |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1882 |location=Oxford, UK |pages=579}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mills |first1=John S. |last2=White |first2=Raymond |date=1977 |title=Natural Resins of Art and Archaeology Their Sources, Chemistry, and Identification |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1505670 |journal=Studies in Conservation |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=12–31 |doi=10.2307/1505670 |issn=0039-3630 |jstor=1505670}}</ref> it now refers to that of ]ous trees, namely ] (e.g. Venice turpentine is the ] of ]),<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mahood |first=S. A. |date=1921-03-01 |title=Larch (Venice) Turpentine from Western Larch (Larix occidentalis) |url=https://academic.oup.com/jof/article-abstract/19/3/274/4752261 |journal=Journal of Forestry |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=274–282 |doi=10.1093/jof/19.3.274 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |issn=0022-1201}}</ref> or the ] part thereof, namely oil (spirit) of turpentine; the latter usage is much more common today.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turpentine |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/turpentine |access-date=2022-03-02 |website=Britannica}}</ref>


==Source trees== ==Source trees==
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Important pines for turpentine production include: maritime pine ('']''), Aleppo pine ('']''), Masson's pine ('']''), Sumatran pine ('']''), ] (''Pinus palustris''), loblolly pine ('']''), slash pine ('']''), and ponderosa pine ('']''). Important pines for turpentine production include: maritime pine ('']''), Aleppo pine ('']''), Masson's pine ('']''), Sumatran pine ('']''), ] (''Pinus palustris''), loblolly pine ('']''), slash pine ('']''), and ponderosa pine ('']'').


To tap into the sap producing layers of the tree, turpentiners used a series of hacks to remove the pine bark. Once debarked, pine trees secrete crude turpentine (]) onto the surface of the wound as a protective measure to seal the opening, resist exposure to micro-organisms and insects, and prevent vital sap loss. Turpentiners wounded trees in V-shaped streaks down the length of the trunks to channel the crude turpentine into containers. It was then collected and processed into spirits of turpentine. Crude turpentine yield may be increased by as much as 40% by applying ] ]s to the exposed wood.<ref name="k71">Kent p.571</ref> To tap into the sap producing layers of the tree, harvesters used a series of hacks to remove the pine bark. Once debarked, pine trees secrete crude turpentine (]) onto the surface of the wound as a protective measure to seal the opening, resist exposure to micro-organisms and insects, and prevent vital sap loss. Harvesters wounded trees in V-shaped streaks down the length of the trunks to channel the crude turpentine into containers. It was then collected and processed into spirits of turpentine. Crude turpentine yield may be increased by as much as 40% by applying ] ]s to the exposed wood.<ref name="k71">Kent p.571</ref>


The V-shaped cuts are called "catfaces" for their resemblance to a cat's whiskers. These marks on a pine tree signify it was used to collect resin for turpentine production.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dailyyonder.com/totems-georgias-lost-turpentine-industry/2010/06/10/2788 |title=Catfaces: Totems of Georgia's Turpentiners &#124; Daily Yonder &#124; Keep It Rural |first=Tom |last=Prizer |work=dailyyonder.com |date=June 11, 2010 |access-date=June 5, 2012 |archive-date=July 26, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150726100250/https://www.dailyyonder.com/totems-georgias-lost-turpentine-industry/2010/06/10/2788 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The V-shaped cuts are called "catfaces" for their resemblance to a cat's whiskers. These marks on a pine tree indicate it was used to collect resin for turpentine production.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dailyyonder.com/totems-georgias-lost-turpentine-industry/2010/06/10/2788 |title=Catfaces: Totems of Georgia's Turpentiners &#124; Daily Yonder &#124; Keep It Rural |first=Tom |last=Prizer |work=dailyyonder.com |date=June 11, 2010 |access-date=June 5, 2012 |archive-date=July 26, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150726100250/https://www.dailyyonder.com/totems-georgias-lost-turpentine-industry/2010/06/10/2788 |url-status=dead }}</ref>


Zallen tells in detail how turpentine (and rosin) are produced as naval stores.<ref>{{cite book |last=Zallen|first=Jeremy|title=American Lucifers: The Dark History of Artificial Light, 1750-1865|lang=en |publisher=University of North Carolina Press|location=Chapel Hill, NC|year=2019}}</ref> Pine trees especially in ] were tapped for sap which was doubly distilled to make turpentine and ] (aka resin)–hence the name ]. The trees were scored with a ledge called a “box” to collect the sap. Large numbers of ]s were used to score the trees, collect and process the sap. Zallen describes this as industrial slavery–different from the more common vision of slaves in agriculture. By the 1840s ] became the dominant lamp fuel in the US. Turpentine (and rosin) are produced as ].<ref name=Zallen>{{cite book |last=Zallen|first=Jeremy|title=American Lucifers: The Dark History of Artificial Light, 1750-1865|lang=en |publisher=University of North Carolina Press|location=Chapel Hill, NC|year=2019}}</ref>

The pine trees of North Carolina were well suited to camphine production. The business also provided additional need for slaves as production expanded. Backwoods became more productive. Slaves were often leased in winter when agriculture was slower. The value of many was protected by ]. ] became a center of the camphine industry. In cities, ]ing was also available, but used by the upper classes. Camphine was the fuel of the average family.

Zallen reports that after ], turpentine producers were cut off from major markets. ] left them without manpower to collect and process turpentine. The camps were flammable. Many were burned in ]’s march from ] to ].


==Converting crude turpentine to oil of turpentine== ==Converting crude turpentine to oil of turpentine==
] collected from the trees may be evaporated by ] in a ] still. Molten ] remains in the still bottoms after turpentine has been distilled out.<ref name="k71"/> Such turpentine is called '''gum turpentine'''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turpentine |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/turpentine |access-date=2022-05-16 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> The term ''gum turpentine'' may also refer to crude turpentine, which may cause some confusion. ] collected from the trees may be evaporated by ] in a ] still. Molten ] remains in the still bottoms after turpentine has been distilled out.<ref name="k71"/> Such turpentine is called '''gum turpentine'''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turpentine |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/turpentine |access-date=2022-05-16 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> The term ''gum turpentine'' may also refer to crude turpentine, which may cause some confusion.


Turpentine may alternatively be extracted from ] of pine wood,<ref name="k69" /> such as shredded pine stumps, roots, and slash, using the light end of the heavy ] fraction (boiling between {{convert|90|and|115|°C|disp=or|round=5}}) from a crude ]. Such turpentine is called '''wood turpentine'''. Multi-stage counter-current ] is commonly used so fresh naphtha first contacts wood leached in previous stages and naphtha laden with turpentine from previous stages contacts fresh wood before ] to recover naphtha from the turpentine. Leached wood is steamed for additional naphtha recovery prior to burning for ].<ref>Kent pp.571&572</ref> Turpentine may alternatively be extracted from ] of pine wood,<ref name="k69" /> such as shredded pine stumps, roots, and slash, using the light end of the heavy ] fraction (boiling between {{convert|90|and|115|°C|disp=or|round=5}}) from a crude ]. Such turpentine is called '''wood turpentine'''. Multi-stage counter-current ] is commonly used so fresh naphtha first contacts wood leached in previous stages and naphtha laden with turpentine from previous stages contacts fresh wood before ] to recover naphtha from the turpentine. Leached wood is steamed for additional naphtha recovery prior to burning for ].<ref>Kent pp.571&572</ref>


=== Sulfate turpentine === === Sulfate turpentine ===
When producing chemical ] from ]s or other ], sulfate turpentine may be condensed from the gas generated in ] pulp ]. The average yield of crude sulfate turpentine is 5–10&nbsp;kg/t pulp.<ref name="sten">{{cite book |editor1-first= Per |editor1-last= Stenius |title= Forest Products Chemistry|series= Papermaking Science and Technology |volume= 3|year= 2000|publisher=Fapet Oy : Published in cooperation with the Finnish Paper Engineers' Association and ] |location= Finland |isbn=952-5216-03-9 |pages= 73–76 |chapter= 2 }}</ref> Unless burned at the mill for energy production, sulfate turpentine may require additional treatment measures to remove traces of ] compounds.<ref>Kent p.572</ref> When producing chemical ] from ]s or other ], sulfate turpentine may be condensed from the gas generated in ] pulp ]. The average yield of crude sulfate turpentine is 5–10&nbsp;kg/t pulp.<ref name="sten">{{cite book |editor1-first= Per |editor1-last= Stenius |title= Forest Products Chemistry|series= Papermaking Science and Technology |volume= 3|year= 2000|publisher=Fapet Oy : Published in cooperation with the Finnish Paper Engineers' Association and ] |location= Finland |isbn=952-5216-03-9 |pages= 73–76 |chapter= 2 }}</ref> Unless burned at the mill for energy production, sulfate turpentine may require additional treatment measures to remove traces of ] compounds.<ref>Kent p.572</ref>


==Industrial and other end uses== ==Industrial and other end uses==
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===Lighting=== ===Lighting===
Turpentine blended with ] was known as ] or "burning fluid." It was used as a lamp fuel replacing ] until the arrival of ] during the Civil War. Roughly 1840 to 1865. Spirits of turpentine, called ], was burned in lamps with glass chimneys in the 1830s through the 1860s. Turpentine blended with ] was known as burning fluid. Both were used as domestic lamp fuels, gradually replacing ], until ], ] and ] began to predominate.


===Source of organic compounds=== ===Source of organic compounds===
Turpentine is also used as a source of raw materials in the synthesis of fragrant chemical compounds. Commercially used ], ], ], and ] are all usually produced from ] and ], which are two of the chief chemical components of turpentine. These pinenes are separated and purified by distillation. The mixture of ]s and ]s that is left as residue after turpentine distillation is sold as ]. Turpentine is also used as a source of raw materials in the synthesis of fragrant chemical compounds. Commercially used ], ], ], and ] are all usually produced from ] and ], which are two of the chief chemical components of turpentine. These pinenes are separated and purified by distillation. The mixture of ]s and ]s that is left as residue after turpentine distillation is sold as ].


===Medicinal elixir=== ===Folk medicine===
Turpentine and petroleum distillates such as ] and kerosene have been used medicinally since ancient times as topical and sometimes internal home remedies. Topically, it has been used for abrasions and wounds, as a treatment for ], and when mixed with ] it has been used as a chest rub, or inhaler for nasal and throat ailments.<ref>{{cite news Turpentine and petroleum distillates such as ] and kerosene, were used in ] for abrasions and wounds, as a treatment for ], and when mixed with ], as a chest rub or inhaler for nasal and throat ailments.<ref>{{cite news
|url=https://www.cbc.ca/player/play/1606945926/ |url=https://www.cbc.ca/player/play/1606945926/
|title=Surviving 'The Spanish Lady' (Spanish flu) |title=Surviving 'The Spanish Lady' (Spanish flu)
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|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807221113/https://www.cbc.ca/player/play/1606945926 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807221113/https://www.cbc.ca/player/play/1606945926
|url-status=live |url-status=live
⚫ }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Sarah Rieger |date=December 29, 2018 |title=100 years ago, a train carrying Spanish flu pulled into Calgary. Within weeks, Alberta was in crisis |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/spanish-flu-alberta-history-1.4948081 |work=CBC News |access-date=December 29, 2018 |archive-date=December 29, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181229183935/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/spanish-flu-alberta-history-1.4948081 |url-status=live }}</ref> ] ]s still contain turpentine in their formulations, although not as an active ingredient.<ref>{{Cite web|title=DailyMed - VICKS VAPORUB (camphor- synthetic, eucalyptus oil, and menthol ointment|url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=e69a7c9b-fd04-4109-a7c8-6edfd83855fc|access-date=2021-05-05|website=dailymed.nlm.nih.gov|archive-date=2021-05-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505064609/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=e69a7c9b-fd04-4109-a7c8-6edfd83855fc|url-status=live}}</ref>
}}
⚫ *{{cite news |author=Sarah Rieger |date=December 29, 2018 |title=100 years ago, a train carrying Spanish flu pulled into Calgary. Within weeks, Alberta was in crisis |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/spanish-flu-alberta-history-1.4948081 |work=CBC News |access-date=December 29, 2018 |archive-date=December 29, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181229183935/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/spanish-flu-alberta-history-1.4948081 |url-status=live }}</ref> ] ]s still contain turpentine in their formulations, although not as an active ingredient.<ref>{{Cite web|title=DailyMed - VICKS VAPORUB (camphor- synthetic, eucalyptus oil, and menthol ointment|url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=e69a7c9b-fd04-4109-a7c8-6edfd83855fc|access-date=2021-05-05|website=dailymed.nlm.nih.gov|archive-date=2021-05-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505064609/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=e69a7c9b-fd04-4109-a7c8-6edfd83855fc|url-status=live}}</ref>


Turpentine, now understood to be dangerous for consumption, was a common medicine among seamen during the ]. It was one of several products carried aboard ]'s fleet during the ].<ref>{{cite book | author=Laurence Bergreen | author-link=Laurence Bergreen | title=Over the edge of the world : Magellan's terrifying circumnavigation of the globe | url=https://archive.org/details/overedgeofworl00berg | year=2003 | publisher=HarperCollins | isbn=0066211735 | access-date=2009-09-14 | url-access=registration }}</ref> Taken internally it was used as a treatment for ]s. This is dangerous, due to the chemical's toxicity.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/timeline/riseind/rural/remedies.html|title=Home Remedies - American Memory Timeline- Classroom Presentation|publisher=The Library of Congress|work=American Memory Timeline|access-date=2017-02-06|archive-date=2017-02-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207031310/https://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/timeline/riseind/rural/remedies.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1063.htm|title=ICSC 1063 - TURPENTINE|website=www.inchem.org|access-date=2006-04-02|archive-date=2006-04-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060427165609/https://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1063.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Turpentine, now understood to be dangerous for consumption, was a common medicine among seamen during the ]. It was one of several products carried aboard ]'s fleet during the ].<ref>{{cite book | author=Laurence Bergreen | author-link=Laurence Bergreen | title=Over the edge of the world : Magellan's terrifying circumnavigation of the globe | url=https://archive.org/details/overedgeofworl00berg | year=2003 | publisher=HarperCollins | isbn=0066211735 | access-date=2009-09-14 | url-access=registration }}</ref> Taken internally it was used as a treatment for ]s. This is dangerous, due to the chemical's toxicity.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/timeline/riseind/rural/remedies.html|title=Home Remedies - American Memory Timeline- Classroom Presentation|publisher=The Library of Congress|work=American Memory Timeline|access-date=2017-02-06|archive-date=2017-02-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207031310/https://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/timeline/riseind/rural/remedies.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1063.htm|title=ICSC 1063 - TURPENTINE|website=www.inchem.org|access-date=2006-04-02|archive-date=2006-04-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060427165609/https://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1063.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
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===Niche uses=== ===Niche uses===
* Turpentine is also added to many cleaning and sanitary products due to its ] properties and its "clean scent". * Turpentine is also added to many cleaning and sanitary products due to its ] properties and its "clean scent".
* In early 19th-century America, turpentine was sometimes burned in lamps as a cheap alternative to ]. It was most commonly used for outdoor lighting, due to its strong odour.<ref>{{cite web | author=Charles H. Haswell | title=Reminiscences of New York By an Octogenarian (1816 - 1860) | url=https://www.jmisc.net/octo/octo-17.htm | access-date=2008-10-07 | archive-date=2008-07-24 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724111316/https://www.jmisc.net/octo/octo-17.htm | url-status=live }}</ref> A blend of ] and turpentine called ] served as the dominant lamp fuel replacing ] until the advent of kerosene.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/economy/this-post-is-hopelessly-long-w|title=The "Whale Oil Myth"|date=20 August 2008|website=PBS NewsHour|access-date=25 March 2018|archive-date=10 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190510142257/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/economy/this-post-is-hopelessly-long-w|url-status=live}}</ref> * In early 19th-century America, spirits of turpentine (]) was burned in lamps as a cheap alternative to ]. It produced a bright light but had a strong odour.<ref>{{cite web | author=Charles H. Haswell | title=Reminiscences of New York By an Octogenarian (1816 - 1860) | url=https://www.jmisc.net/octo/octo-17.htm | access-date=2008-10-07 | archive-date=2008-07-24 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724111316/https://www.jmisc.net/octo/octo-17.htm | url-status=live }}</ref> Camphine and ] (a mix of alcohol and turpentine) served as the dominant lamp fuels replacing whale oil until the advent of ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/economy/this-post-is-hopelessly-long-w|title=The "Whale Oil Myth"|date=20 August 2008|website=PBS NewsHour|access-date=25 March 2018|archive-date=10 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190510142257/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/economy/this-post-is-hopelessly-long-w|url-status=live}}</ref>
* In 1946, ] fueled the first Honda ]s with a blend of gasoline and turpentine, due to the scarcity of gasoline in Japan following ].<ref>{{cite web | title=Honda History | url=https://smokeriders.com/History/Honda_History/body_honda_history.html | publisher=Smokeriders.com | access-date=2009-09-17 | archive-date=2009-04-28 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090428051223/https://smokeriders.com/History/Honda_History/body_honda_history.html | url-status=live }}</ref> * ] motorcycles, first manufactured in 1946, ran on a blend of gasoline and turpentine, due to the scarcity of gasoline in Japan following ].<ref>{{cite web | title=Honda History | url=https://smokeriders.com/History/Honda_History/body_honda_history.html | publisher=Smokeriders.com | access-date=2009-09-17 | archive-date=2009-04-28 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090428051223/https://smokeriders.com/History/Honda_History/body_honda_history.html | url-status=live }}</ref> The French ] uses a similar fuel mixture.<ref name="Huon">
{{cite book|id=AEE|title=Ariane, une épopée européenne|author=William Huon|editor=ETAI|date=2007|location=Boulogne-Billancourt|isbn=9782726887097}}</ref>{{rp|45}} Turpentine has also been researched as a potential biofuel for mixing into gasoline.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arpa |first1=O. |last2=Yumrutas |first2=R. |last3=Alma |first3=M.H. |title=Effects of turpentine and gasoline-like fuel obtained from waste lubrication oil on engine performance and exhaust emission |journal=Energy |date=September 2010 |volume=35 |issue=9 |pages=3603–3613 |doi=10.1016/j.energy.2010.04.050}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Knuuttila |first1=Pekka |title=Wood sulphate turpentine as a gasoline bio-component |journal=Fuel |date=February 2013 |volume=104 |pages=101–108 |doi=10.1016/j.fuel.2012.06.036}}</ref>
* In his book '']'', veterinarian and author ] describes the use of the reaction of turpentine with ] iodine to "drive the iodine into the tissue", or perhaps just impress the watching customer with a spectacular treatment (a dense cloud of purple smoke).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.amazon.co.uk/Only-They-Could-Talk-Collectors-ebook/dp/B008I33ZWQ/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1530212880&sr=8-1&keywords=if+only+they+could+talk|title=If Only They Could Talk|date=28 June 2012|access-date=28 June 2018|via=www.amazon.co.uk|archive-date=13 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213010934/https://www.amazon.co.uk/Only-They-Could-Talk-Collectors-ebook/dp/B008I33ZWQ/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1530212880&sr=8-1&keywords=if+only+they+could+talk|url-status=live}}, summarised at {{cite web|url=https://jamesherriotbooks.blogspot.com/2008/08/if-only-they-could-talk-ch-3.html/|title=James Herriot Books|access-date=28 June 2018}}{{Dead link|date=February 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> * In his book '']'', veterinarian and author ] describes the use of the reaction of turpentine with ] iodine to "drive the iodine into the tissue", or perhaps just impress the watching customer with a spectacular treatment (a dense cloud of purple smoke).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.amazon.co.uk/Only-They-Could-Talk-Collectors-ebook/dp/B008I33ZWQ/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1530212880&sr=8-1&keywords=if+only+they+could+talk|title=If Only They Could Talk|date=28 June 2012|access-date=28 June 2018|via=www.amazon.co.uk|archive-date=13 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213010934/https://www.amazon.co.uk/Only-They-Could-Talk-Collectors-ebook/dp/B008I33ZWQ/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1530212880&sr=8-1&keywords=if+only+they+could+talk|url-status=live}}, summarised at {{cite web|url=https://jamesherriotbooks.blogspot.com/2008/08/if-only-they-could-talk-ch-3.html/|title=James Herriot Books|access-date=28 June 2018}}{{Dead link|date=February 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
* Turpentine was added extensively into gin during the ].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-28486017|title=When gin was full of sulphuric acid and turpentine|first=Finlo|last=Rohrer|work=BBC News|date=28 July 2014|access-date=2 January 2018|archive-date=19 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719043601/https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-28486017|url-status=live}}</ref> * Turpentine was added extensively into gin during the ].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-28486017|title=When gin was full of sulphuric acid and turpentine|first=Finlo|last=Rohrer|work=BBC News|date=28 July 2014|access-date=2 January 2018|archive-date=19 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719043601/https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-28486017|url-status=live}}</ref>
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{{NFPA 704|Health = 1|Flammability = 3|Reactivity = 0}} {{NFPA 704|Health = 1|Flammability = 3|Reactivity = 0}}


As an ] solvent, its vapour can irritate the skin and eyes, damage the ] and respiratory system, as well as the ] when inhaled, and cause damage to the ] when ingested, among other things.<ref>{{Cite web|title = CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Turpentine - Symptoms|url = https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0648.html|website = www.cdc.gov|access-date = 2015-11-27|archive-date = 2015-12-08|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151208123745/https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0648.html|url-status = live}}</ref> Ingestion can cause burning sensations, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, confusion, convulsions, diarrhea, tachycardia, unconsciousness, respiratory failure,<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1063.htm | title = Turpentine | publisher = International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization | access-date = 2006-04-02 | archive-date = 2006-04-27 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060427165609/https://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1063.htm | url-status = live }}</ref> and chemical pneumonia. As an ] solvent, turpentine's vapour can irritate the skin and eyes, damage the ] and respiratory system, as well as the ] when inhaled, and cause damage to the ] when ingested, among other things.<ref>{{Cite web|title = CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Turpentine - Symptoms|url = https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0648.html|website = www.cdc.gov|access-date = 2015-11-27|archive-date = 2015-12-08|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151208123745/https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0648.html|url-status = live}}</ref> Ingestion can cause burning sensations, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, confusion, convulsions, diarrhea, ], unconsciousness, respiratory failure,<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1063.htm | title = Turpentine | publisher = International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization | access-date = 2006-04-02 | archive-date = 2006-04-27 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060427165609/https://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1063.htm | url-status = live }}</ref> and ].


The ] (OSHA) has set the legal limit (]) for turpentine exposure in the workplace as 100&nbsp;ppm (560&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup>) over an 8-hour workday. The same threshold was adopted by the ] (NIOSH) as the ] (REL). At levels of 800&nbsp;ppm (4480 mg/m3), turpentine is ].<ref>{{Cite web|title = CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Turpentine|url = https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0648.html|website = www.cdc.gov|access-date = 2015-11-27|archive-date = 2015-12-08|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151208123745/https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0648.html|url-status = live}}</ref> The ] (OSHA) has set the legal limit (]) for turpentine exposure in the workplace as 100&nbsp;ppm (560&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup>) over an 8-hour workday. The same threshold was adopted by the ] (NIOSH) as the ] (REL). At levels of 800&nbsp;ppm (4480 mg/m3), turpentine is ].<ref>{{Cite web|title = CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Turpentine|url = https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0648.html|website = www.cdc.gov|access-date = 2015-11-27|archive-date = 2015-12-08|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151208123745/https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0648.html|url-status = live}}</ref>


==See also== ==See also==
* {{annotated link|Charles Herty}}
* {{annotated link|Galipot}} * {{annotated link|Galipot}}
* ] * ] &ndash; a historic site in Willacoochee, Georgia
* {{annotated link|Naval stores industry}} * {{annotated link|Naval stores industry}}
* ] &ndash; over-the-counter "proprietary" medications
* {{annotated link|Patent medicine}}
* {{annotated link|Retsina}} * {{annotated link|Retsina}} flavored with Aleppo pine resin
* {{annotated link|Russia leather}}, a water-resistant leather, using a birch oil distillate similar to turpentine in its manufacture. * ] &ndash; a water-resistant leather curried after tanning with a birch oil distillate similar to turpentine
* {{annotated link|White spirit|aka=Turpentine substitute}} / / Mineral spirit


== References == == References ==
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* , ] INCHEM Turpentine classification, hazard, and property table. * , ] INCHEM Turpentine classification, hazard, and property table.
* *
* , Gum naval stores: Turpentine and rosin from pine resin
* , Florida State Archive photographs of turpentine camps and laborers
* , Timber and Turpentine Industries
*
*
* at
* from ''A course of chemistry containing an easie method of preparing those chymical medicins which are used in physick: with curious remarks and useful discourses upon each preparation, for the benefit of such who desire to be instructed in the knowledge of this art'', published circa 1700

{{Non-timber forest products}} {{Non-timber forest products}}

{{Authority control}} {{Authority control}}

] ]
] ]
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] ]
] ]
]

Latest revision as of 11:48, 2 January 2025

Liquid distilled from pine resin This article is about oil of turpentine. For crude turpentine, see oleoresin. For other uses, see turpentine (disambiguation).
Turpentine

Turpentine distilled at the Georgia Museum of Agriculture & Historic Village as it was done circa 1900
Identifiers
CAS Number
ECHA InfoCard 100.029.407 Edit this at Wikidata
EC Number
  • 232-688-5
PubChem CID
UNII
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
Properties
Chemical formula C10H16
Molar mass 136.238 g·mol
Appearance Viscous liquid
Odor Resinous
Melting point −55 °C (−67 °F; 218 K)
Boiling point 154 °C (309 °F; 427 K)
Solubility in water 20 mg/L
Hazards
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
NFPA 704 four-colored diamondHealth 1: Exposure would cause irritation but only minor residual injury. E.g. turpentineFlammability 3: Liquids and solids that can be ignited under almost all ambient temperature conditions. Flash point between 23 and 38 °C (73 and 100 °F). E.g. gasolineInstability 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogenSpecial hazards (white): no code
1 3 0
Flash point 35 °C (95 °F; 308 K)
Autoignition
temperature 		220 °C (428 °F; 493 K)
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C , 100 kPa). Infobox references
Chemical compound

Turpentine (which is also called spirit of turpentine, oil of turpentine, terebenthine, terebenthene, terebinthine and, colloquially, turps) is a fluid obtained by the distillation of resin harvested from living trees, mainly pines. Principally used as a specialized solvent, it is also a source of material for organic syntheses.

Turpentine is composed of terpenes, primarily the monoterpenes alpha- and beta-pinene, with lesser amounts of carene, camphene, limonene, and terpinolene.

Substitutes include white spirit or other petroleum distillates – although the constituent chemicals are very different.

Etymology

The word turpentine derives (via French and Latin) from the Greek word τερεβινθίνη terebinthine, in turn the feminine form (to conform to the feminine gender of the Greek word, which means 'resin') of an adjective (τερεβίνθινος) derived from the Greek noun (τερέβινθος) for the terebinth tree.

Although the word originally referred to the resinous exudate of terebinth trees (e.g. Chios turpentine, Cyprus turpentine, and Persian turpentine), it now refers to that of coniferous trees, namely crude turpentine (e.g. Venice turpentine is the oleoresin of larch), or the volatile oil part thereof, namely oil (spirit) of turpentine; the latter usage is much more common today.

Source trees

"Herty system" in use on turpentine trees in Northern Florida, circa 1936
Chipping a turpentine tree in Georgia (US), circa 1906–20
"Cat face" on a pine tree
Turpentine distillery at Manlyn, North Carolina

Important pines for turpentine production include: maritime pine (Pinus pinaster), Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis), Masson's pine (Pinus massoniana), Sumatran pine (Pinus merkusii), longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), slash pine (Pinus elliottii), and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa).

To tap into the sap producing layers of the tree, harvesters used a series of hacks to remove the pine bark. Once debarked, pine trees secrete crude turpentine (oleoresin) onto the surface of the wound as a protective measure to seal the opening, resist exposure to micro-organisms and insects, and prevent vital sap loss. Harvesters wounded trees in V-shaped streaks down the length of the trunks to channel the crude turpentine into containers. It was then collected and processed into spirits of turpentine. Crude turpentine yield may be increased by as much as 40% by applying paraquat herbicides to the exposed wood.

The V-shaped cuts are called "catfaces" for their resemblance to a cat's whiskers. These marks on a pine tree indicate it was used to collect resin for turpentine production.

Turpentine (and rosin) are produced as naval stores.

Converting crude turpentine to oil of turpentine

Crude turpentine collected from the trees may be evaporated by steam distillation in a copper still. Molten rosin remains in the still bottoms after turpentine has been distilled out. Such turpentine is called gum turpentine. The term gum turpentine may also refer to crude turpentine, which may cause some confusion.

Turpentine may alternatively be extracted from destructive distillation of pine wood, such as shredded pine stumps, roots, and slash, using the light end of the heavy naphtha fraction (boiling between 90 and 115 °C or 195 and 240 °F) from a crude oil refinery. Such turpentine is called wood turpentine. Multi-stage counter-current extraction is commonly used so fresh naphtha first contacts wood leached in previous stages and naphtha laden with turpentine from previous stages contacts fresh wood before vacuum distillation to recover naphtha from the turpentine. Leached wood is steamed for additional naphtha recovery prior to burning for energy recovery.

Sulfate turpentine

When producing chemical wood pulp from pines or other coniferous trees, sulfate turpentine may be condensed from the gas generated in Kraft process pulp digesters. The average yield of crude sulfate turpentine is 5–10 kg/t pulp. Unless burned at the mill for energy production, sulfate turpentine may require additional treatment measures to remove traces of sulfur compounds.

Industrial and other end uses

Solvent

As a solvent, turpentine is used for thinning oil-based paints, for producing varnishes, and as a raw material for the chemical industry. Its use as a solvent in industrialized nations has largely been replaced by the much cheaper turpentine substitutes obtained from petroleum such as white spirit. A solution of turpentine and beeswax or carnauba wax has long been used as a furniture wax.

Lighting

Spirits of turpentine, called camphine, was burned in lamps with glass chimneys in the 1830s through the 1860s. Turpentine blended with grain alcohol was known as burning fluid. Both were used as domestic lamp fuels, gradually replacing whale oil, until kerosene, gas lighting and electric lights began to predominate.

Source of organic compounds

Turpentine is also used as a source of raw materials in the synthesis of fragrant chemical compounds. Commercially used camphor, linalool, alpha-terpineol, and geraniol are all usually produced from alpha-pinene and beta-pinene, which are two of the chief chemical components of turpentine. These pinenes are separated and purified by distillation. The mixture of diterpenes and triterpenes that is left as residue after turpentine distillation is sold as rosin.

Folk medicine

Turpentine and petroleum distillates such as coal oil and kerosene, were used in folk medicine for abrasions and wounds, as a treatment for lice, and when mixed with animal fat, as a chest rub or inhaler for nasal and throat ailments. Vicks chest rubs still contain turpentine in their formulations, although not as an active ingredient.

Turpentine, now understood to be dangerous for consumption, was a common medicine among seamen during the Age of Discovery. It was one of several products carried aboard Ferdinand Magellan's fleet during the first circumnavigation of the globe. Taken internally it was used as a treatment for intestinal parasites. This is dangerous, due to the chemical's toxicity.

Turpentine enemas, a very harsh purgative, had formerly been used for stubborn constipation or impaction. They were also given punitively to political dissenters in post-independence Argentina.

Niche uses

  • Turpentine is also added to many cleaning and sanitary products due to its antiseptic properties and its "clean scent".
  • In early 19th-century America, spirits of turpentine (camphine) was burned in lamps as a cheap alternative to whale oil. It produced a bright light but had a strong odour. Camphine and burning fluid (a mix of alcohol and turpentine) served as the dominant lamp fuels replacing whale oil until the advent of kerosene, electric lights and gas lighting.
  • Honda motorcycles, first manufactured in 1946, ran on a blend of gasoline and turpentine, due to the scarcity of gasoline in Japan following World War II. The French Emeraude rocket uses a similar fuel mixture. Turpentine has also been researched as a potential biofuel for mixing into gasoline.
  • In his book If Only They Could Talk, veterinarian and author James Herriot describes the use of the reaction of turpentine with resublimed iodine to "drive the iodine into the tissue", or perhaps just impress the watching customer with a spectacular treatment (a dense cloud of purple smoke).
  • Turpentine was added extensively into gin during the Gin Craze.

Hazards

NFPA 704
safety square
NFPA 704 four-colored diamondHealth 1: Exposure would cause irritation but only minor residual injury. E.g. turpentineFlammability 3: Liquids and solids that can be ignited under almost all ambient temperature conditions. Flash point between 23 and 38 °C (73 and 100 °F). E.g. gasolineInstability 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogenSpecial hazards (white): no code
1 3 0

As an organic solvent, turpentine's vapour can irritate the skin and eyes, damage the lungs and respiratory system, as well as the central nervous system when inhaled, and cause damage to the renal system when ingested, among other things. Ingestion can cause burning sensations, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, confusion, convulsions, diarrhea, tachycardia, unconsciousness, respiratory failure, and chemical pneumonia.

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for turpentine exposure in the workplace as 100 ppm (560 mg/m) over an 8-hour workday. The same threshold was adopted by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as the recommended exposure limit (REL). At levels of 800 ppm (4480 mg/m3), turpentine is immediately dangerous to life and health.

See also

  • Galipot – Resin of turpentine obtained from pine trees
  • McCranie's Turpentine Still – a historic site in Willacoochee, Georgia
  • Naval stores industry – part of shipbuildingPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
  • Patent medicine – over-the-counter "proprietary" medications
  • Retsina – Greek wine flavored with Aleppo pine resin
  • Russia leather – a water-resistant leather curried after tanning with a birch oil distillate similar to turpentine

References

  1. ^ Record of Turpentine in the GESTIS Substance Database of the Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
  2. Mayer, Ralph (1991). The Artist's Handbook of Materials and Techniques (Fifth ed.). New York: Viking. p. 404. ISBN 0-670-83701-6.
  3. ^ Kent, James A. Riegel's Handbook of Industrial Chemistry (Eighth Edition) Van Nostrand Reinhold Company (1983) ISBN 0-442-20164-8 p.569
  4. "Solvents". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. 2002. doi:10.1002/14356007.a24_437. ISBN 978-3527306732.
  5. Barnhart, R. K. (1995). The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 0-06-270084-7.
  6. Skeat, Walter W. (1882). A Concise Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 579.
  7. Mills, John S.; White, Raymond (1977). "Natural Resins of Art and Archaeology Their Sources, Chemistry, and Identification". Studies in Conservation. 22 (1): 12–31. doi:10.2307/1505670. ISSN 0039-3630. JSTOR 1505670.
  8. Mahood, S. A. (1921-03-01). "Larch (Venice) Turpentine from Western Larch (Larix occidentalis)". Journal of Forestry. 19 (3): 274–282. doi:10.1093/jof/19.3.274 (inactive 1 November 2024). ISSN 0022-1201.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  9. "Turpentine". Britannica. Retrieved 2022-03-02.
  10. ^ Kent p.571
  11. Prizer, Tom (June 11, 2010). "Catfaces: Totems of Georgia's Turpentiners | Daily Yonder | Keep It Rural". dailyyonder.com. Archived from the original on July 26, 2015. Retrieved June 5, 2012.
  12. Zallen, Jeremy (2019). American Lucifers: The Dark History of Artificial Light, 1750-1865. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.
  13. "Turpentine". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2022-05-16.
  14. Kent pp.571&572
  15. Stenius, Per, ed. (2000). "2". Forest Products Chemistry. Papermaking Science and Technology. Vol. 3. Finland: Fapet Oy : Published in cooperation with the Finnish Paper Engineers' Association and TAPPI. pp. 73–76. ISBN 952-5216-03-9.
  16. Kent p.572
  17. "Surviving 'The Spanish Lady' (Spanish flu)". CBC News. 2003-04-10. Event occurs at 03:20. Archived from the original on 2020-08-07. Retrieved 2018-12-29. A turpentine and hot water, and , and put it on their chest and back. --Elsie Miller (nee Smith)
  18. Sarah Rieger (December 29, 2018). "100 years ago, a train carrying Spanish flu pulled into Calgary. Within weeks, Alberta was in crisis". CBC News. Archived from the original on December 29, 2018. Retrieved December 29, 2018.
  19. "DailyMed - VICKS VAPORUB (camphor- synthetic, eucalyptus oil, and menthol ointment". dailymed.nlm.nih.gov. Archived from the original on 2021-05-05. Retrieved 2021-05-05.
  20. Laurence Bergreen (2003). Over the edge of the world : Magellan's terrifying circumnavigation of the globe. HarperCollins. ISBN 0066211735. Retrieved 2009-09-14.
  21. "Home Remedies - American Memory Timeline- Classroom Presentation". American Memory Timeline. The Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 2017-02-07. Retrieved 2017-02-06.
  22. "ICSC 1063 - TURPENTINE". www.inchem.org. Archived from the original on 2006-04-27. Retrieved 2006-04-02.
  23. "Turpentine enema". Biology-Online Dictionary. Biology-Online. 7 October 2019. Archived from the original on 2019-04-21. Retrieved 2019-12-26.
  24. "Ribbons and Rituals". In "Problems in Modern Latin American History". Ed. Chasteen and Wood. Oxford, UK: Scholarly Resources, 2005. p. 97, ISBN 9781442218598 and 9781442218604
  25. Charles H. Haswell. "Reminiscences of New York By an Octogenarian (1816 - 1860)". Archived from the original on 2008-07-24. Retrieved 2008-10-07.
  26. "The "Whale Oil Myth"". PBS NewsHour. 20 August 2008. Archived from the original on 10 May 2019. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
  27. "Honda History". Smokeriders.com. Archived from the original on 2009-04-28. Retrieved 2009-09-17.
  28. William Huon (2007). ETAI (ed.). Ariane, une épopée européenne. Boulogne-Billancourt. ISBN 9782726887097. AEE.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  29. Arpa, O.; Yumrutas, R.; Alma, M.H. (September 2010). "Effects of turpentine and gasoline-like fuel obtained from waste lubrication oil on engine performance and exhaust emission". Energy. 35 (9): 3603–3613. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2010.04.050.
  30. Knuuttila, Pekka (February 2013). "Wood sulphate turpentine as a gasoline bio-component". Fuel. 104: 101–108. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2012.06.036.
  31. If Only They Could Talk. 28 June 2012. Archived from the original on 13 February 2021. Retrieved 28 June 2018 – via www.amazon.co.uk., summarised at "James Herriot Books". Retrieved 28 June 2018.
  32. Rohrer, Finlo (28 July 2014). "When gin was full of sulphuric acid and turpentine". BBC News. Archived from the original on 19 July 2018. Retrieved 2 January 2018.
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Non-timber forest products
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Edible plants / roots
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