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{{Short description|Country in southwestern Europe}}
{{About|the country}}
{{Redirect|España|other uses|Spain (disambiguation)|and|España (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox Country
{{pp-move}}
|native_name = ''Reino de España''
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
|conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Spain
{{EngvarB|date=December 2021}}{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}{{Use British English|date=December 2024}}
|common_name = Spain
{{Infobox country
|image_flag = Flag of Spain.svg
| conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Spain
|image_coat = Escudo de España (colores THV).svg
| native_name = {{Native name|es|Reino de España}}
|image_map = EU-Spain.svg
| common_name = Spain
|map_caption = {{map_caption |location_color=dark green |region=] |region_color=dark grey |subregion=the ] |subregion_color=light green |legend=Location Spain EU Europe.png}}|national_motto = {{lang|la|"]"}}{{spaces|2}}<small>(]) <br />"Further Beyond"</small>
| name = {{collapsible list
|national_anthem = {{lang|es|"]"}}</sup>{{spaces|2}}<small>(])<ref group=note>Also serves as the ]</ref><br />"Royal March"
|titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:84%;
|official_languages = ]<ref group=note>In some ], ], ], ], ] and ] (]) are co-official languages. ], ] and ] have some degree of official recognition</ref>
|title = {{resize|1.0 em|7 other names}}{{efn|name="es lang"|In Spain, some ] enjoy co-official status in certain regions (in accordance with the latter's ]) or have some degree of recognition. In each of these, Spain's conventional long name for international affairs in Spanish laws and the most used ({{langx|es|Reino de España|links=no}}, pronounced: {{IPA|es|ˈrejno ð(e) esˈpaɲa}}) is as follows:
|regional_languages = ], ], ] and ]
* {{langx|an|Reino d'Espanya}}, {{IPA|an|ˈrejno ðesˈpaɲa|IPA}}
|officially_recognised_languages = ], ] and ]
* {{langx|ast|Reinu d'España}}, {{IPA-ast|ˈrejnu ðesˈpaɲa|IPA}}
|ethnic_groups = 87.8% ], 12.2% (], ], ], ]ian, ]) other (2010)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.diariocritico.com/2010/Abril/nacional/205552/ine-poblacion-inmigrantes-ue.html |title=Spain |publisher=www.diariocritico.com |date=2010-05-22}}</ref>
* {{langx|ca|Regne d'Espanya}}, {{IPA|ca|ˈreŋnə ðəsˈpaɲə|IPA}}
|demonym = ], ]
* {{langx|eu|Espainiako Erresuma}}, {{IPA-eu|es̺paɲiako eres̺uma|IPA}}
|capital = ]
* {{langx|gl|Reino de España}}, {{IPA|gl|ˈrejnʊ ð(ɪ) esˈpaɲɐ|IPA}}
|latd=40 |latm=26 |latNS=N |longd=3 |longm=42 |longEW=W
* {{langx|oc|Reiaume d'Espanha}}, {{IPA-oc|reˈjawme ðesˈpaɲɔ|IPA}}
|largest_city = capital
* {{langx|ca-valencia|Regne d'Espanya}}, {{IPA|ca|ˈreŋne ðesˈpaɲa|IPA}}}}
|government_type = ] and ]
|{{Infobox|subbox=yes|bodystyle=font-size:80%;font-weight:normal;
|leader_title1 = ]
|rowclass1 = mergedrow|label1=]:|data1={{lang|an|Reino d'Espanya}}
|leader_title2 = ]
|rowclass2 = mergedrow|label2=]:|data2={{lang|ast|Reinu d'España}}
|leader_name1 = ]
|rowclass3 = mergedrow|label4=]:|data4={{lang|eu|Espainiako Erresuma}}
|leader_name2 = ] (])
|rowclass4 = mergedrow|label3=]:|data3={{lang|ca|Regne d'Espanya}}
|sovereignty_type = Formation
|rowclass5 = mergedrow|label5=]:|data5={{lang|gl|Reino de España}}
|sovereignty_note = 15th century
|rowclass6 = mergedrow|label6=]:|data6={{lang|oc|Reiaume d'Espanha}}
|established_event1 = {{spaces|2}}Traditional date
|rowclass7 = mergedrow|label7=]:|data7={{lang|ca-valencia|Regne d'Espanya}}
|established_date1 = ] (Ascension to the throne of ])
|established_event2 = {{spaces|2}}]
|established_date2 = ]
|established_event3 = {{spaces|2}}'']''
|established_date3 = ]
|established_event4 = {{spaces|2}}'']''
|established_date4 = ]
|established_event5 = {{spaces|2}}]
|established_date5 = ]
|accessionEUdate = 1 January 1986
|EUseats = 54
|area_km2 = 504,030
|area_sq_mi = 195,364 <!--Do not remove per ]-->
|area_rank = 51st
|area_magnitude = 1 E11
|percent_water = 1.04
|population_estimate = 46,030,109<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ine.es/jaxiBD/tabla.do?per=01&type=db&divi=EPOB&idtab=2|title=Official Population Figures of Spain. Population on the 1 April 2010|publisher=Instituto Nacional de Estadística de España|accessdate=2010-07-05}}</ref>
|population_estimate_year = 2010
|population_estimate_rank = 27th
|population_density_km2 = 93
|population_density_sq_mi = 231 <!--Do not remove per ]-->
|population_density_rank = 106th
|GDP_PPP_year = 2009
|GDP_PPP = $1.360 trillion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=184&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=39&pr.y=11 |title=Spain|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=2010-04-21}}</ref>
|GDP_PPP_rank =
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $29,689<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank =
|GDP_nominal = $1.464 trillion<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_nominal_rank =
|GDP_nominal_year = 2009
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $31,946<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank =
|HDI_year = 2007
|HDI = {{increase}} 0.955
|HDI_rank = 15th
|HDI_category = <span style="color:#090;">very high</span>
|Gini = 32<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html|title=CIA World Factbook|accessdate=2008-08-13}}</ref>
|Gini_year = 2005
|currency = ] (])<ref group=note>Prior to 1999 (by law, 2002) : ].</ref>
|currency_code = EUR
|time_zone = ]<ref group=note>Except in the ], which are in the ] time zone (], ]+1 in summer).</ref>
|utc_offset = +1
|time_zone_DST = ]
|utc_offset_DST = +2
|date_format = dd.mm.yyyy (Spanish; ])
|drives_on = right
|cctld = ]<ref group=note>The ] domain is also used, as it is shared with other ] member states. Also, the ] domain is used in Catalan-speaking territories.</ref>
|calling_code = ]
}} }}
}}
'''Spain''' ({{pron-en |ˈspeɪn|en-us-Spain.ogg}} {{respell|spayn}}; {{lang-es|'''España'''}}, {{IPA-es|esˈpaɲa|pron|Es-España.ogg}}), officially the '''Kingdom of Spain''' ({{lang-es|Reino de España}}), is a ] and ] located in ] on the ].<ref group=note>The ] does not establish any official denomination of the country, even though ''España'' (Spain), ''Estado español'' (Spanish State) and ''Nación española'' (Spanish Nation) are used interchangeably. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, in an Ordinance published in 1984, declared that "''denominations "Spain" and "Kingdom of Spain" are equally valid to designate the Spain in international treaties...''"</ref> Its mainland is bordered to the south and east by the ] except for a small land boundary with the ] of ]; to the north by ], ], and the ]; and to the northwest and west by the ] and ].
| image_flag = Flag of Spain.svg
| image_coat = Escudo de España.svg
| national_motto = {{Lang|la|]}} (])<br />(English: "Further Beyond")
| national_anthem = {{native name|es|]|icon=yes}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boe.es/boe/dias/1997/10/11/pdfs/A29594-29600.pdf|title=Real Decreto 1560/1997, de 10 de octubre, por el que se regula el Himno Nacional|author=Presidency of the Government|work=] núm. 244|date=11 October 1997|language=es|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924034615/http://www.boe.es/boe/dias/1997/10/11/pdfs/A29594-29600.pdf|archive-date=24 September 2015|author-link=Government of Spain}}</ref><br />(English: "Royal March")<br /> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|]}}</div>
| image_map = {{Switcher|]|Show globe|]|Show map of Europe|default=1}}
| map_caption = {{map caption|location_color=dark green|region=Europe|region_color=dark grey|subregion=the ]|subregion_color=green}}
| image_map2 =
| capital = ]
| coordinates = {{Coord|40|26|N|3|42|W|type:city}}
| largest_city = ]
| languages_type = Official language
| languages = ]<!--(aka Castilian)-->{{efn|name=b|The official language of the State is established in the Section 3 of the ] to be Castilian.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lamoncloa.gob.es/IDIOMAS/9/Espana/LeyFundamental/index.htm|title=The Spanish Constitution|publisher=Lamoncloa.gob.es|access-date=26 April 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130325101204/http://www.lamoncloa.gob.es/IDIOMAS/9/Espana/LeyFundamental/index.htm|archive-date=25 March 2013 |language=es}}</ref>}}{{efn|name="Co-official languages"|In some ], ], ], ], ], and ] (locally known as ]) are co-official languages. ], ], and ] have some degree of government recognition at the regional level.}}
{{infobox|child=yes
|label1 = Nationality {{nobold|(2024)}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ine.es/dyngs/Prensa/ECP4T23.htm|title=Estadística Continua de Población (ECP) 1 de abril de 2024. Datos provisionales. |language=es}}</ref>
|data1 = {{unbulleted list|86.5% ]|13.5% ]}}
}}
| ethnic_groups = *84.8% Spanish
*1.7% Moroccan
*1.2% Romanian
*12.3% Other
| ethnic_groups_year = 2021
| ethnic_groups_ref = <ref>{{cite web |title=Spain |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/spain/ |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=December 31, 2024}}</ref>
| religion = {{unbulleted list


|56.0% ]
Spanish territory also includes the ] in the Mediterranean, the ] in the Atlantic Ocean off the African coast, and two ] in ], ] and ], that border ]. Furthermore, the town of ] is a Spanish ] situated inside French territory. With an area of 504,030&nbsp;km², it is the second largest country in ] and the ] after France.


{{Tree list}}
Because of its location, the territory of Spain was subject to many external influences since ] and through to its dawn as a country. Spain emerged as a unified country in the 15th century, following the marriage of the ] and the completion of the reconquest or '']'' of the Iberian peninsula in 1492. Conversely, it has been an important source of influence to other regions, chiefly during the ], when it became a ] that has left a legacy of over ] today, making it the world's ].
** 37.5% ]
** 18.5% practicing ]


{{Tree list/end}}
Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a parliamentary government under a constitutional ]. It is a ] with the ] by nominal GDP, and very high ] ], including the tenth-highest ] in the world, as of 2005. It is a member of the ], ], ], ], and ].


|14.9% ]
{{TOC limit|limit=3}}


|12.6% ]
== Etymology ==
|12.3% ]
The true origins of the name ''España'' and its ]s "Spain" and "Spanish" are disputed. The ] name for Iberia, '']'', may derive from poetic use of the term ''Hesperia'' to refer to Spain, reflecting ] perception of ] as a "western land" or "land of the setting sun" (''Hesperia'') and Spain, being still further west, as ''Hesperia ultima''.<ref name=anthon>{{cite book
| last = Anthon
| first = Charles
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = A system of ancient and mediæval geography for the use of schools and colleges
| publisher = Harper & Brothers
| year = 1850
| location = New York
| page = 14
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=hm0rAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA14&dq=hesperia&q=hesperia
| doi =
| id =
| isbn = }}</ref>


|2.7% ]
It may also be a derivation of the ] ''Ispanihad'', meaning "land of rabbits" or "edge", a reference to Spain's location at the end of the Mediterranean; Roman coins struck in the region from the reign of ] show a female figure with a rabbit at her feet.<ref name=burke>{{cite book
| last = Burke
| first = Ulick Ralph
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = A History of Spain from the Earliest Times to the Death of Ferdinand the Catholic, Volume 1
| publisher = Longmans, Green & Co
| date = 2nd edition, 2008
| location = London
| page = 14
| url = http://books.google.com/?id=DuiyyWGg-KEC&pg=PA410&dq=spain+hispania&q=hispania
| doi =
| id =
| isbn =978-1-4437-4054-8 }}</ref> There are also claims that ''España'' derives from the ] word ''Ezpanna'' meaning "edge" or "border", another reference to the fact that the Iberian peninsula constitutes the southwest of the European continent.<ref name=anthon />


|1.5% unanswered}}
The humanist ] proposed that the word ''Hispania'' evolved from the ] word ], meaning "city of the western world". According to new research by Jesús Luis Cunchillos published in 2000 with the name of ''Gramática fenicia elemental'' (''Basic Phoenician grammar''), the root of the term ''span'' is ''spy'', meaning "to forge metals". Therefore ''i-spn-ya'' would mean "the land where metals are forged".<ref># ↑ Linch, John (director), Fernández Castro, María Cruz (del segundo tomo), Historia de España, El País, volumen II, La península Ibérica en época prerromana, pg. 40. Dossier. La etimología de España; ¿tierra de conejos?, ISBN 978-84-9815-764-2</ref>
| religion_ref = <ref>{{cite book |title=Barómetro de Febrero 2023: Estudio Cis Nº 3395 |date=2023 |publisher=] |url=https://datos.cis.es/pdf/Es3395marMT_A.pdf |access-date=3 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231208162735/https://datos.cis.es/pdf/Es3395marMT_A.pdf |archive-date=8 December 2023 |url-status=live |language=es}}, 3,961 respondents. The question was {{lang|es|¿Cómo se define Ud. en materia religiosa: católico/a practicante, católico/a no practicante, creyente de otra religión, agnóstico/a, indiferente o no creyente, o ateo/a?}}.</ref>
| religion_year = 2023
| demonym = {{hlist|Spaniard|Spanish}}
| government_type = Unitary&nbsp;]
| leader_title1 = ]
| leader_name1 = ]
| leader_title2 = ]
| leader_name2 = ]
| leader_title3 = ]
| leader_name3 = ]
| leader_title4 = ]
| leader_name4 = ]
| legislature = {{Lang|es|]|italic=no}}
| upper_house = ]
| lower_house = ]
| sovereignty_type = ]
| established_event1 = ]
| established_date1 = 20 January 1479
| established_event2 = ]
| established_date2 = 14 March 1516
| established_event3 = ]
| established_date3 = 9 June 1715
| established_event4 = ]
| established_date4 = 19 March 1812
| established_event5 = {{nowrap|]}}
| established_date5 = 29 December 1978
| area_km2 = 505,990<ref>{{cite web|title=Anuario estadístico de España 2008. 1ª parte: entorno físico y medio ambiente|url=http://www.ine.es/prodyser/pubweb/anuario08/anu08_01entor.pdf|website=Instituto Nacional de Estadística (Spain)|access-date=14 April 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924144913/http://www.ine.es/prodyser/pubweb/anuario08/anu08_01entor.pdf|archive-date=24 September 2015 |language=es}}</ref>
| area_rank = 51st
| area_sq_mi = 195,364 <!--Do not remove per ]-->
| percent_water = 0.89<ref>{{cite web|title=Surface water and surface water change|access-date=11 October 2020|publisher=] (OECD)|url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER|archive-date=24 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210324133453/https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER|url-status=live}}</ref>
| population_estimate = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 48,946,035<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/en/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736177095&menu=ultiDatos&idp=1254735572981|title=INEbase / Continuous Population Statistics (CPS). 7th November 2024. Provisional data|website=ine.es|access-date=7 November 2024}}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2024
| population_estimate_rank = 31st
| population_density_km2 = 96
| population_density_sq_mi = 249 <!--Do not remove per ]-->
| population_density_rank = 121th
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $2.665&nbsp;trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.ES">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c=184,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2029&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2024 Edition. (Spain) |publisher=] |website=www.imf.org |date=22 October 2024 |access-date=22 October 2024}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2024
| GDP_PPP_rank = 15th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $55,089<ref name="IMFWEO.ES" />
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 36th
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $1.731&nbsp;trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.ES" />
| GDP_nominal_year = 2024
| GDP_nominal_rank = 15th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $35,788<ref name="IMFWEO.ES" />
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 32nd
| Gini = 31.5 <!--Number only-->
| Gini_year = 2023
| Gini_change = decrease
| Gini_ref = <ref name=eurogini>{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tessi190/default/table|title=Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income – EU-SILC survey|publisher=]|website=ec.europa.eu|access-date=10 July 2024}}</ref>
| Gini_rank =
| HDI = 0.911 <!--Number only-->
| HDI_year = 2022 <!--Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
| HDI_change = increase <!--Increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2023/24|language=en|publisher=]|date=13 March 2024|page=288|access-date=13 March 2024}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 27th
| currency = ]{{efn|The ] before 2002}} (])
| currency_code = EUR
| time_zone = ] and ]
| utc_offset = ⁠±0 to +1 <!--Note: Zero-width non-breaking space results in the infobox displaying "UTC" without a specified offset.-->
| DST_note = Note: most of Spain observes CET/CEST, except the ] which observe WET/WEST.
| time_zone_DST = ] and ]
| utc_offset_DST = +1 to +2
| calling_code = ]
| cctld = ]{{efn|name=e|The ] domain is also used, as it is shared with other ] member states. Also, the ] domain is used in ], ] in ] and ] in the ] autonomous regions.}}
| today =
}}


'''Spain'''<!--Per WP:LEAD: Do not include pronunciations for names of foreign countries whose pronunciations are well known in English.-->,{{efn|{{langx|es|España|links=no}}, {{IPA|es|esˈpaɲa||Pronunciation of España in Spanish.ogg|help=no}}}} officially the '''Kingdom of Spain''',{{efn|name="es lang"}}{{efn|name="nation name"}} is a country in ] with territories in ].<ref name="auto">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Spain|title=Spain |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=26 July 2023|access-date=17 March 2019|archive-date=8 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808205138/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/557573/Spain/70267/People/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{efn|See ].}} Featuring the ] of ], it is the largest country in ] and the fourth-most populous ] member state. Spanning across the majority of the ], its territory also includes the ], in the Eastern Atlantic Ocean, the ], in the Western Mediterranean Sea, and the ] of ] and ], in Africa. ] is bordered to the north by ], ], and the ]; to the east and south by the Mediterranean Sea and ]; and to the west by ] and the Atlantic Ocean. Spain's capital and ] is ], and other major ] include ], ], ], ], ], ] and ].
== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Spain}}
], the highest mountain in Spain (], ])]]
] (]), in the ]]]


In early antiquity, the Iberian Peninsula was inhabited by ], ], and other ]. With the ], the province of ] was established. Following the ] and ] of Hispania, the ] ushered in the ] of tribes from Central Europe, including the ], who formed the ] centred on ]. In the early eighth century, most of the peninsula was ], and during early Islamic rule, ] became a dominant peninsular power centred on ]. Several Christian kingdoms emerged in Northern Iberia, chief among them ], ], ], ] and ]; made an intermittent southward military expansion and repopulation, known as the '']'', repelling Islamic rule in Iberia, which culminated with the Christian seizure of the ] in 1492. The dynastic union of the ] and the ] in 1479 under the ] is often considered the ''de facto'' unification of Spain as a ].
At {{convert|504782|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on|lk=out}}, Spain is the world's ]. It is some {{convert|47000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} smaller than ] and {{convert|81000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} larger than the ] of ]. The ] (], ]) is the highest peak of Spain and the third largest volcano in the world from its base.


During the ], Spain pioneered the ] of the ], made the ] and formed one of the ].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=European exploration |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/European-exploration/The-Age-of-Discovery |access-date=2024-05-16 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> The ] reached a global scale and spread across all continents, underpinning the rise of a global trading system fueled primarily by ]s. In the 18th century, the Bourbon Reforms, particularly the ], centralized mainland Spain, strengthening royal authority and modernizing administrative structures.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Born with a 'Silver Spoon': The Origin of World Trade in 1571|first1=Dennis O.|last1=Flynn|first2=Arturo|last2=Giráldez Source|journal=Journal of World History|volume=6|issue=2|year=1995|page=202|jstor=20078638}}</ref> In the 19th century, after the victorious ] against Napoleonic occupation forces, the following political divisions between ] and ] led to the ] of most of the ]. These political divisions finally converged in the 20th century with the ], giving rise to the ] that lasted until 1975. With the restoration of democracy and its entry into the European Union, the country experienced an ] that profoundly transformed it socially and politically. Since the ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ] have been influential worldwide, particularly in ] and the ]. As a reflection of its large ], Spain is the world's ], has one of the world's largest numbers of ]s, and it is the most popular destination for ] students.<ref>Spain is crowned the champion of foreign students. This is thanks to universities such as those in Barcelona, Valencia, Madrid, Granada and Salamanca. Although nowhere near as popular as Spain, we find Germany in second place. It is a country that also has a large number of prestigious universities spread out across many cities. The fact that Germany is an economic powerhouse makes it an attractive destination for those searching for employment after studying. France, the United Kingdom and Italy appear in third, fourth and fifth position. The rest of countries rank behind at a considerable distance. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630180757/https://www.wimdu.co.uk/blog/discover-popular-erasmus-destinations |date=30 June 2023 }}</ref> Its cultural influence extends to over 600 million&nbsp;]s, making ] the world's ] and the world's most widely spoken ].<ref>{{cite web |title=572 millones de personas hablan español, cinco millones más que hace un año, y aumentarán a 754 millones a mediados de siglo |url=https://www.cervantes.es/sobre_instituto_cervantes/prensa/2017/noticias/Presentaci%C3%B3n-Anuario-2017.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513000611/https://www.cervantes.es/sobre_instituto_cervantes/prensa/2017/noticias/Presentaci%C3%B3n-Anuario-2017.htm |archive-date=13 May 2021 |website=www.cervantes.es |language=es}}</ref>
], in ] (])]]
On the west, Spain borders ]; on the south, it borders ] (a ]) and ], through its ]s in North Africa (], ], and ]). On the northeast, along the ] mountain range, it borders France and the tiny ] of ].


Spain is a secular ] and a ],{{sfn|Spanish Constitution|1978|loc=Article 1}} with King ] as ]. A ], it is a major advanced capitalist economy,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Whitehouse|first1=Mark|title=Number of the Week: $10.2 Trillion in Global Borrowing|url=https://blogs.wsj.com/economics/2010/11/06/number-of-the-week-102-trillion-in-global-borrowing/|work=The Wall Street Journal|date=6 November 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920064345/https://blogs.wsj.com/economics/2010/11/06/number-of-the-week-102-trillion-in-global-borrowing/|archive-date=20 September 2017}}</ref> with the world's fifteenth-largest by both ] and ]. Spain is a member of the ], the European Union, the ], ] (NATO), a permanent guest of the ], and is part of many other international organisations such as the ] (CoE), the ] (OEI), the ], the ] (OECD), the ] (OSCE), and the ] (WTO).
Spain also includes the ] in the ], the ] in the ] and a number of uninhabited islands on the Mediterranean side of the ], known as {{lang|es|'']''}}, such as the ] islands, the ], ], and the tiny ]. Along the Pyrenees in ], a small exclave town called ] is surrounded by France. The little ] in the River ] is a Spanish-French ].


== Etymology <!-- Linked --> ==
Mainland Spain is dominated by high ]s and mountain ranges, such as the ]. Running from these heights are several major rivers such as the ], the ], the ], the ] and the ]. ]s are found along the coast, the largest of which is that of the Guadalquivir in ].
The name of Spain (''España'') comes from '']'', the name used by the Romans for the ] and its provinces during the ]. The etymological origin of the term Hispania is uncertain, although the Phoenicians referred to the region as ''i-shphan-im'', possibly meaning "Land of Rabbits" or "Land of Metals".<ref name="Arechaga2009">{{cite journal |last1=Arechaga |first1=Juan |title=Science in Hispania: Spain and Portugal on the main route again |journal=The International Journal of Developmental Biology |date=2009 |volume=53 |issue=8–10 |pages=1119–1122 |doi=10.1387/ijdb.093019ja|pmid=19924620 }}</ref> {{Interlanguage link|Jesús Luis Cunchillos|es}} and José Ángel Zamora, experts in Semitic philology at the Spanish National Research Council (''Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas'', CSIC), conducted a comparative philological study between several Semitic languages and hypothesise that the Phoenician name translates as "land where metals are forged", having determined that the name originated in reference to the gold mines of the Iberian Peninsula.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.es/espana/20140829/abci-donde-procede-palabra-espana-201408281811.html|title="I-span-ya", el misterioso origen de la palabra España|last=ABC|date=28 August 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161113170715/http://www.abc.es/espana/20140829/abci-donde-procede-palabra-espana-201408281811.html|archive-date=13 November 2016}}</ref> There have been a number of accounts and hypotheses about its origin:


Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the term ''span'' is the ] word {{Lang|phn|spy}}, meaning "to ]". Therefore, ''i-spn-ya'' would mean "the land where metals are forged".<ref>#Linch, John (director), Fernández Castro, María Cruz (del segundo tomo), Historia de España, El País, volumen II, La península Ibérica en época prerromana, p. 40. Dossier. La etimología de España; ¿tierra de conejos?, {{ISBN|978-84-9815-764-2}}</ref> It may be a derivation of the Phoenician {{Lang|phn|I-Shpania}}, meaning "island of rabbits", "land of rabbits" or "edge", a reference to Spain's location at the end of the Mediterranean; Roman coins struck in the region from the reign of ] show a female figure with a rabbit at her feet,<ref name=burke>{{cite book|last = Burke|first = Ulick Ralph|title = A History of Spain from the Earliest Times to the Death of Ferdinand the Catholic, Volume 1|publisher=Longmans, Green & Co|year = 1895|location = London|page = 12|hdl = 2027/hvd.fl29jg?urlappend=%3Bseq=36}}</ref> and ] called it the "land of the rabbits".<ref name=Spain>{{CathEncy|wstitle=Spain}}</ref> The word in question actually means "]", possibly due to the Phoenicians confusing the two animals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.understandinganimalresearch.org.uk/news/staff-blog/rabbits-fish-and-mice-but-no-rock-hyrax/|title=Rabbits, fish and mice, but no rock hyrax|website=Understanding Animal Research|access-date=31 October 2018|archive-date=31 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031134610/http://www.understandinganimalresearch.org.uk/news/staff-blog/rabbits-fish-and-mice-but-no-rock-hyrax/|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Climate ===
Due to Spain's geographical situation and ] conditions, the ] is extremely diverse;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iberianature.com/material/spainclimates.html |title=Description of Spain's climate |publisher=Iberianature |date=2010-08-13}}</ref> discounting the mountain climate, it can be roughly divided into five areas:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://clima.meteored.com/clima-en-Europa-Espana-SP.html |title=Historical climatic data |publisher=Meteored |date=2010-08-13}}</ref>
])]]
* A ] in the inland areas of the Peninsula (largest city, ]).
* An ] in Galicia and the coastal strip near the Bay of Biscay or (largest city, ]). This area is often called ].
* A ] or arid Mediterranean in the southeast (largest city, ]).
* A ] region extends from the Andalusian plain along the southern and eastern coasts up to the Pyrenees, on the seaward side of the mountain ranges that run near the coast. Also in Ceuta and Melilla (largest city, ]).
* A ] in the Canary Islands and some areas in the coast of Granada and Málaga (largest cities, ], ] and ]).


There is also the claim that "Hispania" derives from the ] word {{Lang|eu|Ezpanna}}, meaning "edge" or "border", another reference to the fact that the Iberian Peninsula constitutes the southwest corner of the European continent.<ref name=anthon>{{Cite book |last=Anthon |first=Charles |year=1850 |title=A System of Ancient and Mediæval Geography for the Use of Schools and Colleges |url=https://archive.org/details/asystemancienta03anthgoog/ |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=Harper & Brothers |page=}}</ref>
] does ''not'' fall mainly in the plain. It falls mainly in the northern mountains.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://maps.howstuffworks.com/spain-annual-precipitation-map.htm |title=HowStuffWorks "Maps of Spain Annual Precipitation" |publisher=Maps.howstuffworks.com |date= |accessdate=2010-01-27}}</ref>


== History == == History ==
{{Main|History of Spain}} {{Main|History of Spain}}
After a long and hard conquest, the Iberian Peninsula became a region of the Roman Empire known as Hispania. During the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later was conquered by Muslim invaders. Through a very long and fitful process, the Christian kingdoms in the north gradually rolled back Muslim rule, finally extinguishing its last remnant in Granada in 1492, the same year Columbus reached the Americas. A global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe and the leading world power in the 16th century and first half of the 17th century.

Continued wars and other problems eventually led to a diminished status. The French invasion of Spain in the early 19th century led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire and left the country politically unstable. In the 20th century it suffered a devastating civil war and came under the rule of an authoritarian government, leading to years of stagnation, but finishing in an impressive economic surge. Democracy was restored in 1978 in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. In 1986, Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a cultural renaissance and steady economic growth.


=== Prehistory and pre-Roman peoples === === Prehistory and pre-Roman peoples ===
{{Main|Prehistoric Iberia}} {{Main|Prehistoric Iberia}}
]
] paintings,<ref name="timesonline.co.uk">{{Dead link|date=January 2010}}</ref> in ]]]
Archaeological research at ] indicates the Iberian Peninsula was populated by ]s 1.2 million years ago.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6256356.stm|title='First west Europe tooth' found|publisher=BBC|date=30 June 2007|accessdate=2008-08-09}}</ref> Modern humans first arrived in Iberia, from the north on foot, about 32,000 years ago.<ref>Typical ] items were found in Cantabria (Morín, El Pendo, Castillo), the Basque Country (Santimamiñe) and Catalonia. The radiocarbon datations give the following dates: 32,425 and 29,515 BP.</ref> The best known artifacts of these prehistoric human settlements are the famous paintings in the ] of Cantabria in northern Iberia, which were created about 15,000 ] by ]s.<ref name="timesonline.co.uk"/> Archaeological research at ] indicates the Iberian Peninsula was populated by ]s 1.3&nbsp;million years ago.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6256356.stm|title='First west Europe tooth' found|publisher=BBC|date=30 June 2007|access-date=9 August 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091021003923/http://encarta.msn.com/text_761575057___0/Spain.html|archive-date=21 October 2009}}</ref>


Modern humans first arrived in Iberia from the north on foot about 35,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Phillips |first1=William D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kWj4tnHCj04C |title=A Concise History of Spain |last2=Phillips |first2=Carla Rahn |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-60721-6 |pages=12 |language=en}}</ref> The best-known artefacts of these prehistoric human settlements are the paintings in the ] of Cantabria in northern Iberia, which were created from 35,600 to 13,500 ] by ].<ref name="Science2012">{{cite journal|last1=Pike|first1=A. W. G.|last2=Hoffmann|first2=D. L.|last3=Garcia-Diez|first3=M.|last4=Pettitt|first4=P. B.|last5=Alcolea|first5=J.|last6=De Balbin|first6=R.|last7=Gonzalez-Sainz|first7=C.|last8=de las Heras|first8=C.|last9=Lasheras|first9=J. A.|last10=Montes|first10=R.|last11=Zilhao|first11=J.|title=U-Series Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves in Spain|journal=Science|volume=336|issue=6087|year=2012|pages=1409–1413|issn=0036-8075|doi=10.1126/science.1219957|pmid=22700921|bibcode=2012Sci...336.1409P|s2cid=7807664}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bernaldo de Quirós Guidolti|first1=Federico|last2=Cabrera Valdés|first2=Victoria|journal=Complutum|volume=5|year=1994|title=Cronología del arte paleolítico|url=http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=164330&orden=1&info=link|access-date=17 November 2012|issn=1131-6993|pages=265–276|format=PDF|archive-date=12 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230912033428/https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/CMPL/article/view/CMPL9494120265A|url-status=live}}</ref> Archaeological and genetic evidence suggests that the Iberian Peninsula acted as one of several major refugia from which northern Europe was repopulated following the end of the ].
Archaeological and genetic evidence strongly suggests that the Iberian Peninsula acted as one of several major refugia from which northern Europe was repopulated following the end of the last ].


The two main historical peoples of the peninsula were the ] and the ], the former inhabiting the Mediterranean side from the northeast to the southwest, the latter inhabiting the Atlantic side, in the north and northwest part of the peninsula. In the inner part of the peninsula, where both groups were in contact, a mixed, distinctive culture known as ] was present. In addition, ] occupied the western area of the Pyrenees mountains. Other ethnic groups existed along the southern coastal areas of present day ]. The two largest groups inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula before the Roman conquest were the ] and the ]. The Iberians inhabited the Mediterranean side of the peninsula. The Celts inhabited much of the interior and Atlantic sides of the peninsula. ] occupied the western area of the Pyrenees mountain range and adjacent areas; Phoenician-influenced ] flourished in the southwest; and ] and ] occupied areas in the central west. Several cities were founded along the coast by ]ns, and trading outposts and colonies were established by ] in the East. Eventually, Phoenician-] expanded inland towards the meseta; however, due to the bellicose inland tribes, the Carthaginians settled on the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula.


=== Roman Hispania and the Visigothic Kingdom ===
Among these southern groups there grew the earliest urban culture in the Iberian Peninsula, that of the semi-mythical southern city of ] (c. 1100&nbsp;BC) in the location of the present-day triangle between ], ] and ]. The flourishing trade in gold and silver between the people of Tartessos and ]ns and ] is documented in the history of ] and in the biblical book of king Solomon. Between about 500&nbsp;BC and 300 BC, the seafaring Phoenicians and Greeks founded ] all along the Mediterranean coast. The ]s briefly exerted control over much of the Mediterranean coastal areas in the course of the ], until their rule was defeated and replaced by that of the ].<ref name="country"/>
{{Main|Hispania|Visigothic Kingdom}}
] in ]]]


During the ], roughly between 210 and 205&nbsp;BCE, the expanding ] captured Carthaginian trading colonies along the Mediterranean coast. Although it took the Romans nearly two centuries to complete the ], they retained control of it for over six centuries. Roman rule was bound together by law, language, and the ].<ref name="hispania">{{cite web|last=Payne|first=Stanley G.|title=A History of Spain and Portugal; Ch. 1 Ancient Hispania|publisher=The Library of Iberian Resources Online|year=1973|url=http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm|access-date=9 August 2008|archive-date=8 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181008122627/https://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Roman Empire and the Gothic Kingdom ===
{{Main|Hispania}}
], in ]]]
During the ], an expanding ] captured Carthaginian trading colonies along the Mediterranean coast from roughly 210&nbsp;BC to 205 BC, leading to eventual Roman control of nearly the entire Iberian Peninsula. This control lasted over 500 years, bound together by law, language, and the ].<ref name="hispania">{{cite web |last=Payne |first=Stanley G. | title = A History of Spain and Portugal; Ch. 1 Ancient Hispania |publisher=The Library of Iberian Resources Online |year=1973 |url=http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm |accessdate=2008-08-09}}</ref>
], in ]]]


The base Celt and Iberian populations were gradually ] at differing rates in different parts of Hispania. Local leaders were admitted into the Roman aristocratic class.<ref group=note>The '']'' (sing., ''latifundium''), large estates controlled by the aristocracy, were superimposed on the existing Iberian landholding system.</ref><ref name="country">{{cite web |last=Rinehart |first=Robert |coauthors=Seeley, Jo Ann Browning | title = A Country Study: Spain – Hispania |publisher=Library of Congress Country Series |year=1998 |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/estoc.html |accessdate=2008-08-09}}</ref> Hispania served as a granary for the Roman market, and its harbors exported ], ], ], and ]. Agricultural production increased with the introduction of irrigation projects, some of which remain in use. Emperors ], ], and the philosopher ] were born in Hispania.<ref group=note>The poets ], Quintilian and ] were also born in Hispania.</ref> The cultures of the pre-Roman populations were gradually ] (Latinised) at different rates depending on what part of the peninsula they lived in, with local leaders being admitted into the Roman aristocratic class.{{efn|The '']'' (sing., ''latifundium''), large estates controlled by the aristocracy, were superimposed on the existing Iberian landholding system.}}<ref name="country">{{cite web|last1=Rinehart|first1=Robert|last2=Seeley|first2=Jo Ann Browning|title=A Country Study: Spain. Chapter 1 – Hispania|publisher=Library of Congress Country Series|year=1998|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+es0014)|access-date=9 August 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080922143456/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+es0014%29|archive-date=22 September 2008 }}</ref>


Hispania (the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula) served as a granary for the Roman market, and its harbours exported gold, ], ], and wine. Agricultural production increased with the introduction of irrigation projects, some of which remain in use. Emperors ], ], ], and the philosopher ] were born in Hispania.{{efn|The poets ], ] and ] were also born in Hispania.}} Christianity was introduced into Hispania in the 1st century CE, and it became popular in the cities in the 2nd century.<ref name="country" /> Most of Spain's present languages and religions, as well as the basis of its laws, originate from this period.<ref name="hispania" /> Starting in 170 CE, incursions of North-African ] in the province of ] took place.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://repositorio.iaph.es/bitstream/11532/327602/1/Contribuci%C3%B3n%20al%20estudio%20de%20las%20invasiones%20mauritanas.pdf|chapter=Contribución al estudio de las invasiones mauritanas de la Bética en el siglo II|first=Carlos|last=Alonso Villalobos|year=1984|publisher=Sociedad Española de Estudios Clásicos|title=Actas del II Congreso Andaluz deEstudios Clásicos|volume=II|access-date=5 July 2022|archive-date=5 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220705191228/https://repositorio.iaph.es/bitstream/11532/327602/1/Contribuci%C3%B3n%20al%20estudio%20de%20las%20invasiones%20mauritanas.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
] was introduced into Hispania in the 1st&nbsp;century CE and it became popular in the cities in the 2nd&nbsp;century CE.<ref name="country"/> Most of Spain's present languages and religion, and the basis of its laws, originate from this period.<ref name="hispania"/>
] of ] from the ]]]


Rome's loss of jurisdiction in Hispania began in 409, when the ] ] and ], together with the ] ] crossed the ] and ravaged ] until the ] drove them into Iberia that same year. The Suevi established a kingdom in what is today modern ] and northern ]. As the western empire disintegrated the social and economic base became greatly simplified: but even in modified form, the successor regimes maintained many of the institutions and laws of the late empire, including Christianity. The ] ] and ], together with the ] ], entered the peninsula after 409, weakening the Western Roman Empire's jurisdiction over Hispania. The Suebi established a kingdom in north-western Iberia, whereas the Vandals established themselves in the south of the peninsula by 420 before crossing over to North Africa in 429. As the western empire disintegrated, the social and economic base became greatly simplified; the successor regimes maintained many of the institutions and laws of the late empire, including Christianity and assimilation into the evolving Roman culture.


The Alans' allies, the ] Vandals, established a kingdom in ], too, occupying largely the same region but extending farther south to the ] river. The ] Vandals occupied the region that still bears a form of their name –''Vandalusia'', modern ], in Spain. The ]s established an enclave, ], in the south, with the intention of reviving the Roman empire throughout Iberia. Eventually, however, Hispania was reunited under ]. The ]s established an occidental province, ], in the south, with the intention of reviving Roman rule throughout Iberia. Eventually, however, Hispania was reunited under ].


=== Muslim Iberia === === Muslim era and ''Reconquista'' ===
{{Main|Al-Andalus}} {{See also|Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Al-Andalus|Reconquista}}
From 711 to 718, as part of the expansion of the ] which had ] from the ], nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Muslims from across the Strait of Gibraltar, resulting in the collapse of the Visigothic Kingdom. Only a small area in the mountainous north of the peninsula stood out of the territory seized during the initial invasion. The ] consolidated upon this territory. Other Christian kingdoms, such as ] and ] in the mountainous north, eventually surged upon the consolidation of counties of the Carolingian '']''.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Rinehart|first1=Robert|last2=Seeley|first2=Jo Ann Browning|title=A Country Study: Spain – Castile and Aragon|publisher=Library of Congress Country Series|year=1998|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+es0016)|access-date=9 August 2008|archive-date=22 September 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080922142215/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+es0016)|url-status=live}}</ref> For several centuries, the fluctuating frontier between the Muslim and Christian-controlled areas of the peninsula was along the ] and ] valleys.
], in ].]]
] and its central fountain in the ] complex]]
In the 8th&nbsp;century, nearly all of the ] was ] (711–718) by largely ] ] armies from North Africa. These conquests were part of the expansion of the ] ]. Only a small area in the mountainous north-west of the peninsula managed to resist the initial invasion.<!--see next section on the reconquista: citation not needed here-->
Conversion to ] proceeded at an increasing pace. The '']'' (Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin) are believed to have formed the majority of the population of Al-Andalus by the end of the 10th century.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403051916/http://libro.uca.edu/ics/ics5.htm |date=3 April 2017 }}, Thomas F. Glick</ref><ref name="chap2">{{cite web|last=Payne|first=Stanley G.|title=A History of Spain and Portugal; Ch. 2 Al-Andalus|publisher=The Library of Iberian Resources Online|year=1973|url=http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm|access-date=9 August 2008|archive-date=8 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181008122627/https://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>


A series of ] incursions raided the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula in the 9th and 10th centuries.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Viking raids on the spanish peninsula|first=Rolf|last=Scheen|journal=Militaria. Revista de Cultura Militar|issue=8|year=1996|url=https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/MILT/article/download/MILT9696110067A/3416/0|pages=67–73|access-date=13 April 2022|archive-date=13 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220413040655/https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/MILT/article/download/MILT9696110067A/3416/0|url-status=live}}</ref> The first recorded Viking raid on Iberia took place in 844; it ended in failure with many Vikings killed by the Galicians' ]s; and seventy of the Vikings' longships captured on the beach and burned by the troops of King ].
Under ], Christians and ] were given the subordinate status of ]. This status permitted Christians and Jews to practice their religions as '']'' but they were required to pay a special tax and to be subject to certain discriminations.<ref>Dhimma provides rights of residence in return for taxes. H. Patrick Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World''. Oxford University Press, 2007, pg. 218-219.</ref><ref>Dhimmi have fewer legal and social rights than Muslims, but more rights than other non-Muslims.Lewis, Bernard, The Jews of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press (1984). ISBN 978-0-691-00807-3 p. 62</ref>


In the 11th century, the Caliphate of Córdoba collapsed, fracturing into a series of petty kingdoms ('']s''),<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3RtpCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA237|title=Handbook of Medieval Culture|first=Albrecht|last=Classen|date=31 August 2015|publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG|via=Google Books|isbn=9783110267303|access-date=10 December 2018|archive-date=12 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230912033453/https://books.google.com/books?id=3RtpCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA237|url-status=live}}</ref> often subject to the payment of a form of ] ('']'') to the Northern Christian kingdoms, which otherwise undertook a southward territorial expansion. The capture of the strategic city of ] in 1085 marked a significant shift in the balance of power in favour of the Christian kingdoms.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lansing |first1=Carol |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Re-1YpI9ObsC |title=A Companion to the Medieval World |last2=English |first2=Edward D. |date=2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-49946-7 |pages=323 |language=en}}</ref> The arrival from North Africa of the Islamic ruling sects of the ] and the ] achieved temporary unity upon the Muslim-ruled territory, with a stricter, less tolerant application of Islam, and partially reversed some Christian territorial gains.
Conversion to ] proceeded at a steadily increasing pace. The '']es'' (Muslims of ethnic ] origin) are believed to have comprised the majority of the population of Al-Andalus by the end of the 10th century.<ref>, Thomas F. Glick</ref><ref name="chap2">{{cite web |last=Payne |first=Stanley G. | title = A History of Spain and Portugal; Ch. 2 Al-Andalus |publisher=The Library of Iberian Resources Online |year=1973 |url=http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm |accessdate=2008-08-09}}</ref>


], the bell tower of ]]] ]]]
The Muslim community in the Iberian peninsula was itself diverse and beset by social tensions. The ] of North Africa, who had provided the bulk of the invading armies, ] from the ].<ref group=note>The Berbers soon gave up attempting to settle the harsh lands in the north of the ] handed to them by the Arab rulers.</ref> Over time, large ] populations became established, especially in the ] valley, the coastal plain of ], the ] valley and (towards the end of this period) in the mountainous region of ].<ref name="chap2"/>


The ] was the strongest Christian kingdom for centuries. In 1188, the first form (restricted to the bishops, the magnates, and 'the elected citizens of each city') of modern parliamentary session in Europe was held in ] (]).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=VAN ZANDEN |first1=JAN LUITEN |last2=BURINGH |first2=ELTJO |last3=BOSKER |first3=MAARTEN |date=29 July 2011 |title=The rise and decline of European parliaments, 1188-17891 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0289.2011.00612.x |journal=The Economic History Review |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=835–861 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0289.2011.00612.x |s2cid=154956049 |issn=0013-0117 |access-date=24 November 2022 |archive-date=12 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230912033403/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-0289.2011.00612.x |url-status=live |hdl=10.1111/j.1468-0289.2011.00612.x |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The ], formed from Leonese territory, was its successor as strongest kingdom. The kings and the nobility fought for power and influence in this period. The example of the Roman emperors influenced the political objective of the Crown, while the nobles benefited from ].
], the capital of the ], was the largest, richest and most sophisticated city in ]. Mediterranean trade and cultural exchange flourished. Muslims imported a rich intellectual tradition from the Middle East and North Africa. Muslim and Jewish scholars played an important part in reviving and expanding classical ] in Western Europe. The ] cultures of the Iberian peninsula interacted with Muslim and Jewish cultures in complex ways, thus giving the region a distinctive culture.<ref name="chap2"/> Outside the cities, where the vast majority lived, the land ownership system from Roman times remained largely intact as Muslim leaders rarely dispossessed landowners, and the introduction of new crops and techniques led to a remarkable expansion of agriculture.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}


Muslim strongholds in the ] such as Córdoba (1236) and ] (1248) fell to Castile in the 13th century. The ] and the ] entered in a dynastic union and gained territory and power in the Mediterranean. In 1229, ] was conquered, so was ] in 1238. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the North-African ]s established some enclaves around the Strait of Gibraltar. Upon the conclusion of the ], the ] (the remaining Muslim-ruled polity in the Iberian Peninsula after 1246) capitulated in 1492 to the military strength of the ], and it was integrated from then on in the Crown of Castile.<ref>{{Cite book|publisher=]|chapter-url=https://brill.com/view/book/9789004443594/BP000014.xml|title=The Nasrid Kingdom of Granada between East and West|first=Roser|last=Salicrú i Lluch|chapter=Granada and Its International Contacts |pages=124–125|doi=10.1163/9789004443594_006|year=2020|isbn=9789004443594|s2cid=243153050|access-date=13 April 2022|archive-date=13 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220413053115/https://brill.com/view/book/9789004443594/BP000014.xml|url-status=live}}</ref>
In the 11th&nbsp;century, the Muslim holdings fractured into rival ] kingdoms, allowing the small Christian states the opportunity to greatly enlarge their territories.<ref name="chap2"/> The arrival from ] of the Islamic ruling sects of the ] and the ] restored unity upon the Muslim holdings, with a stricter, less tolerant application of ], and saw a revival in Muslim fortunes. This re-united Islamic state, after more than a century of successes, including the conquest of a large part of the peninsula's northeast, finally fell to a Christian alliance in the 13th century.<ref name="country"/>


=== Spanish Empire ===
=== Fall of Muslim rule and unification ===
{{Main|Reconquista}} {{Main|Spanish Empire}}
]
], in ]]]
In 1469, the crowns of the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon were united by the marriage of their monarchs, Isabella I and Ferdinand II, respectively. In 1492, Jews were forced to choose between conversion to Catholicism or expulsion;<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16200-spanish-inquisition-left-genetic-legacy-in-iberia.html|title=Spanish Inquisition left genetic legacy in Iberia|work=New Scientist|date=4 December 2008|access-date=18 January 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328024905/http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16200-spanish-inquisition-left-genetic-legacy-in-iberia.html|archive-date=28 March 2014 }}</ref> as many as 200,000 Jews were ]. The year 1492 also marked the arrival of ] in the ], during a voyage funded by Isabella. Columbus's first voyage crossed the Atlantic and reached the Caribbean Islands, beginning the European exploration and conquest of the Americas.
]]]
] city walls]]] and ]: the ].]]
The '']'' ("Reconquest") is the centuries-long period of expansion of Iberia's Christian kingdoms. The Reconquista is viewed as beginning with the ] in 722, and was concurrent with the period of Muslim rule on the Iberian peninsula. The Christian army's victory over Muslim forces led to the creation of the Christian ] along the northwestern coastal mountains. Muslim armies had also moved north of the Pyrenees, but they were defeated by Frankish forces at the ], ].


Subsequently, they retreated to more secure positions south of the Pyrenees with a frontier marked by the ] and ] valleys. In 739 Muslim forces were driven from ], which was to host one of medieval Europe's holiest sites, ]. A little later, ] forces established Christian counties on the southern side of the Pyrenees; ] were to grow into kingdoms. These territories included Navarre, Aragon and Catalonia.<ref>{{cite web |last=Rinehart |first=Robert |coauthors=Seeley, Jo Ann Browning | title = A Country Study: Spain – Castile and Aragon |publisher=Library of Congress Country Series |year=1998 |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/estoc.html |accessdate=2008-08-09}}</ref> The ] guaranteed religious tolerance towards Muslims,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/treaty1492.html|title=The Treaty of Granada, 1492|publisher=Islamic Civilisation|access-date=13 August 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080924075453/http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/treaty1492.html|archive-date=24 September 2008}}</ref> for a few years before Islam was outlawed in 1502 in Castile and 1527 in Aragon, leading the remaining Muslim population to become nominally Christian '']s''. About four decades after the ] (1568–1571), over 300,000 ], settling primarily in North Africa.<ref name="cong">{{cite web|last1=Rinehart|first1=Robert|last2=Seeley|first2=Jo Ann Browning|title=A Country Study: Spain – The Golden Age|publisher=Library of Congress Country Series|year=1998|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/estoc.html|access-date=9 August 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080809003309/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/estoc.html|archive-date=9 August 2008 }}</ref>


]
The breakup of Al-Andalus into the competing Taifa kingdoms helped the Christian kingdoms. The capture of the strategically central city of ] in 1085 marked a significant shift in the balance of power in favour of the Christian kingdoms of Iberia. After a great Muslim resurgence in the 12th&nbsp;century, the great Moorish strongholds in the south fell to Christian Spain in the 13th&nbsp;century—] in 1236 and ] in 1248—leaving only the Muslim enclave of ] as a ] in the south.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://libro.uca.edu/rc/rc1.htm|title=Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: The Order of Merced on the Christian-Islamic Frontier|accessdate=2008-08-13}} See also: {{cite web |last=Payne |first=Stanley G. | title = A History of Spain and Portugal; Ch. 4 Castile-León in the Era of the Great Reconquest |publisher=The Library of Iberian Resources Online |year=1973 |url=http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm |accessdate=2008-08-09}}</ref>
The unification of the crowns of Aragon and Castile by the marriage of their sovereigns laid the basis for modern Spain and the Spanish Empire, although each kingdom of Spain remained a separate country socially, politically, legally, and in currency and language.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/eurvoya/Imperial.html|title=Imperial Spain|access-date=13 August 2008|publisher=University of Calgary|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080629000351/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/eurvoya/Imperial.html|archive-date=29 June 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y84wAgaXxo4C&pg=PA472|title=Handbook of European History|publisher=Penguin Random House Grupo Editorial España|isbn=90-04-09760-0|year=1994|access-date=4 January 2022|archive-date=12 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230912033400/https://books.google.com/books?id=Y84wAgaXxo4C&pg=PA472|url-status=live}}</ref>


In the 13th and 14th&nbsp;centuries the ]s Muslim sect based in North Africa invaded and established some enclaves on the southern coast but failed in their attempt to re-establish Muslim rule in Iberia and were soon driven out. The 13th&nbsp;century also witnessed the ], centred in Spain's north east, expand its reach across islands in the Mediterranean, to ] and even Athens.<ref>{{cite web |last=Payne |first=Stanley G. | title = A History of Spain and Portugal; Ch. 5 The Rise of Aragón-Catalonia |publisher=The Library of Iberian Resources Online |year=1973 |url=http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm |accessdate=2008-08-09}}</ref> Around this time the universities of ] (1212/1263) and ] (1218/1254) were established. The ] of 1348 and 1349 devastated Spain.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/H/history/a-b/blackdeath.html|title=The Black Death|accessdate=2008-08-13|publisher=]| archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080709074635/http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/H/history/a-b/blackdeath.html| archivedate = July 9, 2008}}</ref> ] was one of the leading world powers throughout the 16th century and most of the 17th century, a position reinforced by trade and wealth from colonial possessions and became the world's leading ]. It reached its apogee during the reigns of the first two Spanish Habsburgs—] (1516–1556) and ] (1556–1598). This period saw the ], the ], the ], the ], clashes with the ], intervention in the ] and the ].<ref>{{cite web|last=Payne|first=Stanley G.|title=A History of Spain and Portugal; Ch. 13 The Spanish Empire|publisher=The Library of Iberian Resources Online|year=1973|url=http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm|access-date=9 August 2008|archive-date=8 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181008122627/https://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>


]
In 1469, the crowns of the Christian kingdoms of ] and ] were united by the ] of ] and ]. 1478 commenced the completion of the conquest of the ] and in 1492, the combined forces of the Castile and Aragon captured the Emirate of Granada, ending the last remnant of a ] of Islamic rule in Iberia. The ] guaranteed religious tolerance toward ]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/treaty1492.html|title=The Treaty of Granada, 1492|publisher=Islamic Civilisation|accessdate=2008-08-13}}</ref>
Through exploration and conquest or royal marriage alliances and inheritance, the ] expanded across vast areas in the Americas, the Indo-Pacific, Africa as well as the European continent (including holdings in the Italian Peninsula, the ] and the ]). The so-called ] featured explorations by sea and by land, the opening-up of new ]s across oceans, conquests and the beginnings of European ]. ]s, spices, luxuries, and previously unknown plants brought to the metropole played a leading part in transforming the European understanding of the globe.<ref>{{cite book|last=Thomas|first=Hugh|author-link=Hugh Thomas (writer)|title = Rivers of gold: the rise of the Spanish Empire|publisher=George Weidenfeld & Nicolson|year=2003|location=London|pages=passim|isbn=978-0-297-64563-4}}</ref> The cultural efflorescence witnessed during this period is now referred to as the ]. The expansion of the empire caused immense upheaval in the Americas as the collapse of societies and empires and new diseases from Europe devastated American indigenous populations. The rise of ], the ] and new geographical discoveries and conquests raised issues that were addressed by the intellectual movement now known as the ], which developed the first modern theories of what are now known as ] and human rights.
], 1860]]
Spain's 16th-century maritime supremacy was demonstrated by the victory over the ] at the ] in 1571 and over Portugal at the ] in 1582, and then after the setback of the ] in 1588, in a series of victories against ] in the ]. However, during the middle decades of the 17th century Spain's maritime power went into a long decline with mounting defeats against the ] (]) and then England in the ]; by the 1660s it was struggling to defend its overseas possessions from pirates and privateers.


The ] increased Spain's involvement in religiously charged wars, forcing ever-expanding military efforts across Europe and in the Mediterranean.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne15.htm|title=The Seventeenth-Century Decline|access-date=13 August 2008|publisher=The Library of Iberian resources online|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921003150/http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne15.htm|archive-date=21 September 2013}}</ref> By the middle decades of a war- and ]-ridden 17th-century Europe, the Spanish Habsburgs had enmeshed the country in continent-wide religious-political conflicts. These conflicts drained it of resources and undermined the economy generally. Spain managed to hold on to most of the scattered Habsburg empire, and help the imperial forces of the ] reverse a large part of the advances made by Protestant forces, but it was finally forced to recognise the ] and the United Provinces (Dutch Republic), and eventually suffered some serious military reverses to France in the latter stages of the immensely destructive, Europe-wide ].<ref>{{cite web|last=Payne|first=Stanley G.|title=A History of Spain and Portugal; Ch. 14 Spanish Society and Economics in the Imperial Age|publisher=The Library of Iberian Resources Online|year=1973|url=http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm|access-date=9 August 2008|archive-date=8 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181008122627/https://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> In the latter half of the 17th century, Spain went into a gradual decline, during which it surrendered several small territories to France and England; however, it maintained and enlarged its vast overseas empire, which remained intact until the beginning of the 19th century.
The year 1492 also marked the arrival in the ] of ], during a voyage funded by Isabella. That same year, ] were ] to ] or face ] from Spanish territories during the ].<ref>. New Scientist. December 4, 2008.</ref> A few years later, following social disturbances, Muslims were also expelled under the same conditions.<ref group=note>For the related expulsions that followed see ].</ref><ref name="cong">{{cite web |last=Rinehart |first=Robert |coauthors=Seeley, Jo Ann Browning | title = A Country Study: Spain – The Golden Age |publisher=Library of Congress Country Series |year=1998 |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/estoc.html |accessdate=2008-08-09}}</ref>


====18th century====
As ] ], Isabella and Ferdinand centralized royal power at the expense of local nobility, and the word ''España'', whose root is the ancient name ''Hispania'', began to be commonly used to designate the whole of the two kingdoms.<ref name="cong"/>
]. During the ] a new royal family reigned, the ].]]
With their wide-ranging political, legal, religious and military reforms, Spain emerged as the first ].
The decline culminated in a controversy over succession to the throne which consumed the first years of the 18th century. The ] was a wide-ranging international conflict combined with a civil war, and was to cost the kingdom its European possessions and its position as a leading European power.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Rinehart|first1=Robert|last2=Seeley|first2=Jo Ann Browning|title=A Country Study: Spain – Spain in Decline|publisher=Library of Congress Country Series|year=1998|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/estoc.html|access-date=9 August 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080809003309/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/estoc.html|archive-date=9 August 2008 }}</ref>


During this war, a new dynasty originating in France, the ], was installed. The Crowns of Castile and Aragon had been long united only by the Monarchy and the common institution of the Inquisition's ].<ref>{{Cite journal|page=75|journal=Revista de Dret Històric Català|volume=18|year=2019|publisher=Societat Catalana d'Estudis Jurídics|issn=1578-5300|doi=10.2436/20.3004.01.119|title=Una aproximación a la Corona de Aragón de Fernando el Católico|first=Josep|last=Serrano Daura|issue=18 }}</ref> A number of reform policies (the so-called ]) were pursued by the Monarchy with the overarching goal of centralised authority and administrative uniformity.<ref>{{Cite book|publisher=]|title=A Concise History of Spain|first1=William D.|last1=Phillips|first2=Carla Rahn|year=2010|isbn=9780521845137|last2=Phillips|page=175}}</ref> They included the abolishment of many of the old regional privileges and laws,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Rinehart|first1=Robert|last2=Seeley|first2=Jo Ann Browning|title=A Country Study: Spain – Bourbon Spain|publisher=Library of Congress Country Series|year=1998|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/estoc.html|access-date=9 August 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080809003309/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/estoc.html|archive-date=9 August 2008 }}</ref> as well as the customs barrier between the Crowns of Aragon and Castile in 1717, followed by the introduction of new property taxes in the Aragonese kingdoms.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Early Modern Spain: A Social History|first=James|last=Casey|publisher=]|year=1999|isbn=9780415138130|page=83}}</ref>
=== Imperial Spain ===
{{Main|Spanish Empire}}
]'s historical influence]]
The unification of the crowns of ] and ] laid the basis for modern Spain and the Spanish Empire.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/eurvoya/Imperial.html|title=Imperial Spain|accessdate=2008-08-13|publisher=University of Calgary}}</ref> Spain was Europe's leading power throughout the ] and most of the ], a position reinforced by trade and wealth from colonial possessions. It reached its apogee during the reigns of the first two ] – ] (1516–1556) and ] (1556–1598). This period saw the ], the ], the ], the ], clashes with the ], the ] and wars with ].<ref>{{cite web |last=Payne |first=Stanley G. | title = A History of Spain and Portugal; Ch. 13 The ] |publisher=The Library of Iberian Resources Online |year=1973 |url=http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm |accessdate=2008-08-09}}</ref>


The 18th century saw a gradual recovery and an increase in prosperity through much of the empire. The predominant economic policy was an interventionist one, and the State also pursued policies aiming towards infrastructure development as well as the abolition of internal customs and the reduction of export tariffs.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/5589876.pdf|chapter=El Despotismo Ilustrado en España: entre la continuidad y el cambio|author-link=Carlos Martínez Shaw|first=Carlos|last=Martínez Shaw|title=El Siglo de las Luces: III Centenario del Nacimiento de José de Hermosilla (1715-1776)|year=2016|isbn=978-84-608-8037-0|page=14|publisher=Sociedad Extremeña de Historia|access-date=13 April 2022|archive-date=19 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220419023430/https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/5589876.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Projects of agricultural colonisation with new settlements took place in the south of mainland Spain.{{Sfn|Martínez Shaw|2016|pp=14; 23}} ] ideas began to gain ground among some of the kingdom's elite and monarchy.
The Spanish Empire expanded to include great parts of the ], islands in the Asia-Pacific area, areas of ], cities in ], as well as parts of what are now France, Germany, ], ], and the ]. It was the first empire of which it was said that ].


=== Liberalism and nation state ===
This was an ], with daring explorations by sea and by land, the opening-up of new ]s across oceans, conquests and the beginnings of European ]. Along with the arrival of ]s, spices, luxuries, and new agricultural plants, Spanish explorers brought back knowledge from the ], and played a leading part in transforming the European understanding of the globe.<ref>{{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Hugh |authorlink=Hugh Thomas | title = Rivers of gold: the rise of the Spanish Empire |publisher=George Weidenfeld & Nicholson |year=2003 |location=London |pages=''passim''|isbn=978-0-297-64563-4}}</ref> The cultural efflorescence witnessed is now referred to as the ]. The rise of ], the Protestant Reformation and new geographical discoveries raised issues addressed by the influential intellectual movement now known as the ].
{{Main|Contemporary history of Spain|Mid-19th-century Spain|Spanish American wars of independence|Spanish–American War|Anarchism in Spain|Second Spanish Republic}}
]
In 1793, Spain went to war against the revolutionary new ] as a member of ]. The subsequent ] polarised the country in a reaction against the ] elites and following defeat in the field, peace was made with France in 1795 at the ] in which Spain lost control over two-thirds of the island of ]. In 1807, a secret treaty between ] and the unpopular prime minister led to a new declaration of war against Britain and Portugal. French troops entered the country to invade Portugal but instead occupied Spain's major fortresses. The Spanish king abdicated and a puppet kingdom satellite to the French Empire was installed with ] as king.


The ] was one of many uprisings across the country against the French occupation.<ref>David A. Bell. "". TheHistoryNet.com</ref> These revolts marked the beginning of a devastating ] against the Napoleonic regime.<ref>(Gates 2001, p. 20.)</ref> Further military action by Spanish armies, ] warfare and an Anglo-Portuguese allied army, combined with ], led to the retreat of French imperial armies from the Iberian Peninsula in 1814, and the return of ].<ref>(Gates 2001, p. 467.)</ref>
]]]
In the late 16th century and first half of the 17th&nbsp;century, Spain was confronted by unrelenting challenges from all sides. ] under the aegis of the rapidly growing ], disrupted life in many coastal areas through their ] raids and renewed the threat of an ].<ref>According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by ] Muslim pirates and sold as slaves during the 16th and 17th centuries.</ref> This at a time when Spain was often at war with France.


During the war, in 1810, a revolutionary body, the ], was assembled to coordinate the effort against the Bonapartist regime and to prepare a constitution.<ref>{{cite book|author= Alvar Ezquerra, Jaime|title=Diccionario de historia de España|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l4JQIkW1yrsC&pg=PA209|year=2001|publisher=]|isbn=978-84-7090-366-3|page=209}} Cortes of Cádiz (1812) was the first parliament of Spain with sovereign power</ref> It met as one body, and its members represented the entire Spanish empire.<ref>{{cite book|title=Independence of Spanish America|last=Rodríguez|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://www.google.es/search?tbm=bks&hl=es&q=%22It+met+as+one+body%2C+and+its+members+represented+the+entire+Spanish+world%22&btnG=|quote=It met as one body, and its members represented the entire Spanish world|access-date=20 June 2013|archive-date=10 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200310230600/https://www.google.es/search?tbm=bks&hl=es&q=%22It+met+as+one+body%2C+and+its+members+represented+the+entire+Spanish+world%22&btnG=|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1812, a ] for universal representation under a constitutional monarchy was declared, but after the fall of the Bonapartist regime, the Spanish king dismissed the Cortes Generales, set on ruling as an ].
The ] schism from the Catholic Church dragged the kingdom ever more deeply into the mire of religiously charged wars. The result was a country forced into ever expanding military efforts across Europe and in the Mediterranean.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne15.htm|title=The Seventeenth-Century Decline|accessdate=2008-08-13|publisher=The Library of Iberian resources online}}</ref>
], a key political figure in the 19th century]]
The French occupation of mainland Spain created an opportunity for overseas ] elites who resented the privilege towards ] and demanded ]. Starting in 1809 the American colonies began a series of revolutions and declared independence, leading to the ] that put an end to the metropole's grip over the ]. ] proved futile with opposition not only in the colonies but also in the Iberian peninsula and army revolts followed. By the end of 1826, the only American colonies Spain held were ] and ]. The Napoleonic War left Spain economically ruined, deeply divided and politically unstable. In the 1830s and 1840s, ] (a reactionary legitimist movement supportive of an alternative Bourbon branch), fought against the government forces supportive of Queen ]'s dynastic rights in the ]. Government forces prevailed, but the conflict between ] and '']'' ended in a weak early constitutional period. The 1868 ] was followed by the 1868–1874 progressive '']'' (including the short-lived ]), which yielded to a stable monarchic period, the ] (1875–1931).<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eX7cXu4N2AUC&pg=PA33|page=33|title=Elecciones y cultura política en España e Italia (1890–1923)|editor-first=Rosa Ana|editor-last=Gutiérrez|editor-first2=Rafael|editor-last2=Zurita|editor-first3=Renato|editor-last3=Camurri|publisher=]|location=Valencia|year=2003|isbn=84-370-5672-1|chapter=Caciquismo y mundo rural durante la Restauración|first=Salvador|last=Cruz Artacho|access-date=13 September 2020|archive-date=12 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230912033420/https://books.google.com/books?id=eX7cXu4N2AUC&pg=PA33|url-status=live}}</ref>
] in ], Madrid. ] fled to exile and ] became regent.]]


In the late 19th century nationalist movements arose in the Philippines and Cuba. In 1895 and 1896 the ] and the ] broke out and eventually<!--For whatever reasons; it is not for here to go into long explanations!--> the United States became involved. The ] was fought in the spring of 1898 and resulted in Spain losing the last of its once vast colonial empire outside of North Africa. ''El Desastre'' (the Disaster), as the war became known in Spain, gave added impetus to the ]. Although the period around the turn of the century was one of increasing prosperity, the 20th century brought little social peace. Spain played a minor part in the ]. It remained neutral ]. The heavy losses suffered by the colonial troops in conflicts in northern Morocco against Riffians forces brought discredit to the government and undermined the monarchy.
By the middle decades of a ]- and ]-ridden 17th&nbsp;century Europe the Spanish Habsburgs had enmeshed the country in the continent-wide religious-political conflicts. These conflicts drained it of resources and undermined the European economy generally. Spain managed to hold on to most of the scattered ] empire, and help the imperial forces of the ] reverse a large part of the advances made by Protestant forces, but it was finally forced to recognise the ] (with whom it had been ] in a ] from 1580 to 1640) and the ], and eventually suffered some serious military reverses to France in the latter stages of the immensely destructive, Europe-wide ].<ref>{{cite web |last=Payne |first=Stanley G. | title = A History of Spain and Portugal; Ch. 14 Spanish Society and Economics in the Imperial Age |publisher=The Library of Iberian Resources Online |year=1973 |url=http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm |accessdate=2008-08-09}}</ref>
], built in ]'s reign, near Madrid.]]


Industrialisation, the development of railways and incipient capitalism developed in several areas of the country, particularly in ], as well as ] and socialist and anarchist ideas. The ] and the ] are good examples of this. In 1879, the ] was founded. A trade union linked to this party, ], was founded in 1888. In the anarcho-syndicalist trend of the labour movement in Spain, ] was founded in 1910 and ] in 1927.
In the latter half of the 17th&nbsp;century, Spain went into a gradual relative decline, during which it surrendered a number of small territories to France. However it maintained and enlarged its vast overseas empire, which remained intact until the beginning of the 19th&nbsp;century.


Catalanism and Vasquism, alongside other nationalisms and regionalisms in Spain, arose in that period: the ] formed in 1895 and ] in 1901.
The decline culminated in a controversy over succession to the throne which consumed the first years of the 18th&nbsp;century. The ] was a wide ranging international conflict combined with a civil war, and was to cost the kingdom its European possessions and its position as one of the leading powers on the Continent.<ref>{{cite web |last=Rinehart |first=Robert |coauthors=Seeley, Jo Ann Browning | title = A Country Study: Spain – Spain in Decline |publisher=Library of Congress Country Series |year=1998 |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/estoc.html |accessdate=2008-08-09}}</ref>


Political corruption and repression weakened the democratic system of the constitutional monarchy of a two-parties system.<ref>{{cite book|title=Oligarquía y caciquismo, Colectivismo agrario y otros escritos: (Antología)|last=Costa|first=Joaquín|author-link=Joaquín Costa}}</ref> The July 1909 ] events and repression exemplified the social instability of the time.
During this war, a new dynasty originating in France, the ], was installed. Long united only by the Crown, a true Spanish state was established when the first Bourbon king, ], united the crowns of Castile and Aragon into a single state, abolishing many of the old regional privileges and laws.<ref>{{cite web |last=Rinehart |first=Robert |coauthors=Seeley, Jo Ann Browning | title = A Country Study: Spain – Bourbon Spain |publisher=Library of Congress Country Series |year=1998 |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/estoc.html |accessdate=2008-08-09}}</ref>


The ] in 1919 led to the first law limiting the working day to eight hours.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Revolutionary Left in Spain, 1914–1923|last=Meaker|first=Gerald H.|date=1974|publisher=]|page= ff|isbn=0-8047-0845-2}}</ref>
The 18th&nbsp;century saw a gradual recovery and an increase in prosperity through much of the empire. The new ] monarchy drew on the French system of modernising the administration and the economy. ] ideas began to gain ground among some of the kingdom's elite and monarchy. Military assistance for the rebellious British colonies in the ] improved the kingdom's international standing.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gascoigne |first=Bamber | title = History of Spain: Bourbon dynasty: from AD 1700 |publisher=Library of Congress Country Series |year=1998 |url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?HistoryID=ab50&ParagraphID=iss#iss |accessdate=2008-08-09}}</ref>
] in 1933, after ] was approved. Deputy ] was a key figure for the right to be granted.]]


After a period of Crown-supported dictatorship from 1923 to 1931, the first elections since 1923, largely understood as a plebiscite on Monarchy, took place: the ]. These gave a resounding victory to the Republican-Socialist candidacies in large cities and provincial capitals, with a majority of monarchist councilors in rural areas. The king left the country and the proclamation of the Republic on 14 April ensued, with the formation of a provisional government.
=== Napoleonic rule and its consequences ===
{{Main|Mid-nineteenth century Spain}}
{{also|Spanish American wars of independence}}
]
In 1793, Spain went to war against the new ], which had overthrown and executed its Bourbon king, ]. The war polarised the country in an apparent reaction against the ] elites. Defeated in the field, peace was made with France in 1795 and it effectively became a ] of that country; In 1807, the secret ] between Napoleon and the deeply unpopular ] led to a declaration of war against Britain and Portugal. French troops entered the kingdom unopposed, supposedly to invade Portugal, but instead they occupied Spanish fortresses. This invasion by trickery led to the ] of the ridiculed Spanish king in favour of ] brother, ].


A ] for the country was passed in October 1931 following the ], and a series of cabinets presided by ] supported by republican parties and the ] followed. In the election held in 1933 the right triumphed and in 1936, the left. During the ] there was a great political and social upheaval, marked by a sharp radicalisation of the left and the right. Instances of political violence during this period included the burning of churches, the ], the ] and numerous attacks against rival political leaders. On the other hand, it is also during the Second Republic when important reforms to modernise the country were initiated: a democratic constitution, agrarian reform, restructuring of the army, political decentralisation and ].
This foreign ] was widely regarded with scorn. The ] was one of many ] uprisings against the Bonapartist regime across the country.<ref>David A. Bell. "". TheHistoryNet.com</ref> These revolts marked the beginning of what is known to the Spanish as the War of Independence, and to the British as the ].<ref>(Gates 2001, p.20)</ref> Napoleon was forced to intervene personally, defeating several badly coordinated Spanish armies and forcing a British army to retreat. However, further military action by Spanish ]s, armies and ] British-Portuguese forces, combined with Napoleon's disastrous ], led to the ousting of the French imperial armies from the Spain in 1814, and the return of ].<ref>(Gates 2001, p.467)</ref>


=== Civil War and Francoist dictatorship ===
The French ]s devastated the economy, and left Spain a deeply divided country prone to political instability. The power struggles of the early 19th&nbsp;century led to the ] in the ] (which stretched from ] to ]), with the sole exception of ] and ].
{{Main|Spanish Civil War|Spanish Revolution of 1936|Francoist Spain}}
The Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936: on 17 and 18 July, part of the military ] that triumphed in only part of the country. The situation led to a civil war, in which the territory was divided into two zones: one ], that counted on outside support from the ] and ] (and from ]), and the other controlled by the putschists (the ]), most critically supported by ] and ]. The Republic was not supported by the Western powers due to the British-led policy of ]. General ] was sworn in as the supreme leader of the rebels on 1 October 1936. An uneasy relationship between the Republican government and the grassroots anarchists who had initiated a partial ] also ensued.
], 1936]]
The civil war was viciously fought and there were ]. The ] claimed the lives of over 500,000 people and caused the flight of up to a half-million citizens from the country.<ref>{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, BBC News, 23 February 2003</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/spain/3998443/Relatives-of-Spaniards-who-fled-Franco-granted-citizenship.html|title=Relatives of Spaniards who fled Franco granted citizenship|work=The Daily Telegraph|date=28 December 2008|access-date=18 January 2014|location=London|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723074619/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/spain/3998443/Relatives-of-Spaniards-who-fled-Franco-granted-citizenship.html|archive-date=23 July 2013 }}</ref> On 1 April 1939, five months before the beginning of ], the rebel side led by Franco emerged victorious, imposing a dictatorship over the whole country. Thousands were imprisoned after the civil war in ].


The regime remained nominally "]" for much of the Second World War, although it was ] to ] and provided the Nazi ] with ]. The only legal party under Franco's dictatorship was the ] (FET y de las JONS), formed in 1937 upon the merging of the Fascist ] and the Carlist traditionalists and to which the rest of right-wing groups supporting the rebels also added. The name of "]", sometimes understood as a wider structure than the FET y de las JONS proper, largely imposed over the later's name in official documents along the 1950s.
=== Spanish–American War ===
] and ] at the ], 1940]]
{{Main|Spanish–American War}}
After the war Spain was politically and economically isolated, and was kept out of the United Nations. This changed in 1955, during the ] period, when it became strategically important for the US to establish a military presence on the Iberian Peninsula as a counter to any possible move by the Soviet Union into the Mediterranean basin. US Cold War strategic priorities included the dissemination of American educational ideas to foster modernization and expansion.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Óscar |first1=Martín García |title=Soft Power, Modernization, and Security: US Educational Foreign Policy Toward Authoritarian Spain in the Cold War |journal=History of Education Quarterly |date=May 2023 |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=198–220 |doi=10.1017/heq.2023.5|s2cid=258190145 |hdl=10251/201668 |hdl-access=free | issn = 0018-2680 }}</ref> In the 1960s, Spain registered an ] which was propelled by ], a mass internal migration from rural areas to ], ] and the ] and the creation of a mass tourism industry. Franco's rule was also characterised by ], ], ], and ].
Amid the instability and economic crisis that afflicted Spain in the 19th century there arose nationalist movements in the Philippines and Cuba. Wars of independence ensued in those colonies and eventually<!--for whatever reasons; it is not for here to go into contentious explanations!--> the United States became involved. Despite the commitment and ability shown by some military units, they were so mismanaged by the highest levels of command that the ], fought in the Spring of 1898, did not last long. "El Desastre" (The Disaster), as the war became known, helped give impetus to the ] who were already conducting much critical analysis concerning the country. It also weakened the stability that had been established during Alfonso XII's reign.


=== Spanish Civil War === === Restoration of democracy ===
{{Main|Spanish transition to democracy|Spanish society after the democratic transition}}
The 20th&nbsp;century brought little peace; Spain played a minor part in the ], with the colonisation of ], ] and ]. The heavy losses suffered during the ] in Morocco helped to undermine the monarchy. A period of authoritarian rule under General ] (1923–1931) ended with the establishment of the ]. The Republic offered political autonomy to the Basque Country, Catalonia and Galicia and gave voting rights to women.
]
] and ] ] in ] (1959)]]
In 1962, a group of politicians involved in the opposition to Franco's regime inside the country and in exile met in the congress of the ] in Munich, where they made a resolution in favour of democracy.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://politica.elpais.com/politica/2012/06/09/actualidad/1339259231_174858.html|title=El contubernio que preparó la democracia|work=EL PAÍS|date=9 June 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130405102702/http://politica.elpais.com/politica/2012/06/09/actualidad/1339259231_174858.html|archive-date=5 April 2013|last1=Villena|first1=Miguel Ángel}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.movimientoeuropeo.org/area-prensa/actividades/Contubernio-Munich-50-aniversario.php|title=Contubernio de Múnich: 50 años|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021124653/http://www.movimientoeuropeo.org/area-prensa/actividades/Contubernio-Munich-50-aniversario.php|archive-date=21 October 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lavanguardia.com/hemeroteca/20120605/54303390132/contubernio-munich-politica-oposicion-antifranquista-movimiento-europeo.html|title=El contubernio de Munich|work=La Vanguardia|date=4 June 2012|access-date=17 September 2014|archive-date=26 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141026212625/http://www.lavanguardia.com/hemeroteca/20120605/54303390132/contubernio-munich-politica-oposicion-antifranquista-movimiento-europeo.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
The ] (1936–39) ensued. Three years later the ] forces, led by General ], emerged victorious with the support of ] and ]. ] side was supported by the Soviet Union and Mexico and ], including the American ], but it was not supported officially by the Western powers due to the British-led policy of ].


With Franco's death in November 1975, ] succeeded to the position of ] and ] in accordance with the Francoist law. With the approval of the new ] and the ], the State ] much authority to the regions and created an internal organisation based on ]. The ] let people of Franco's regime continue inside institutions without consequences, even perpetrators of some crimes during transition to democracy like the ] or ].<!-- The 'founding chairman' of the current leading political party in Spain, the ], was ] who had been a minister in Franco's government and yet continued with his political career until shortly before his death in 2012.-->
The Civil War claimed the lives of over 500,000 people<ref>, Telegraph, October 16, 2008</ref> and caused the flight of up to a half-million citizens.<ref>, BBC News, February 23, 2003</ref> Most of their descendants now live in Latin American countries, with some 300,000 in Argentina alone.<ref>"". Telegraph.co.uk. December 28, 2008.</ref> The Spanish Civil War has been called the ] of the ]; ] the country was neutral in the Second World War, although ] to ].


In the Basque Country, moderate ] coexisted with a ] led by the armed organisation ] until the latter's dissolution in May 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/former_ep_presidents/president-fontaine/speeches/en/sp0066.htm|title=Speech by Mrs Nicole FONTAINE, President of the European Parliament on the occasion of the presentation of the Sakharov Prize 2000 to Basta ya!|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002164901/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/former_ep_presidents/president-fontaine/speeches/en/sp0066.htm|archive-date=2 October 2016}}</ref> The group was formed in 1959 during Franco's rule but had continued to wage its violent campaign even after the restoration of democracy and the return of a large measure of regional autonomy.
The only legal party under Franco's post civil war regime was the ], formed in 1937; the party emphasised ], ] and ]. Given Franco's opposition to competing political parties, the party was renamed the National Movement ('']'') in 1949.


On 23 February 1981, rebel elements among the security forces seized the Cortes in an attempt to impose ]. King Juan Carlos took personal command of the military and successfully ordered the coup plotters, via national television, to surrender.<ref>{{cite news|title=King Orders army to crush coup|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/1981/feb/23/spain.fromthearchive|access-date=19 March 2020|work=The Guardian|date=23 February 1981|archive-date=5 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005013653/https://www.theguardian.com/world/1981/feb/23/spain.fromthearchive|url-status=live}}</ref>
After World War II Spain was politically and economically isolated, and was kept out of the ]. This changed in 1955, during the ] period, it became strategically important for the U.S. to establish a military presence on the Iberian peninsula as a counter to any possible move by the U.S.S.R into the Mediterranean basin. In the 1960s, Spain registered an unprecedented rate of economic growth in what became known as the ], which resumed the much interrupted transition towards a modern economy.
] signing the treaty of accession to the ] on 12 June 1985]]
]]]
During the 1980s the democratic restoration made possible a growing open society. New cultural movements based on freedom appeared, like ]. In May 1982 Spain joined ], followed by ] after a strong social opposition. That year the ] (PSOE) came to power, the first left-wing government in 43 years. In 1986 Spain joined the ], which later became the ]. The PSOE was replaced in government by the ] (PP) in 1996 after scandals around participation of the government of ] in the ].


] in ]]]
With Franco's death in November 1975, ] assumed the position of ] and ] in accordance with the law. With the approval of the new ] and the ], the State ] much authority to the regions and created an internal organization based on ].
On 1 January 2002, Spain fully adopted the ], and Spain experienced strong economic growth, well above the EU average during the early 2000s. However, well-publicised concerns issued by many economic commentators at the height of the boom warned that extraordinary property prices and a high foreign trade deficit were likely to lead to a painful economic collapse.<ref>{{cite news|author=Pfanner, Eric|date=11 July 2002|title=Economy reaps benefits of entry to the 'club': Spain's euro bonanza|work=International Herald Tribune |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/11/business/worldbusiness/11iht-a10_18.html?scp=1&sq=Economy%20reaps%20benefits%20of%20entry%20to%20the%20%27club%27%20:%20Spain%27s%20euro%20bonanza&st=cse|access-date=9 August 2008|url-status=live|archive-date=1 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501090321/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/11/business/worldbusiness/11iht-a10_18.html?scp=1&sq=Economy%20reaps%20benefits%20of%20entry%20to%20the%20%27club%27%20:%20Spain%27s%20euro%20bonanza&st=cse}} See also: {{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_id=9118701|title=Spain's economy / Plain sailing no longer|newspaper=The Economist|date=3 May 2007|access-date=9 August 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080613212911/http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_id=9118701|archive-date=13 June 2008|url-status=live}}</ref>


In 2002, the ] occurred with big ecological consequences along Spain's Atlantic coastline. In 2003 ] supported US president ] in the ], and a strong movement against war rose in Spanish society. In March 2004 a local ] terrorist group inspired by ] carried out the largest terrorist attack in Western European history when they killed 191 people and wounded more than 1,800 others by ] in Madrid.<ref>{{cite news|title=Al-Qaeda 'claims Madrid bombings'|date=14 March 2004|publisher=BBC|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3509426.stm|access-date=13 August 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060624220502/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3509426.stm|archive-date=24 June 2006|url-status=live}} See also: {{cite news|publisher=BBC|title=Madrid bombers get long sentences|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7070827.stm|access-date=13 August 2008|date=31 October 2007|archive-date=14 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114145049/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7070827.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Though initial suspicions focused on the Basque terrorist group ], evidence of Islamist involvement soon emerged. Because of the proximity of the ], the issue of responsibility quickly became a political controversy, with the main competing parties PP and PSOE exchanging accusations over the handling of the incident.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3509744.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Spain votes under a shadow |access-date=13 August 2008|date=14 March 2004|first=Dominic|last=Bailey|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040825175335/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3509744.stm|archive-date=25 August 2004}}</ref> The PSOE won the election, led by ].<ref>{{cite news|title=An election bombshell|url=https://www.economist.com/europe/2004/03/18/an-election-bombshell|access-date=19 March 2020|newspaper=The Economist|date=18 March 2004|archive-date=19 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319233628/https://www.economist.com/europe/2004/03/18/an-election-bombshell|url-status=live}}</ref>
In the Basque Country, moderate ] has coexisted with a radical nationalist movement led by the terrorist group ]. The group was formed in 1959 during Franco's rule but has continued to wage its violent campaign even after the restoration of democracy and the return of a large measure of regional autonomy.


In the early 2000s, the proportion of ] increased rapidly during its economic boom but then declined due to the financial crisis.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Ortiz|first1=Fiona|title=Spain's population falls as immigrants flee crisis|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-spain-population/spains-population-falls-as-immigrants-flee-crisis-idUSBRE93L0J620130422|access-date=2 September 2017|work=Reuters|date=22 April 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170902102026/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-spain-population/spains-population-falls-as-immigrants-flee-crisis-idUSBRE93L0J620130422|archive-date=2 September 2017}}</ref> In 2005, the Spanish government legalised ], becoming the third country worldwide to do so.<ref>{{cite news|title=Spain legalises gay marriage|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/jun/30/gayrights.spain|access-date=19 March 2020|work=The Guardian|date=30 June 2005|archive-date=21 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200221223432/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/jun/30/gayrights.spain|url-status=live}}</ref> Decentralisation was supported with much resistance of Constitutional Court and conservative opposition, so did gender politics like quotas or the law against gender violence. Government talks with ETA happened, and the group announced its permanent cease of violence in 2010.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Tremlett|first1=Giles|title=Basque separatists Eta announce ceasefire|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/sep/05/eta-announces-ceasefire|access-date=19 March 2020|work=The Guardian|date=5 September 2010|archive-date=19 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319233632/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/sep/05/eta-announces-ceasefire|url-status=live}}</ref>
On 23 February 1981, rebel elements among the security forces seized the Cortes in an attempt to impose ]. King Juan Carlos took personal command of the military and successfully ordered the coup plotters, via national television, to surrender.
]
The bursting of the ] in 2008 led to the ]. High levels of unemployment, cuts in government spending and corruption in ] and ] served as a backdrop to the ].<ref>{{cite news|title=Spain's Indignados protest here to stay|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-18070246|access-date=19 March 2020|work=BBC News|date=15 May 2012|archive-date=19 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319235526/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-18070246|url-status=live}}</ref> ] also rose. In 2011, ]'s conservative ] won the election with 44.6% of votes.<ref>{{cite news|title=Rajoy ahoy|url=https://www.economist.com/newsbook/2011/11/21/rajoy-ahoy|access-date=19 March 2020|newspaper=The Economist|date=21 November 2011|archive-date=19 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319233630/https://www.economist.com/newsbook/2011/11/21/rajoy-ahoy|url-status=live}}</ref> As prime minister, he implemented austerity measures for EU bailout, the EU Stability and Growth Pact.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Tremlett|first1=Giles|title=Mariano Rajoy announces €65bn in austerity measures for Spain|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2012/jul/11/mariano-rajoy-spain-65bn-cuts|access-date=19 March 2020|work=The Guardian|date=11 July 2012|archive-date=19 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319233631/https://www.theguardian.com/business/2012/jul/11/mariano-rajoy-spain-65bn-cuts|url-status=live}}</ref> On 19 June 2014, the monarch, Juan Carlos, abdicated in favour of his son, who became ].<ref>{{cite news|title=Spain king: Juan Carlos signs his abdication|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-27910104|access-date=19 March 2020|work=BBC News|date=18 June 2014|archive-date=19 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319235805/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-27910104|url-status=live}}</ref>


In October 2017 a ] was held and the ] voted to unilaterally declare ] to form a Catalan Republic<ref>{{cite news|last1=Alandete|first1=David|title=Análisis. Is Catalonia independent?|url=https://elpais.com/elpais/2017/10/27/inenglish/1509117264_660083.html|work=]|date=27 October 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028042504/https://elpais.com/elpais/2017/10/27/inenglish/1509117264_660083.html|archive-date=28 October 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Ríos |first1=Pere |last2=Piñol |first2=Àngels |title=El Parlament de Cataluña aprueba la resolución para declarar la independencia|url=https://elpais.com/ccaa/2017/10/27/catalunya/1509105810_557081.html|work=]|date=27 October 2017|language=es|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171029185252/https://elpais.com/ccaa/2017/10/27/catalunya/1509105810_557081.html|archive-date=29 October 2017}}</ref> on the day the ] was discussing approving direct rule over Catalonia as called for by the Spanish Prime Minister.<ref name="BBC-27Oct17-1">{{cite news|date=26 October 2017|title=Catalan crisis: Regional MPs debate Spain takeover bid|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41760832|publisher=BBC|access-date=27 October 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026144624/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41760832|archive-date=26 October 2017}}</ref><ref name="BBC-27Oct17-2">{{cite news|date=27 October 2017|title=Catalan crisis: Spain PM Rajoy demands direct rule|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41771294|publisher=BBC|access-date=27 October 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171029003630/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41771294|archive-date=29 October 2017}}</ref> On the same day the Senate granted the power to impose direct rule and Rajoy dissolved the Catalan parliament and called a new election.<ref>{{cite news|date=27 October 2017|title=Catalonia independence: Rajoy dissolves Catalan parliament|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41783289|work=BBC News|location=Barcelona, Madrid|access-date=27 October 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028072348/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41783289|archive-date=28 October 2017 }}</ref> No country recognised Catalonia as a separate state.<ref name="EuN_20171027">{{cite news|last1=Sandford|first1=Alasdair|title=Catalonia: what direct rule from Madrid could mean|url=http://www.euronews.com/2017/10/27/catalonia-what-direct-rule-from-madrid-could-mean|access-date=27 October 2017|work=euronews|date=27 October 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027201407/http://www.euronews.com/2017/10/27/catalonia-what-direct-rule-from-madrid-could-mean|archive-date=27 October 2017}}</ref>
On the 30 May 1982 Spain joined ], following a referendum. That year the ] (PSOE) came to power, the first left-wing government in 43 years. In 1986 Spain joined the ]; what became the ]. The PSOE was replaced in government by the ] (PP) after the latter won the 1996 General Elections; at that point the PSOE had served almost 14 consecutive years in office.
], former minister of Health during COVID-19 pandemic in the first coalition Government in Spain, elected first non independentist Catalan regional president in over a decade, with Barcelona mayor ].]]


In June 2018, the ] passed a ] and replaced him with the PSOE leader ].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/01/world/europe/spain-mariano-rajoy-no-confidence.html |title=Spain's Prime Minister, Mariano Rajoy, Is Ousted in No-Confidence Vote |newspaper=The New York Times |date=June 2018 |access-date=18 June 2018 |last1=Minder |first1=Raphael |archive-date=19 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619012814/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/01/world/europe/spain-mariano-rajoy-no-confidence.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2019, the first ever coalicion government in Spain was formed, between PSOE and Unidas Podemos. Between 2018 and 2024, Spain faced an ] surrounding the mandate of the ] (CGPJ), until finally the mandate got renovated.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Spanish institutional crisis triggered by legal block of judicial reform |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/world/europe/2022/12/20/spanish-institutional-crisis-triggered-by-legal-block-of-judicial-reform/ |access-date=2023-08-04 |newspaper=The Irish Times |language=en |archive-date=4 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230804144518/https://www.irishtimes.com/world/europe/2022/12/20/spanish-institutional-crisis-triggered-by-legal-block-of-judicial-reform/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In January 2020, the ] virus was confirmed to have ], causing life expectancy to drop by more than a year.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Woolf|first1=Steven H.|last2=Masters|first2=Ryan K.|last3=Aron|first3=Laudan Y.|date=24 June 2021|title=Effect of the covid-19 pandemic in 2020 on life expectancy across populations in the USA and other high income countries: simulations of provisional mortality data|journal=BMJ|language=en|volume=373|pages=n1343|doi=10.1136/bmj.n1343|issn=1756-1833|pmid=34162598|pmc=8220857|doi-access=free}}</ref> The European Commission economic recovery package ] were created to support the EU member states to recover from the COVID-19 pandemic, and will be in use in the period 2021–2026. In March 2021, Spain became the sixth nation in the world to make ].<ref>{{cite web|last=Borraz|first=Marta|date=18 March 2021|title=Luz verde definitiva: la ley de eutanasia ya es una realidad en España tras superar su último trámite en el Congreso|url=https://www.eldiario.es/sociedad/luz-verde-definitiva-ley-eutanasia-supera-ultimo-tramite-congreso-entrara-vigor-tres-meses_1_7320129.html|access-date=19 March 2021|website=ElDiario.es|language=es|archive-date=18 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210318233215/https://www.eldiario.es/sociedad/luz-verde-definitiva-ley-eutanasia-supera-ultimo-tramite-congreso-entrara-vigor-tres-meses_1_7320129.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Following the ], prime minister Pedro Sánchez once again formed a coalition government, this time with ] (successors of ]).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bayer |first=Lili |date=2023-11-16 |title=Socialist leader Pedro Sánchez wins new term as Spanish PM following election gamble – as it happened |language=en-GB |work=the Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2023/nov/16/spain-acting-prime-minister-pedro-sanchez-expected-win-backing-for-new-term-europe-latest-updates |access-date=2023-12-07 |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=7 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207213108/https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2023/nov/16/spain-acting-prime-minister-pedro-sanchez-expected-win-backing-for-new-term-europe-latest-updates |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== 21st century ===
In 2024, the first non-independentist Catalan regional president in over a decade, ], was elected, normalising the constitutional and institutional relations between the national and the regional administrations. According to latest polls,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.newtral.es/sentimiento-catalan-espanol/20240501/ | title=La mitad de los catalanes se siente tan español como catalán, un 8,4% más desde las elecciones de 2012 | date=May 2024 }}</ref> only 17.3% of Catalans feel themselves as "only Catalan". 46% of Catalans would answer "as Spanish as Catalan", while 21.8% "more Catalan than Spanish".<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.newtral.es/sentimiento-catalan-espanol/20240501/ | title=La mitad de los catalanes se siente tan español como catalán, un 8,4% más desde las elecciones de 2012 | date=May 2024 }}</ref> Accordind to a 2024 poll of University of Barcelona, over 50% of Catalans would vote against independence, while less than 40% would vote in favour.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.elperiodico.com/es/politica/20230113/encuesta-independencia-catalunya-icps-uab-81112066 | title=El apoyo a la independencia de Catalunya baja del 40%, según una encuesta del ICPS | date=13 January 2023 }}</ref>
{{See|Spanish society after the democratic transition}}
]]]


== Geography ==
On 1 January 2002, Spain ceased to use the ] as currency replacing it with the ], which it shares with 15 other countries in the ]. Spain has also seen strong economic growth, well above the ] average, but well publicised concerns issued by many economic commentators at the height of the boom that the extraordinary property prices and high foreign trade deficits of the boom were likely to lead to a painful economic collapse were confirmed by a severe property led recession that struck the country in 2008/9.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2002/07/11/a10_18.php|title=Economy reaps benefits of entry to the 'club' : Spain's euro bonanza|publisher=International Herald Tribune|accessdate=2008-08-09|date=11 July 2002|author=Pfanner, Eric}} See also: {{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_id=9118701|title=Spain's economy / Plain sailing no longer|publisher=The Economist|date=3 May 2007|accessdate=2008-08-09}}</ref>
{{Main|Geography of Spain}}
]


At {{convert|505992|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}, Spain is the world's ] and ]. It is some {{convert|47000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} smaller than France. At {{convert|3715|m|abbr=on}}, Mount ] (]) is the highest mountain peak in Spain and is the third largest volcano in the world from its base. Spain is a ], having territory in both ] and ].
A ] in commuter trains in Madrid, Spain on 11 March 2004. After a five month trial in 2007 it was concluded the bombings were perpetrated by a local Islamist militant group inspired by ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3509426.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Al-Qaeda 'claims Madrid bombings'|accessdate=2008-08-13 | date=2004-03-14}} See also: {{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7070827.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Madrid bombers get long sentences|accessdate=2008-08-13 | date=2007-10-31}}</ref> The bombings killed 191 people and wounded more than 1800, and the intention of the perpetrators may have been to influence the outcome of the ], held three days later.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.realinstitutoelcano.org/wps/portal/rielcano/contenido?WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT=/Elcano_es/Zonas_es/Imagen+de+Espana/ARI+132-2004|title=Del 11-M al 14-M: estrategia yihadista, elecciones generales y opinión pública|accessdate=2008-08-09|publisher= Fundación Real Instituto Elcano}}</ref>


Spain lies between latitudes ] and ], and longitudes ] and ].
Though initial suspicions focused on the Basque group ], evidence soon emerged indicating possible ] involvement. Because of the proximity of the election, the issue of responsibility quickly became a political controversy, with the main competing parties ] and ] exchanging accusations over the handling of the aftermath.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3509744.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Spain votes under a shadow|accessdate=2008-08-13 | date=2004-03-14}}</ref> At the 14 March elections, PSOE, led by ], obtained a ], enough to form a new cabinet with Rodríguez Zapatero as the new ''Presidente del Gobierno'' or ], thus succeeding the former PP administration.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3512222.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Spain awakes to socialist reality|accessdate=2008-08-13 | date=2004-03-15}}</ref>


On the west, Spain is bordered by ]; on the south, it is bordered by ] and ], through its ]s in North Africa (] and ], and the peninsula of ]). On the northeast, along the ] mountain range, it is bordered by ] and ]. Along the Pyrenees in ], a small exclave town called ] is surrounded by France.
== Government ==

Extending to {{convert|1214|km|mi|abbr=on}}, the ] is the ] within the ].<ref>Medina García, Eusebio (2006). {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525185331/http://www.dip-badajoz.es/cultura/ceex/reex_digital/reex_LXII/2006/T.%20LXII%20n.%202%202006%20mayo-ag/RV000827.pdf|date=25 May 2017 }}. ''Revista de Estudios Extremeños''. Tomo LXII (II Mayo-Agosto). {{ISSN|0210-2854}}, pp. 713–723.</ref>

=== Islands ===
{{Main|List of islands of Spain}}
] island]]

Spain also includes the ] in the ], the ] in the Atlantic Ocean and a number of uninhabited islands on the Mediterranean side of the ], known as {{lang|es|]}} ("places of sovereignty", or territories under Spanish sovereignty), such as the ] and ]. The peninsula of ] is also regarded as a ''plaza de soberanía''. The isle of ], located in the Mediterranean between Spain and North Africa, is also administered by Spain, specifically by the municipality of ], Andalusia. The little ] in the River ] is a Spanish-French ].

There are 11 major islands in Spain, all of them having their own governing bodies (] in the Canaries, ] in Baleares). These islands are specifically mentioned by the Spanish Constitution, when fixing its Senatorial representation (Ibiza and Formentera are grouped, as they together form the ], part of the Balearic archipelago). These islands include ], ], ], ], ], ] and ] in the Canarian archipelago and ], ], ] and ] in the Balearic archipelago.

=== Mountains and rivers ===
], still an ] in ], Canary Islands, is the tallest peak in Spain.]]

Mainland Spain is a rather ] landmass, dominated by high ]s and mountain chains. After the Pyrenees, the main mountain ranges are the ] (Cantabrian Range), ] (Iberian System), ] (Central System), ], ] and the ] (Baetic System) whose highest peak, the {{convert|3478|m|ft|adj=mid|abbr=off|-high}} ], located in ], is the highest elevation in the Iberian Peninsula. The highest point in Spain is the ], a {{convert|3718|m|ft|adj=on}} active ] in the Canary Islands. The ] (often translated as 'Inner Plateau') is a vast plateau in the heart of peninsular Spain split in two by the Sistema Central.

There are several major ] such as the ] (''Tajo''), ], ], ] (''Duero''), ], ], ], ] and ] (''Miño''). ]s are found along the coast, the largest of which is that of the Guadalquivir in ].

=== Climate ===
{{Main|Climate of Spain}}
] map of Spain]]
]) from Pozo de La Oracion, ]]]
Three main climatic zones can be separated, according to geographical situation and ] conditions:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.schweizerbart.de/resources/downloads/paper_free/55034.pdf|title=World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated – (see p.3)|access-date=30 April 2011|archive-date=12 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412021016/http://www.schweizerbart.de/resources/downloads/paper_free/55034.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
* The ] is characterised by warm/hot and dry summers and is the predominant climate in the country. It has two varieties: ''Csa'' and ''Csb'' according to the ].
** The ''Csa'' zone is associated with areas with hot summers. It is predominant in the Southern Mediterranean (except southeastern) and Southern Atlantic coast and inland throughout ], Extremadura and much of the centre of the country. Some areas of Csa, mainly those inland, such as some areas of ], ], Madrid and some parts of Andalusia, have cool winters with some continental influences, while the regions with a Mediterranean climate close to the sea have mild winters.
** The ''Csb'' zone has warm rather than hot summers, and extends to additional cool-winter areas not typically associated with a Mediterranean climate, such as much of central and northern-central of Spain (e.g. western ], northeastern Castilla-La Mancha and northern Madrid) and into much rainier areas (notably ]).
* The ] (''BSk'', ''BSh'') is predominant in the southeastern quarter of the country, but is also widespread in other areas of Spain. It covers most of the ], southern and central-eastern ], eastern Andalusia, various areas of Castilla-La-Mancha, Madrid and some areas of Extremadura. Further to the north, it is predominant in the upper and mid reaches of the ] valley, which crosses southern ], central ] and western ]. It is also found in a small area in northern Andalusia and in a small area in central Castilla-León. Precipitation is limited with dry season extending beyond the summer and average temperature depends on altitude and latitude.
* The ] (''Cfb'') is located in the northern quarter of the country, especially in the Atlantic region (], ], ], and partly Galicia and Castile–León). It is also found in northern Navarre, in most highlands areas along the ] and in the ] valleys, where a humid subtropical variant (''Cfa'') also occurs. Winter and summer temperatures are influenced by the ocean, and have no seasonal drought.

Apart from these main types, other sub-types can be found, like the ] in areas with very high altitude, the ] in areas of northeastern Spain and the ]s (''Dfc'', ''Dfb'' / ''Dsc'', ''Dsb'') in the ] as well as parts of the ], the ], ] and the ], and a typical ] (''BWk'', ''BWh'') in the zone of ], ] and eastern ]. Low-lying areas of the Canary Islands average above {{convert|18.0|C|1}} during their coolest month, thus having influences of ], although they cannot properly be classified as tropical climates, as according to AEMET, their aridity is high, thus belonging to an arid or semi-arid climate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Evolucion de los climas de Koppen en España: 1951-2020 |url=https://www.aemet.es/documentos/es/conocermas/recursos_en_linea/publicaciones_y_estudios/publicaciones/NT_37_AEMET/NT_37_AEMET.pdf |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=] |archive-date=13 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240213184548/https://www.aemet.es/documentos/es/conocermas/recursos_en_linea/publicaciones_y_estudios/publicaciones/NT_37_AEMET/NT_37_AEMET.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Spain is one of the countries that is most affected by the ] in Europe. In Spain, which already has a hot and dry climate, extreme events such as ] are becoming increasingly frequent.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal|url=https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/|access-date=2021-08-17|website=World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last1=Medina |first1=Miguel Ángel |first2=Elisa |last2= Tasca|date=2021-08-12|title=Weather experts on Spain's heatwave: 'A summer like this will be considered cold in 30 years' time'|url=https://english.elpais.com/society/2021-08-12/weather-experts-on-spains-heatwave-a-summer-like-this-will-be-considered-cold-in-30-years-time.html|access-date=2021-08-17|website=EL PAÍS|language=en}}</ref> The country is also experiencing more episodes of drought and increased severity of these episodes.<ref>{{Cite web |first1=Fred|last1= Pleitgen|first2=Claudia|last2=Otto |first3=Laura|last3=Paddison |date=2023-05-02 |title=Disappearing lakes, dead crops and trucked-in water: Drought-stricken Spain is running dry |url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/05/02/europe/spain-drought-catalonia-heat-wave-climate-intl/index.html |access-date=2023-05-30 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> ] will be severely affected in various ] scenarios.<ref>{{cite journal |author=T. Estrela |author2=M.A. Pérez-Martin |author3=E. Vargas |title=Impacts of climate change on water resources in Spain |journal=Hydrological Sciences Journal |year=2012 |volume=57 |issue=6 |pages=1154–1167 |doi=10.1080/02626667.2012.702213 |doi-access=|bibcode=2012HydSJ..57.1154E }}</ref> To mitigate the ], Spain is promoting an ] to ], such as ] and ].<ref>{{cite web |title=Renewable energies in Spain |website=Institute for the Diversification and Saving of Energy |url=https://www.idae.es/articulos/renewable-energies-spain}}</ref>

=== Fauna and flora ===
] in ]. The region has 25% of the land covered by ] protected natural spaces.]]
{{main|Wildlife of Spain}}

The ] presents a wide diversity that is due in large part to the geographical position of the Iberian peninsula between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean and between Africa and ], and the great diversity of habitats and ], the result of a considerable variety of climates and well differentiated regions.

The vegetation of Spain is varied due to several factors including the diversity of the terrain, the climate and ]. Spain includes different ] regions, each with its own floral characteristics resulting largely from the interaction of climate, topography, soil type and fire, and ] factors. The country had a 2019 ] mean score of 4.23/10, ranking it 130th globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|display-authors=1|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Within the European territory, Spain has the largest number of plant species (7,600 vascular plants) of all European countries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Biodiversity in Spain |url=https://www.climatechangepost.com/spain/biodiversity/ |access-date=24 September 2022 |website=Climatechangepost.com |language=en |archive-date=24 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220924231535/https://www.climatechangepost.com/spain/biodiversity/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In Spain there are 17.804 billion trees and an average of 284 million more grow each year.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Biodiversidad |first=Fundación |date=18 February 2014 |title=The Foundation |url=https://www.fundacion-biodiversidad.es/en/about-us |access-date=24 September 2022 |website=Fundación Biodiversidad |language=en |archive-date=24 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220924231544/https://www.fundacion-biodiversidad.es/en/about-us |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Politics ==
{{Main|Politics of Spain}} {{Main|Politics of Spain}}
=== Constitution === {{See also|Spanish Constitution of 1978}}
{{multiple image
{{Main|Spanish Constitution of 1978}}
|align = right
]]]
|total_width = 300
], Prime Minister.]]
|image1 = Felipe VI in 2023.jpg
The '''Spanish Constitution of 1978''' is the culmination of the ].
|caption1 = ],<br>]
The constitutional history of Spain dates back to the constitution of 1812. Impatient with the pace of democratic political reforms in 1976 and 1977, Spain's new King Juan Carlos, known for his formidable personality, dismissed ] and appointed the reformer ] as Prime Minister.<ref name="From Dictatorship to Democracy">John Hooper, ''The New Spainards'', 2001, ''From Dictatorship to Democracy''</ref><ref name="Spain's fast-living king turns 70"> BBC News Friday, 4 January 2008 Extracted 18 June 2009</ref> The resulting ] convened the '']'' (the Spanish Parliament, in its capacity as a constitutional assembly) for the purpose of drafting and approving the constitution of 1978.<ref>http://www.senado.es/constitu_i/index.html|Spanish Constitution in English</ref> After a national a referendum on 6 December 1978, 88% of voters approved of the new constitution.
|image2 = Pedro Sánchez in 2023.jpg
|caption2 = ],<br>]
}}
The constitutional history of Spain dates back to the constitution of 1812. In June 1976, Spain's new King ] dismissed ] and appointed the reformer ] as Prime Minister.<ref name="From Dictatorship to Democracy">John Hooper, ''The New Spaniards'', 2001, ''From Dictatorship to Democracy''</ref><ref name="Spain's fast-living king turns 70"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100106025042/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7171971.stm|date=6 January 2010 }} BBC News Friday, 4 January 2008 Extracted 18 June 2009</ref> The resulting ] convened the '']'' (the Spanish Parliament, in its capacity as a constitutional assembly) for the purpose of drafting and approving the constitution of 1978.{{sfn|Spanish Constitution|1978}} After a national referendum on 6 December 1978, 88% of voters approved of the new constitution. As a result, Spain successfully transitioned from a ] to a ] ] composed of 17 ] and two ]. These regions enjoy varying degrees of autonomy thanks to the Spanish Constitution, which nevertheless explicitly states the indivisible unity of the Spanish nation.


=== Governance ===
As a result, Spain is now composed of 17 ] and two ] with varying degrees of autonomy thanks to its Constitution, which nevertheless explicitly states the indivisible unity of the Spanish nation as well as that Spain has today no official religion but all are free to practice and believe as they wish.
====The Crown====
{{quote box| width=250px| border=1px| align=left| bgcolor=#F5F5DC| quote=The independence of the Crown, its political neutrality and its wish to embrace and reconcile the different ideological standpoints enable it to contribute to the stability of our political system, facilitating a balance with the other constitutional and territorial bodies, promoting the orderly functioning of the State and providing a channel for cohesion among Spaniards.<ref>{{Cite web| url=https://www.casareal.es/EN/Paginas/home.aspx|title=HM The King's address to the Cortes Generales on the occasion of his accession|date=19 June 2014|publisher=Casa de Su Majestad El Rey}}</ref>| salign=right| source=], 2014}}
The ] provides for a ] between five ], which it refers to as "basic State institutions".{{Efn|Those nationwide institutions are the Crown, the Cortes Generales, the Government, the Judiciary, and the Constitutional Tribunal.}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s548|title=Section 86, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 11, 2024}}</ref><ref name="Institutions of Spain">{{Cite web|url=https://www.lamoncloa.gob.es/lang/en/espana/spanishinstitutions/Paginas/index.aspx|title=Institutions of Spain|publisher=La Moncloa, the Office of the President of the Government|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref> Foremost amongst these institutions is the Crown (''La Corona''), the symbol of the Spanish state and its permanence.<ref name="Constitute Project">{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s318|title=Section 56 (1), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref> Spain's "parliamentary monarchy" is a ] one whereby the reigning ] is the ] of the Crown and thus ].{{Efn|Most ] have been kings. However, a ] – while uncommon – is possible due to Spain's adherence to ]. ], will be Spain's first queen regnant since ], who reigned from 1833 to 1868, should she someday succeed her father ] as expected.}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s11|title=Section 1 (3), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref><ref name="Constitute Project"/><ref name="Shelley2015">{{cite book|author=Shelley, Fred M.|title=Governments around the World: From Democracies to Theocracies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wui6CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA197|date=2015|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-4408-3813-2|page=197|access-date=2 October 2018|archive-date=12 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230912033901/https://books.google.com/books?id=Wui6CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA197|url-status=live}}</ref> Unlike in some other constitutional monarchies however, namely the likes of ], ], ], ], ], or indeed the ], the monarch is not the fount of ] or even the ''nominal'' ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Belgium_2014#s141|title=Article 37, Constitution of the Kingdom of Belgium|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Denmark_1953#s1|title=Article 3, Constitution Act of the Kingdom of Denmark|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Luxembourg_2009#s110|title=Article 33, Constitution of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Netherlands_2008#s210|title=Article 42, Constitution of the Kingdom of the Netherlands|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Norway_2016#s7|title=Article 3, Constitution of the Kingdom of Norway|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/the-constitutional-role-and-working-of-the-monarchy-in-the-united |title=The Constitutional Role and Working of the Monarchy in the United Kingdom |author=Robert Blackburn |journal=Jahrbuch des Öffentlichen Rechts der Gegenwart |series=Neue Folge |year=2022 |volume=70 |pages=181–201 |editor=O. Lepsius |editor2=A. Nußberger |editor3=C. Schönberger |editor4=C. Waldhoff |editor5=C. Walter |name-list-style=amp |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |doi=10.1628/joer-2022-0009 |s2cid=257830288 |publication-date=2 June 2022 |access-date=19 June 2023 |archive-date=19 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230619174428/https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/the-constitutional-role-and-working-of-the-monarchy-in-the-united |url-status=live }}</ref> Rather, the Crown, as an institution, "...arbitrates and moderates the regular functioning of the institutions..." of the Spanish state.<ref name="Constitute Project"/> As such, the monarch ] between the disparate branches, mediates ], and prevents ].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sodré |first=Nelson Werneck |title=Panorama do Segundo Império |edition=2 |location=Rio de Janeiro |publisher=Graphia |year=2004|pages=91 |language=pt}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Torres |first=João Camilo de Oliveira |url=https://bd.camara.leg.br/bd/bitstream/handle/bdcamara/36281/democracia_coroada_camilo.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |title=A democracia coroada |edition= |location=Brasília |publisher=Câmara dos Deputados |year=2017|pages=105–106 |isbn=978-85-402-0667-0 |language=pt}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Sousa |first=Galvão |title=História do Direito Político Brasileiro |edition=2 |location=São Paulo |publisher=Saraiva |year=1962|pages=125–126 |language=pt}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Faoro |first=Raymundo |title=Os Donos do Poder |location= |publisher=Globo |year=2001 |url=http://www.usp.br/cje/anexos/pierre/FAORORaymundoOsDonosdoPoder.pdf|pages=343–344 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804114059/http://www.usp.br/cje/anexos/pierre/FAORORaymundoOsDonosdoPoder.pdf |archive-date=4 August 2016 |language=pt}}</ref>


In these respects, the Crown constitutes a fifth ] that does not make ] or administer ], functions which rightfully rest with Spain's duly elected legislatures and governments at both the national and regional level. Instead, the Crown personifies the democratic Spanish state, sanctions legitimate authority, ensures the legality of means, and guarantees the execution of the public will.<ref>{{cite speech|last=McCaughey|first=J. Davis|title=The Crown at State Level|event=Hugo Wolfsohn Memorial Lecture|date=1993 |location=Melbourne, Victoria, Australia|publisher=La Trobe University|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/veiled-sceptre/rejection-of-advice-to-act-illegally-or-unconstitutionally/86BBD8142954446646630418C1291A12|access-date=April 15, 2024|language=Australian English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|editor=Arthur Bousfield & Gary Toffoli|title=Royal Observations: Canadians and Royalty|publisher=Dundurn Press|location=Toronto, Ontario, Canada|year=1991}}</ref> Put another way, the monarch fosters national unity at home, represents Spaniards abroad (especially with regard to ]), facilitates the orderly operation and continuity of the ], defends ], and upholds the ].<ref name="Institutions of Spain"/> In other words, the Crown is the guardian of the Spanish constitution and of the rights and freedoms of all Spaniards.<ref name="Walther L. Bernecker 65–84">{{Cite journal|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/260997|title=Monarchy and Democracy: The Political Role of King Juan Carlos in the Spanish Transicion|author=Walther L. Bernecker|journal=Journal of Contemporary History|volume=33|issue=1|date=January 1998|pages=65–84|doi=10.1177/003200949803300104 |jstor=260997 }}</ref>{{Efn|Former king ]'s intervention and foiling of the ] is but one example of the Crown exercising its influence as the moderating branch to defend democracy and uphold the rule of law.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/Commentary/the-monitors-view/2019/0604/The-Spanish-king-who-set-then-saved-democracy|title=The Spanish king who set, then saved, democracy
=== Branches of government ===
|author=The Monitor's Editorial Board|magazine=Christian Science Monitor
Spain is a ], with a hereditary ] and a ], the '']''. The ] consists of a ] presided over by the ], ] by the ] and ] by the Congress of Deputies following legislative elections. By ] established by King Juan Carlos since the ratification of the 1978 Constitution, the king's nominees have all been from parties who maintain a ] of seats in the Congress.
|publisher=Christian Science Monitor|publication-date=4 June 2019|access-date=17 August 2024}}</ref>}} This stabilising role is in keeping with the monarch's ] upon ] "...to faithfully carry out duties, to obey the Constitution and the laws and ensure that they are obeyed, and to respect the rights of citizens and the Self-governing Communities."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s354|title=Section 61 (1), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref>


A number of constitutional powers, duties, rights, responsibilities, and functions are assigned to the monarch in his or her capacity as head of state. However, the Crown enjoys ] in the performance of these ] and ] in the very courts which administer justice in its name.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s318|title=Section 56 (3), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref> For this reason, every official act done by the monarch requires the ] of the ] or, when appropriate, the ] to have the force of law. The countersigning procedure or ''refrendo'' in turn transfers political and legal liability for the royal prerogative to the attesting parties.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s388|title=Section 64, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref> This provision does not apply to the ], over which the monarch enjoys absolute control and supervision, or to membership in the ], which is a ] in the personal gift of the ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s393|title=Section 65, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref>
The ] is made up of the ] (''Congreso de los Diputados'') with 350 members, elected by popular vote on block lists by proportional representation to serve four-year terms, and a ] (''Senado'') with 259 seats of which 208 are directly elected by popular vote and the other 51 appointed by the regional legislatures to also serve four-year terms.
* '''Head of State'''
** ] ], since 22 November 1975
* '''Head of Government'''
** ] (Spanish ''Presidente del Gobierno'' literally ''President of the Government''): ], elected 14 March 2004.
*** ] and Minister of Presidency: ].
*** ] and ]: ].
*** Third Vice President and Minister of Territorial Policy: ].
* '''Cabinet'''
** ] (Spanish ''Consejo de Ministros'') designated by the Prime Minister.


The royal prerogatives may be classified by whether they are ministerial functions or reserve powers. Ministerial functions are those royal prerogatives that are, pursuant to the ] established by ], performed by the monarch after soliciting the ] of the Government, the Congress of Deputies, the Senate, the General Council of the Judiciary, or the Constitutional Tribunal, as the case may be. On the other hand, the ] of the Crown are those royal prerogatives which are exercised in the monarch's personal discretion.<ref name="Walther L. Bernecker 65–84"/> Most of the Crown's royal prerogatives are ministerial in practice, meaning the monarch has no discretion in their execution and primarily performs them as a matter of state ceremonial. Nevertheless, when performing said ministerial functions, the monarch has the right to be consulted before acting on advice, the right to encourage a particular course of policy or action, and the right to warn the responsible constitutional authorities against the same. Those ministerial functions are as follows:
The Spanish nation is organizationally composed in the form of called ''Estado de las Autonomías'' ("]"); it is one of the most ] countries in Europe, along with Switzerland, Germany and Belgium;<ref>{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/europe/06/18/catalonia.vote/index.html|publisher=CNN|title=Catalonians vote for more autonomy|date=18 June 2006|accessdate=2008-08-13}} See also: {{cite web|url=http://www.oecd.org/document/57/0,2340,en_2649_201185_34578361_1_1_1_1,00.html|title=Economic Survey: Spain 2005|accessdate=2008-08-13|publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development}} and {{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/countries/Spain/profile.cfm?folder=Profile-FactSheet|title=Country Briefings: Spain|accessdate=2008-08-09|publisher=The Economist}} and {{cite web|url=http://www1.worldbank.org/wbiep/decentralization/Swiss%20Expertise/Muralt.pdf|title=Swiss Experience With Decentralized Government|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-08-13|publisher=]}}</ref> for example, all Autonomous Communities have their own elected parliaments, governments, public administrations, budgets, and resources; therefore, health and education systems among others are managed regionally, besides, the Basque Country and Navarre also manage their own public finances based on ] provisions. In Catalonia and the Basque Country, a full fledged autonomous police corps replaces some of the State police functions (see ], ], ] and ]).
#] and ] bills duly passed by the Cortes Generales, making them ]. The Spanish Constitution mandates the monarch grant royal assent to each bill within fifteen days of its passage; he or she does not have a right to ] legislation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s359|title=Section 62 (a), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s576|title=Section 91, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref>
#] the Cortes Generales into ] following a general election, ] the same upon the expiration of its four-year term, and ] the ] of the next Cortes. These functions are performed in accordance with the strictures of the Spanish Constitution.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s359|title=Section 62 (b), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s414|title=Section 68 (4), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s428|title=Section 69 (6), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s715|title=Section 116 (5), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s1191|title=Section 168, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref>
#Appoint and dismiss ] on the advice of the prime minister.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s359|title=Section 62 (e), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref>
#Appoint the president of the ] on the advice of the General Council of the Judiciary.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s763|title=Section 123 (2), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref>
#Appoint the president of the ] from among its members, on the advice of the full bench, for a term of three years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s1148|title=Section 160, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref>
#Appoint the ], who leads the ], on the advice of the Government. Before tendering advice, the Government is required to consult the General Council of the Judiciary.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s768|title=Section 124 (4), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref>
#Appoint the ] of the ] as elected by their respective parliaments.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s1082|title=Section 152 (1), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref>
#Issue ] approved in the Council of Ministers, confer ] and ], and award ] and ] in the gift of the state. These functions are performed on the advice of the prime minister or another minister designated thereby.{{Efn|The Spanish state honours system comprises the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], and the ], among other orders, decorations and medals. The prime minister is ] chancellor of the Order of Charles III. On the other hand, the ministers of ], ], and ] are the corresponding chancellors for the orders of Isabella the Catholic and of Civil Merit, the Civil Order of Alfonso X, the Wise, and the orders of Saint Raymond of Peñafort and of Constitutional Merit, respectively.}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s359|title=Section 62 (f), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref>
#Exercise ] over the ], on the advice of the prime minister.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s359|title=Section 62 (h), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref>
#] and ] on the advice of the prime minister and with the prior authorization of the Cortes Generales.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s381|title=Section 63 (3), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref>
#] ], on the advice of the prime minister.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s381|title=Section 63 (2), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref>
#Accredit Spanish ] and ] to foreign states and ] the ] of ] ] to Spain, on the advice of the prime minister.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s381|title=Section 63 (1), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref>
#Exercise the ], but without the authority to grant ], on the advice of the prime minister.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s359|title=Section 62 (i), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref>
#Patronise the Royal Academies.{{Efn|They being the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], and the ]}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s359|title=Section 62 (j), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref>


The aforesaid limitations do not apply to the exercise of the Crown's reserve powers, which may be invoked by the monarch when ] to maintain the continuity and stability of state institutions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.casareal.es/EN/corona/Paginas/la-corona-hoy_papel-jefe.aspx|title=Functions of the Head of State|publisher=Royal Household of Spain|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref> For example, the monarch has the right to be kept informed on affairs of state through regular ]s with the Government. For this purpose, the monarch may preside at any time over meetings of the Council of Ministers, but only when requested by the prime minister.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s1082|title=Section 62 (g), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref> Moreover, the monarch may prematurely dissolve the Congress of Deputies, the Senate, or both houses of the Cortes in their entirety before the expiration of their four-year term and, in consequence thereof, concurrently call for ]s. The monarch exercises this prerogative on the request of the prime minister, after the matter has been discussed by the Council of Ministers. The monarch may choose to accept or refuse the request.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s708|title=Section 115, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref> The monarch may also order national referendums on the request of the prime minister, but only with the prior authorisation of the Cortes Generales. Again, the monarch may choose to accept or refuse the prime minister's request.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s578|title=Section 92, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref>
{{See also|List of Spanish monarchs|Monarchs of Spain family tree}}


The Crown's reserve powers further extend into ] and the ]. The monarch appoints the 20 members of the ]. Of these counselors, twelve are nominated by the supreme, appellate and trial courts, four are nominated by the Congress of Deputies by a majority of three-fifths of its members, and four are nominated by the Senate with the same majority. The monarch may choose to accept or refuse any nomination.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s756|title=Section 122 (3), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref> In a similar vein, the monarch appoints the twelve magistrates of the ]. Of these magistrates, four magistrates are nominated by the Congress of Deputies by a majority of three-fifths of its members, four magistrates are nominated by the Senate with the same majority, two magistrates are nominated by the Government, and two magistrates are nominated by the General Council of the Judiciary. The monarch may choose to accept or refuse any nomination.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s1136|title=Section 159 (1), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref>
=== Gender equality in Government ===
As of November 2009, the Government of Spain keeps a balanced gender equality ratio. Nine out of the 18 members of the Government are women. Under the administration of ], Spain has been described as being "at the vanguard" in gender equality issues and also that "o other modern, democratic, administration outside Scandinavia has taken more steps to place gender issues at the centre of government".<ref>, ], 10 May 2008.</ref> The Spanish administration has also promoted gender-based ] by approving gender equality legislation in 2007 aimed to provide equality between genders in the Spanish political and economic life (Gender Equality Act).<ref>, IPS News, 13 March 2007.</ref><ref>, IPS News, 31 January 2008</ref> However, in the legislative branch, as of July 2010 only 128 out of the 350 members of the Congress are women (36.3%).<ref></ref> Nowadays, it positions Spain as the 13th country with more women in its ]. In the Senate, the ratio is even lower, since there are only 79 women out of 263 (30.0%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm |title=Women in National Parlaments |publisher=Ipu.org |date=2010-02-28 |accessdate=2010-05-01}}</ref> The ] of Spain in the United Nations ] is 0.794, the 12th in the world.<ref>, p.330.</ref>


However, it is the monarch's reserve powers concerning ] that are perhaps the most frequently exercised. The monarch nominates a candidate for ] and, as the case may be, appoints or removes him or her from office based on the prime minister's ability to maintain the ] of the ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s359|title=Section 62 (d), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref> If the Congress of Deputies fails to give its confidence to a new Government within two months, and is thus incapable of governing as a result of parliamentary gridlock, the monarch may dissolve the Cortes Generales and call for fresh elections. The monarch makes use of these reserve powers in his own deliberative judgment after consulting the president of the Congress of Deputies.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s625|title=Section 99, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref>
=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main|Autonomous communities of Spain|Provinces of Spain}}


====Cortes Generales====
{{Autonomous communities of Spain|float=right}}
]]]
The basic institutional law of the autonomous community is the ]. The Statutes of Autonomy establish the denomination of the community according to its historical identity, the limits of their territories, the name and organization of the institutions of government and the rights they enjoy according the constitution.<ref>. ''Spanish Constitution of 1978''. Accessed: 10 December 2007</ref>
] vests in the {{Lang|es|]}} ({{langx|en|Spanish Parliament|lit=General Courts}}), a democratically elected ] that serves as the supreme representative body of the Spanish people. Aside from the Crown, it is the only basic State institution that enjoys inviolability.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s400|title=Section 66, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 11, 2024}}</ref> It comprises the ] (''Congreso de los Diputados''), a ] with 350 deputies, and the ] (''Senado''), an ] with 259 senators.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s414|title=Section 68, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 11, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s428|title=Section 69, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 11, 2024}}</ref> Deputies are elected by ] on ]s via ] to serve four-year terms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.congreso.es/en/cem/func|title=Functions|publisher=Congress of Deputies of Spain|access-date=April 11, 2024}}</ref> On the other hand, 208 senators are directly elected by popular vote using a ] method, with the remaining 51 senators appointed by the ] to also serve four-year terms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.senado.es/web/conocersenado/temasclave/composicionsenadoelecciones/index.html|title=Composition of the Senate|publisher=Senate of Spain|access-date=April 11, 2024}}</ref>


====Government====
The government of all autonomous communities must be based on a division of powers comprising:
] rests with the ] (''Gobierno de España''), which is ] to the Congress of Deputies.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s614|title=Section 97, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 11, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s677|title=Part V. Relations Between the Government and the Cortes Generales, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 11, 2024}}</ref> It consists of the ], one or more ], and the various ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s616|title=Section 98 (1), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 11, 2024}}</ref> These characters together constitute the ] which, as Spain's ], conducts the business of the Government and administers the ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s614|title=Section 97, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 15, 2024}}</ref> The Government remains in office so long as it can maintain the ] of the Congress of Deputies.
* a Legislative Assembly whose members must be elected by ] according to the system of ] and in which all areas that integrate the territory are fairly represented;
* a Government Council, with executive and administrative functions headed by a president, elected by the Legislative Assembly and nominated by the ];
* a Supreme Court of Justice, under the Supreme Court of the State, which head the judicial organization within the autonomous community.


The prime minister, as ], enjoys primacy over the other ministers by virtue of his or her ability to ] the monarch as to their appointment and dismissal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s636|title=Section 100, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 11, 2024}}</ref> Moreover, the prime minister has plenary authority conferred by the Spanish Constitution to direct and coordinate the Government's policies and administrative actions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s616|title=Section 98 (2), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 11, 2024}}</ref> The Spanish monarch ] the prime minister after consulting representatives from the different parliamentary groups and in turn formally appoints him or her to office upon a vote of investiture in the Congress of Deputies.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s625|title=Section 99, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=April 11, 2024}}</ref>
Besides Andalusia, Catalonia, the Basque Country and Galicia, which identified themselves as nationalities, other communities have taken that denomination in accordance to their historical regional identity, such as the Valencian Community,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trobat.com/recursos/estatut-valencia.pdf |title=Estatut |format=PDF |language={{es icon}} |date= |accessdate=2009-07-20}}</ref> the Canary Islands,<ref>{{Dead link|date=July 2009}}</ref> the Balearic Islands,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.caib.es/webcaib/govern_illes/estatut_autonomia/doc/estatut2007.ca.pdf |title=BOCAe32.QXD |format=PDF |language={{ca icon}} |date= |accessdate=2009-07-20}}</ref> and Aragon.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://narros.congreso.es/constitucion/estatutos/estatutos.jsp?com=64&tipo=2&ini=1&fin=10&ini_sub=1&fin_sub=1 |title=Estatuto de Autonomía de Aragón |publisher=Narros.congreso.es |date= |accessdate=2009-07-20}}</ref>


=== Administrative divisions ===
The autonomous communities have wide legislative and executive autonomy, with their own ]s and regional governments.
{{Main|History of the territorial organization of Spain|Political divisions of Spain}}
The distribution of powers may be different for every community, as laid out in their Statutes of Autonomy. There used to be a clear '']'' distinction between so called "historic" communities (Basque Country, Catalonia, Galicia, Andalusia) and the rest. The "historic" ones initially received more functions, including the ability of the regional presidents to choose the timing of the regional elections (as long as they happen no more than four years apart).


==== Autonomous communities ====
As another example, the Basque Country, Navarre and Catalonia have full-range police forces of their own: ] in the ], ] in ] and ] in ]. Other communities have more limited forces or none at all (like the ''Policía Autónoma Andaluza''<ref name="cartujo">{{cite web |url=http://www.cartujo.org/pag(a9).htm | title=Unidad de Policía de la Comunidad Autónoma de Andalucía| author=Cartujo.org| accessdate=2007-10-23}} {{Es icon}}</ref> in ] or the ] in ]).
{{Main|Autonomous communities of Spain}}
{{See also|Nationalities and regions of Spain}}
{{Autonomous regions of Spain|float=right}}


Spain's autonomous communities are the first level administrative divisions of the country. They were created after the current constitution came into effect (in 1978) in recognition of the right to self-government of the "]".{{sfn|Spanish Constitution|1978|loc=Article 143}} The autonomous communities were to comprise adjacent provinces with common historical, cultural, and economic traits. This territorial organisation, based on ], is known in Spain as the "State of Autonomies" (''Estado de las Autonomías''). The basic institutional law of each autonomous community is the ]. The Statutes of Autonomy establish the name of the community according to its historical and contemporary identity, the limits of its territories, the name and organisation of the institutions of government and the rights they enjoy according to the constitution.{{sfn|Spanish Constitution|1978|loc=Article 147}} This ongoing process of devolution means that, while officially a ], Spain is nevertheless one of the most ] countries in Europe, along with ]s like ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/europe/06/18/catalonia.vote/index.html|publisher=CNN|title=Catalonians vote for more autonomy|date=18 June 2006|access-date=13 August 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080604012034/http://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/europe/06/18/catalonia.vote/index.html|archive-date=4 June 2008}} See also: {{cite web|url=http://www.oecd.org/document/57/0,2340,en_2649_201185_34578361_1_1_1_1,00.html|title=Economic Survey: Spain 2005|access-date=13 August 2008|publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080417005653/http://www.oecd.org/document/57/0,2340,en_2649_201185_34578361_1_1_1_1,00.html|archive-date=17 April 2008}} and {{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/topics/spain?folder=Profile-FactSheet|title=Country Briefings: Spain|access-date=9 August 2008|newspaper=The Economist|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014000013/http://www.economist.com/topics/spain?folder=Profile-FactSheet|archive-date=14 October 2012}} and {{cite web|url=http://www1.worldbank.org/wbiep/decentralization/Swiss%20Expertise/Muralt.pdf|title=Swiss Experience With Decentralized Government|access-date=13 August 2008|publisher=The World Bank|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819191608/http://www1.worldbank.org/wbiep/decentralization/Swiss%20Expertise/Muralt.pdf|archive-date=19 August 2008}}</ref>
However, the recent amendments made to their respective Statute of Autonomy by a series of "ordinary" Autonomous Communities such as the Valencian Community or Aragon have weakened this original de facto distinction.


Catalonia, Galicia and the Basque Country, which identified themselves as ''nationalities'', were granted self-government through a rapid process. Andalusia also identified itself as a nationality in its first Statute of Autonomy, even though it followed the longer process stipulated in the constitution for the rest of the country. Progressively, other communities in revisions to their Statutes of Autonomy have also taken that denomination in accordance with their historical and modern identities, such as the Valencian Community,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trobat.com/recursos/estatut-valencia.pdf|title=Estatut|language=es|access-date=20 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326021746/http://www.trobat.com/recursos/estatut-valencia.pdf|archive-date=26 March 2009}}</ref> the Canary Islands,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.gobiernodecanarias.org/tuestatuto/novedades.html#pre|title=Nuevo Estatuto de Autonomía de Canarias|publisher=.gobiernodecanarias.org|access-date=30 April 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110120074716/http://www2.gobiernodecanarias.org/tuestatuto/novedades.html|archive-date=20 January 2011}}</ref> the Balearic Islands,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.caib.es/webcaib/govern_illes/estatut_autonomia/doc/estatut2007.ca.pdf|title=BOCAe32.QXD|language=ca|access-date=20 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090711090828/http://www.caib.es/webcaib/govern_illes/estatut_autonomia/doc/estatut2007.ca.pdf|archive-date=11 July 2009}}</ref> and Aragon.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://narros.congreso.es/constitucion/estatutos/estatutos.jsp?com=64&tipo=2&ini=1&fin=10&ini_sub=1&fin_sub=1|title=Estatuto de Autonomía de Aragón|publisher=Narros.congreso.es|access-date=20 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091211225055/http://narros.congreso.es/constitucion/estatutos/estatutos.jsp?com=64&tipo=2&ini=1&fin=10&ini_sub=1&fin_sub=1|archive-date=11 December 2009 }}</ref>
==== Subdivisions ====
Autonomous communities are composed of ] (''provincias''), which serve as the territorial building blocks for the former. In turn, provinces are composed of ] (''municipios''). The existence of these two subdivisions is granted and protected by the constitution, not necessarily by the Statutes of Autonomy themselves. Municipalities are granted autonomy to manage their internal affairs, and provinces are the territorial divisions designed to carry out the activities of the State.<ref>. Spanish Constitution of 1978</ref>


The autonomous communities have wide legislative and executive autonomy, with their own elected parliaments and governments as well as their own dedicated ]. The distribution of powers may be different for every community, as laid out in their Statutes of Autonomy, since devolution was intended to be asymmetrical. For instance, only two communities—the Basque Country and Navarre—have full fiscal autonomy based on ancient ] provisions. Nevertheless, each autonomous community is responsible for healthcare and education, among other public services.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/spain/main-executive-and-legislative-bodies|title=Spain: Main executive and legislative bodies|publisher=European Commission|access-date=16 April 2024}}</ref> Beyond these competencies, the ''nationalities''—], the ], ], and ]—were also devolved more powers than the rest of the communities, among them the ability of the regional president to dissolve the parliament and call for elections at any time. In addition, the Basque Country, the ], Catalonia, and ] each have autonomous police corps of their own: '']'', '']'', '']'', and '']'' respectively. Other communities have more limited forces or none at all, like the ''Policía Autónoma Andaluza'' in ] or ] in Madrid.<ref name="cartujo">{{cite web|url=http://www.cartujo.org/pag(a9).htm|title=Unidad de Policía de la Comunidad Autónoma de Andalucía|publisher=Cartujo.org|access-date=23 October 2007|language=es|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071107145807/http://www.cartujo.org/pag(a9).htm|archive-date=7 November 2007}}</ref>
The current fifty province structure is based—with minor changes—on ] by ]. The communities of Asturias, Cantabria, La Rioja, the Balearic Islands, Madrid, Murcia and Navarre are counted as provinces as well, but were granted autonomy as single-provinces for historical reasons.

==== Provinces and municipalities ====
{{Main|Local government in Spain|Provinces of Spain|Municipalities of Spain}}

Autonomous communities are divided into ], which served as their territorial building blocks. In turn, provinces are divided into ]. The existence of both the provinces and the municipalities is guaranteed and protected by the constitution, not necessarily by the Statutes of Autonomy themselves. Municipalities are granted autonomy to manage their internal affairs, and provinces are the territorial divisions designed to carry out the activities of the State.<ref>. Spanish Constitution of 1978</ref>

The current provincial division structure is based—with minor changes—on the ] by ], and in all, the Spanish territory is divided into 50 provinces. The communities of Asturias, Cantabria, La Rioja, the Balearic Islands, Madrid, Murcia and Navarre are the only communities that comprise a single province, which is coextensive with the community itself. In these cases, the administrative institutions of the province are replaced by the governmental institutions of the community.


=== Foreign relations === === Foreign relations ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Spain}} {{Main|Foreign relations of Spain}}
].]]
] in 1993 and signed the Maastricht Treaty.]]
] in Barcelona, headquarters of the ]]]


After the return of ] following the death of ] in 1975, Spain's ] priorities were to break out of the diplomatic isolation of the ] and expand ], enter the ], and define security relations with the West. After the return of democracy following the death of ] in 1975, Spain's ] priorities were to break out of the diplomatic isolation of the ] and expand ], enter the ], and define security relations with the West.


As a member of ] since 1982, Spain has established itself as a major{{Clarify|date=May 2010}} participant in multilateral international security activities. Spain's EU membership represents an important part of its foreign policy. Even on many international issues beyond ], Spain prefers to coordinate its efforts with its EU partners through the European political cooperation mechanisms. As a member of ] since 1982, Spain has established itself as a participant in multilateral international security activities. Spain's EU membership represents an important part of its foreign policy. Even on many international issues beyond western Europe, Spain prefers to coordinate its efforts with its EU partners through the European political co-operation mechanisms.{{vague|date=March 2015}}


Spain has maintained its special relations with ] and the ]. Its policy emphasises the concept of an ]n community, essentially the renewal of the concept of ''"]"'' or ''"]o"'', as it is often referred to in English, which has sought to link the Iberian Peninsula with Hispanic America through language, commerce, history and culture. It is fundamentally "based on shared values and the recovery of democracy."<ref>Garcia Cantalapiedra, David, and Ramon Pacheco Pardo, ''Contemporary Spanish Foreign Policy'' (Routledge, 2014). Pg. 126</ref>
With the normalization of diplomatic relations with ] in 2001, Spain completed the process of universalizing{{Clarify|date=May 2010}} its diplomatic relations.


The country is involved in a number of ]. ], an ], in the southernmost part of the Iberian Peninsula.<ref>{{cite web
Spain has maintained its special identification with ]. Its policy emphasizes the concept of an ]n community, essentially the renewal of the historically liberal concept of ''hispanoamericanismo'', or Hispanism as it is often referred to in English, which has sought to link the Iberian peninsula with Latin America through language, commerce, history and culture. Spain has been an effective example of transition from dictatorship to democracy for formerly non-democratic Latin American states, as shown in the many trips that ] and ] have made to the region.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}


|url = http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/218/33/IMG/NR021833.pdf?OpenElement
==== Territorial disputes ====
|title = Resolution 2070: Question of Gibraltar
===== Territory claimed by Spain =====
|date = 16 December 1965
], a 6 square km ] in the southernmost part of the ]. Then a Spanish town, it was conquered by an Anglo-Dutch force in 1704 during the ] on behalf of the ], pretender to the Spanish throne.
|format = PDF
]]]
|publisher = United Nations

|access-date = 19 February 2010
The legal situation concerning Gibraltar was settled in 1713 by the ], in which Spain ceded the territory in perpetuity to the British Crown<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mgar.net/docs/utrech.htm|title=Tratado de Utretch – Gibraltar (Spanish)|accessdate=2008-08-09|publisher=mgar.net}}</ref> stating that, should the British abandon this post, it would be offered to Spain first. Ever since the 1940s Spain has called for the return of ]. The overwhelming majority of ] strongly oppose this, along with any proposal of shared sovereignty.<ref>
|url-status=dead
{{cite news
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110503183726/http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/218/33/IMG/NR021833.pdf?OpenElement
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/2400673.stm
|archive-date = 3 May 2011
|title=Q&A: Gibraltar's referendum|work=BBC News
|df = dmy-all
|publisher=BBC|date=8 November 2002
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|accessdate=19 February 2010
}}
</ref> UN resolutions call on the United Kingdom and Spain, both EU members, to reach an agreement over the status of Gibraltar.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/218/33/IMG/NR021833.pdf?OpenElement
|title=Resolution 2070: Question of Gibraltar|date=16 December 1965|format=PDF
|publisher=]
|accessdate=19 February 2010
}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/005/34/IMG/NR000534.pdf?OpenElement |url=http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/005/34/IMG/NR000534.pdf?OpenElement
|title=Resolution 2231: Question of Gibraltar|date=20 December 1966|format=PDF |title=Resolution 2231: Question of Gibraltar
|date=20 December 1966
|format=PDF
|publisher=] |publisher=United Nations
|accessdate=19 February 2010 |access-date=19 February 2010
|url-status=dead
}}
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503183729/http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/005/34/IMG/NR000534.pdf?OpenElement
</ref>
|archive-date=3 May 2011
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.maec.es/subwebs/Embajadas/Londres/es/MenuPpal/Gibraltar/Documents/000.001.002.003%20Título.%20Prefacio.Índice.%20Informe%20(27.02.08).doc|title=La cuestión de Gibraltar|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation of Spain|date=January 2008|access-date=3 January 2010|language=es|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090529192351/http://www.maec.es/subwebs/Embajadas/Londres/es/MenuPpal/Gibraltar/Documents/000.001.002.003%20T%C3%ADtulo.%20Prefacio.%C3%8Dndice.%20Informe%20%2827.02.08%29.doc|archive-date=29 May 2009 }}</ref> Another dispute surrounds the ]; Spain claims that they are rocks rather than islands, and therefore does not accept the Portuguese ] (200 nautical miles) generated by the islands.<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/prt44_09/esp_re_prt2013.pdf|title=Spain's letter to the UN|publisher=UN|date=September 2013|language=es|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525185334/http://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/prt44_09/esp_re_prt2013.pdf|archive-date=25 May 2017}}</ref><ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130908225016/http://www.theportugalnews.com/news/spain-disputes-portugal-islands/29269|date=8 September 2013 }} '']''. Retrieved 9 September 2013.</ref> Spain claims sovereignty over the ], a small, uninhabited rocky ] located in the South shore of the ]; it was the subject of an armed incident between Spain and Morocco in 2002. Morocco claims the Spanish cities of ] and ] and the '']'' islets off the northern coast of Africa. Portugal does not recognise Spain's sovereignty over the territory of ].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=La cuestión de Olivenza, a la luz del Derecho internacional público|last=Fernández Liesa|first=Carlos R.|publisher=Ayuntamiento de Olivenza|year=2004|pages=234–235|journal=Encuentros: Revista luso-española de investigadores en Ciencias humanas y sociales. Separatas|issue=4|format=PDF|url=http://e-archivo.uc3m.es/bitstream/handle/10016/17476/cuestion_fernandez_E_2004.pdf?sequence=1|issn=1138-6622|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140829092427/http://e-archivo.uc3m.es/bitstream/handle/10016/17476/cuestion_fernandez_E_2004.pdf?sequence=1|archive-date=29 August 2014}}</ref>


=== Military ===
However, the Spanish claim handles in a different way the Rock and the city of Gibraltar, ceded by the Treaty of Utrecht, and, on the other hand, the ] that connects the Rock to the Spanish mainland. Spain notes that this territory was not ceded by said Treaty and therefore asserts that the "occupation of the isthmus is illegal and against the principles of the ]".<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.maec.es/subwebs/Embajadas/Londres/es/MenuPpal/Gibraltar/Documents/000.001.002.003%20Título.%20Prefacio.Índice.%20Informe%20(27.02.08).doc | title=La cuestión de Gibraltar | publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation of Spain | date=January 2008 | accessdate=2010-01-03 | language=]}}</ref> The United Kingdom relies on ''de facto'' arguments of possession by ] in relation to the isthmus,<ref>{{cite book | title=Gibraltar: British or Spanish? | author=] | publisher=Routledge | year=2005 | isbn=978-0-415-34795-2 | url=http://books.google.com/?id=u9YH_fLPu1MC |page=4}}</ref> as there has been "continuous possession over a long period".<ref>{{cite web | author=UK Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs | year=1999 | url=http://www.fco.gov.uk/Files/kfile/OT13.pdf | title=Partnership for Progress and Prosperity: Britain and the Overseas Territories. Appendix 1: Profiles for Cayman Islands, Falkland Islands & Gibraltar | format=PDF | work=Partnership for Progress and Prosperity: Britain and the Overseas Territories | accessdate=2005-12-19}}</ref>
{{Main|Spanish Armed Forces}}
]-] {{ship|Spanish ship|Juan Carlos I||2}}]]
The ] are divided into three branches: ]; ]; and ].{{sfn|Spanish Constitution|1978|loc=Article 8}}
], 29 June 2022]]
The armed forces of Spain are known as the Spanish Armed Forces (''Fuerzas Armadas Españolas''). Their ] is the King of Spain, ].{{sfn|Spanish Constitution|1978|loc=Article 62}} The next military authorities in line are the Prime Minister and the Minister of Defence. The fourth military authority of the State is the ] (JEMAD).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lavanguardia.com/vida/20161106/411623401633/el-jefe-del-estado-mayor-del-ejercito-de-tierra-y-11-tenientes-generales-aspiran-a-jemad.html|website=]|date=6 November 2016|title=El jefe del Estado Mayor del Ejército de Tierra y 11 tenientes generales aspiran a JEMAD|access-date=1 February 2020|archive-date=1 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201044144/https://www.lavanguardia.com/vida/20161106/411623401633/el-jefe-del-estado-mayor-del-ejercito-de-tierra-y-11-tenientes-generales-aspiran-a-jemad.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The ] (''Estado Mayor de la Defensa'') assists the JEMAD as auxiliary body.


The Spanish armed forces are a professional force with a strength in 2017 of 121,900 active personnel and 4,770 reserve personnel. The country also has the 77,000 strong ] which comes under the control of the Ministry of defense in times of a national emergency. The Spanish defense budget is 5.71 billion euros (US$7.2 billion) a 1% increase for 2015. The increase comes because of security concerns in the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.janes.com/article/43968/update-spain-to-increase-defence-spending|title=Update: Spain to increase defence spending|work=janes.com|access-date=8 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518073610/http://www.janes.com/article/43968/update-spain-to-increase-defence-spending|archive-date=18 May 2015|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Military conscription was suppressed in 2001.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.elperiodico.com/es/politica/20160309/supresion-mili-servicio-militar-2001-aniversario-4962193|journal=]|title=Señores, se acabó la mili|date=9 March 2016|first=Rafa|last=Julve|access-date=1 February 2020|archive-date=1 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201043203/https://www.elperiodico.com/es/politica/20160309/supresion-mili-servicio-militar-2001-aniversario-4962193|url-status=live}}</ref>
Spain claims the sovereignty over the ], a small, uninhabited rocky ] located in the South shore of the ]. The island lies 250&nbsp;meters just off the coast of ], 8&nbsp;km from ] and 13.5&nbsp;km from mainland Spain. Its sovereignty is disputed between Spain and ]. It was the subject of an armed incident between the two countries in 2002. The incident ended when both countries agreed to return to the ] which existed prior to the Moroccan occupation of the island. The islet is now deserted and without any sign of sovereignty.


According to the 2024 ], Spain is the 23rd most peaceful country in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=2024 Global Peace Index |url=https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/GPI-2024-web.pdf}}</ref>
===== Spanish territories claimed by other countries =====
] claims the Spanish cities of ] and ] and the ] islets off the northern coast of Africa. ] does not recognise Spain's sovereignty over the territory of ].
]]]


=== Military === === Human rights ===
{{Main|Spanish Armed Forces}} {{Main|Human rights in Spain}}
{{See also|LGBT rights in Spain}}
The ] of Spain are known as the Spanish Armed Forces ({{lang-es|Fuerzas Armadas Españolas}}). Their ] is the ], ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.casareal.es/laCorona/laCorona-iden-idweb.html|title=Article 62 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978|publisher=Official site of the Royal Household of HM the King|accessdate=2008-08-13}}</ref>
The ] "protect all Spaniards and all the peoples of Spain in the exercise of human rights, their cultures and traditions, languages and institutions".{{sfn|Spanish Constitution|1978|loc=preamble}}

According to ] (AI), government investigations of alleged police abuses are often lengthy and punishments were light.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808081615/https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/europe-and-central-asia/spain/report-spain/|date=8 August 2016 }} Amnesty International. Retrieved 22 June 2016.</ref> Violence against women was a problem, which the Government took steps to address.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://justiciadegenero.com/en/analysis-of-8-years-of-gender-violence-law-in-spain/|title=Analysis of 8 years of Gender Violence Law in Spain {{!}} Gender violence and justice|date=4 March 2015|publisher=justiciadegenero.com|access-date=9 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525185333/http://justiciadegenero.com/en/analysis-of-8-years-of-gender-violence-law-in-spain/|archive-date=25 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://elpais.com/elpais/2015/11/25/inenglish/1448449401_599926.html|title=The successes and failures of Spain's fight against domestic abuse|last=Rincón|first=Reyes|date=25 November 2015|work=EL PAÍS|access-date=9 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525190421/http://elpais.com/elpais/2015/11/25/inenglish/1448449401_599926.html|archive-date=25 May 2017}}</ref>

Spain provides one of the highest degrees of liberty in the world for its ] community. Among the countries studied by ] in 2013, Spain is rated first in acceptance of homosexuality, with 88% of those surveyed saying that homosexuality should be accepted.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewglobal.org/2013/06/04/global-acceptance-of-homosexuality/|title=Global Acceptance of Homosexuality|date=4 June 2013|publisher=]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141110051728/http://www.pewglobal.org/2013/06/04/global-acceptance-of-homosexuality/|archive-date=10 November 2014}}</ref>


The Cortes Generales approved the ''Gender Equality Act'' in 2007 aimed at furthering ] in Spanish political and economic life.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipsnews.net/2007/03/spain-no-turning-back-from-path-to-gender-equality/|title=SPAIN: No Turning Back from Path to Gender Equality|publisher=Ipsnews.net|date=15 March 2007|access-date=5 May 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419015814/http://www.ipsnews.net/2007/03/spain-no-turning-back-from-path-to-gender-equality/|archive-date=19 April 2014 }}</ref> According to ] data as of 1 September 2018, 137 of the 350 members of the Congress were women (39.1%), while in the Senate, there were 101 women out of 266 (39.9%), placing Spain 16th on their list of countries ranked by proportion of women in the ] (or ]) House.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm|title=Women in National Parliaments|publisher=Ipu.org|date=28 February 2010|access-date=1 May 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328105108/http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm|archive-date=28 March 2014 }}</ref> The ] of Spain in the United Nations ] is 0.794, 12th in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_20072008_EN_Complete.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2007/2008|page=330|publisher=Hdr.undp.org|access-date=18 January 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429033726/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_20072008_EN_Complete.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011 }}</ref>
The ] are divided into three branches:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.senado.es/constitu_i/index.html|title=Article 8 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978|publisher=Official site of the Spanish Senate|accessdate=2008-11-29}}</ref>
* ]
* ]
* ]
<!--Do not add the Civil Guard. According to the Spanish Constitution: "The mission of the Armed Forces, comprising the Army, the Navy and the Air Force, is to guarantee the sovereignty and independence of Spain and to defend its territorial integrity and the constitutional order."-->


== Economy == == Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Spain}} {{Main|Economy of Spain}}
] in ]]]
{{wrapper}}
|]: ]]] ] and the ] business district in ]]]
Spain has a ] that ] of ] with ] and ]. It is one of ] with a ] ] (GDP) exceeding $1 ] per year, ranking ] worldwide and ] both in the ] and within the ]. Spain is classified as a ] by the ] and an ] by the ]. As of 2024, it is the fastest growing major advanced economy in the world,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lluch |first=Jorge |title=The real reason Spain's economy is bucking the trend of European decline |url=https://fortune.com/europe/2024/11/26/real-reason-spain-economy-bucking-trend-european-decline-starrtups-tech/ |access-date=2024-12-14 |website=Fortune Europe |language=en}}</ref> growing nearly four times higher than the eurozone average.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Spain shows Europe how to keep up with America's economy |url=https://www.economist.com/europe/2024/12/12/spain-shows-europe-how-to-keep-up-with-americas-economy |access-date=2024-12-14 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref>
|-
|]: finance centre]]
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|] on the Ebro, at sunset.]]
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Spain began ] in the late 18th century, albeit more gradually and unevenly than other European countries; industry was limited mostly to Catalonia (primarily textile manufacturing) and the ] (iron and steel production).<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2024-12-11 |title=Spain - Migration, Immigration, Emigration {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Spain/Migration#ref70285 |access-date=2024-12-14 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Overall economic growth was slower than in most major western European countries, and Spain remained relatively underdeveloped by the early 20th century.<ref name=":2" /> The ], followed by failed ] and interventionist policies that were worsened by ], left the economy on the brink of collapse by the late 1950s. ] reforms were enacted to avert the crisis, laying the groundwork for the ], a period of rapid growth from 1960 until 1974, during which Spain’s economy grew an average of 6.6 percent per year, exceeding every country except Japan.<ref name=":2" />
Spain's ] ] is the ] worldwide and the fifth largest in Europe. It is also the third largest world investor.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ottawaregion.com/media_lib/Doing_Business_Archive_Presentations/Doing_Business_in_Spain_Legal_Environment.pdf |title=Doing Business in Spain |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2009-07-20}}</ref>


Since its ] in the late 1970s, Spain has generally sought to ] its economy and deepen regional and international ]. It joined the ]—now the European Union—in 1986 and implemented policies and reforms that allowed for its participation in the inaugural launch of the euro in 1999. Spain's largest trade and investment partners are within the EU and eurozone, including its four largest export markets; EU membership also coincided with a tripling of ] from 1990 to 2000. Spain was among the countries hit hardest by the ] and subsequent ], enduring a ] that persisted through 2014.
The centre-right government of former prime minister ] worked successfully to gain admission to the group of countries launching the ] in 1999. ] stood at 7.6% in October 2006, a rate that compared favorably to many other European countries, and especially with the early 1990s when it stood at over 20%. Perennial weak points of Spain's economy include high inflation,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oecdobserver.org/news/fullstory.php/aid/1592/Spain%92s_economy_.html|title=Spain's Economy: Closing the Gap|publisher=] Observer|month=May | year=2005|accessdate=2008-08-15}}</ref> a large ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/Read.aspx?GUID=3E2579A7-6002-4048-97BB-46679C5D8A88|title=Going Underground: America's Shadow Economy|publisher=FrontPage magazine|month=January | year=2005|accessdate=2008-08-15}}</ref> and an education system which OECD reports place among the poorest for developed countries, together with the United States and UK.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/51/21/37392840.pdf|title=OECD report for 2006|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-08-09|publisher=OECD}}</ref>


Spain has long struggled with high ], which has never fallen below 8 percent since the 1980s; it stood at 11.21 percent in October 2024.<ref>{{cite web|title=Economically Active Population Survey. Third Quarter 2024.|url=https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/en/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736176918&menu=ultiDatos&idp=1254735976595|website=INE Instituto Nacional de Estadística |access-date=15 December 2024}}</ref> ] is particularly severe by both global and regional standards; at 25.8 percent (as of June 2024), it is the highest among EU members and well above the EU average of 14.6 percent.<ref>{{Cite web |title=EU youth unemployment 2024, by country |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/613670/youth-unemployment-rates-in-europe/ |access-date=2024-12-14 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://datosmacro.expansion.com/paro/espana?sector=Desempleo+hombres+menores+de+25+a%C3%B1os&sc=LAB-25-|title=Expansión / Unemployment, youth total (% of total labor force ages 15-24) (national estimate) - Spain}}</ref> Perennial weak points of Spain's economy include a large ];<ref>{{cite book|title=Invisible Factories: The Informal Economy and Industrial Development in Spain|publisher=SUNY Press|author=Benton, Lauren A. |date=1990}}</ref><ref>Roberto A. Ferdman, {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911114536/https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2013/07/spains-black-market-economy-is-worth-20-of-its-gdp/277840/|date=11 September 2017 }}, ''The Atlantic'' (16 July 2013)</ref><ref>Angel Alañón & M. Gómez-Antonio, , ''Applies Economics'', Vol 37, Issue 9, pp. 1011–1025 (2005).</ref> an education system that performs poorly compared to most developed countries;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/51/21/37392840.pdf|title=OECD report for 2006|access-date=9 August 2008|publisher=OECD|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819191607/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/51/21/37392840.pdf|archive-date=19 August 2008}}</ref> and low rates of private sector investment.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Spain shows Europe how to keep up with America's economy |url=https://www.economist.com/europe/2024/12/12/spain-shows-europe-how-to-keep-up-with-americas-economy |access-date=2024-12-14 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref>
However, the property bubble that begun building from 1997, fed by historically low interest rates and an immense surge in immigration, imploded in 2008, leading to a rapidly weakening economy and soaring unemployment. By the end of May 2009 unemployment already reached 18.7% (37% for youths).<ref>. CBCNews.ca. July 2, 2009.</ref><ref>. Telegraph. July 4, 2009.</ref>


Since the 1990s, which saw a wave of ],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Salmon |first=K. |date=2001 |title=Privatisation of state-owned enterprises in Spain: redefining the political economy |url=https://uhra.herts.ac.uk/handle/2299/4282 |journal=International Journal of Iberian Studies |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=136–147 |doi=10.1386/ijis.14.3.136 |issn=1364-971X}}</ref> several Spanish companies have reached multinational status; they maintain a strong and leading presence in Latin America—where Spain is the second largest foreign investor after the United States—but have also expanded into Asia, especially China and India.<ref name="Economist2009bet">{{cite news|date = 30 April 2009|access-date = 14 May 2009|title = A good bet?|newspaper = The Economist|series = Business|place = Madrid|url = http://www.economist.com/business/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13579705|url-status=live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090504012604/http://www.economist.com/business/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13579705|archive-date = 4 May 2009 }}</ref> As of 2023, Spain was home to ] in the world by annual revenue, according to the ''Fortune Global 500;'' these include ], the ] in the world; ] ], the world's largest renewable energy operator;<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/feeds/afx/2008/05/25/afx5046256.html|work=Forbes|title=Spain's Iberdrola signs investment accord with Gulf group Taqa|date=25 May 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100607172216/http://www.forbes.com/feeds/afx/2008/05/25/afx5046256.html|archive-date=7 June 2010}}</ref> and {{Lang|es|]|italic=no}}, ] and ]. Twenty Spanish companies are listed in the ] ranking of the 2,000 largest public companies, reflecting diverse sectors such as construction (]), aviation (]), pharmaceuticals (]), and transportation (]).<ref name="Economist2009big">{{cite news|date = 8 April 2009|access-date = 14 May 2009|title = Big in America?|newspaper = The Economist|series = Business|place = Madrid|url = http://www.economist.com/business/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13447445|url-status=live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090412092504/http://www.economist.com/business/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13447445|archive-date = 12 April 2009 }}</ref> Additionally, one of Spain's largest private sector entities is ], the world's largest ].
Before the current crisis, the Spanish economy was credited for having avoided the virtual zero growth rate of some of its largest partners in the EU.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.oecd.org/WBOS/ViewHTML.aspx?QueryName=198&QueryType=View&Lang=en|title=OECD figures|publisher=OECD|accessdate=2008-08-13}}</ref> In fact, the country's economy created more than half of all the new jobs in the European Union over the five years ending 2005, a process that is rapidly being reversed.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2006/jul/26/spain.gilestremlett|title=Economic statistics|publisher=Guardian|accessdate=2008-08-13 | location=London | first=Giles | last=Tremlett | date=2006-07-26}}</ref> The Spanish economy has been until recently regarded as one of the most dynamic within the EU, attracting significant amounts of foreign investment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.la-moncloa.es/NR/rdonlyres/2E85E75E-E2D9-4148-B1DF-950B06696A6C/74823/Chapter_2.PDF|title=Official report on Spanish recent Macroeconomics, including tables and graphics|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-08-13|publisher=La Moncloa}}</ref>


The ] is one of the largest employers in the country and a major contributor to economic growth, accounting for one-tenth of ] and 18 percent of total exports (including vehicles and auto-parts). In 2023, Spain produced 2.45 million automobiles—of which over 2.1 million were exported abroad—ranking eighth in the world and second in Europe (after ]) by total number;<ref name="ICEX">{{Cite news|url=https://www.investinspain.org/en/industries/automotive-mobility|title=Spain is the 2nd largest automaker in Europe and the 8th largest in the world|newspaper=ICEX-Invest in Spain|date=July 22, 2024|via=investinspain.org}}</ref> it is estimated that Spain will maintain this position by the end of 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Car Production by Country 2024 |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/car-production-by-country |access-date=2024-03-26 |website=worldpopulationreview.com}}</ref> In total, 89 percent of vehicles and 60% of auto-parts manufactured in Spain were exported worldwide in 2023; the total external trade surplus of vehicles alone reached €18.8bn in 2023. Overall, the automotive industry supports nearly 2 million jobs, or 9 percent of the labor force.<ref name="ICEX" />
The most recent economic growth benefited greatly from the ], with construction representing an astonishing 16% of GDP and 12% of employment in its final year.<ref name="guru"/> According to calculations by the German newspaper '']'', Spain was on course to overtake countries like Germany in per capita income by 2011.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europeanfoundation.org/docs/id210.pdf|title=No camp grows on both Right and Left|format=PDF|publisher=European Foundation Intelligence Digest|accessdate=2008-08-09}}</ref> However, the downside of the now defunct real estate boom is a corresponding rise in the levels of personal debt: as prospective home owners struggled to meet asking prices, the average level of household debt tripled in less than a decade. This placed especially great pressure upon lower to middle income groups; by 2005 the median ratio of indebtedness to income had grown to 125%, due primarily to expensive boom time mortgages that now often exceed the value of the property.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bde.es/informes/be/boleco/2005/be0507e.pdf|title=Bank of Spain Economic Bulletin 07/2005|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-08-13|publisher=Bank of Spain}}</ref>

In 2008/2009 the credit crunch and world recession manifested itself in Spain through a massive downturn in the property sector. Fortunately, Spain's banks and financial services avoided the more severe problems of their counterparts in the USA and UK, due mainly to a stringently enforced conservative financial regulatory regime. The Spanish financial authorities had not forgotten the country's own banking crisis of 1979 and an earlier real estate precipitated banking crisis of 1993. Indeed, Spain's largest bank, Banco Santander, took part in the UK government's bail-out of part of the UK banking sector.<ref>], article: "Spain", in Wankel, C. (ed.) ''Encyclopedia of Business in Today's World'', California, USA, 2009.</ref>

A European Commission forecast predicted Spain would enter a ] by the end of 2008.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/cf5d0f08-7f49-11dd-a3da-000077b07658.html?nclick_check=1|title=Recession to hit Germany, UK and Spain|publisher=]|date=2008-09-10|accessdate=2008-09-11}}</ref> According to Spain’s Finance Minister, “Spain faces its deepest recession in half a century”.<ref>, Spanish News, January 18, 2009</ref> Spain's government forecast the ] rate would rise to 16% in 2009. The ] business school predicted 20%.<ref>, The Economist, January 22, 2009</ref>


=== Tourism === === Tourism ===
{{Main|Tourism in Spain}} {{Main|Tourism in Spain}}
], one of Europe's largest coastal tourist destinations]]
During the last four decades the Spanish tourism industry has grown to become the second biggest in the world, worth approximately 40 billion Euros, about 5% of GDP, in 2006.<ref name="guru">{{cite web|url=http://www.theglobalguru.com/article.php?id=60&offer=GURU001|title="Global Guru" analysis|accessdate=2008-08-13|publisher=The Global Guru}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bde.es/informes/be/boleco/coye.pdf|format=PDF|publisher=]|title=Economic report|accessdate=2008-08-13}}</ref> Today, the ], historical and cultural monuments and its geographic position together with its facilities make tourism one of Spain's main national industries and a large source of stable employment and development. The Spanish hotel ] system has requirements much more demanding than other European countries, so at a given rating Spanish accommodations worth higher.<ref>{{cite web|last=Trend |first=Nick |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/columnists/nicktrend/5422970/European-hotel-star-ratings-explained.html |title=European hotel star ratings explained |publisher=Telegraph.co.uk |date=2009-06-02 |accessdate=2010-09-04}}</ref>
In 2023, Spain was the second most visited country in the world only behind ], recording 85 million tourists. The headquarters of the ] are located in Madrid.


Spain's geographic location, popular coastlines, diverse landscapes, historical legacy, vibrant culture, and excellent infrastructure have made the country's international tourist industry among the largest in the world. In the last five decades, international tourism in Spain has grown to become the second largest in the world in terms of spending, worth approximately 40&nbsp;billion Euros or about 5% of GDP in 2006.<ref name="guru">{{cite web|url=http://www.theglobalguru.com/article.php?id=60&offer=GURU001|title=Global Guru {{pipe}} analysis|access-date=13 August 2008|publisher=The Global Guru|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110106210622/http://www.theglobalguru.com/article.php?id=60&offer=GURU001|archive-date=6 January 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bde.es/informes/be/boleco/coye.pdf|publisher=]|title=Economic report|access-date=13 August 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080726044741/http://www.bde.es/informes/be/boleco/coye.pdf|archive-date=26 July 2008}}</ref>
=== Renewable energy ===
{{Main|Renewable energy in Spain}}
] ] solar power tower]]
Spanish territory lacks petroleum so alternative sources of energy is a strategic point. It has reached important records. In 2010 Spain overtakes United States as the ] world leader, with a massive power station plant called ].<ref>{{cite web|author=Morning Edition |url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=128532115 |title=Spain Is World's Leader In Solar Energy |publisher=Npr.org |date=2010-07-15 |accessdate=2010-09-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europeanfutureenergyforum.com/renewable-energy-news/spain-becomes-solar-power-world-leader |title=Spain becomes solar power world leader |publisher=Europeanfutureenergyforum.com |date=2010-07-14 |accessdate=2010-09-04}}</ref> In 2009 ], more than 50% of the produced energy in Spain was generated by wind mills, and the highest total production record was reached with 11.546 eolic Megawatts.<ref name="Graber2005">{{cite news
|last=Méndez
|first=Rafael |url=http://www.elpais.com/articulo/sociedad/eolica/supera/primera/vez/mitad/produccion/electrica/elpepusoc/20091109elpepisoc_2/Tes |title=La eólica supera por primera vez la mitad de la producción eléctrica |language=Spanish |date=9 November 2009
|work=El País |publisher= Ediciones El Pais
|accessdate=8 August 2010
}}</ref>


] is the Spanish leader in ] linked to its environmental and architectural heritage.
== Transportation ==
] ]]]
{{Main|Transport in Spain}}
The Spanish road system is mainly centralized, with 6 highways connecting ] to the ], ], ], ], ] and ]. Additionally, there are highways along the Atlantic (] to ]), Cantabrian (] to ]) and Mediterranean (] to ]) coasts.


=== Energy ===
Spain currently has a total of 1272&nbsp;km of high speed train linking ], ], ], ] and ]. Should the aims of the ambitious ] program (Spanish high speed trains) be met, by 2020 Spain will have 7000&nbsp;km (4300&nbsp;mi) of high-speed trains linking almost all provincial cities to Madrid in less than 3 hours and Barcelona within 4 hours.
{{Main|Energy in Spain}}
], with the ] in the foreground and the ] in the background]]


In 2010 Spain became the ] world leader when it overtook the United States with a massive power station plant called ], near ].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=128532115|title=Spain Is World's Leader in Solar Energy|newspaper=NPR.org|publisher=NPR|date=15 July 2010|access-date=4 September 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100919210041/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=128532115|archive-date=19 September 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europeanfutureenergyforum.com/renewable-energy-news/spain-becomes-solar-power-world-leader|title=Spain becomes solar power world leader|publisher=Europeanfutureenergyforum.com|date=14 July 2010|access-date=4 September 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124024231/http://europeanfutureenergyforum.com/renewable-energy-news/spain-becomes-solar-power-world-leader|archive-date=24 November 2010 }}</ref> Spain is also Europe's main producer of wind energy.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://phys.org/news/2018-05-spain-bilbao-european-power-sector.html|title=Spain's Bilbao fights to lead European wind power sector|first=Alvaro|last=Villalobos|date=6 May 2018|access-date=6 July 2018|work=]|language=es|archive-date=24 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221224013552/https://phys.org/news/2018-05-spain-bilbao-european-power-sector.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thelocal.es/20180506/spains-bilbao-fights-to-lead-european-wind-power-sector|title=Spain's Bilbao fights to lead European wind power sector|author=AFP|author-link=Agence France-Presse|date=6 May 2018|access-date=6 July 2018|work=]|language=es|archive-date=6 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180706161819/https://www.thelocal.es/20180506/spains-bilbao-fights-to-lead-european-wind-power-sector|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2010 its wind turbines generated 16.4% of all electrical energy produced in Spain.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eolicenergynews.org/?p=4082|title=Spain becomes the first European wind energy producer after overcoming Germany for the first time|publisher=Eolic Energy News|date=31 December 2010|access-date=30 April 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427085056/http://www.eolicenergynews.org/?p=4082|archive-date=27 April 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aeeolica.org/en|title=Asociación Empresarial Eólica – Spanish Wind Energy Association – Energía Eólica|publisher=Aeeolica|access-date=28 September 2018|archive-date=20 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020220021/https://aeeolica.org/en/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Graber2005">{{cite news|last=Méndez|first=Rafael|url=http://www.elpais.com/articulo/sociedad/eolica/supera/primera/vez/mitad/produccion/electrica/elpepusoc/20091109elpepisoc_2/Tes|title=La eólica supera por primera vez la mitad de la producción eléctrica|language=es|date=9 November 2009|work=El País|publisher=Ediciones El País|access-date=8 August 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513064239/http://www.elpais.com/articulo/sociedad/eolica/supera/primera/vez/mitad/produccion/electrica/elpepusoc/20091109elpepisoc_2/Tes|archive-date=13 May 2011 }}</ref> On 9 November 2010, wind energy reached a historic peak covering 53% of mainland electricity demand<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.renovablesmadeinspain.es/noticia/pagid/205/titulo/La%20e%C3%B3lica%20en%20Espa%C3%B1a%20bate%20de%20nuevo%20su%20marca%20de%20potencia%20instant%C3%A1nea/len/en/|title=Wind power in Spain breaks new instantaneous power record|publisher=renovablesmadeinspain.es|date=9 November 2010|access-date=5 June 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111214141437/http://www.renovablesmadeinspain.es/noticia/pagid/205/titulo/La%20e%C3%B3lica%20en%20Espa%C3%B1a%20bate%20de%20nuevo%20su%20marca%20de%20potencia%20instant%C3%A1nea/len/en/|archive-date=14 December 2011}}</ref> and generating an amount of energy that is equivalent to that of 14 ]s.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.elpais.com/articulo/sociedad/reactores/nucleares/movidos/viento/elpepusoc/20101109elpepusoc_4/Tes|title=14 reactores nucleares movidos por el viento|work=El País|date=9 November 2010|access-date=5 June 2011|archive-date=12 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230912033952/https://elpais.com/sociedad/2010/11/09/actualidad/1289257204_850215.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Other renewable energies used in Spain are ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://revista.consumer.es/web/es/20050501/medioambiente/69696.php|title=La Fuerza del Mar|publisher=revista.consumer.es|access-date=5 June 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110826034707/http://revista.consumer.es/web/es/20050501/medioambiente/69696.php|archive-date=26 August 2011}}</ref>
The busiest airport in Spain is the airport of ] (Barajas), with 50.8 million passengers in 2008, being the ]. The airport of ] (El Prat) is also important, with 30 million passengers in 2008. Other airports are located in ], ], ], ], ], ] and ].


Non-renewable energy sources used in Spain are ] (8 operative reactors), ], ], and ]. Fossil fuels together generated 58% of Spain's electricity in 2009, just below the OECD mean of 61%. Nuclear power generated another 19%, and wind and hydro about 12% each.<ref name="SverigeE">Energy in Sweden, Facts and figures, The Swedish Energy Agency, (in Swedish: Energiläget i siffror), Table for figure 49. Source: IEA/OECD . {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016045634/http://webbshop.cm.se/System/TemplateView.aspx?p=Energimyndigheten&view=default&cat=%2FBroschyrer&id=e0a2619a83294099a16519a0b5edd26f|date=16 October 2013}}</ref>
Spain aims to put 1 million ]s on the road by 2014 as part of the government's plan to save energy and boost ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.triplepundit.com/pages/algae-based-biofuels-in-plain--003362.php |title=Algae Based Biofuels in Plain English: Why it Matters, How it Works. (algae algaebiofuels carbonsequestration valcent vertigro algaebasedbiofuels ethanol) |publisher=Triplepundit.com |date=July 30, 2008 |accessdate=2008-11-19}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> The Minister of Industry ] said that "the electric vehicle is the future and the engine of an industrial revolution."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.triplepundit.com/pages/spain-to-put-1-million-electri-003363.php |title=Spain to Put 1 million Electric Cars on the Road|publisher=Triplepundit.com |date=July 30, 2008 |accessdate=2008-11-19}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>


=== Science and technology ===
== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Spain}} {{Main|Science and technology in Spain}}
] at sunset]]
{{See also|List of Spanish autonomous communities by population}}
The ] (CSIC) is the leading public agency dedicated to scientific research in the country. It ranked as the 5th top governmental scientific institution worldwide (and 32nd overall) in the 2018 SCImago Institutions Rankings.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scimagoir.com/rankings.php?sector=all|title=Scimago Institution Rankings|access-date=5 January 2018|archive-date=8 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200308131304/https://www.scimagoir.com/rankings.php?sector=all|url-status=live}}</ref> Spain was ranked 28th in the ] in 2024.<ref>{{Cite book |author=] |year=2024 |title=Global Innovation Index 2024: Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/en/ |access-date=2024-10-06 |website=www.wipo.int |page=18 |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.50062 |isbn=978-92-805-3681-2}}</ref>
]


Higher education institutions perform about a 60% of the basic research in the country.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Do universities matter for the location of foreign R&D?|first1=Dolores|last1=Añón Higón|first2=Alfonso|doi=10.1177/23409444211042382|last2=Díez-Minguela|journal=Business Research Quarterly|page=1; 5|year=2021|volume=27 |issue=2 |s2cid=239695136|doi-access=free|hdl=10550/88686|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Likewise, the contribution of the private sector to R&D expenditures is much lower than in other EU and OECD countries.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://academic.oup.com/rev/article/29/4/392/6382447?login=false#304714258|title=Mapping heterogeneity in a research system: The emergence of a 'hybrid' organizational field between science and industry|first1=Sandro|last1=Giachi|first2=Manuel|last2=Fernández-Esquinas|journal=Research Evaluation|volume=29|issue=4|year=2020|pages=392–405|doi=10.1093/reseval/rvaa014|access-date=11 May 2022|archive-date=11 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511005340/https://academic.oup.com/rev/article/29/4/392/6382447?login=false#304714258|url-status=live|doi-access=free}}</ref>
In 2008 the population of Spain officially reached 46 million people, as recorded by the ''Padrón municipal''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ine.es/jaxi/menu.do?type=pcaxis&path=%2Ft20/e260&file=inebase&L=1|publisher=Instituto Nacional de Estadística (National Statistics Institute)|title=Population Figures|accessdate=2008-08-13}}</ref> Spain's population density, at 91/km² (235/sq mi), is lower than that of most Western European countries and its distribution across the country is very unequal. With the exception of the region surrounding the capital, ], the most populated areas lie around the coast. The population of Spain doubled during the 20th&nbsp;century, principally due to the spectacular demographic boom in the 1960s and early 1970s.


=== Transport ===
Native ] make up 88% of the total population of Spain. After the ] plunged in the 1980s and Spain's population growth rate dropped, the population again trended upward, based initially on the return of many Spaniards who had emigrated to other European countries during the 1970s, and more recently, fuelled by large numbers of immigrants who make up 12% of the population. The immigrants originate mainly in ] (39%), ] (16%) ] (15%), and ] (4%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ine.es/inebase/cgi/axi?AXIS_PATH=/inebase/temas/t20/e245/p04/a2005/l0/&FILE_AXIS=00000010.px&CGI_DEFAULT=/inebase/temas/cgi.opt&COMANDO=SELECCION&CGI_URL=/inebase/cgi/|publisher=Instituto Nacional de Estadística|title=Población extranjera por sexo, país de nacionalidad y edad|accessdate=2008-08-13| archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080325043135/http://www.ine.es/inebase/cgi/axi?AXIS_PATH=/inebase/temas/t20/e245/p04/a2005/l0/&FILE_AXIS=00000010.px&CGI_DEFAULT=/inebase/temas/cgi.opt&COMANDO=SELECCION&CGI_URL=/inebase/cgi/| archivedate = March 25, 2008}}</ref> In 2005, Spain instituted a three-month amnesty program through which certain hitherto undocumented aliens were granted legal residency.
{{Main|Transport in Spain}}


The Spanish road system is mainly centralised, with six highways connecting Madrid to the ], ], ], West ], Extremadura and ]. Additionally, there are highways along the Atlantic (] to ]), Cantabrian (] to ]) and ] (] to ]) coasts. Spain aims to put one&nbsp;million ]s on the road by 2014 as part of the government's plan to save energy and boost ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.triplepundit.com/2008/07/algae-based-biofuels-in-plain-english-why-it-matters-how-it-works/|title=Algae Based Biofuels in Plain English: Why it Matters, How it Works. (algae algaebiofuels carbonsequestration valcent vertigro algaebasedbiofuels ethanol)|publisher=Triplepundit.com|date=30 July 2008|access-date=19 November 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518085937/http://www.triplepundit.com/2008/07/algae-based-biofuels-in-plain-english-why-it-matters-how-it-works/|archive-date=18 May 2013 }}</ref> The former Minister of Industry ] said that "the electric vehicle is the future and the engine of an industrial revolution."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.enn.com/energy/article/37798|title=Spain to Put 1&nbsp;million Electric Cars on the Road|publisher=Triplepundit.com|date=30 July 2008|access-date=19 November 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081123072310/http://www.enn.com/energy/article/37798|archive-date=23 November 2008 }}</ref>
In 2008, Spain granted citizenship to 84,170 persons, mostly to people from Ecuador, Colombia and Morocco.<ref>"" (PDF). ]. July 6, 2010.</ref> A sizeable portion of foreign residents in Spain also comes from other Western and Central European countries. These are mostly British, French, German, Dutch, and Norwegian. They reside primarily on the Mediterranean ''costas'' and Balearic islands, where many are choosing to live their retirement or ].


{{As of|2024|July}}, the Spanish high-speed rail network is the longest HSR network in Europe with {{convert|3,966|km|mi|abbr=on}}<ref name="ADIF"/> and the ], after China's. It is linking ], ], Madrid, ], ] and ], with the trains operated at commercial speeds up to {{convert|330|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lara Galera|first=Antonio L.|date=2015|title=El AVE Madrid-Barcelona, una obra de mérito|url=http://ropdigital.ciccp.es/pdf/publico/2015/2015_octubre_3569_07.pdf|journal=Revista de Obras Públicas|issue=3569|page=57|issn=0034-8619|access-date=1 February 2020|archive-date=1 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201214714/http://ropdigital.ciccp.es/pdf/publico/2015/2015_octubre_3569_07.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> On average, the Spanish high-speed train is the fastest one in the world, followed by the Japanese ] and the French ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elmundo.es/mundodinero/2010/11/09/economia/1289304399.html|title=El AVE español, el más veloz del mundo y el segundo en puntualidad|work=El Mundo|location=Spain|date=10 November 2010|access-date=5 June 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111109012118/http://www.elmundo.es/mundodinero/2010/11/09/economia/1289304399.html|archive-date=9 November 2011}}</ref> Regarding punctuality, it is second in the world (98.5% on-time arrival) after the Japanese Shinkansen (99%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.railpro.co.uk/magazine/?idArticles=34|title=Spain powers ahead with high-speed rail|publisher=railpro.co.uk|date=January 2010|access-date=5 June 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721092807/http://www.railpro.co.uk/magazine/?idArticles=34|archive-date=21 July 2011 }}</ref>
Substantial populations descended from ] colonists and immigrants exist in other parts of the world, most notably in Latin America. Beginning in the late 15th century, large numbers of Iberian colonists settled in what became Latin America and at present most ]s (who make up about one-third of Latin America's population) are of Spanish or Portuguese origin. In the 16th century perhaps 240,000 Spaniards emigrated, mostly to ] and ].<ref>. Universiteit Leiden.</ref> They were joined by 450,000 in the next century.<ref>{{Cite journal|url= http://www.millersville.edu/~columbus/data/art/AXTELL01.ART |title= The Columbian Mosaic in Colonial America |first= James |last= Axtell |journal= Humanities |date= September/October 1991 |volume= 12 |issue= 5 |pages= 12–18 |accessdate= 2008-10-08|postscript= <!--None--> | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080517052031/http://www.millersville.edu/~columbus/data/art/AXTELL01.ART| archivedate = May 17, 2008}}</ref> Between 1846 and 1932 nearly 5 million Spaniards went to the Americas, especially to ] and ].<ref>. Britannica Online Encyclopedia.</ref> From 1960 to 1975, approximately two million Spaniards migrated to other Western European countries. During the same time period, about 300,000 people left Spain for Latin America.<ref>. Focus–Migration.</ref>


There are 47 public airports in Spain. The busiest one is the ] (Barajas), with 60&nbsp;million passengers in 2023, being the ], as well as the European Union's third busiest. The ] (El Prat) is also important, with 50&nbsp;million passengers in 2023, being the world's 30th-busiest airport. Other main airports are located in ], ], ], and ].
=== Metropolitan areas ===
]
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<gallery widths="200px" heights="135px">
''See also ]''
File:RENFE_Class_103_Vinaixa.jpg|High-speed ] train near ], ]. Spain has ].<ref name="ADIF">{{cite web|url=https://www.adifaltavelocidad.es/red-ferroviaria/red-de-alta-velocidad|title=''Red de Alta Velocidad''|publisher=ADIF|access-date=7 May 2023|archive-date=20 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220183833/https://www.adifaltavelocidad.es/red-ferroviaria/red-de-alta-velocidad|url-status=live}}</ref>
Source: ], 2007<ref>
File:Port of Valencia.jpg|The ], one of the busiest in the ]
{{cite book |publisher=] |author=IGEAT |coauthors=IGSO, LATTS, TSAC |title=ESPON project 1.4.3: Study on Urban Functions: Final Report |date=March 2007 |isbn=978-2-9600467-2-4 |url=http://www.espon.eu/mmp/online/website/content/projects/261/420/file_2420/fr-1.4.3_April2007-final.pdf |accessdate=2009-04-09 }}
</ref> </gallery>
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="text-align:right;"
!Pos.|| City || Region || Prov. || population
|- style="text-align:right;"
| 1 || ''']''' || ] || Madrid ||6,103,000
|- style="text-align:right;"
| 2 || ''']''' || ] || Barcelona || 4,851,000
|- style="text-align:right;"
| 3 || ''']''' || ] || Valencia || 1,499,000
|- style="text-align:right;"
| 4 || ''']''' || ] || Seville || 1,262,000
|- style="text-align:right;"
| 5 || ''']''' || ] || Biscay || 1,000,000
|- style="text-align:right;"
| 6 || ''']''' || ] || Málaga || 900,000
|- style="text-align:right;"
| 7 || ''']–]''' || ] || Asturias || 844,000
|- style="text-align:right;"
| 8 || ''']–]''' || ] || Alicante || 793,000
|- style="text-align:right;"
| 9 || '''] ||''' ] || Las Palmas || 750,000
|- style="text-align:right;"
| 10 || '''] ||''' ] || Zaragoza || 730,000
|}


=== Main cities === == Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Spain}}
{| class="wikitable"
{{See also|List of Spanish autonomous communities by population}}
|- style="text-align:right;"
]
!Pos.|| City || Region || Prov. || population
|- style="text-align:right;"
| 1 || ''']''' || ] || Madrid || 3,213,271
|- style="text-align:right;"
| 2 || ''']''' || ] || Barcelona || 1,615,908
|- style="text-align:right;"
| 3 || ''']''' || ] || Valencia || 810,064
|- style="text-align:right;"
| 4 || ''']''' || ] || Seville || 703.206
|- style="text-align:right;"
| 5 || ''']''' || ] || Zaragoza || 699.240
|- style="text-align:right;"
| 6 || ''']''' || ] || Málaga || 566,447
|- style="text-align:right;"
| 7 || ''']''' || ] || Murcia || 430,571
|- style="text-align:right;"
| 8 || ''']''' || ] || Balearic Islands || 401,570
|- style="text-align:right;"
| 9 || '''] ||''' ] || Las Palmas || 381,723
|- style="text-align:right;"
| 10 || ''']''' || ] || Biscay || 353,340
|}


In 2024, Spain had a population of 48,946,035 people as recorded by Spain's '']''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ine.es|publisher=Instituto Nacional de Estadística (National Statistics Institute)|title=Population Figures|access-date=7 November 2024}}</ref> Spain's population density, at 96/km<sup>2</sup> (249.2/sq mi), is lower than that of most Western European countries and its distribution across the country is very unequal. With the exception of the region surrounding the capital, Madrid, the most populated areas lie around the coast. The population of Spain has risen {{Frac|2|1|2}} times since 1900, when it stood at 18.6&nbsp;million, principally due to the spectacular demographic boom in the 1960s and early 1970s.<ref>Joseph Harrison, David Corkill (2004). ''Spain: A Modern European Economy''. Ashgate Publishing. p. 23. {{ISBN|0-7546-0145-5}}.</ref>
=== Islands ===
Islander population:<ref>La superficie de las islas vendrá dada en hectáreas salvo la de las mayores islas de los archipiélagos canario y balear, así como las Plazas de Soberanía.</ref>
{|
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|
* 1. ] 899,833
* 2. ] 862,397
* 3. ] 838,397
* 4. ] 141,938
* 5. ] 125,053
* 6. ] 103,107
* 7. ] 92,434
* 8. ] 85,933
* 9. ] 22,259
* 10. ] 10,558
* 11. ] 7,957
* 12. ] 4,889
* 13. ] 658
* 14. ] 105
* 15. ] 61
|}


In 2022, the average ] (TFR) across Spain was 1.16 children born per woman,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/es/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736177003&menu=ultiDatos&idp=1254735573002|title=Indice coyuntural de fecundidad|publisher=Instituto Nacional de Estadística|access-date=19 June 2024 }}</ref> one of the lowest in the world, below the replacement rate of 2.1, it remains considerably below the high of 5.11 children born per woman in 1865.<ref>{{citation|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/children-born-per-woman?year=1800&country=ESP|title=Total Fertility Rate around the world over the last centuries|author=Roser, Max|date=2014|work=], ]|access-date=8 May 2019|archive-date=7 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180807185751/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/children-born-per-woman?year=1800&country=ESP|url-status=live}}</ref> Spain subsequently has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 43.1 years.<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/spain/|title=World Factbook EUROPE : SPAIN|work=]|date=12 July 2018|access-date=23 January 2021|archive-date=27 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927024323/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/spain/|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Peoples ===
{{Main|Spanish people|Nationalisms and regionalisms of Spain}}
The ], in its second article, recognises historic entities ("nationalities", a carefully chosen word in order to avoid the more politically charged "nations") and regions, within the context of the Spanish nation. For some people, Spain's identity consists more of an overlap of different regional identities than of a sole Spanish identity. Indeed, some of the regional identities may even conflict with the Spanish one.{{Clarify|date=February 2009}} Distinct traditional regional identities within Spain include the ], ], ] and ], among others.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2878.htm|title=Kingdom of Spain: People|accessdate=2008-08-13|publisher=US Department of State}}</ref>


Native ] make up 86.5% of the total population of Spain. After the ] plunged in the 1980s and Spain's population growth rate dropped, the population again trended upward initially upon the return of many Spaniards who had emigrated to other European countries during the 1970s, and more recently, fuelled by large numbers of immigrants who make up 12% of the population. The immigrants originate mainly in Latin America (39%), North Africa (16%), Eastern Europe (15%), and ] (4%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ine.es/inebase/cgi/axi?AXIS_PATH=/inebase/temas/t20/e245/p04/a2005/l0/&FILE_AXIS=00000010.px&CGI_DEFAULT=/inebase/temas/cgi.opt&COMANDO=SELECCION&CGI_URL=/inebase/cgi/|publisher=Instituto Nacional de Estadística|title=Población extranjera por sexo, país de nacionalidad y edad|access-date=13 August 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080325043135/http://www.ine.es/inebase/cgi/axi?AXIS_PATH=%2Finebase%2Ftemas%2Ft20%2Fe245%2Fp04%2Fa2005%2Fl0%2F&FILE_AXIS=00000010.px&CGI_DEFAULT=%2Finebase%2Ftemas%2Fcgi.opt&COMANDO=SELECCION&CGI_URL=%2Finebase%2Fcgi%2F|archive-date=25 March 2008|url-status=dead }}</ref>
It is this last feature of "shared identity" between the more local level or Autonomous Community and the Spanish level which makes the identity question in Spain complex and far from univocal.


In 2008, Spain granted citizenship to 84,170 persons, mostly to people from Ecuador, Colombia and Morocco.<ref>" {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140906072250/https://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/3-06072010-AP/EN/3-06072010-AP-EN.PDF|date=6 September 2014 }}" (PDF). ]. 6 July 2010.</ref> Spain has a number of descendants of populations from former colonies, especially Latin America and North Africa. Smaller numbers of immigrants from several ] countries have recently been settling in Spain. There are also sizeable numbers of Asian immigrants, most of whom are of Middle Eastern, ] and Chinese origin. The single largest group of immigrants are European; represented by large numbers of Romanians, Britons, ], French and others.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6161705.stm|title=Immigration statistics|publisher=BBC|access-date=13 August 2008|date=11 December 2006|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408081743/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6161705.stm|archive-date=8 April 2013}}</ref>
=== Minority groups ===
Spain has a number of descendants of populations from former colonies (especially ]) and immigrants from several ] and ] countries have been recently settling in Spain. There are also sizeable numbers of ]n immigrants, most of whom are of ], ]n, ], ]ern and ] origins; the population of Latin Americans(who can also be of Spaniard descent) is sizeable as well and a fast growing segment. Other growing groups are ], 760,000 in 2006, ] and other immigrants from the rest of Europe.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6161705.stm|title=Immigration statistics|publisher=BBC|accessdate=2008-08-13 | date=2006-12-11}}</ref>


=== Urbanisation ===
The arrival of the '']'', a ], began in the 16th&nbsp;century; estimates of the Spanish Gitano population fluctuate around 700,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eumap.org/reports/2002/eu/international/sections/spain/2002_m_spain.pdf|format=PDF|title=The Situation of Roma in Spain|accessdate=2008-08-14|publisher=Open Society Institute}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> The '']s'' (also Quinquis) are a minority group, formerly nomadic, that share a lot of the way of life of Gitanos. Their origin is unclear.
{{Main|List of metropolitan areas in Spain}}
{{Largest cities of Spain}}


=== Immigration === === Immigration ===
{{Main|Immigration to Spain}} {{Main|Immigration to Spain}}
]
According to the Spanish government there were 4.5 million foreign residents in Spain in 2007; independent estimates put the figure at 4.8 million people, or 11% of the total population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ifrc.org/publicat/wdr2006/|title=World Disasters Report 2006|publisher=Red Cross|accessdate=2008-08-14}}</ref> According to residence permit data for 2005, about 500,000 were ], another 500,000 were ]ian, more than 200,000 were ]n, and 260,000 were ]n. Other sizeable foreign communities are ] (8%), French (8%), ] (6%), German (6%) and ]n (3%). Spain has more than 200,000 migrants from West and Central Africa.<ref>"". The Earth Times. November 18, 2009.</ref> Since 2000, Spain has experienced high ] as a result of immigration flows, despite a birth rate that is only half the replacement level. This sudden and ongoing inflow of immigrants, particularly those arriving clandestinely by sea, has caused noticeable social tension.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ine.es/prodyser/pubweb/anuario06/anu06_02demog.pdf|publisher=Instituto Nacional de Estadística|title=Avance del Padrón Municipal a 1 de enero de 2006. Datos provisionales|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-08-13}} See also: {{cite web|url=http://www.imdiversity.com/villages/hispanic/world_international/pns_immigration_shift_1204.asp|title=Immigration Shift: Many Latin Americans Choosing Spain Over U.S.|accessdate=2008-08-13|publisher=IMDiversity, Inc}} and {{cite web|url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/07_21/b4035066.htm|title=Spain: Immigrants Welcome|accessdate=2008-08-13|publisher=Business Week}} and {{cite web|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/14628564/site/newsweek/print/1/displaymode/1098/|title=Immigrants Fuel Europe's Civilization Clash|accessdate=2008-08-13|publisher=MSNBC}} and {{cite web|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/01/22/news/spain.php|title=Spanish youth clash with immigrant gangs|accessdate=2008-08-13|publisher=International Herald Tribune}}</ref>


According to the official Spanish statistics (]) there were 6.6&nbsp;million foreign residents in Spain in 2024 (13.5%)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ine.es/dyngs/Prensa/ECP1T24.htm|title=Instituto Nacional de Estadística. Estadística del Padrón Continuo|publisher=]|website=ine.es|access-date=20 June 2024}}</ref> while all citizens born outside of Spain were 8.9&nbsp;million in 2024, 18.31% of the total population.<ref name="ine.es">{{cite web|url=https://www.ine.es/dyngs/Prensa/ECP1T24.htm|title=Cifras de Población (CP) a 1 de abril de 2024 Estadística de Migraciones (EM). Datos provisionales|publisher=]|website=ine.es|language=Spanish|access-date=20 June 2024}}</ref>
Within the EU, Spain has the second highest immigration rate in percentage terms after ], but by a great margin, the highest in absolute numbers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-NK-06-001/EN/KS-NK-06-001-EN.PDF|publisher=Eurostat|title=Population in Europe in 2005|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-08-13}}</ref> There are a number of reasons for the high level of immigration, including Spain's cultural ties with ], its geographical position, the porosity of its borders, the large size of its underground economy and the strength of the agricultural and construction sectors, which demand more low cost labour than can be offered by the national workforce.


According to residence permit data for 2011, more than 860,000 were Romanian, about 770,000 were ], approximately 390,000 were British, and 360,000 were ].<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723120919/http://www.ine.es/prensa/np648.pdf|date=23 July 2013 }}, 2011.</ref> Other sizeable foreign communities are Colombian, Bolivian, German, Italian, ], and Chinese. There are more than 200,000 migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa living in Spain, principally ] and ].<ref>"". The Earth Times. 18 November 2009.</ref> Since 2000, Spain has experienced high ] as a result of immigration flows, despite a birth rate that is only half the replacement level. This sudden and ongoing inflow of immigrants, particularly those arriving illegally by sea, has caused noticeable social tension.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ine.es/prodyser/pubweb/anuario06/anu06_02demog.pdf|publisher=Instituto Nacional de Estadística|title=Avance del Padrón Municipal a 1 de enero de 2006. Datos provisionales|access-date=13 August 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080726044741/http://www.ine.es/prodyser/pubweb/anuario06/anu06_02demog.pdf|archive-date=26 July 2008 }} and {{cite web|url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/07_21/b4035066.htm|title=Spain: Immigrants Welcome|access-date=13 August 2008|work=Business Week|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006223656/https://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/07_21/b4035066.htm|archive-date=6 October 2008 }} and {{cite web|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/14628564/site/newsweek/print/1/displaymode/1098/|title=Immigrants Fuel Europe's Civilization Clash|access-date=13 August 2008|publisher=MSNBC|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513052346/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/14628564/site/newsweek/print/1/displaymode/1098/|archive-date=13 May 2008|url-status=dead }} and {{cite web|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/01/22/news/spain.php|title=Spanish youth clash with immigrant gangs|access-date=13 August 2008|work=International Herald Tribune|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080603175159/http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/01/22/news/spain.php|archive-date=3 June 2008 }}</ref>
Another statistically significant factor is the large number of residents of EU origin typically retiring to Spain's Mediterranean coast. In fact, Spain was Europe's largest absorber of migrants from 2002 to 2007, with its immigrant population more than doubling as 2.5 million people arrived.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ine.es/inebase/cgi/um?M=%2Ft20%2Fe245%2Fp08%2F&O=pcaxis&N=&L=0|title=Population series from 1998|publisher=] Spanish Statistical Institute|accessdate=2008-08-14| archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071102141040/http://www.ine.es/inebase/cgi/um?M=/t20/e245/p08/&O=pcaxis&N=&L=0| archivedate = November 2, 2007}}</ref> According to the Financial Times, Spain is the most favoured destination for West Europeans considering a move from their own country and seeking jobs elsewhere in the EU.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://international.ibox.bg/news/id_1406161495|publisher=News.bg|title=Europeans Favour Spain for Expat Jobs|accessdate=2008-08-13}}</ref>


The number of immigrants in Spain has grown up from 500,000 people in 1996 to 5.2 million in 2008 out of a total population of 46 million.<ref>, October 10, 2007</ref><ref>, September 17, 2008</ref> In 2005 alone, a regularisation programme increased the legal immigrant population by 700,000 people.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2005/may/09/spain.gilestremlett |title=Spain grants amnesty to 700,000 migrants |publisher=Guardian |date= 2005-05-09|accessdate=2009-07-20 | location=London | first=Giles | last=Tremlett}}</ref> ] among immigrants has risen 67% in 2007. Spain's new ''Plan of Voluntary Return'' encourages immigrants to leave Spain for three years and offers up to €25,000, but so far, only 186 Ecuadorans have signed up to return.<ref>, TIME, October 20, 2008</ref><ref>, globeandmail.com, October 9, 2008</ref> In the program's first two months last year, just 1,400 immigrants took up the offer.<ref>, The Wall Street Journal, January 24, 2009</ref> Within the EU, Spain had the 2nd highest immigration rate in percentage terms after ], but by a great margin, the highest in absolute numbers, up to 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-NK-06-001/EN/KS-NK-06-001-EN.PDF|publisher=Eurostat|title=Population in Europe in 2005|access-date=13 August 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819191607/http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-NK-06-001/EN/KS-NK-06-001-EN.PDF|archive-date=19 August 2008 }}</ref> The number of immigrants in Spain had grown up from 500,000 people in 1996 to 5.2&nbsp;million in 2008 out of a total population of 46&nbsp;million.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080830020653/http://workpermit.com/news/2007-10-10/spain/spanish-immigration-budget-increases.htm|date=30 August 2008 }}, 10 October 2007</ref> In 2005 alone, a regularisation programme increased the legal immigrant population by 700,000 people.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/may/09/spain.gilestremlett|title=Spain grants amnesty to 700,000 migrants|work=The Guardian|location=London|date=9 May 2005|access-date=20 July 2009|first=Giles|last=Tremlett|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130829050736/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/may/09/spain.gilestremlett|archive-date=29 August 2013 }}</ref> There are a number of reasons for the high level of immigration, including Spain's cultural ties with Latin America, its geographical position, the porosity of its borders, the large size of its underground economy and the strength of the agricultural and construction sectors, which demand more low cost labour than can be offered by the national workforce.


Another statistically significant factor is the large number of residents of EU origin typically retiring to Spain's Mediterranean coast. In fact, Spain was Europe's largest absorber of migrants from 2002 to 2007, with its immigrant population more than doubling as 2.5&nbsp;million people arrived.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ine.es/inebase/cgi/um?M=%2Ft20%2Fe245%2Fp08%2F&O=pcaxis&N=&L=0|title=Population series from 1998|publisher=] Spanish Statistical Institute|access-date=14 August 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071102141040/http://www.ine.es/inebase/cgi/um?M=%2Ft20%2Fe245%2Fp08%2F&O=pcaxis&N=&L=0|archive-date=2 November 2007|url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2008, prior to the onset of the economic crisis, the ''Financial Times'' reported that Spain was the most favoured destination for Western Europeans considering a move from their own country and seeking jobs elsewhere in the EU.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://international.ibox.bg/news/id_1406161495|publisher=News.bg|title=Europeans Favour Spain for Expat Jobs|access-date=13 August 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010033728/http://international.ibox.bg/news/id_1406161495|archive-date=10 October 2008}}</ref>
[[File:Languages of Spain.svg|thumb|right|300px|'''The languages of Spain''' (simplified)

{| style="width:100%; background:none;"
In 2008, the government instituted a "Plan of Voluntary Return" which encouraged unemployed immigrants from outside the EU to return to their home countries and receive several incentives, including the right to keep their unemployment benefits and transfer whatever they contributed to the Spanish Social Security.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111018081322/https://www.planderetornovoluntario.es/index_uno.html|date=18 October 2011 }} Gobierno de España</ref> The programme had little effect.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710041236/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB123275552359911807|date=10 July 2017 }}, The Wall Street Journal, 24 January 2009</ref> Although the programme failed to, the sharp and prolonged economic crisis from 2010 to 2011, resulted in tens of thousands of immigrants leaving the country due to lack of jobs. In 2011 alone, more than half a million people left Spain.<ref name=emigracion /> For the first time in decades the net migration rate was expected to be negative, and nine out of 10 emigrants were foreigners.<ref name=emigracion> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111115152500/http://www.elpais.com/articulo/sociedad/580000/personas/van/Espana/elpepisoc/20111008elpepisoc_2/Tes|date=15 November 2011 }}. El País. Edición Impresa. 8 October 2011</ref>
| align=top |{{legend|#f30000|''']''' official and spoken all over the country}}
{{legend|#e090e0|''']''', co-official}}
{{legend|#356585|''']''', co-official}}
{{legend|#ffffbb|''']''', co-official}}
| align=top |
{{legend|#55ee99|''']''', co-official (dialect of ])}}
{{legend|#009f00|''']''', recognised}}
{{legend|#2070ff|''']''', recognised}}
{{legend|#eee400|''']''', unofficial}}
{{legend|#107010|''']''', unofficial}}
{{legend|#906010|''']''', unofficial}}
|}]]


=== Languages === === Languages ===
{{Main|Languages of Spain}} {{Main|Languages of Spain}}
]]]
] ({{lang|es|''español''}} or {{lang|es|''castellano''}}, ''Castilian'') is spoken all over the country and so is the only language with official status nationwide. But a number of ] have been declared co-official, along with Spanish, in the constituent communities where they are spoken:
* ] ({{lang|eu|''euskera''}}) (2%)<!-- citation follows --> in the ] and ];
* ] ({{lang|eu|''català''}}) (17%)<!-- citation follows --> in ] and the ]; ] (''valencià''), a distinct variant of Catalan, is official in the ];
* ] ({{lang|gl|''galego''}}) (7%)<ref></ref> in ].


Spain is a multilingual state.<ref name=conversi>{{cite web|url=http://easyweb.easynet.co.uk/conversi/smooth.pdf|last=Conversi|first=Daniele|title=The Smooth Transition: Spain's 1978 Constitution and the Nationalities Question|work=National Identities, Vol 4, No. 3|publisher=Carfax Publishing, Inc.|year=2002|access-date=28 January 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511172945/http://easyweb.easynet.co.uk/conversi/smooth.pdf|archive-date=11 May 2008}}</ref> ]—featured in the 1978 ] as ''castellano'' (])—has effectively been the official language of the entire country since 1931.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fFYa2ooeVXgC&pg=PA129|title=National, regional and minority languages in Europe|publisher=]|editor-first=Gerhard|editor-last=Stickel|chapter=Spain, a plurilingual state: Spanish and other official languages|first=Manuel|last=Casado Velarde|page=129|year=2011|location=Frankfurt|isbn=978-3-631-60365-9|access-date=24 July 2021|archive-date=12 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230912033901/https://books.google.com/books?id=fFYa2ooeVXgC&pg=PA129|url-status=live}}</ref> As allowed in the third article of the Constitution, the other 'Spanish languages' can also become official in their respective ]. The territoriality created by the form of co-officiality codified in the 1978 Constitution creates an asymmetry, in which Spanish speakers' rights apply to the entire territory whereas vis-à-vis the rest of co-official languages, their speakers' rights only apply in their territories.{{sfn|Ramallo|2018|p=465}}
There are also some other surviving ] ]s such as the Astur-Leonese group, which includes two languages in Spain: ] (officially called "]") which has protected status in ], and ], which is protected in Castile and León. Aragonese is vaguely recognized in ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jgpa.es/portal.do?TR=C&IDR=45|title=Junta General del Principado de Asturias|accessdate=2008-08-13|publisher=Junta General del Principado de Asturias}}</ref> Unlike Basque, Catalan/Valencian and Galician, these languages do not have any official status. This might be due to their very small number of speakers, a less significant written tradition in comparison to Catalan or Galician, and lower self-awareness of their speakers which traditionally meant lack of strong popular demand for their recognition in the regions in which they are spoken.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.proel.org/lenguas2.html|title=Languages of Spain map|accessdate=2008-08-15|publisher=Proel}}</ref>


Besides Spanish, other territorialised languages include ], ], ], ], Ceutan Arabic (]), ], ], ], ] and ], to which the ] and the sign languages may add up.<ref>{{Cite book|year=2018|doi=10.1515/9783110365955-018|publisher=]|editor-first=Wendy|editor-last=Ayres-Bennett|editor-first2=Janice|editor-last2=Carruthers|title=Manual of Romance Sociolinguistics<!--|pages=462–493-->|first=Fernando|last=Ramallo|chapter=17. Linguistic diversity in Spain |isbn=9783110365955|chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325696721|page=462|s2cid=158999790}}</ref> The number of speakers varies widely and their legal recognition is uneven, with some of the most vulnerable languages lacking any sort of effective protection.{{sfn|Ramallo|2018|p=463}} Those enjoying recognition as official language in some autonomous communities include Catalan/Valencian (in ] and the ] officially named as Catalan and in the ] officially named as ]); Galician (in ]); Basque (in the ] and part of ]); and Aranese in Catalonia.
In the ]n Spanish city of ], ] is spoken by a significant part of the population. In the tourist areas of the Mediterranean coast and the islands, ] and ] are widely spoken by tourists, foreign residents, and tourism workers.


Spanish is natively spoken by 74%, Catalan/Valencian by 17%, Galician by 7% and Basque by 2% of the Spanish population.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/spain/|title=CIA – The World Factbook – 5pain|publisher=Cia.gov|access-date=30 April 2011|archive-date=27 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927024323/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/spain/|url-status=live}}</ref>
== Culture ==
], Valencia]]
{{Main|Culture of Spain|UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Spain}}
Spain is known for its culturally diverse heritage, having been influenced by many nations and peoples throughout its history. Spanish culture has its origins in the ], ], ], ], ], and ]ic cultures.


Some of the most spoken foreign languages used by the immigrant communities include ], ] and ].<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://gramatica.usc.es/att/montserrat.recalde/Recalde_2016.pdf|year=2016|page=175|first=Montserrat|last=Recalde Fernández|title=Ser inmigrante en tempos de crise: Unha ollada multidisciplinar |editor-first=Montserrat|editor-last=Recalde Fernández|editor-first2=Carme|editor-last2=Silva Domínguez|publisher=Servizo de Publicacións e Intercambio Científico da Universidade de Compostela|doi=10.15304/9788416533015|chapter=A contribución da inmigración ao multilingüismo do Estado español|isbn=9788416533015|access-date=12 July 2021|archive-date=25 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725112956/https://gramatica.usc.es/att/montserrat.recalde/Recalde_2016.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The definition of a national Spanish culture has been characterized by tension between the centralized state, dominated in recent centuries by ], and numerous regions and minority peoples. In addition, the history of the nation and its Mediterranean and Atlantic environment have played strong roles in shaping its culture. After Italy, Spain has the second highest number of ] in the world, with a total of 40.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list|title=World Heritage List|publisher=UNESCO|accessdate=2008-08-13}}</ref>

=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in Spain}}
], one of the first European universities]]
State education in Spain is free and compulsory from the age of six to sixteen. The current education system is regulated by the 2006 educational law, LOE (''Ley Orgánica de Educación''), or Fundamental Law for the Education.<ref name=LOE_juridicas> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110525013507/http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/lo2-2006.html|date=25 May 2011 }}. Retrieved 23 September 2009</ref> In 2014, the LOE was partially modified by the newer and controversial LOMCE law (''Ley Orgánica para la Mejora de la Calidad Educativa''), or Fundamental Law for the Improvement of the Education System, commonly called ''Ley Wert'' (Wert Law).<ref name=LOMCE_juridicas> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212202355/http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/517990-lo-8-2013-de-9-dic-para-la-mejora-de-la-calidad-educativa.html|date=12 February 2015 }}. Retrieved 9 December 2013</ref> Since 1970 to 2014, Spain has had seven different educational laws (LGE, LOECE, LODE, LOGSE, LOPEG, LOE and LOMCE).<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212211059/http://www.teinteresa.es/educa/siete-leyes-educativas-franco-wert-zapatero-aznar-ucd-psoe-pp_0_1007900025.html|date=12 February 2015 }}. teinteresa.es</ref>

The levels of education are preschool education, primary education,<ref>{{cite web|title=Educación Primaria │Ministerio de Educación y Formación Profesional|url=http://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/contenidos/estudiantes/educacion-primaria.html|access-date=26 November 2020|language=es|archive-date=5 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105082455/http://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/contenidos/estudiantes/educacion-primaria.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> secondary education<ref>{{cite web|title=Educación Secundaria Obligatoria (ESO)│Ministerio de Educación y Formación Profesional|url=http://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/contenidos/estudiantes/educacion-secundaria.html|access-date=26 November 2020|language=es|archive-date=16 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116053618/https://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/contenidos/estudiantes/educacion-secundaria.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> and post-16 education.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bachillerato│Ministerio de Educación y Formación Profesional|url=https://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/contenidos/estudiantes/bachillerato.html|access-date=26 November 2020|archive-date=26 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126220810/https://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/contenidos/estudiantes/bachillerato.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> In regards to the professional development education or the vocational education, there are three levels besides the university degrees: the ''Formación Profesional Básica'' (basic vocational education); the ''Ciclo Formativo de Grado Medio'' or ''CFGM'' (medium level vocation education) which can be studied after studying the secondary education, and the ''Ciclo Formativo de Grado Superior'' or ''CFGS'' (higher level vocational education), which can be studied after studying the post-16 education level.<ref>{{cite web|title=La Formación Profesional actual en el sistema educativo – TodoFP│Ministerio de Educación y Formación Profesional|url=https://www.todofp.es/sobre-fp/informacion-general/sistema-educativo-fp/fp-actual.html|access-date=26 November 2020|language=es|archive-date=31 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031234851/https://www.todofp.es/sobre-fp/informacion-general/sistema-educativo-fp/fp-actual.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The ] coordinated by the ] currently ranks the overall knowledge and skills of Spanish 15-year-olds as significantly below the OECD average of 493 in reading literacy, mathematics, and science.<ref>{{cite web|title=Compare your country - PISA 2018|url=https://www2.compareyourcountry.org/pisa/country/ESP?lg=en|access-date=29 September 2021|website=www2.compareyourcountry.org|language=en|archive-date=27 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927232854/https://www2.compareyourcountry.org/pisa/country/ESP?lg=en|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA): Spain|url=https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/PISA2018_CN_ESP.pdf|access-date=29 September 2021|archive-date=29 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210929211954/https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/PISA2018_CN_ESP.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Health ===
{{Main|Health care in Spain|Abortion in Spain}}

The health care system of Spain (]) is considered one of the best in the world, in 7th position in the ranking elaborated by the ].<ref>World Health Organization, World Health Staff, (2000), Haden, Angela; Campanini, Barbara, eds., The world health report 2000 – Health systems: improving performance (PDF), Geneva: World Health Organization, {{ISBN|92-4-156198-X}}</ref> The health care is public, universal and free for any legal citizen of Spain.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.seg-social.es/Internet_1/Trabajadores/PrestacionesPension10935/Asistenciasanitaria/RegimenGeneral/BeneficiariosSituac30476/177501|title=Health care in Spain: Beneficiairies|publisher=seg-social.es|access-date=24 September 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525185420/http://www.seg-social.es/Internet_1/Trabajadores/PrestacionesPension10935/Asistenciasanitaria/RegimenGeneral/BeneficiariosSituac30476/177501|archive-date=25 May 2017}}</ref> The total health spending is 9.4% of the GDP, slightly above the average of 9.3% of the ].


=== Religion === === Religion ===
{{bar box
|title=Religions in Spain
|titlebar=#ddd
|float=right
|bars=
{{bar percent|Christianity|blue|77.2}}
{{bar percent|Non-religious|gray|18.7}}
{{bar percent|Islam|green|2.1}}
{{bar percent|Judaism|purple|0.2}}
{{bar percent|Others|pink|1.8}}
}}
{{Main|Religion in Spain}} {{Main|Religion in Spain}}
{{Pie chart
{{See|History of the Jews in Spain}}
|thumb = right
|caption= Religious self-definition in Spain (] survey; sample size: 3,935; February 2023)<ref>]., 3,961 respondents. The question was "¿Cómo se define Ud. en materia religiosa: católico/a practicante, católico/a no practicante, creyente de otra religión, agnóstico/a, indiferente o no creyente, o ateo/a?". Page 19.</ref>
|label1 = Practicing ]
|value1 = 18.5
|color1 = DarkRed
|label2 = Non-Practicing Catholic
|value2 = 37.5
|color2 = Red
|label3 = Believer in another religion
|value3 = 2.7
|color3 = MediumSlateBlue
|label4 = ]
|value4 = 12.6
|color4 = LightGray
|label5 = Indifferent/Non-believer
|value5 = 12.3
|color5 = WhiteSmoke
|label6 = ]
|value6 = 14.9
|color6 = Grey
|label7 = Did not answer
|value7 = 1.5
|color7 = Black
}}
]ism, which has a long history in Spain, remains the dominant religion. Although it no longer has official status by law, in all public schools in Spain students have to choose either a religion or ethics class. Catholicism is the religion most commonly taught, although the teaching of Islam,<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161126142129/http://www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-1992-24855|date=26 November 2016 }}, Documento BOE-A-1992-24855, Agencia Estatal Boletín Oficial del Estado</ref> Judaism,<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227231842/https://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-1992-24854|date=27 December 2016 }}, Documento BOE-A-1992-24854, Agencia Estatal Boletín Oficial del Estado</ref> and evangelical Christianity<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161126142109/http://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-1992-24853|date=26 November 2016 }}, Documento BOE-A-1992-24853, Agencia Estatal Boletín Oficial del Estado</ref> is also recognised in law. According to a 2020 study by the Spanish Centre for Sociological Research, about 61% of Spaniards self-identify as ], 3% other faiths, and about 35% identify with ].<ref name=CIS2020>Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas: {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200720202206/http://datos.cis.es/pdf/Es3288marMT_A.pdf |date=20 July 2020 }}¿Cómo se define Ud. en materia religiosa: católico/a practicante, católico/a no practicante, creyente de otra religión, agnóstico/a, indiferente o no creyente, o ateo/a?</ref> Most Spaniards do not participate regularly in religious services.<ref name=CIS /> Recent polls and surveys suggest that around 30% of the Spanish population is irreligious.<ref name=CIS>{{cite web|url=http://www.cis.es/cis/opencm/ES/1_encuestas/estudios/ver.jsp?estudio=14473&cuestionario=17452&muestra=24446|author=Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas (Centre for Sociological Research)|title=Macrobarómetro de octubre 2019, Banco de datos|date=October 2019|page=160|access-date=17 December 2019|language=es|archive-date=14 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614123408/http://www.cis.es/cis/opencm/ES/1_encuestas/estudios/ver.jsp?estudio=14473&cuestionario=17452&muestra=24446|url-status=live}} The question was "¿Cómo se define Ud. en materia religiosa: católico/a practicante, católico/a no practicante, creyente de otra religion, agnóstico/a, indiferente o no creyente, o ateo/a?", the weight used was "PESOCCAA" which reflects the population sizes of the ].</ref><ref name="WVS">{{cite web|title=WVS Database|url=http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSOnline.jsp|website=World Values Survey|publisher=Institute for Comparative Survey Research|date=March 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105141038/http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSOnline.jsp|archive-date=5 January 2016}}</ref><ref name="GallupInternational">{{cite news|title=Gallup International Religiosity Index|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/files/2015/04/WIN.GALLUP-INTERNATIONAL-RELIGIOUSITY-INDEX.pdf|newspaper=The Washington Post|publisher=WIN-Gallup International|date=April 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201065414/https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/files/2015/04/WIN.GALLUP-INTERNATIONAL-RELIGIOUSITY-INDEX.pdf|archive-date=1 February 2016}}</ref>


The Spanish constitution enshrines ] in governance, as well as freedom of religion or belief for all, saying that no religion should have a "state character", while allowing for the state to "cooperate" with religious groups.
]ism has long been the main religion of Spain,and although it no longer has official status by law,in all public schools in Spain students have to choose either religion or ethics and catholic is the only religion offically taught although in some schools there are large numbers of muslim students together.According to a July 2009 study by the Spanish Center of Sociological Research about 73% of Spaniards self-identify as Catholics, 2% other faith, and about 22% identify with ]. Most Spaniards do not participate regularly in religious services. This same study shows that of the Spaniards who identify themselves as religious, 58% hardly ever or never go to church, 17% go to church some times a year, 9% some time per month and 15% every Sunday or multiple times per week.<ref name=CIS>{{cite web|url=http://www.cis.es/cis/opencms/-Archivos/Marginales/2800_2819/2811/es2811.pdf|title=Barómetro julio 2009, Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas, July 2009|accessdate=2009-10-16}}</ref>


] churches have about 1,200,000 members.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ferede.org/general.php?pag=estad#1|title=Federación de Entidades Religiosas Evangélicas de España – FEREDE|publisher=Ferede.org|access-date=4 September 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930083055/http://www.ferede.org/general.php?pag=estad#1|archive-date=30 September 2011 }}</ref> There are about 105,000 ]. ] has approximately 46,000 adherents in 133 congregations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/country/spain|title=Spain – Newsroom|publisher=churchofjesuschrist.org|access-date=4 September 2010|archive-date=14 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614092620/https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/country/spain|url-status=live}}</ref>
But according to a December 2006 study, 48% of the population declared a belief in a supreme being, while 41% described themselves as atheist or agnostic.<ref>, Angus Reid Global Monitor, December 30, 2006</ref> Altogether, about 22% of the entire Spanish population attends religious services at least once per month.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mas.lne.es/documentos/archivos/20-11-06-cis.pdf|publisher=Centre of Sociological Investigations|title=October poll, questions 32 and 32a|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-08-13}}</ref> Though Spanish society has become considerably more secular in recent decades, the influx of Latin American immigrants, who tend to be strong Catholic practitioners, has helped the Catholic Church to recover.
] (]), the destination of the ]]]


A study made by the ] demonstrated that there were more than 2,100,000 inhabitants of Muslim background living in Spain {{As of|2019|lc=y}}, accounting for 4–5% of the total population of Spain. The vast majority was composed of immigrants and descendants originating from the ] (especially ]) and other African countries. More than 879,000 (42%) of them had Spanish nationality.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Los musulmanes en España superan por primera vez los 2 millones de personas|journal=El Heraldo|url=https://www.heraldo.es/noticias/nacional/2020/02/18/musulmanes-espana-superan-primera-vez-2-millones-personas-1359544.html|date=September 2020|access-date=30 September 2020|archive-date=4 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201004014226/https://www.heraldo.es/noticias/nacional/2020/02/18/musulmanes-espana-superan-primera-vez-2-millones-personas-1359544.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
] churches have about 1,200,000 members.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ferede.org/general.php?pag=estad#1 |title=Federación de Entidades Religiosas Evangélicas de España – FEREDE |publisher=Ferede.org |date= |accessdate=2010-09-04}}</ref> There are about 105,000 ]. ] has approximately 46,000 adherents in 133 congregations in all regions of the country and has a ] in the ] of Madrid.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lds.org/ldsnewsroom/eng/contact-us/spain |title=Spain - LDS Newsroom |publisher=Lds.org |date= |accessdate=2010-09-04}}</ref>


] was practically non-existent in Spain from the 1492 expulsion until the 19th century, when Jews were again permitted to enter the country. Currently there are around 62,000 Jews in Spain, or 0.14% of the total population.
].]]
The recent waves of ] have also led to an increasing number of ]s, who number approximately one million in Spain. Presently, ] is the second largest religion in Spain, accounting for approximately 2.3% of the total population.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4385768.stm#spain|publisher=BBC|title=Muslims in Europe: Country guide|accessdate=2008-08-13 | date=2005-12-23}}</ref> After their expulsion in 1492, Muslims did not live in Spain for centuries. Late 19th-century colonial expansion in northwestern Africa gave a number of residents in ] and ] full citizenship. Their ranks have since been bolstered by recent immigration, especially from Morocco and Algeria.<ref>{{cite web
|url= http://www.hudson-ny.org/1424/spain-burqa-ban-muslim-immigration
|title=Spain Debates Burqa Ban; Muslim Immigration Soars
|work=Hudson New York
|accessdate=28 July 2010
}}</ref>


== Culture ==
] was practically non-existent in Spain from the 1492 expulsion until the 19th&nbsp;century, when Jews were again permitted to enter the country. Currently there are around 62,000 Jews in Spain, or 0.14% of the total population. Most are arrivals in the past century, while some are descendants of earlier Spanish Jews. Approximately 80,000 ]s are thought to have lived in Spain on the eve of the ].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision|year=1999|publisher=]|authorlink=Henry Kamen|last=Kamen|first=Henry|pages=29–31}}</ref>
{{Main|Culture of Spain}}
Currently, Jews of Sephardic origin are given preferential status in the acquisition of Spanish citizenship.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}
Spain is a ] and one of the major ] of Europe, and has been noted for its international cultural influence.<ref name="r079">{{cite web | title=Countries With the Most Cultural Influence | website=U.S. News | date=January 1, 2024 | url=https://www.usnews.com/news/best-countries/rankings/influence | access-date=August 7, 2024}}</ref> Spanish culture is marked by strong historic ties to the ], which played a pivotal role in the country's formation and subsequent identity.<ref>{{cite book|title=Spain Transformed: The Franco Dictatorship, 1959-1975|first=N.
|last=Townson|year=2007| isbn=9780230592643| page =7|publisher=Routledge}}</ref> Spanish art, architecture, cuisine, and music have been shaped by successive waves of foreign invaders, as well as by the country's Mediterranean climate and geography. The centuries-long colonial era globalised Spanish language and culture, with Spain also absorbing the cultural and commercial products of its diverse empire.


=== Schools === === World Heritage Sites ===
{{Main|Education in Spain}} {{Main|World Heritage Sites in Spain}}
{{See also|Castles in Spain|Cathedrals in Spain}}
State education in Spain is free and compulsory from the age of 6 to 16. The current education system was established by an educational law of 1990, Ley Orgánica de Ordenación General del Sistema Educativo – Law on the General Organization of the Educational System.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spainexchange.com/educator_info/spain_education.php|title=Spain Education System|publisher=SpainExchange.com|accessdate=2008-08-13}}</ref>
Spain has 60 ]s. These include the landscape of ] in the ], which is shared with France, the Prehistoric Rock Art Sites of the ] and ], which is shared with Portugal, the ], shared with Slovenia and the ], shared with other countries of Europe.<ref>{{cite web|title=Spain|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/es|publisher=UNESCO Culture Sector|access-date=14 September 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140926042250/https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/es|archive-date=26 September 2014}}</ref> In addition, Spain has also 14 ], or "Human treasures".<ref>{{cite web|title=Spain – Intangible Cultural Heritage|url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/state/es|publisher=UNESCO Culture Sector|access-date=14 September 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140914115731/http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/state/es|archive-date=14 September 2014}}</ref>
]' ] is considered to be the ].<ref name="The top 100 books of all time">{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2002/may/08/books.booksnews|title=The top 100 books of all time|publisher=The Guardian|accessdate=2008-08-14 | location=London | date=2006-05-11}}</ref>]]


=== Literature === === Literature ===
{{Main|Spanish literature}} {{Main|Spanish literature|Catalan literature|Galician literature|Basque literature}}
{{See also|Latin American literature|Royal Spanish Academy|Instituto Cervantes}}
The term Spanish literature refers to ] written in the ], including literature composed in Spanish by writers not necessarily from Spain. For literature from Spain in languages other than the Spanish, see ], ] and ]. Equally, for Spanish-American literature specifically, see ]. Due to historic, geographic and generational diversity, Spanish literature has known a great number of influences and it is very diverse. Some major literary movements can be identified within it.
Some early examples of vernacular Romance-based literature include short snippets of ] (such as refrains) sprinkled in ] and ] texts.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Cambridge History of Spanish Literature|first=David T.|last=Gies|publisher=]|year=2004|isbn=0-521-80618-6|pages=73–74}}</ref> Other examples of early Iberian Romance include the '']'' written in Latin, Basque and Romance.<ref>{{Cite journal|page=90|url=http://erevistas.uca.edu.ar/index.php/LET/article/view/1774|journal=Letras|issn=0326-3363|publisher=]|volume=2|year=2015|issue=72|title=Literatura hispanorromance primigenia : la glosa conoajutorio del Codex Aemilianensis 60|first=María de los Ángeles|last=Dapueto Reyes|access-date=23 May 2020|archive-date=6 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806072649/https://erevistas.uca.edu.ar/index.php/LET/article/view/1774|url-status=live}}</ref>
] and ], at the ] in ]]]


Early Medieval literature in Christian Iberia was written in ], which remained as the standard literary language up until the mid-13th century, whereas Ibero-Romance vernaculars and Basque were spoken.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Spanish Literature. A Very Short Introduction|first=Jo|last=Labanyi|year=2010|isbn=978-0-19-920805-0|publisher=]|pages=18–19}}</ref> A decisive development ensued in the 13th century in ], where Arabic scholarship was translated to the local vernacular, ]. In the scope of lyric poetry Castilian co-existed alongside ] across the Crown of Castile up until the 16th century.{{Sfn|Labanyi|2010|p=24}} The Romance variety preferred in Eastern Iberia for lyrical poetry, ], became increasingly ] in the 14th and 15th centuries.{{Sfn|Labanyi|2010|p=21}} Major literary works from the Middle Ages include the '']'', '']'', '']'' and '']''. Genres such as ] and ] were cultivated.
] is probably Spain's most famous author and his ] is considered the most emblematic work in the canon of Spanish literature and a founding classic of Western literature.<ref name="The top 100 books of all time"/>


Promoted by the monarchs in the late Middle Ages and even codified in the late 15th century, Castilian (thought to be widespread known as 'Spanish' from the 16th century on) progressively became the language of the elites in the Iberian Peninsula, which ushered in a ] in the 16th and 17th centuries, also in the science domain, eclipsing Galician and Catalan.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://www.academia.edu/34053466|title=The spread of Castilian/Spanish in Spain and the Americas: A relatively successful language standardisation experience|first=Carla|last=Amorós Negre|journal=Sociolinguistica|issn=0933-1883|issue=30|volume=1|year=2016|pages=26–28|doi=10.1515/soci-2016-0003|s2cid=132493573|access-date=5 April 2022|archive-date=31 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531021154/https://www.academia.edu/34053466|url-status=live}}</ref> Famous Early Modern works include '']'' and '']''. The famous '']'' by ] was written in this time. Other writers from the period are: ], ], ] or ]. During the ] authors included, ], ], and ].
=== Royal Spanish Academy ===
{{Main|Royal Spanish Academy}}
The Royal Spanish Academy (''Real Academia Española'' or ''RAE'', in ]) is the institution responsible for regulating the ]. It is based in ], but is affiliated with national language academies in 21 ] through the ]. Its emblem is a fiery crucible, and its ] is ''Limpia, fija y da esplendor'' ("It cleans, sets, and gives splendor").<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rae.es/rae/gestores/gespub000001.nsf/voTodosporId/CEDF300E8D943D3FC12571360037CC94?OpenDocument&i=0|title=Origins|publisher=Real Academia Española|accessdate=2008-08-13}}</ref>


Steps of ] (initially a rebellion against French classicism) have been traced back to the last quarter of the 18th century, even if the movement had its heyday between 1835 and 1850, waning thereafter.<ref>{{Cite journal|page=226; 228–229|url=https://revistas.uca.es/index.php/cir/article/view/236/2058|publisher=]|title=La extensión del Romanticismo en España|first=José Luis|last=González Subías|journal=Cuadernos de Ilustración y Romanticismo: Revista del Grupo de Estudios del siglo XVIII|issn=2173-0687|issue=15|year=2007|access-date=5 April 2022|archive-date=12 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412011002/https://revistas.uca.es/index.php/cir/article/view/236/2058|url-status=live}}</ref> In a broader definition encompassing the period from 1868 or 1874 to 1936, the so-called Silver Age of Spanish Culture ensued.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://e-spacio.uned.es/fez/eserv/bibliuned:Epos-2007-23B18B1E-0906-715F-602D-3CC2DE6C852C/edad_plata.pdf|title=La 'Edad de Plata' (1868-1936) y las generaciones de la Edad de Plata : cultura y filología|first=Francisco|last=Abad|journal=Epos. Revista de Filología|issue=23|year=2007|pages=244–245|access-date=5 April 2022|archive-date=12 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412004832/http://e-spacio.uned.es/fez/eserv/bibliuned:Epos-2007-23B18B1E-0906-715F-602D-3CC2DE6C852C/edad_plata.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|page=317|title=Redefining the Spanish Silver Age and '98 Within It |first=Nelson R.|last=Orringer|journal=Anales de la literatura Española Contemporánea|volume=23|issue=1/2|year=1998|jstor=25642011|publisher=Society of Spanish & Spanish-American Studies}}</ref>
=== Institute for Catalan Studies ===

{{Main|Institut d'Estudis Catalans}}
The waning of Romantic literature was followed by the development of ], which offered depictions of contemporary life and society 'as they were', rather than romanticised or stylised presentations.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}} The major realist writer was ].{{sfn|Labanyi|2010|p=61}} The second half of the 19th century also saw the resurgence of the literary use of local languages other than Spanish under cultural movements inspired by Romanticism such as the Catalan '']'' or the Galician '']''.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yTQnOahQ4T4C&pg=PA103|page=103|title=Minority Language Planning and Micronationalism in Italy: An Analysis of the Situation of Friulian, Cimbrian and Western Lombard with Reference to Spanish Minority Languages|first=Paolo|last=Coluzzi|year=2007|publisher=]|isbn=9783039110414|access-date=15 April 2022|archive-date=12 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230912033942/https://books.google.com/books?id=yTQnOahQ4T4C&pg=PA103|url-status=live}}</ref> Rarely used before in a written medium, the true fostering of the literary use of the Basque language had to wait until the 1960s, even if some interest towards the language had developed in the late 19th century.{{Sfn|Coluzzi|2007|pp=103–104}} 20th-century authors were classified in loose literary generations such as the ], the ], ] and the ]. ] and ] are the two main awards in Spanish literature.
The Institute for Catalan Studies (''Institut d'Estudis Catalans'' or ''IEC'', in ]) is an academic institution which seeks to undertake research and study into "all elements of Catalan culture". The IEC is known principally for its work in standardizing the Catalan language. The IEC is based in ], the capital of ]. Officially the IEC provides standards for Catalonia proper, ] (located in ]), the ], and the ] (the only country where Catalan is the sole official language). The ] has its own language academy, the ]. In an area known as the ], the eastern edge of ] adjacent to Catalonia where Catalan is spoken, the rules are used de facto although Catalan is not an official language.

=== Philosophy ===
{{Main|Spanish philosophy}}
The construct pertaining a distinctive Spanish philosophical thought has been variously approached by academia, either by diachronically tracing its development throughout the centuries from the Roman conquest of Hispania on (with early representatives such as ], ], ], or ]); by pinpointing its origins to the late 19th century (associated to the ]); or simply by outright denying its existence.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.redalyc.org/journal/279/27962050010/27962050010.pdf|title=Genesis problem of philosophical thought in spanish historiography|last1=Antonova|last2=Myagkov|last3=Nikolaeva|first1=N.V.|first2=G.P|first3=O.A|journal=Utopía y Praxis Latinoamericana|volume=24|issue=5|year=2019|publisher=]|pages=66–67|access-date=1 April 2022|archive-date=1 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401042617/https://www.redalyc.org/journal/279/27962050010/27962050010.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The crux around the existence of a Spanish philosophy pitted the likes of ] (chief architect of the myth around it)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://yunus.hacettepe.edu.tr/~cin/Modern%20Philisophy%20(XVII-XX)/Intro%20to%20Modern%20Spanish%20Philosophy%20(Caponigri).pdf|title=Contemporary Spanish Philosophy|first=A. Robert|last=Caponigri|year=1967|access-date=1 April 2022|archive-date=2 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220402143134/https://yunus.hacettepe.edu.tr/~cin/Modern%20Philisophy%20(XVII-XX)/Intro%20to%20Modern%20Spanish%20Philosophy%20(Caponigri).pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> against Antonio Pérez.{{Sfn|Antonova|Myagkov|Nikolaeva|2019|p=67}} Foreign imports such as ] proved to be extremely influential in Spain in the 19th and early 20th centuries.{{Sfn|Caponigri|1967|p=169–170}}


=== Art === === Art ===
] in Bilbao]]
{{Main|Spanish art}} {{Main|Spanish art}}
]}} by ]]]
Artists from Spain have been highly influential in the development of various European ]. Due to historical, geographical and generational diversity, Spanish art has known a great number of influences. The Moorish heritage in Spain, especially in ], is still evident today in cities like ], ], and ]. European influences include Italy, Germany and France, especially during the ] and ] periods.
Artists from Spain have been highly influential in the development of various European and ] ]. Due to historical, geographical and generational diversity, Spanish art has known a great number of influences. The Mediterranean heritage with Greco-Roman and some Moorish influences in Spain, especially in ], is still evident today. European influences include Italy, Germany and France, especially during the Renaissance, ] and ] periods. There are many other autochthonous styles such as the ], ] architecture or the ].{{Citation needed|date=October 2020}}

During the Golden Age painters working in Spain included ], ], ] and ]. Also in the Baroque period, ] created some of the most famous Spanish portraits, such as {{Lang|es|]}} and {{Lang|es|]}}.<ref>{{cite web|last=Anirudh|title=10 Most Famous Paintings by Diego Velazquez {{!}} Learnodo Newtonic|url=https://learnodo-newtonic.com/diego-velazquez-famous-paintings|access-date=21 November 2020|language=en-US|archive-date=24 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124092357/https://learnodo-newtonic.com/diego-velazquez-famous-paintings|url-status=live}}</ref>

] painted during a historical period that includes the ], the fights between liberals and absolutists, and the rise of contemporary nations-states.{{Citation needed|date=October 2020}}

] is a well-known modern impressionist painter and there are many important Spanish painters belonging to the modernism art movement, including ], ], ] and ].{{Citation needed|date=October 2020}}

=== Sculpture ===
] in ]]]

The Plateresque style extended from beginnings of the 16th century until the last third of the century and its stylistic influence pervaded the works of all great Spanish artists of the time. ] (] School) is called the "Prince of Spanish sculpture". His main works were the upper stalls of the choir of the ], the tomb of Cardinal Tavera in the same Cathedral, and the altarpiece of the Visitation in the church of Santa Úrsula in the same locality. Other notable sculptors were ], ], ] and ].{{Citation needed|date=October 2020}}

There were two Schools: the ], to which ] belonged, whose most celebrated works are the Crucifix in the Cathedral of Seville, another in Vergara, and a Saint John; and the ], to which ] belonged, to whom an Immaculate Conception and a Virgin of Rosary, are attributed.{{Citation needed|date=October 2020}}

Other notable Andalusian Baroque sculptors were ], ] and his daughter ], ] and ]. In the 20th century the most important Spanish sculptors were ], ], ], and ].


=== Cinema === === Cinema ===
{{Main|Cinema of Spain}} {{Main|Cinema of Spain}}
] and ] in Oviedo]]
Spanish cinema has achieved major international success including ] for recent films such as '']'' and '']''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jordan|first=Barry|coauthors=Rikki Morgan-Tamosunas|title=Contemporary spanish cinema|publisher=]|year=1998}}</ref> In the long history of Spanish cinema, the great filmmaker ] was the first to achieve world recognition, followed by ] in the 1980s. Spanish cinema has also seen international success over the years with films by ] like ], ], ], ], ] and ].

After the first projection of a cinematographer in Spain by 1896, cinema developed in the following years, with Barcelona becoming the largest production hub in the country (as well as a major European hub) on the eve of the World War I.{{Sfn|Montes Fernández|2011|pp=602–603}} The conflict offered the Spanish industry of ]s an opportunity for further growth.{{Sfn|Montes Fernández|2011|p=603}} Local studios for ]s were created in 1932.<ref>{{Cite journal|journal=Anuario Jurídico y Económico Escurialense|volume=XLIV|year=2011<!--|pages=597-622-->|issn=1133-3677|title=Recordando la historia del cine español|first=Francisco José|last=Montes Fernández|page=|url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/3625523.pdf|access-date=1 April 2022|archive-date=17 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417135936/https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/3625523.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The government imposition of dubbing of foreign films in 1941 accustomed Spanish audiences to watching ]s.{{Sfn|Montes Fernández|2011|pp=609–610}}

Spanish cinema has achieved major international success including ] for films such as '']'' and '']''.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jordan|first1=Barry|first2=Rikki|last2=Morgan-Tamosunas|author-link2=Rikki Morgan-Tamosunas|title=Contemporary spanish cinema|url=https://archive.org/details/contemporaryspan0000jord|url-access=registration|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=1998}}</ref>

Distinct exploitation genres that flourished in the second half of the 20th century include the '']'', the ] and the so-called {{ill|Cine de destape|es|lt=''destape''}} films.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.elespanol.com/el-cultural/cine/20191213/viaje-cara-cine-espanol/451706612_0.html|website=]|via=]|title=Viaje por la cara B del cine español|date=13 December 2019|first=Javier|last=Yuste|access-date=1 April 2022|archive-date=1 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401051257/https://www.elespanol.com/el-cultural/cine/20191213/viaje-cara-cine-espanol/451706612_0.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

As of 2021, the festivals of ] and ] are ranked among the top cultural initiatives in the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.audiovisual451.com/el-festival-de-san-sebastian-y-el-de-malaga-entre-las-diez-iniciativas-culturales-mas-importantes-de-espana-de-2021/|date=9 February 2022|website=Audiovisual451|title=El Festival de San Sebastián y el de Málaga, entre las diez iniciativas culturales más importantes de España en 2021|access-date=1 April 2022|archive-date=9 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209173041/https://www.audiovisual451.com/el-festival-de-san-sebastian-y-el-de-malaga-entre-las-diez-iniciativas-culturales-mas-importantes-de-espana-de-2021/|url-status=live}}</ref>


=== Architecture === === Architecture ===
] in Madrid]]
] in Santa Cruz de Tenerife]]
{{Main|Spanish architecture}} {{Main|Spanish architecture}}
] in ]]]
Spanish architecture refers to ] carried out during any era in what is now modern-day Spain, and by Spanish architects worldwide. The term includes buildings within the current geographical limits of Spain before this name was given to those territories, whether they were called ], ], or were formed of several Christian kingdoms.
Earth and ] are very common materials of the traditional ] in Spain (particularly in the East of the country, where most of the deposits of gypsum are located).<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=Earth and gypsum: From theory to practice in Spanish vernacular architecture|first=V|last=La Spina|title=Vernacular and Earthen Architecture: Conservation and Sustainability|year=2018|editor-first=C.|editor-last=Mileto|editor-first2=F.|editor-last2=Vegas López-Manzanares|editor-first3=L.|editor-last3=García-Soriano|editor-first4=V.|editor-last4=Cristini|publisher=]|location=London|isbn=978-1-138-03546-1|pages=153–154}}</ref>
Due to its historical and geographical diversity, Spanish architecture has drawn from a host of influences. Fine examples of ], belonging to the ], were built in the Middle Ages in places such as ], ], or ]. Similarly to the Maghreb, ] decoration in ] became an architectural stylemark in the high Middle Ages.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Architecture of the Islamic West. North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula|first=Jonathan M.|last=Bloom|location=New Haven and London|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-300-21870-1|year=2020|page=88}}</ref>


Simultaneously, the Christian kingdoms also developed their own styles; developing a ] style when for a while isolated from contemporary mainstream European architectural influences during the earlier Middle Ages, they later integrated the ] and ] streams. There was then an extraordinary flourishing of the Gothic style that resulted in numerous instances being built throughout the entire territory. The so-called ] came to designate works by Muslims, Christians and Jews in lands conquered from Muslims.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=171}}
] Temple in Barcelona]]
Due to its historical and geographical diversity, Spanish architecture has drawn from a host of influences. An important provincial city founded by the Romans and with an extensive ] infrastructure, ] became the cultural capital, including fine Arabic style architecture, during the time of the Islamic ].<ref>{{Cite book|first=Jo|last=Cruz|title=Western Views of Islam in Medieval and Early Modern Europe: Perception and Other|editor=Edited by David R. Blanks and Michael Frassetto|location=New York|publisher=Saint Martin's Press|year=1999|page=56}}</ref> Later Arab style architecture continued to be developed under successive Islamic dynasties, ending with the ], which built its famed palace complex in ].


The arrival of ] produced much of the architecture of the 20th century. An influential style centred in ], known as ], produced a number of important architects, of which ] is one. The ] was led by groups like ]. Spain is currently experiencing a revolution in ] and ] like ], ], ] as well as many others have gained worldwide renown.{{Citation needed|date=October 2020}}
Simultaneously, the Christian kingdoms gradually emerged and developed their own styles; developing a ] style when for a while isolated from contemporary mainstream European architectural influences during the earlier Middle Ages, they later integrated the ] and ] streams. There was then an extraordinary flowering of the gothic style that resulted in numerous instances being built throughout the entire territory. The ] style, from the 12th to 17th&nbsp;centuries, was developed by introducing Arab style motifs, patterns and elements into European architecture.


=== Music and dance ===
], Cantabria]]
The arrival of ] in the academic arena produced much of the architecture of the 20th&nbsp;century. An influential style centered in ], known as ], produced a number of important architects, of which ] is one. The ] was led by groups like ]. Spain is currently experiencing a revolution in ] and ] like ], ], ] as well as many others have gained worldwide renown.

=== Music ===
{{Main|Music of Spain}} {{Main|Music of Spain}}
] is an Andalusian artistic form that evolved from ].]]
Spanish music is often considered abroad to be synonymous with ], a West Andalusian musical genre, which, contrary to popular belief, is not widespread outside that region. Various regional styles of ] abound in Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, Castile, the Basque Country, Galicia and Asturias. Pop, rock, hip hop and heavy metal are also popular.

]s or ''gaiteros'', in ] (])]]
Spanish music is often considered abroad to be synonymous with ], a West Andalusian musical genre, which is not widespread outside that region.<ref>{{cite book|last= Leblon|first= Bernard|translator-last= Ni Shuinear|translator-first= Sinead|title= Gypsies and Flamenco: The Emergence of the Art of Flamenco in Andalusia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=farZoyKozikC|location= Hatfield|publisher= ]|year= 2003|isbn= 9781902806051|pages=72–73}}</ref> Various regional styles of ] abound. Pop, rock, hip hop and heavy metal are also popular.


In the field of ], Spain has produced a number of noted ] such as ], ] and ] and singers and performers such as ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. In Spain there are over forty professional orchestras, including the ], ] and the ]. Major ] include the ],the ], ] and the ]. In the field of classical music, Spain has produced a number of noted composers such as ], ] and ] and singers and performers such as ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. In Spain there are over forty professional orchestras, including the ], ] and the ]. Major ] include the ], the ], ] and the ].


Thousands of music fans also travel to Spain each year for internationally recognised summer music festivals ] which often features the top up and coming pop and techno acts, and ] which tends to feature alternative rock and dance acts .<ref>http://www.spoonfed.co.uk/london/festivals/ | Summer Festival Guide</ref> Both festivals mark Spain as an international music presence and reflect the tastes of young people in the country. Thousands of music fans also travel to Spain each year for internationally recognised summer music festivals ] which features pop and techno acts, and ] which tends to feature alternative rock and dance acts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spoonfed.co.uk/london/festivals/|title=Music Festivals, UK Festivals and London Festivals|publisher=Spoonfed.co.uk|access-date=1 November 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028170946/http://www.spoonfed.co.uk/london/festivals/|archive-date=28 October 2011 }}</ref> The ] is one of the main ones in its genre.


The most popular traditional ], the guitar, originated in Spain.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.linguatics.com/guitar.htm|title=The History of the Guitar in Spain|publisher=Linguatics.com|access-date=30 April 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429082016/http://www.linguatics.com/guitar.htm|archive-date=29 April 2011 }}</ref> Typical of the north are the traditional bag pipers or '']'', mainly in Asturias and Galicia.
The ] originating in Spain most popular is undoubtedly the ]. Also typical of the northern ] (''gaiteros''), mainly in Galicia and the Principality of Asturias.


=== Cuisine === === Cuisine ===
{{Main|Spanish cuisine}} {{Main|Spanish cuisine}}

], a dish originating in the Valencian Community, Spain<ref name="paella">{{cite news
|url= http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/travel/article2277058.ece
|title=Spain's perfect paella |date=19 August 2007 | last=Richardson |first=Paul
|work=Times Online |publisher=Times Newspapers |location=London
|accessdate=6 August 2010
}}</ref>]]
Spanish cuisine consists of a great variety of dishes which stem from differences in geography, culture and climate. It is heavily influenced by seafood available from the waters that surround the country, and reflects the country's deep ] roots. Spain's extensive history with many cultural influences has led to a unique cuisine. In particular, three main divisions are easily identified: Spanish cuisine consists of a great variety of dishes which stem from differences in geography, culture and climate. It is heavily influenced by seafood available from the waters that surround the country, and reflects the country's deep ] roots. Spain's extensive history with many cultural influences has led to a unique cuisine. In particular, three main divisions are easily identified:

* ''Mediterranean'' Spain – all such coastal regions, from Catalonia to Andalusia: heavy use of seafood, such as ''pescaíto frito''; several cold soups like ]; and many rice-based dishes like ] from Valencia<ref name="paella"/> and ] from Catalonia.<ref>{{cite news
'''''Mediterranean''''' Spain – coastal regions, from Catalonia to Andalusia – heavy use of seafood, such as ''pescaíto frito'' (fried fish); cold soups like '']''; and many rice-based dishes like '']'' from Valencia<ref name="paella" /> and '']'' (black rice) from Catalonia.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.villagevoice.com/2009-12-01/restaurants/spain-gain-at-mercat-negre/|title=Spain Gain at Mercat Negre|work=The Village Voice|date=1 December 2009|last=DiGregorio|first=Sarah|location=New York|access-date=6 August 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091208050334/http://www.villagevoice.com/2009-12-01/restaurants/spain-gain-at-mercat-negre/|archive-date=8 December 2009 }}</ref>
|url= http://www.villagevoice.com/2009-12-01/restaurants/spain-gain-at-mercat-negre/

|title=Spain Gain at Mercat Negre
'''''Inner''''' Spain – Castile – hot, thick soups such as the bread and garlic-based ''Castilian soup'', along with substantial stews such as '']''. Food is traditionally preserved by salting, such as ], or immersed in ], such as ].
|work=Village Voice |publisher=Voice Media Group |date=1 December 2009 |last=DiGregorio |first=Sarah |location=New York

|accessdate=6 August 2010
'''''Atlantic''''' Spain – the Northern coast, including ], ], ] and ] – vegetable and fish-based stews like '']'' and '']''. Also, the lightly cured '']'' ham. The best known cuisine of the northern countries often rely on ocean seafood, as in the Basque-style ], ] or ] or the Galician octopus-based '']'' and shellfish dishes.
}}</ref>

* ''Inner'' Spain – Castile: hot, thick soups such as the bread and garlic-based ''Castilian soup'', along with substantious stews such as ]. Food is traditionally conserved by salting, like ], or immersed in ], like ].
{{multiple image
], in ]: the largest ] in Europe]]
| align = center
* ''Atlantic'' Spain – the whole Northern coast, from Galicia to Navarre: vegetable and fish-based stews like ''pote gallego'' and ]. Also, the lightly cured ] ham.
| image1 = 01 Paella Valenciana original.jpg
| width1 = 190
| caption1 = ], a traditional ] dish<ref name="paella">{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/travel/article2277058.ece|title=Spain's perfect paella|date=19 August 2007 |last=Richardson|first=Paul|work=The Times|location=London|access-date=6 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100604174210/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/travel/article2277058.ece |archive-date=4 June 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
| image2 = Cochinillo asado-Madrid.jpg
| width2 = 192
| caption2 = ]
| image3 = Jabugo plato con jamón de Jabugo.JPG
| width3 = 170
| caption3 = ] is one of the most expensive hams.{{wbr}}<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2010/jan/18/worlds-most-expesive-ham-jamon|title=World's most expensive ham?|last=Smillie|first=Susan|date=18 January 2010|work=The Guardian|access-date=31 October 2019|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=31 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191031011437/https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2010/jan/18/worlds-most-expesive-ham-jamon|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://elpais.com/elpais/2016/03/07/inenglish/1457342056_191303.html|title=The world's most expensive ham is from Huelva and costs €4,100 a leg|last=Limón|first=Raúl|date=7 March 2016|work=El País|access-date=31 October 2019|language=en|issn=1134-6582|archive-date=27 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191127235546/https://elpais.com/elpais/2016/03/07/inenglish/1457342056_191303.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
| image4 = Mar de Empanadas (Madrid).JPG
| width4 = 192
| caption4 = ], part of entire ] due Spanish colonization
| image5 = Wikicheese - Tortita - 20160520 - 014.jpg
| width5 = 192
| caption5 = ], a ] from Spain
}}


=== Sport === === Sport ===
{{Main|Sport in Spain}} {{Main|Sport in Spain}}
] or ''La Roja'' celebrating their ] victory]]
Sport in Spain has been dominated by ] since the early 20th century. ] and ] are two of the most successful ] clubs in the world. ] won the ] in 1964 and 2008 and the ] in ].


While varieties of ] have been played in Spain as far back as Roman times, sport in Spain has been dominated by football since the early 20th century. ] and ] are two of the most successful football clubs in the world. ] won the ] in 1964, 2008, 2012 and 2024 and the ] in ], and is the first team ever to win three back-to-back major international tournaments.{{Citation needed|date=October 2020}} ] were champions of the ], becoming one of only five nations to win a ]. ] has won a record 20 domestic trophies.
], ], ], ], ] and, lately, ] are also important due to the presence of Spanish champions in all these disciplines. Today, Spain is a major world sports power, especially since the ] that were hosted in ] and promoted a great variety of sports in the country. The tourism industry has led to an improvement in sports infrastructure, especially for ], ] and ].


], ], cycling, ], ], ] and, lately, ] also can boast of Spanish champions. Today, Spain is a major world sports powerhouse, especially since the ] and ] that were hosted in ], which stimulated a great deal of interest in sports in the country. The tourism industry has led to an improvement in sports infrastructure, especially for ], ] and ]. In their respective regions, the traditional games of ] and ] both are popular.{{Citation needed|date=October 2020}}
] is the leading Spanish tennis player and has won several Grand Slam titles including the Wimbledon 2010 men's singles. In north Spain is very popular play ].


=== Public holidays === === Public holidays and festivals ===
]]]
{{Main|Public holidays in Spain}}
{{Main|National Day of Spain|Public holidays in Spain|Fiestas of International Tourist Interest of Spain|Fiestas of National Tourist Interest of Spain}}
Public holidays celebrated in Spain include a mix of religious (]), national and regional observances. Each municipality is allowed to declare a maximum of 14 ]s per year; up to nine of these are chosen by the national government and at least two are chosen locally.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bank-holidays.com/holidays_2007_58.htm|title=Bank holidays in Spain|publisher=bank-holidays.com|accessdate=2008-08-13}}</ref> Spain's National Day (]) is ], the anniversary of the ] and commemorate ] feast, patroness of ] and throughout Spain.


Public holidays celebrated in Spain include a mix of religious (]), national and local observances. Each municipality is allowed to declare a maximum of 14 public holidays per year; up to nine of these are chosen by the national government and at least two are chosen locally.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bank-holidays.com/holidays_2007_58.htm|title=Bank holidays in Spain|publisher=bank-holidays.com|access-date=13 August 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918001803/http://www.bank-holidays.com/holidays_2007_58.htm|archive-date=18 September 2008}}</ref> ] (''Fiesta Nacional de España'') is celebrated on 12 October.<ref>Nogués y Secall (1862), .</ref><ref>Paloma Aguilar, Carsten Humlebæk, "Collective Memory and National Identity in the Spanish Democracy: The Legacies of Francoism and the Civil War", History & Memory, 1 April 2002, pag. 121–164</ref>
] in ]]]

There are many festivals and festivities in Spain. One of the most famous is ], in ]. While its most famous event is the ''encierro'', or the ]. It has become one of the most internationally renowned fiestas in Spain, with over 1,000,000 people attending every year.

Other festivals include ] tomato festival in ], ], the carnivals in the ], the ] in ] or the ] in Andalusia and ].


== See also == == See also ==
{{Portal box|Spain|European Union}} {{Portal|Spain|Europe}}
{{Main|Outline of Spain}} * ]
* ] * ]
* ]
* ]


== Notes == == Notes ==
{{notelist|refs=
{{Reflist|group=note|colwidth=30em}}
{{efn|name="nation name"
|The Spanish Constitution does not contain any one official name for Spain. Instead, the terms {{lang|es|España}} (Spain), {{lang|es|Estado español}} (Spanish State) and {{lang|es|Nación española}} (Spanish Nation) are used throughout the document, sometimes interchangeably. In 1984, the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs established that the denominations {{lang|es|España}} (Spain) and {{lang|es|Reino de España}} (Kingdom of Spain) are equally valid to designate Spain in international treaties. The latter term is widely used by the government in national and international affairs of all kinds, including foreign treaties as well as national official documents, and is therefore recognised as the conventional name by many international organisations.<ref name="nj">{{cite web|url=http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/ai281209-aec.html|title=Acuerdo entre el Reino de España y Nueva Zelanda sobre participación en determinadas elecciones de los nacionales de cada país residentes en el territorio del otro, hecho en Wellington el 23 de junio de 2009.|website=Noticias Jurídicas|access-date=14 November 2010|archive-date=31 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160831012228/http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/ai281209-aec.html|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
}}


== References == == References ==
{{reflist}}
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

* {{citebook|author=Gates, David|title=The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War|publisher=Da Capo Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-306-81083-1|pages=20}}
=== Works cited ===
* {{cite book|author=Gates, David|title=The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War|publisher=Da Capo Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-306-81083-1}}
* {{cite web |title=The Spanish Constitution |url=https://www.boe.es/legislacion/documentos/ConstitucionINGLES.pdf |publisher=Agencia Estatal Boletín Oficial del Estado |access-date=10 June 2022 |language=English |date=1978|ref={{harvid|Spanish Constitution|1978}}}}
* {{cite book |last= Marcos |first= F. Javier |title= La Sierra de Atapuerca y el Valle del Arlanzón. Patrones de asentamiento prehistóricos |year= 2006 |publisher= Editorial Dossoles. Burgos, Spain |isbn = 9788496606289 |url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/libro?codigo=264088}}
* {{cite book |last= Marcos |first= F. Javier |title= La Prehistoria Reciente del entorno de la Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos, España) |year= 2016 |publisher= British Archaeological Reports (Oxford, U.K.), BAR International Series 2798 |isbn = 9781407315195 |url= https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/libro?codigo=663925}}

== Further reading ==
* ], ed. ''Spain: a history''. Oxford University Press, USA, 2000.
* Callaghan O.F. Joseph. ''A History of Medieval Spain''. Cornell University Press 1983.
* ] '''' NYC: Boni & Liveright, 1926.


== External links == == External links ==
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* {{wikiatlas|Spain}} * {{wikiatlas|Spain}}
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Latest revision as of 21:42, 4 January 2025

Country in southwestern Europe "España" redirects here. For other uses, see Spain (disambiguation) and España (disambiguation).

Kingdom of SpainReino de España (Spanish)
7 other names
Flag of Spain Flag Coat of arms of Spain Coat of arms
Motto: Plus ultra (Latin)
(English: "Further Beyond")
Anthem: Marcha Real (Spanish)
(English: "Royal March")
Show globeShow map of EuropeLocation of Spain (dark green)

– in Europe (green & dark grey)
– in the European Union (green)

Capitaland largest cityMadrid
40°26′N 3°42′W / 40.433°N 3.700°W / 40.433; -3.700
Official languageSpanish
Nationality (2024)
Ethnic groups (2021)
  • 84.8% Spanish
  • 1.7% Moroccan
  • 1.2% Romanian
  • 12.3% Other
Religion (2023)
Demonym(s)
  • Spaniard
  • Spanish
GovernmentUnitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy
• Monarch Felipe VI
• Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez
• President of the Congress of Deputies Francina Armengol
• President of the Senate Pedro Rollán
LegislatureCortes Generales
• Upper houseSenate
• Lower houseCongress of Deputies
Formation
• Dynastic union 20 January 1479
• Sole sovereign 14 March 1516
• Centralized state 9 June 1715
• First constitution 19 March 1812
• Current constitution 29 December 1978
Area
• Total505,990 km (195,360 sq mi) (51st)
• Water (%)0.89
Population
• 2024 estimateNeutral increase 48,946,035 (31st)
• Density96/km (248.6/sq mi) (121th)
GDP (PPP)2024 estimate
• TotalIncrease $2.665 trillion (15th)
• Per capitaIncrease $55,089 (36th)
GDP (nominal)2024 estimate
• TotalIncrease $1.731 trillion (15th)
• Per capitaIncrease $35,788 (32nd)
Gini (2023)Positive decrease 31.5
medium inequality
HDI (2022)Increase 0.911
very high (27th)
CurrencyEuro (€) (EUR)
Time zoneUTC⁠±0 to +1 (WET and CET)
• Summer (DST)UTC+1 to +2 (WEST and CEST)
Note: most of Spain observes CET/CEST, except the Canary Islands which observe WET/WEST.
Calling code+34
ISO 3166 codeES
Internet TLD.es

Spain, officially the Kingdom of Spain, is a country in Southwestern Europe with territories in North Africa. Featuring the southernmost point of continental Europe, it is the largest country in Southern Europe and the fourth-most populous European Union member state. Spanning across the majority of the Iberian Peninsula, its territory also includes the Canary Islands, in the Eastern Atlantic Ocean, the Balearic Islands, in the Western Mediterranean Sea, and the autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla, in Africa. Peninsular Spain is bordered to the north by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; to the east and south by the Mediterranean Sea and Gibraltar; and to the west by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean. Spain's capital and largest city is Madrid, and other major urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Zaragoza, Málaga, Murcia and Palma de Mallorca.

In early antiquity, the Iberian Peninsula was inhabited by Celts, Iberians, and other pre-Roman peoples. With the Roman conquest of the Iberian peninsula, the province of Hispania was established. Following the Romanisation and Christianisation of Hispania, the fall of the Western Roman Empire ushered in the inward migration of tribes from Central Europe, including the Visigoths, who formed the Visigothic Kingdom centred on Toledo. In the early eighth century, most of the peninsula was conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate, and during early Islamic rule, Al-Andalus became a dominant peninsular power centred on Córdoba. Several Christian kingdoms emerged in Northern Iberia, chief among them Asturias, León, Castile, Aragon and Navarre; made an intermittent southward military expansion and repopulation, known as the Reconquista, repelling Islamic rule in Iberia, which culminated with the Christian seizure of the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada in 1492. The dynastic union of the Crown of Castile and the Crown of Aragon in 1479 under the Catholic Monarchs is often considered the de facto unification of Spain as a nation state.

During the Age of Discovery, Spain pioneered the exploration and conquest of the New World, made the first circumnavigation of the globe and formed one of the largest empires in history. The Spanish Empire reached a global scale and spread across all continents, underpinning the rise of a global trading system fueled primarily by precious metals. In the 18th century, the Bourbon Reforms, particularly the Nueva Planta decrees, centralized mainland Spain, strengthening royal authority and modernizing administrative structures. In the 19th century, after the victorious Peninsular War against Napoleonic occupation forces, the following political divisions between liberals and absolutists led to the breakaway of most of the American colonies. These political divisions finally converged in the 20th century with the Spanish Civil War, giving rise to the Francoist dictatorship that lasted until 1975. With the restoration of democracy and its entry into the European Union, the country experienced an economic boom that profoundly transformed it socially and politically. Since the Spanish Golden Age, Spanish art, architecture, music, poetry, painting, literature, and cuisine have been influential worldwide, particularly in Western Europe and the Americas. As a reflection of its large cultural wealth, Spain is the world's second-most visited country, has one of the world's largest numbers of World Heritage Sites, and it is the most popular destination for European students. Its cultural influence extends to over 600 million Hispanophones, making Spanish the world's second-most spoken native language and the world's most widely spoken Romance language.

Spain is a secular parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with King Felipe VI as head of state. A developed country, it is a major advanced capitalist economy, with the world's fifteenth-largest by both nominal GDP and PPP-adjusted GDP. Spain is a member of the United Nations, the European Union, the eurozone, North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), a permanent guest of the G20, and is part of many other international organisations such as the Council of Europe (CoE), the Organisation of Ibero-American States (OEI), the Union for the Mediterranean, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and the World Trade Organisation (WTO).

Etymology

The name of Spain (España) comes from Hispania, the name used by the Romans for the Iberian Peninsula and its provinces during the Roman Empire. The etymological origin of the term Hispania is uncertain, although the Phoenicians referred to the region as i-shphan-im, possibly meaning "Land of Rabbits" or "Land of Metals". Jesús Luis Cunchillos [es] and José Ángel Zamora, experts in Semitic philology at the Spanish National Research Council (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, CSIC), conducted a comparative philological study between several Semitic languages and hypothesise that the Phoenician name translates as "land where metals are forged", having determined that the name originated in reference to the gold mines of the Iberian Peninsula. There have been a number of accounts and hypotheses about its origin:

Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the term span is the Phoenician word spy, meaning "to forge metals". Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean "the land where metals are forged". It may be a derivation of the Phoenician I-Shpania, meaning "island of rabbits", "land of rabbits" or "edge", a reference to Spain's location at the end of the Mediterranean; Roman coins struck in the region from the reign of Hadrian show a female figure with a rabbit at her feet, and Strabo called it the "land of the rabbits". The word in question actually means "Hyrax", possibly due to the Phoenicians confusing the two animals.

There is also the claim that "Hispania" derives from the Basque word Ezpanna, meaning "edge" or "border", another reference to the fact that the Iberian Peninsula constitutes the southwest corner of the European continent.

History

Main article: History of Spain

Prehistory and pre-Roman peoples

Main article: Prehistoric Iberia
Celtic castro in Galicia

Archaeological research at Atapuerca indicates the Iberian Peninsula was populated by hominids 1.3 million years ago.

Modern humans first arrived in Iberia from the north on foot about 35,000 years ago. The best-known artefacts of these prehistoric human settlements are the paintings in the Altamira cave of Cantabria in northern Iberia, which were created from 35,600 to 13,500 BCE by Cro-Magnon. Archaeological and genetic evidence suggests that the Iberian Peninsula acted as one of several major refugia from which northern Europe was repopulated following the end of the last ice age.

The two largest groups inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula before the Roman conquest were the Iberians and the Celts. The Iberians inhabited the Mediterranean side of the peninsula. The Celts inhabited much of the interior and Atlantic sides of the peninsula. Basques occupied the western area of the Pyrenees mountain range and adjacent areas; Phoenician-influenced Tartessians flourished in the southwest; and Lusitanians and Vettones occupied areas in the central west. Several cities were founded along the coast by Phoenicians, and trading outposts and colonies were established by Greeks in the East. Eventually, Phoenician-Carthaginians expanded inland towards the meseta; however, due to the bellicose inland tribes, the Carthaginians settled on the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula.

Roman Hispania and the Visigothic Kingdom

Main articles: Hispania and Visigothic Kingdom
The Roman Theatre in Mérida

During the Second Punic War, roughly between 210 and 205 BCE, the expanding Roman Republic captured Carthaginian trading colonies along the Mediterranean coast. Although it took the Romans nearly two centuries to complete the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, they retained control of it for over six centuries. Roman rule was bound together by law, language, and the Roman road.

The cultures of the pre-Roman populations were gradually Romanised (Latinised) at different rates depending on what part of the peninsula they lived in, with local leaders being admitted into the Roman aristocratic class.

Hispania (the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula) served as a granary for the Roman market, and its harbours exported gold, wool, olive oil, and wine. Agricultural production increased with the introduction of irrigation projects, some of which remain in use. Emperors Hadrian, Trajan, Theodosius I, and the philosopher Seneca were born in Hispania. Christianity was introduced into Hispania in the 1st century CE, and it became popular in the cities in the 2nd century. Most of Spain's present languages and religions, as well as the basis of its laws, originate from this period. Starting in 170 CE, incursions of North-African Mauri in the province of Baetica took place.

Votive crown of Recceswinth from the Treasure of Guarrazar

The Germanic Suebi and Vandals, together with the Sarmatian Alans, entered the peninsula after 409, weakening the Western Roman Empire's jurisdiction over Hispania. The Suebi established a kingdom in north-western Iberia, whereas the Vandals established themselves in the south of the peninsula by 420 before crossing over to North Africa in 429. As the western empire disintegrated, the social and economic base became greatly simplified; the successor regimes maintained many of the institutions and laws of the late empire, including Christianity and assimilation into the evolving Roman culture.

The Byzantines established an occidental province, Spania, in the south, with the intention of reviving Roman rule throughout Iberia. Eventually, however, Hispania was reunited under Visigothic rule.

Muslim era and Reconquista

See also: Umayyad conquest of Hispania, Al-Andalus, and Reconquista

From 711 to 718, as part of the expansion of the Umayyad Caliphate which had conquered North Africa from the Byzantine Empire, nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Muslims from across the Strait of Gibraltar, resulting in the collapse of the Visigothic Kingdom. Only a small area in the mountainous north of the peninsula stood out of the territory seized during the initial invasion. The Kingdom of Asturias-León consolidated upon this territory. Other Christian kingdoms, such as Navarre and Aragon in the mountainous north, eventually surged upon the consolidation of counties of the Carolingian Marca Hispanica. For several centuries, the fluctuating frontier between the Muslim and Christian-controlled areas of the peninsula was along the Ebro and Douro valleys.

The Court of the Lions and its central fountain in the Alhambra complex

Conversion to Islam proceeded at an increasing pace. The muladíes (Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin) are believed to have formed the majority of the population of Al-Andalus by the end of the 10th century.

A series of Viking incursions raided the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula in the 9th and 10th centuries. The first recorded Viking raid on Iberia took place in 844; it ended in failure with many Vikings killed by the Galicians' ballistas; and seventy of the Vikings' longships captured on the beach and burned by the troops of King Ramiro I of Asturias.

In the 11th century, the Caliphate of Córdoba collapsed, fracturing into a series of petty kingdoms (Taifas), often subject to the payment of a form of protection money (Parias) to the Northern Christian kingdoms, which otherwise undertook a southward territorial expansion. The capture of the strategic city of Toledo in 1085 marked a significant shift in the balance of power in favour of the Christian kingdoms. The arrival from North Africa of the Islamic ruling sects of the Almoravids and the Almohads achieved temporary unity upon the Muslim-ruled territory, with a stricter, less tolerant application of Islam, and partially reversed some Christian territorial gains.

Catholic Monarchs of Spain

The Kingdom of León was the strongest Christian kingdom for centuries. In 1188, the first form (restricted to the bishops, the magnates, and 'the elected citizens of each city') of modern parliamentary session in Europe was held in León (Cortes of León). The Kingdom of Castile, formed from Leonese territory, was its successor as strongest kingdom. The kings and the nobility fought for power and influence in this period. The example of the Roman emperors influenced the political objective of the Crown, while the nobles benefited from feudalism.

Muslim strongholds in the Guadalquivir Valley such as Córdoba (1236) and Seville (1248) fell to Castile in the 13th century. The County of Barcelona and the Kingdom of Aragon entered in a dynastic union and gained territory and power in the Mediterranean. In 1229, Majorca was conquered, so was Valencia in 1238. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the North-African Marinids established some enclaves around the Strait of Gibraltar. Upon the conclusion of the Granada War, the Nasrid Sultanate of Granada (the remaining Muslim-ruled polity in the Iberian Peninsula after 1246) capitulated in 1492 to the military strength of the Catholic Monarchs, and it was integrated from then on in the Crown of Castile.

Spanish Empire

Main article: Spanish Empire
Late 16th-century Seville, the harbor enjoying the exclusive right to trade with the New World

In 1469, the crowns of the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon were united by the marriage of their monarchs, Isabella I and Ferdinand II, respectively. In 1492, Jews were forced to choose between conversion to Catholicism or expulsion; as many as 200,000 Jews were expelled from Castile and Aragon. The year 1492 also marked the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the New World, during a voyage funded by Isabella. Columbus's first voyage crossed the Atlantic and reached the Caribbean Islands, beginning the European exploration and conquest of the Americas.

The Treaty of Granada guaranteed religious tolerance towards Muslims, for a few years before Islam was outlawed in 1502 in Castile and 1527 in Aragon, leading the remaining Muslim population to become nominally Christian Moriscos. About four decades after the War of the Alpujarras (1568–1571), over 300,000 moriscos were expelled, settling primarily in North Africa.

Diachronic map of the Spanish Empire

The unification of the crowns of Aragon and Castile by the marriage of their sovereigns laid the basis for modern Spain and the Spanish Empire, although each kingdom of Spain remained a separate country socially, politically, legally, and in currency and language.

Habsburg Spain was one of the leading world powers throughout the 16th century and most of the 17th century, a position reinforced by trade and wealth from colonial possessions and became the world's leading maritime power. It reached its apogee during the reigns of the first two Spanish Habsburgs—Charles V/I (1516–1556) and Philip II (1556–1598). This period saw the Italian Wars, the Schmalkaldic War, the Dutch Revolt, the War of the Portuguese Succession, clashes with the Ottomans, intervention in the French Wars of Religion and the Anglo-Spanish War.

Main trade routes of the Spanish Empire

Through exploration and conquest or royal marriage alliances and inheritance, the Spanish Empire expanded across vast areas in the Americas, the Indo-Pacific, Africa as well as the European continent (including holdings in the Italian Peninsula, the Low Countries and the Franche-Comté). The so-called Age of Discovery featured explorations by sea and by land, the opening-up of new trade routes across oceans, conquests and the beginnings of European colonialism. Precious metals, spices, luxuries, and previously unknown plants brought to the metropole played a leading part in transforming the European understanding of the globe. The cultural efflorescence witnessed during this period is now referred to as the Spanish Golden Age. The expansion of the empire caused immense upheaval in the Americas as the collapse of societies and empires and new diseases from Europe devastated American indigenous populations. The rise of humanism, the Counter-Reformation and new geographical discoveries and conquests raised issues that were addressed by the intellectual movement now known as the School of Salamanca, which developed the first modern theories of what are now known as international law and human rights.

"The Comuneros Padilla, Bravo and Maldonado in the Patíbulo", by Antonio Gisbert, 1860

Spain's 16th-century maritime supremacy was demonstrated by the victory over the Ottoman Empire at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571 and over Portugal at the Battle of Ponta Delgada in 1582, and then after the setback of the Spanish Armada in 1588, in a series of victories against England in the Anglo-Spanish War of 1585–1604. However, during the middle decades of the 17th century Spain's maritime power went into a long decline with mounting defeats against the Dutch Republic (Battle of the Downs) and then England in the Anglo-Spanish War of 1654–1660; by the 1660s it was struggling to defend its overseas possessions from pirates and privateers.

The Protestant Reformation increased Spain's involvement in religiously charged wars, forcing ever-expanding military efforts across Europe and in the Mediterranean. By the middle decades of a war- and plague-ridden 17th-century Europe, the Spanish Habsburgs had enmeshed the country in continent-wide religious-political conflicts. These conflicts drained it of resources and undermined the economy generally. Spain managed to hold on to most of the scattered Habsburg empire, and help the imperial forces of the Holy Roman Empire reverse a large part of the advances made by Protestant forces, but it was finally forced to recognise the separation of Portugal and the United Provinces (Dutch Republic), and eventually suffered some serious military reverses to France in the latter stages of the immensely destructive, Europe-wide Thirty Years' War. In the latter half of the 17th century, Spain went into a gradual decline, during which it surrendered several small territories to France and England; however, it maintained and enlarged its vast overseas empire, which remained intact until the beginning of the 19th century.

18th century

The family of Philip V. During the Enlightenment in Spain a new royal family reigned, the House of Bourbon.

The decline culminated in a controversy over succession to the throne which consumed the first years of the 18th century. The War of the Spanish Succession was a wide-ranging international conflict combined with a civil war, and was to cost the kingdom its European possessions and its position as a leading European power.

During this war, a new dynasty originating in France, the Bourbons, was installed. The Crowns of Castile and Aragon had been long united only by the Monarchy and the common institution of the Inquisition's Holy Office. A number of reform policies (the so-called Bourbon Reforms) were pursued by the Monarchy with the overarching goal of centralised authority and administrative uniformity. They included the abolishment of many of the old regional privileges and laws, as well as the customs barrier between the Crowns of Aragon and Castile in 1717, followed by the introduction of new property taxes in the Aragonese kingdoms.

The 18th century saw a gradual recovery and an increase in prosperity through much of the empire. The predominant economic policy was an interventionist one, and the State also pursued policies aiming towards infrastructure development as well as the abolition of internal customs and the reduction of export tariffs. Projects of agricultural colonisation with new settlements took place in the south of mainland Spain. Enlightenment ideas began to gain ground among some of the kingdom's elite and monarchy.

Liberalism and nation state

Main articles: Contemporary history of Spain, Mid-19th-century Spain, Spanish American wars of independence, Spanish–American War, Anarchism in Spain, and Second Spanish Republic
Ferdinand VII swears on the 1812 Constitution before the Cortes in 1820.

In 1793, Spain went to war against the revolutionary new French Republic as a member of the first Coalition. The subsequent War of the Pyrenees polarised the country in a reaction against the gallicised elites and following defeat in the field, peace was made with France in 1795 at the Peace of Basel in which Spain lost control over two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola. In 1807, a secret treaty between Napoleon and the unpopular prime minister led to a new declaration of war against Britain and Portugal. French troops entered the country to invade Portugal but instead occupied Spain's major fortresses. The Spanish king abdicated and a puppet kingdom satellite to the French Empire was installed with Joseph Bonaparte as king.

The 2 May 1808 revolt was one of many uprisings across the country against the French occupation. These revolts marked the beginning of a devastating war of independence against the Napoleonic regime. Further military action by Spanish armies, guerrilla warfare and an Anglo-Portuguese allied army, combined with Napoleon's failure on the Russian front, led to the retreat of French imperial armies from the Iberian Peninsula in 1814, and the return of King Ferdinand VII.

During the war, in 1810, a revolutionary body, the Cortes of Cádiz, was assembled to coordinate the effort against the Bonapartist regime and to prepare a constitution. It met as one body, and its members represented the entire Spanish empire. In 1812, a constitution for universal representation under a constitutional monarchy was declared, but after the fall of the Bonapartist regime, the Spanish king dismissed the Cortes Generales, set on ruling as an absolute monarch.

General and statesman Baldomero Espartero, a key political figure in the 19th century

The French occupation of mainland Spain created an opportunity for overseas criollo elites who resented the privilege towards Peninsular elites and demanded retroversion of the sovereignty to the people. Starting in 1809 the American colonies began a series of revolutions and declared independence, leading to the Spanish American wars of independence that put an end to the metropole's grip over the Spanish Main. Attempts to re-assert control proved futile with opposition not only in the colonies but also in the Iberian peninsula and army revolts followed. By the end of 1826, the only American colonies Spain held were Cuba and Puerto Rico. The Napoleonic War left Spain economically ruined, deeply divided and politically unstable. In the 1830s and 1840s, Carlism (a reactionary legitimist movement supportive of an alternative Bourbon branch), fought against the government forces supportive of Queen Isabella II's dynastic rights in the Carlist Wars. Government forces prevailed, but the conflict between progressives and moderates ended in a weak early constitutional period. The 1868 Glorious Revolution was followed by the 1868–1874 progressive Sexenio Democrático (including the short-lived First Spanish Republic), which yielded to a stable monarchic period, the Restoration (1875–1931).

Spanish Revolution of 1854 in Puerta del Sol, Madrid. Maria Christina of the Two Sicilies fled to exile and Baldomero Espartero became regent.

In the late 19th century nationalist movements arose in the Philippines and Cuba. In 1895 and 1896 the Cuban War of Independence and the Philippine Revolution broke out and eventually the United States became involved. The Spanish–American War was fought in the spring of 1898 and resulted in Spain losing the last of its once vast colonial empire outside of North Africa. El Desastre (the Disaster), as the war became known in Spain, gave added impetus to the Generation of '98. Although the period around the turn of the century was one of increasing prosperity, the 20th century brought little social peace. Spain played a minor part in the scramble for Africa. It remained neutral during World War I. The heavy losses suffered by the colonial troops in conflicts in northern Morocco against Riffians forces brought discredit to the government and undermined the monarchy.

Industrialisation, the development of railways and incipient capitalism developed in several areas of the country, particularly in Barcelona, as well as labour movement and socialist and anarchist ideas. The 1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress and the 1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition are good examples of this. In 1879, the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party was founded. A trade union linked to this party, Unión General de Trabajadores, was founded in 1888. In the anarcho-syndicalist trend of the labour movement in Spain, Confederación Nacional del Trabajo was founded in 1910 and Federación Anarquista Ibérica in 1927.

Catalanism and Vasquism, alongside other nationalisms and regionalisms in Spain, arose in that period: the Basque Nationalist Party formed in 1895 and Regionalist League of Catalonia in 1901.

Political corruption and repression weakened the democratic system of the constitutional monarchy of a two-parties system. The July 1909 Tragic Week events and repression exemplified the social instability of the time.

The La Canadiense strike in 1919 led to the first law limiting the working day to eight hours.

Women voting in Éibar in 1933, after women's suffrage was approved. Deputy Clara Campoamor was a key figure for the right to be granted.

After a period of Crown-supported dictatorship from 1923 to 1931, the first elections since 1923, largely understood as a plebiscite on Monarchy, took place: the 12 April 1931 municipal elections. These gave a resounding victory to the Republican-Socialist candidacies in large cities and provincial capitals, with a majority of monarchist councilors in rural areas. The king left the country and the proclamation of the Republic on 14 April ensued, with the formation of a provisional government.

A constitution for the country was passed in October 1931 following the June 1931 Constituent general election, and a series of cabinets presided by Manuel Azaña supported by republican parties and the PSOE followed. In the election held in 1933 the right triumphed and in 1936, the left. During the Second Republic there was a great political and social upheaval, marked by a sharp radicalisation of the left and the right. Instances of political violence during this period included the burning of churches, the 1932 failed coup d'état led by José Sanjurjo, the Revolution of 1934 and numerous attacks against rival political leaders. On the other hand, it is also during the Second Republic when important reforms to modernise the country were initiated: a democratic constitution, agrarian reform, restructuring of the army, political decentralisation and women's right to vote.

Civil War and Francoist dictatorship

Main articles: Spanish Civil War, Spanish Revolution of 1936, and Francoist Spain

The Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936: on 17 and 18 July, part of the military carried out a coup d'état that triumphed in only part of the country. The situation led to a civil war, in which the territory was divided into two zones: one under the authority of the Republican government, that counted on outside support from the Soviet Union and Mexico (and from International Brigades), and the other controlled by the putschists (the Nationalist or rebel faction), most critically supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. The Republic was not supported by the Western powers due to the British-led policy of non-intervention. General Francisco Franco was sworn in as the supreme leader of the rebels on 1 October 1936. An uneasy relationship between the Republican government and the grassroots anarchists who had initiated a partial social revolution also ensued.

Republican volunteers at Teruel, 1936

The civil war was viciously fought and there were many atrocities committed by all sides. The war claimed the lives of over 500,000 people and caused the flight of up to a half-million citizens from the country. On 1 April 1939, five months before the beginning of World War II, the rebel side led by Franco emerged victorious, imposing a dictatorship over the whole country. Thousands were imprisoned after the civil war in Francoist concentration camps.

The regime remained nominally "neutral" for much of the Second World War, although it was sympathetic to the Axis and provided the Nazi Wehrmacht with Spanish volunteers in the Eastern Front. The only legal party under Franco's dictatorship was the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS (FET y de las JONS), formed in 1937 upon the merging of the Fascist Falange Española de las JONS and the Carlist traditionalists and to which the rest of right-wing groups supporting the rebels also added. The name of "Movimiento Nacional", sometimes understood as a wider structure than the FET y de las JONS proper, largely imposed over the later's name in official documents along the 1950s.

Spanish leader Francisco Franco and Adolf Hitler at the Meeting at Hendaye, 1940

After the war Spain was politically and economically isolated, and was kept out of the United Nations. This changed in 1955, during the Cold War period, when it became strategically important for the US to establish a military presence on the Iberian Peninsula as a counter to any possible move by the Soviet Union into the Mediterranean basin. US Cold War strategic priorities included the dissemination of American educational ideas to foster modernization and expansion. In the 1960s, Spain registered an unprecedented rate of economic growth which was propelled by industrialisation, a mass internal migration from rural areas to Madrid, Barcelona and the Basque Country and the creation of a mass tourism industry. Franco's rule was also characterised by authoritarianism, promotion of a unitary national identity, National Catholicism, and discriminatory language policies.

Restoration of democracy

Main articles: Spanish transition to democracy and Spanish society after the democratic transition
Juan Carlos I before the Cortes Españolas, during his proclamation as King on 22 November 1975

In 1962, a group of politicians involved in the opposition to Franco's regime inside the country and in exile met in the congress of the European Movement in Munich, where they made a resolution in favour of democracy.

With Franco's death in November 1975, Juan Carlos succeeded to the position of King of Spain and head of state in accordance with the Francoist law. With the approval of the new Spanish Constitution of 1978 and the restoration of democracy, the State devolved much authority to the regions and created an internal organisation based on autonomous communities. The Spanish 1977 Amnesty Law let people of Franco's regime continue inside institutions without consequences, even perpetrators of some crimes during transition to democracy like the Massacre of 3 March 1976 in Vitoria or 1977 Massacre of Atocha.

In the Basque Country, moderate Basque nationalism coexisted with a radical nationalist movement led by the armed organisation ETA until the latter's dissolution in May 2018. The group was formed in 1959 during Franco's rule but had continued to wage its violent campaign even after the restoration of democracy and the return of a large measure of regional autonomy.

On 23 February 1981, rebel elements among the security forces seized the Cortes in an attempt to impose a military-backed government. King Juan Carlos took personal command of the military and successfully ordered the coup plotters, via national television, to surrender.

Felipe González signing the treaty of accession to the European Economic Community on 12 June 1985

During the 1980s the democratic restoration made possible a growing open society. New cultural movements based on freedom appeared, like La Movida Madrileña. In May 1982 Spain joined NATO, followed by a referendum after a strong social opposition. That year the Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE) came to power, the first left-wing government in 43 years. In 1986 Spain joined the European Economic Community, which later became the European Union. The PSOE was replaced in government by the Partido Popular (PP) in 1996 after scandals around participation of the government of Felipe González in the Dirty war against ETA.

The 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona

On 1 January 2002, Spain fully adopted the euro, and Spain experienced strong economic growth, well above the EU average during the early 2000s. However, well-publicised concerns issued by many economic commentators at the height of the boom warned that extraordinary property prices and a high foreign trade deficit were likely to lead to a painful economic collapse.

In 2002, the Prestige oil spill occurred with big ecological consequences along Spain's Atlantic coastline. In 2003 José María Aznar supported US president George W. Bush in the Iraq War, and a strong movement against war rose in Spanish society. In March 2004 a local Islamist terrorist group inspired by Al-Qaeda carried out the largest terrorist attack in Western European history when they killed 191 people and wounded more than 1,800 others by bombing commuter trains in Madrid. Though initial suspicions focused on the Basque terrorist group ETA, evidence of Islamist involvement soon emerged. Because of the proximity of the 2004 Spanish general election, the issue of responsibility quickly became a political controversy, with the main competing parties PP and PSOE exchanging accusations over the handling of the incident. The PSOE won the election, led by José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero.

In the early 2000s, the proportion of Spain's foreign born population increased rapidly during its economic boom but then declined due to the financial crisis. In 2005, the Spanish government legalised same sex marriage, becoming the third country worldwide to do so. Decentralisation was supported with much resistance of Constitutional Court and conservative opposition, so did gender politics like quotas or the law against gender violence. Government talks with ETA happened, and the group announced its permanent cease of violence in 2010.

Demonstration against the crisis and high youth unemployment in Madrid, 15 October 2011

The bursting of the Spanish property bubble in 2008 led to the 2008–16 Spanish financial crisis. High levels of unemployment, cuts in government spending and corruption in Royal family and People's Party served as a backdrop to the 2011–12 Spanish protests. Catalan independentism also rose. In 2011, Mariano Rajoy's conservative People's Party won the election with 44.6% of votes. As prime minister, he implemented austerity measures for EU bailout, the EU Stability and Growth Pact. On 19 June 2014, the monarch, Juan Carlos, abdicated in favour of his son, who became Felipe VI.

In October 2017 a Catalan independence referendum was held and the Catalan parliament voted to unilaterally declare independence from Spain to form a Catalan Republic on the day the Spanish Senate was discussing approving direct rule over Catalonia as called for by the Spanish Prime Minister. On the same day the Senate granted the power to impose direct rule and Rajoy dissolved the Catalan parliament and called a new election. No country recognised Catalonia as a separate state.

Salvador Illa, former minister of Health during COVID-19 pandemic in the first coalition Government in Spain, elected first non independentist Catalan regional president in over a decade, with Barcelona mayor Jaume Collboni.

In June 2018, the Congress of Deputies passed a motion of no-confidence against Rajoy and replaced him with the PSOE leader Pedro Sánchez. In 2019, the first ever coalicion government in Spain was formed, between PSOE and Unidas Podemos. Between 2018 and 2024, Spain faced an institutional crisis surrounding the mandate of the General Council of the Judiciary (CGPJ), until finally the mandate got renovated. In January 2020, the COVID-19 virus was confirmed to have spread to Spain, causing life expectancy to drop by more than a year. The European Commission economic recovery package Next Generation EU were created to support the EU member states to recover from the COVID-19 pandemic, and will be in use in the period 2021–2026. In March 2021, Spain became the sixth nation in the world to make active euthanasia legal. Following the general election on 23 July 2023, prime minister Pedro Sánchez once again formed a coalition government, this time with Sumar (successors of Unidas Podemos). In 2024, the first non-independentist Catalan regional president in over a decade, Salvador Illa, was elected, normalising the constitutional and institutional relations between the national and the regional administrations. According to latest polls, only 17.3% of Catalans feel themselves as "only Catalan". 46% of Catalans would answer "as Spanish as Catalan", while 21.8% "more Catalan than Spanish". Accordind to a 2024 poll of University of Barcelona, over 50% of Catalans would vote against independence, while less than 40% would vote in favour.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Spain
Topographic map of Spain (excluding Canary Islands)

At 505,992 km (195,365 sq mi), Spain is the world's fifty-first largest country and Europe's fourth largest country. It is some 47,000 km (18,000 sq mi) smaller than France. At 3,715 m (12,188 ft), Mount Teide (Tenerife) is the highest mountain peak in Spain and is the third largest volcano in the world from its base. Spain is a transcontinental country, having territory in both Europe and Africa.

Spain lies between latitudes 27° and 44° N, and longitudes 19° W and 5° E.

On the west, Spain is bordered by Portugal; on the south, it is bordered by Gibraltar and Morocco, through its exclaves in North Africa (Ceuta and Melilla, and the peninsula of de Vélez de la Gomera). On the northeast, along the Pyrenees mountain range, it is bordered by France and Andorra. Along the Pyrenees in Girona, a small exclave town called Llívia is surrounded by France.

Extending to 1,214 km (754 mi), the Portugal–Spain border is the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union.

Islands

Main article: List of islands of Spain
Aerial view of Mallorca island

Spain also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean and a number of uninhabited islands on the Mediterranean side of the Strait of Gibraltar, known as plazas de soberanía ("places of sovereignty", or territories under Spanish sovereignty), such as the Chafarinas Islands and Alhucemas. The peninsula of de Vélez de la Gomera is also regarded as a plaza de soberanía. The isle of Alborán, located in the Mediterranean between Spain and North Africa, is also administered by Spain, specifically by the municipality of Almería, Andalusia. The little Pheasant Island in the River Bidasoa is a Spanish-French condominium.

There are 11 major islands in Spain, all of them having their own governing bodies (Cabildos insulares in the Canaries, Consells insulars in Baleares). These islands are specifically mentioned by the Spanish Constitution, when fixing its Senatorial representation (Ibiza and Formentera are grouped, as they together form the Pityusic islands, part of the Balearic archipelago). These islands include Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, La Palma, La Gomera and El Hierro in the Canarian archipelago and Mallorca, Ibiza, Menorca and Formentera in the Balearic archipelago.

Mountains and rivers

Teide, still an active volcano in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands, is the tallest peak in Spain.

Mainland Spain is a rather mountainous landmass, dominated by high plateaus and mountain chains. After the Pyrenees, the main mountain ranges are the Cordillera Cantábrica (Cantabrian Range), Sistema Ibérico (Iberian System), Sistema Central (Central System), Montes de Toledo, Sierra Morena and the Sistema Bético (Baetic System) whose highest peak, the 3,478-metre-high (11,411-foot) Mulhacén, located in Sierra Nevada, is the highest elevation in the Iberian Peninsula. The highest point in Spain is the Teide, a 3,718-metre (12,198 ft) active volcano in the Canary Islands. The Meseta Central (often translated as 'Inner Plateau') is a vast plateau in the heart of peninsular Spain split in two by the Sistema Central.

There are several major rivers in Spain such as the Tagus (Tajo), Ebro, Guadiana, Douro (Duero), Guadalquivir, Júcar, Segura, Turia and Minho (Miño). Alluvial plains are found along the coast, the largest of which is that of the Guadalquivir in Andalusia.

Climate

Main article: Climate of Spain
Köppen climate classification map of Spain
Urriellu peak (Naranjo de Bulnes) from Pozo de La Oracion, Picos de Europa

Three main climatic zones can be separated, according to geographical situation and orographic conditions:

  • The Mediterranean climate is characterised by warm/hot and dry summers and is the predominant climate in the country. It has two varieties: Csa and Csb according to the Köppen climate classification.
    • The Csa zone is associated with areas with hot summers. It is predominant in the Southern Mediterranean (except southeastern) and Southern Atlantic coast and inland throughout Andalusia, Extremadura and much of the centre of the country. Some areas of Csa, mainly those inland, such as some areas of Castilla-La-Mancha, Extremadura, Madrid and some parts of Andalusia, have cool winters with some continental influences, while the regions with a Mediterranean climate close to the sea have mild winters.
    • The Csb zone has warm rather than hot summers, and extends to additional cool-winter areas not typically associated with a Mediterranean climate, such as much of central and northern-central of Spain (e.g. western Castile–León, northeastern Castilla-La Mancha and northern Madrid) and into much rainier areas (notably Galicia).
  • The semi-arid climate (BSk, BSh) is predominant in the southeastern quarter of the country, but is also widespread in other areas of Spain. It covers most of the Region of Murcia, southern and central-eastern Valencia, eastern Andalusia, various areas of Castilla-La-Mancha, Madrid and some areas of Extremadura. Further to the north, it is predominant in the upper and mid reaches of the Ebro valley, which crosses southern Navarre, central Aragon and western Catalonia. It is also found in a small area in northern Andalusia and in a small area in central Castilla-León. Precipitation is limited with dry season extending beyond the summer and average temperature depends on altitude and latitude.
  • The oceanic climate (Cfb) is located in the northern quarter of the country, especially in the Atlantic region (Basque Country, Cantabria, Asturias, and partly Galicia and Castile–León). It is also found in northern Navarre, in most highlands areas along the Iberian System and in the Pyrenean valleys, where a humid subtropical variant (Cfa) also occurs. Winter and summer temperatures are influenced by the ocean, and have no seasonal drought.

Apart from these main types, other sub-types can be found, like the alpine climate in areas with very high altitude, the humid subtropical climate in areas of northeastern Spain and the continental climates (Dfc, Dfb / Dsc, Dsb) in the Pyrenees as well as parts of the Cantabrian Range, the Central System, Sierra Nevada and the Iberian System, and a typical desert climate (BWk, BWh) in the zone of Almería, Murcia and eastern Canary Islands. Low-lying areas of the Canary Islands average above 18.0 °C (64.4 °F) during their coolest month, thus having influences of tropical climate, although they cannot properly be classified as tropical climates, as according to AEMET, their aridity is high, thus belonging to an arid or semi-arid climate.

Spain is one of the countries that is most affected by the climate change in Europe. In Spain, which already has a hot and dry climate, extreme events such as heatwaves are becoming increasingly frequent. The country is also experiencing more episodes of drought and increased severity of these episodes. Water resources will be severely affected in various climate change scenarios. To mitigate the effects of climate change, Spain is promoting an energy transition to renewable energies, such as solar and wind energy.

Fauna and flora

The Iberian wolf in Castile and Leon. The region has 25% of the land covered by Natura 2000 protected natural spaces.
Main article: Wildlife of Spain

The fauna presents a wide diversity that is due in large part to the geographical position of the Iberian peninsula between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean and between Africa and Eurasia, and the great diversity of habitats and biotopes, the result of a considerable variety of climates and well differentiated regions.

The vegetation of Spain is varied due to several factors including the diversity of the terrain, the climate and latitude. Spain includes different phytogeographic regions, each with its own floral characteristics resulting largely from the interaction of climate, topography, soil type and fire, and biotic factors. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.23/10, ranking it 130th globally out of 172 countries.

Within the European territory, Spain has the largest number of plant species (7,600 vascular plants) of all European countries.

In Spain there are 17.804 billion trees and an average of 284 million more grow each year.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Spain See also: Spanish Constitution of 1978 Felipe VI,
King of SpainPedro Sánchez,
Prime Minister of Spain

The constitutional history of Spain dates back to the constitution of 1812. In June 1976, Spain's new King Juan Carlos dismissed Carlos Arias Navarro and appointed the reformer Adolfo Suárez as Prime Minister. The resulting general election in 1977 convened the Constituent Cortes (the Spanish Parliament, in its capacity as a constitutional assembly) for the purpose of drafting and approving the constitution of 1978. After a national referendum on 6 December 1978, 88% of voters approved of the new constitution. As a result, Spain successfully transitioned from a one-party personalist dictatorship to a multiparty parliamentary democracy composed of 17 autonomous communities and two autonomous cities. These regions enjoy varying degrees of autonomy thanks to the Spanish Constitution, which nevertheless explicitly states the indivisible unity of the Spanish nation.

Governance

The Crown

The independence of the Crown, its political neutrality and its wish to embrace and reconcile the different ideological standpoints enable it to contribute to the stability of our political system, facilitating a balance with the other constitutional and territorial bodies, promoting the orderly functioning of the State and providing a channel for cohesion among Spaniards.

King Felipe VI, 2014

The Spanish Constitution provides for a separation of powers between five branches of government, which it refers to as "basic State institutions". Foremost amongst these institutions is the Crown (La Corona), the symbol of the Spanish state and its permanence. Spain's "parliamentary monarchy" is a constitutional one whereby the reigning king or queen is the living embodiment of the Crown and thus head of state. Unlike in some other constitutional monarchies however, namely the likes of Belgium, Denmark, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Norway, or indeed the United Kingdom, the monarch is not the fount of national sovereignty or even the nominal chief executive. Rather, the Crown, as an institution, "...arbitrates and moderates the regular functioning of the institutions..." of the Spanish state. As such, the monarch resolves disputes between the disparate branches, mediates constitutional crises, and prevents abuses of power.

In these respects, the Crown constitutes a fifth moderating branch that does not make public policy or administer public services, functions which rightfully rest with Spain's duly elected legislatures and governments at both the national and regional level. Instead, the Crown personifies the democratic Spanish state, sanctions legitimate authority, ensures the legality of means, and guarantees the execution of the public will. Put another way, the monarch fosters national unity at home, represents Spaniards abroad (especially with regard to nations of their historical community), facilitates the orderly operation and continuity of the Spanish government, defends representative democracy, and upholds the rule of law. In other words, the Crown is the guardian of the Spanish constitution and of the rights and freedoms of all Spaniards. This stabilising role is in keeping with the monarch's solemn oath upon accession "...to faithfully carry out duties, to obey the Constitution and the laws and ensure that they are obeyed, and to respect the rights of citizens and the Self-governing Communities."

A number of constitutional powers, duties, rights, responsibilities, and functions are assigned to the monarch in his or her capacity as head of state. However, the Crown enjoys inviolability in the performance of these prerogatives and cannot be prosecuted in the very courts which administer justice in its name. For this reason, every official act done by the monarch requires the countersignature of the prime minister or, when appropriate, the president of the Congress of Deputies to have the force of law. The countersigning procedure or refrendo in turn transfers political and legal liability for the royal prerogative to the attesting parties. This provision does not apply to the Royal Household, over which the monarch enjoys absolute control and supervision, or to membership in the Order of the Golden Fleece, which is a dynastic order in the personal gift of the House of Bourbon-Anjou.

The royal prerogatives may be classified by whether they are ministerial functions or reserve powers. Ministerial functions are those royal prerogatives that are, pursuant to the convention established by Juan Carlos I, performed by the monarch after soliciting the advice of the Government, the Congress of Deputies, the Senate, the General Council of the Judiciary, or the Constitutional Tribunal, as the case may be. On the other hand, the reserve powers of the Crown are those royal prerogatives which are exercised in the monarch's personal discretion. Most of the Crown's royal prerogatives are ministerial in practice, meaning the monarch has no discretion in their execution and primarily performs them as a matter of state ceremonial. Nevertheless, when performing said ministerial functions, the monarch has the right to be consulted before acting on advice, the right to encourage a particular course of policy or action, and the right to warn the responsible constitutional authorities against the same. Those ministerial functions are as follows:

  1. Sanction and promulgate bills duly passed by the Cortes Generales, making them laws. The Spanish Constitution mandates the monarch grant royal assent to each bill within fifteen days of its passage; he or she does not have a right to veto legislation.
  2. Summon the Cortes Generales into session following a general election, dissolve the same upon the expiration of its four-year term, and proclaim the election of the next Cortes. These functions are performed in accordance with the strictures of the Spanish Constitution.
  3. Appoint and dismiss ministers of state on the advice of the prime minister.
  4. Appoint the president of the Supreme Court on the advice of the General Council of the Judiciary.
  5. Appoint the president of the Constitutional Tribunal from among its members, on the advice of the full bench, for a term of three years.
  6. Appoint the Fiscal General, who leads the Prosecution Ministry, on the advice of the Government. Before tendering advice, the Government is required to consult the General Council of the Judiciary.
  7. Appoint the presidents of the autonomous communities as elected by their respective parliaments.
  8. Issue decrees approved in the Council of Ministers, confer civil service and military appointments, and award honours and distinctions in the gift of the state. These functions are performed on the advice of the prime minister or another minister designated thereby.
  9. Exercise supreme command and control over the Armed Forces, on the advice of the prime minister.
  10. Declare war and make peace on the advice of the prime minister and with the prior authorization of the Cortes Generales.
  11. Ratify treaties, on the advice of the prime minister.
  12. Accredit Spanish ambassadors and ministers to foreign states and receive the credentials of foreign diplomats to Spain, on the advice of the prime minister.
  13. Exercise the right of clemency, but without the authority to grant general pardons, on the advice of the prime minister.
  14. Patronise the Royal Academies.

The aforesaid limitations do not apply to the exercise of the Crown's reserve powers, which may be invoked by the monarch when necessary to maintain the continuity and stability of state institutions. For example, the monarch has the right to be kept informed on affairs of state through regular audiences with the Government. For this purpose, the monarch may preside at any time over meetings of the Council of Ministers, but only when requested by the prime minister. Moreover, the monarch may prematurely dissolve the Congress of Deputies, the Senate, or both houses of the Cortes in their entirety before the expiration of their four-year term and, in consequence thereof, concurrently call for snap elections. The monarch exercises this prerogative on the request of the prime minister, after the matter has been discussed by the Council of Ministers. The monarch may choose to accept or refuse the request. The monarch may also order national referendums on the request of the prime minister, but only with the prior authorisation of the Cortes Generales. Again, the monarch may choose to accept or refuse the prime minister's request.

The Crown's reserve powers further extend into constitutional interpretation and the administration of justice. The monarch appoints the 20 members of the General Council of the Judiciary. Of these counselors, twelve are nominated by the supreme, appellate and trial courts, four are nominated by the Congress of Deputies by a majority of three-fifths of its members, and four are nominated by the Senate with the same majority. The monarch may choose to accept or refuse any nomination. In a similar vein, the monarch appoints the twelve magistrates of the Constitutional Tribunal. Of these magistrates, four magistrates are nominated by the Congress of Deputies by a majority of three-fifths of its members, four magistrates are nominated by the Senate with the same majority, two magistrates are nominated by the Government, and two magistrates are nominated by the General Council of the Judiciary. The monarch may choose to accept or refuse any nomination.

However, it is the monarch's reserve powers concerning Government formation that are perhaps the most frequently exercised. The monarch nominates a candidate for prime minister and, as the case may be, appoints or removes him or her from office based on the prime minister's ability to maintain the confidence of the Congress of Deputies. If the Congress of Deputies fails to give its confidence to a new Government within two months, and is thus incapable of governing as a result of parliamentary gridlock, the monarch may dissolve the Cortes Generales and call for fresh elections. The monarch makes use of these reserve powers in his own deliberative judgment after consulting the president of the Congress of Deputies.

Cortes Generales

The hemicycle of the Congress of Deputies

Legislative authority vests in the Cortes Generales (English: Spanish Parliament, lit. 'General Courts'), a democratically elected bicameral parliament that serves as the supreme representative body of the Spanish people. Aside from the Crown, it is the only basic State institution that enjoys inviolability. It comprises the Congress of Deputies (Congreso de los Diputados), a lower house with 350 deputies, and the Senate (Senado), an upper house with 259 senators. Deputies are elected by popular vote on closed lists via proportional representation to serve four-year terms. On the other hand, 208 senators are directly elected by popular vote using a limited voting method, with the remaining 51 senators appointed by the regional legislatures to also serve four-year terms.

Government

Executive authority rests with the Government (Gobierno de España), which is collectively responsible to the Congress of Deputies. It consists of the prime minister, one or more deputy prime ministers, and the various ministers of state. These characters together constitute the Council of Ministers which, as Spain's central executive authority, conducts the business of the Government and administers the civil service. The Government remains in office so long as it can maintain the confidence of the Congress of Deputies.

The prime minister, as head of government, enjoys primacy over the other ministers by virtue of his or her ability to advise the monarch as to their appointment and dismissal. Moreover, the prime minister has plenary authority conferred by the Spanish Constitution to direct and coordinate the Government's policies and administrative actions. The Spanish monarch nominates the prime minister after consulting representatives from the different parliamentary groups and in turn formally appoints him or her to office upon a vote of investiture in the Congress of Deputies.

Administrative divisions

Main articles: History of the territorial organization of Spain and Political divisions of Spain

Autonomous communities

Main article: Autonomous communities of Spain See also: Nationalities and regions of Spain Galicia Navarre Community of
Madrid La Rioja Aragon Catalonia Valencian
Community Castilla–
La Mancha Extremadura Portugal Castile
and León Asturias Cantabria Basque
Country Region of
Murcia Andalusia Ceuta Melilla France Balearic
Islands Canary
Islands Mediterranean Sea Atlantic
Ocean Andorra Atlantic
Ocean Gibraltar (UK) Morocco

Spain's autonomous communities are the first level administrative divisions of the country. They were created after the current constitution came into effect (in 1978) in recognition of the right to self-government of the "nationalities and regions of Spain". The autonomous communities were to comprise adjacent provinces with common historical, cultural, and economic traits. This territorial organisation, based on devolution, is known in Spain as the "State of Autonomies" (Estado de las Autonomías). The basic institutional law of each autonomous community is the Statute of Autonomy. The Statutes of Autonomy establish the name of the community according to its historical and contemporary identity, the limits of its territories, the name and organisation of the institutions of government and the rights they enjoy according to the constitution. This ongoing process of devolution means that, while officially a unitary state, Spain is nevertheless one of the most decentralised countries in Europe, along with federations like Belgium, Germany, and Switzerland.

Catalonia, Galicia and the Basque Country, which identified themselves as nationalities, were granted self-government through a rapid process. Andalusia also identified itself as a nationality in its first Statute of Autonomy, even though it followed the longer process stipulated in the constitution for the rest of the country. Progressively, other communities in revisions to their Statutes of Autonomy have also taken that denomination in accordance with their historical and modern identities, such as the Valencian Community, the Canary Islands, the Balearic Islands, and Aragon.

The autonomous communities have wide legislative and executive autonomy, with their own elected parliaments and governments as well as their own dedicated public administrations. The distribution of powers may be different for every community, as laid out in their Statutes of Autonomy, since devolution was intended to be asymmetrical. For instance, only two communities—the Basque Country and Navarre—have full fiscal autonomy based on ancient foral provisions. Nevertheless, each autonomous community is responsible for healthcare and education, among other public services. Beyond these competencies, the nationalities—Andalusia, the Basque Country, Catalonia, and Galicia—were also devolved more powers than the rest of the communities, among them the ability of the regional president to dissolve the parliament and call for elections at any time. In addition, the Basque Country, the Canary Islands, Catalonia, and Navarre each have autonomous police corps of their own: Ertzaintza, Policía Canaria, Mossos d'Esquadra, and Policía Foral respectively. Other communities have more limited forces or none at all, like the Policía Autónoma Andaluza in Andalusia or BESCAM in Madrid.

Provinces and municipalities

Main articles: Local government in Spain, Provinces of Spain, and Municipalities of Spain

Autonomous communities are divided into provinces, which served as their territorial building blocks. In turn, provinces are divided into municipalities. The existence of both the provinces and the municipalities is guaranteed and protected by the constitution, not necessarily by the Statutes of Autonomy themselves. Municipalities are granted autonomy to manage their internal affairs, and provinces are the territorial divisions designed to carry out the activities of the State.

The current provincial division structure is based—with minor changes—on the 1833 territorial division by Javier de Burgos, and in all, the Spanish territory is divided into 50 provinces. The communities of Asturias, Cantabria, La Rioja, the Balearic Islands, Madrid, Murcia and Navarre are the only communities that comprise a single province, which is coextensive with the community itself. In these cases, the administrative institutions of the province are replaced by the governmental institutions of the community.

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Spain
Informal meeting of the European Council. Granada, 6 October 2023, during 2023 Spanish Presidency of the Council of the European Union.
Royal Palace of Pedralbes in Barcelona, headquarters of the Union for the Mediterranean

After the return of democracy following the death of Franco in 1975, Spain's foreign policy priorities were to break out of the diplomatic isolation of the Franco years and expand diplomatic relations, enter the European Community, and define security relations with the West.

As a member of NATO since 1982, Spain has established itself as a participant in multilateral international security activities. Spain's EU membership represents an important part of its foreign policy. Even on many international issues beyond western Europe, Spain prefers to coordinate its efforts with its EU partners through the European political co-operation mechanisms.

Spain has maintained its special relations with Hispanic America and the Philippines. Its policy emphasises the concept of an Ibero-American community, essentially the renewal of the concept of "Hispanidad" or "Hispanismo", as it is often referred to in English, which has sought to link the Iberian Peninsula with Hispanic America through language, commerce, history and culture. It is fundamentally "based on shared values and the recovery of democracy."

The country is involved in a number of territorial disputes. Spain claims Gibraltar, an Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom, in the southernmost part of the Iberian Peninsula. Another dispute surrounds the Savage Islands; Spain claims that they are rocks rather than islands, and therefore does not accept the Portuguese Exclusive Economic Zone (200 nautical miles) generated by the islands. Spain claims sovereignty over the Perejil Island, a small, uninhabited rocky islet located in the South shore of the Strait of Gibraltar; it was the subject of an armed incident between Spain and Morocco in 2002. Morocco claims the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla and the plazas de soberanía islets off the northern coast of Africa. Portugal does not recognise Spain's sovereignty over the territory of Olivenza.

Military

Main article: Spanish Armed Forces
Amphibious assault ship-aircraft carrier Juan Carlos I

The Spanish Armed Forces are divided into three branches: Army (Ejército de Tierra); Navy (Armada); and Air and Space Force (Ejército del Aire y del Espacio).

World leaders at the NATO Summit in Madrid, 29 June 2022

The armed forces of Spain are known as the Spanish Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas Españolas). Their commander-in-chief is the King of Spain, Felipe VI. The next military authorities in line are the Prime Minister and the Minister of Defence. The fourth military authority of the State is the Chief of the Defence Staff (JEMAD). The Defence Staff (Estado Mayor de la Defensa) assists the JEMAD as auxiliary body.

The Spanish armed forces are a professional force with a strength in 2017 of 121,900 active personnel and 4,770 reserve personnel. The country also has the 77,000 strong Civil Guard which comes under the control of the Ministry of defense in times of a national emergency. The Spanish defense budget is 5.71 billion euros (US$7.2 billion) a 1% increase for 2015. The increase comes because of security concerns in the country. Military conscription was suppressed in 2001.

According to the 2024 Global Peace Index, Spain is the 23rd most peaceful country in the world.

Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Spain See also: LGBT rights in Spain

The Spanish Constitution of 1978 "protect all Spaniards and all the peoples of Spain in the exercise of human rights, their cultures and traditions, languages and institutions".

According to Amnesty International (AI), government investigations of alleged police abuses are often lengthy and punishments were light. Violence against women was a problem, which the Government took steps to address.

Spain provides one of the highest degrees of liberty in the world for its LGBT community. Among the countries studied by Pew Research in 2013, Spain is rated first in acceptance of homosexuality, with 88% of those surveyed saying that homosexuality should be accepted.

The Cortes Generales approved the Gender Equality Act in 2007 aimed at furthering equality between genders in Spanish political and economic life. According to Inter-Parliamentary Union data as of 1 September 2018, 137 of the 350 members of the Congress were women (39.1%), while in the Senate, there were 101 women out of 266 (39.9%), placing Spain 16th on their list of countries ranked by proportion of women in the lower (or single) House. The Gender Empowerment Measure of Spain in the United Nations Human Development Report is 0.794, 12th in the world.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Spain
Cuatro Torres Business Area in Madrid
Torre Glòries and the 22@ business district in Barcelona

Spain has a mixed economy that combines elements of free-market capitalism with social welfare and state intervention. It is one of 19 countries with a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) exceeding $1 trillion per year, ranking 15th largest worldwide and fourth largest both in the European Union and within the eurozone. Spain is classified as a high-income economy by the World Bank and an advanced economy by the International Monetary Fund. As of 2024, it is the fastest growing major advanced economy in the world, growing nearly four times higher than the eurozone average.

Spain began industrializing in the late 18th century, albeit more gradually and unevenly than other European countries; industry was limited mostly to Catalonia (primarily textile manufacturing) and the Basque Country (iron and steel production). Overall economic growth was slower than in most major western European countries, and Spain remained relatively underdeveloped by the early 20th century. The Spanish Civil War, followed by failed autarkic and interventionist policies that were worsened by international isolation, left the economy on the brink of collapse by the late 1950s. Technocratic reforms were enacted to avert the crisis, laying the groundwork for the Spanish economic miracle, a period of rapid growth from 1960 until 1974, during which Spain’s economy grew an average of 6.6 percent per year, exceeding every country except Japan.

Since its transition to democracy in the late 1970s, Spain has generally sought to liberalise its economy and deepen regional and international integration. It joined the European Economic Community—now the European Union—in 1986 and implemented policies and reforms that allowed for its participation in the inaugural launch of the euro in 1999. Spain's largest trade and investment partners are within the EU and eurozone, including its four largest export markets; EU membership also coincided with a tripling of foreign direct investment from 1990 to 2000. Spain was among the countries hit hardest by the 2007–2008 global financial crisis and subsequent euro-zone debt crisis, enduring a protracted recession that persisted through 2014.

Spain has long struggled with high unemployment, which has never fallen below 8 percent since the 1980s; it stood at 11.21 percent in October 2024. Youth unemployment is particularly severe by both global and regional standards; at 25.8 percent (as of June 2024), it is the highest among EU members and well above the EU average of 14.6 percent. Perennial weak points of Spain's economy include a large informal economy; an education system that performs poorly compared to most developed countries; and low rates of private sector investment.

Since the 1990s, which saw a wave of privatisations, several Spanish companies have reached multinational status; they maintain a strong and leading presence in Latin America—where Spain is the second largest foreign investor after the United States—but have also expanded into Asia, especially China and India. As of 2023, Spain was home to eight of the 500 largest companies in the world by annual revenue, according to the Fortune Global 500; these include Banco Santander, the 19th-largest banking institution in the world; electric utility Iberdrola, the world's largest renewable energy operator; and Telefónica, one of the largest telephone operators and mobile network providers. Twenty Spanish companies are listed in the 2023 Forbes Global 2000 ranking of the 2,000 largest public companies, reflecting diverse sectors such as construction (ACS Group), aviation (ENAIRE), pharmaceuticals (Grifols), and transportation (Ferrovial). Additionally, one of Spain's largest private sector entities is Mondragon Corporation, the world's largest worker-owned cooperative.

The automotive industry is one of the largest employers in the country and a major contributor to economic growth, accounting for one-tenth of gross domestic product and 18 percent of total exports (including vehicles and auto-parts). In 2023, Spain produced 2.45 million automobiles—of which over 2.1 million were exported abroad—ranking eighth in the world and second in Europe (after Germany) by total number; it is estimated that Spain will maintain this position by the end of 2024. In total, 89 percent of vehicles and 60% of auto-parts manufactured in Spain were exported worldwide in 2023; the total external trade surplus of vehicles alone reached €18.8bn in 2023. Overall, the automotive industry supports nearly 2 million jobs, or 9 percent of the labor force.

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Spain
Benidorm, one of Europe's largest coastal tourist destinations

In 2023, Spain was the second most visited country in the world only behind France, recording 85 million tourists. The headquarters of the World Tourism Organisation are located in Madrid.

Spain's geographic location, popular coastlines, diverse landscapes, historical legacy, vibrant culture, and excellent infrastructure have made the country's international tourist industry among the largest in the world. In the last five decades, international tourism in Spain has grown to become the second largest in the world in terms of spending, worth approximately 40 billion Euros or about 5% of GDP in 2006.

Castile and Leon is the Spanish leader in rural tourism linked to its environmental and architectural heritage.

Energy

Main article: Energy in Spain
The Solucar Complex, with the PS10 Solar Power Plant in the foreground and the PS20 in the background

In 2010 Spain became the solar power world leader when it overtook the United States with a massive power station plant called La Florida, near Alvarado, Badajoz. Spain is also Europe's main producer of wind energy. In 2010 its wind turbines generated 16.4% of all electrical energy produced in Spain. On 9 November 2010, wind energy reached a historic peak covering 53% of mainland electricity demand and generating an amount of energy that is equivalent to that of 14 nuclear reactors. Other renewable energies used in Spain are hydroelectric, biomass and marine.

Non-renewable energy sources used in Spain are nuclear (8 operative reactors), gas, coal, and oil. Fossil fuels together generated 58% of Spain's electricity in 2009, just below the OECD mean of 61%. Nuclear power generated another 19%, and wind and hydro about 12% each.

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in Spain
The Gran Telescopio Canarias at sunset

The Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) is the leading public agency dedicated to scientific research in the country. It ranked as the 5th top governmental scientific institution worldwide (and 32nd overall) in the 2018 SCImago Institutions Rankings. Spain was ranked 28th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.

Higher education institutions perform about a 60% of the basic research in the country. Likewise, the contribution of the private sector to R&D expenditures is much lower than in other EU and OECD countries.

Transport

Main article: Transport in Spain

The Spanish road system is mainly centralised, with six highways connecting Madrid to the Basque Country, Catalonia, Valencia, West Andalusia, Extremadura and Galicia. Additionally, there are highways along the Atlantic (Ferrol to Vigo), Cantabrian (Oviedo to San Sebastián) and Mediterranean (Girona to Cádiz) coasts. Spain aims to put one million electric cars on the road by 2014 as part of the government's plan to save energy and boost energy efficiency. The former Minister of Industry Miguel Sebastián said that "the electric vehicle is the future and the engine of an industrial revolution."

As of July 2024, the Spanish high-speed rail network is the longest HSR network in Europe with 3,966 km (2,464 mi) and the second longest in the world, after China's. It is linking Málaga, Seville, Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia and Valladolid, with the trains operated at commercial speeds up to 330 km/h (210 mph). On average, the Spanish high-speed train is the fastest one in the world, followed by the Japanese bullet train and the French TGV. Regarding punctuality, it is second in the world (98.5% on-time arrival) after the Japanese Shinkansen (99%).

There are 47 public airports in Spain. The busiest one is the airport of Madrid (Barajas), with 60 million passengers in 2023, being the world's 15th busiest airport, as well as the European Union's third busiest. The airport of Barcelona (El Prat) is also important, with 50 million passengers in 2023, being the world's 30th-busiest airport. Other main airports are located in Majorca, Málaga, Las Palmas (Gran Canaria), and Alicante.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Spain See also: List of Spanish autonomous communities by population
Population density by municipality in Spain, 2018

In 2024, Spain had a population of 48,946,035 people as recorded by Spain's Instituto Nacional de Estadística. Spain's population density, at 96/km (249.2/sq mi), is lower than that of most Western European countries and its distribution across the country is very unequal. With the exception of the region surrounding the capital, Madrid, the most populated areas lie around the coast. The population of Spain has risen 2+1⁄2 times since 1900, when it stood at 18.6 million, principally due to the spectacular demographic boom in the 1960s and early 1970s.

In 2022, the average total fertility rate (TFR) across Spain was 1.16 children born per woman, one of the lowest in the world, below the replacement rate of 2.1, it remains considerably below the high of 5.11 children born per woman in 1865. Spain subsequently has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 43.1 years.

Native Spaniards make up 86.5% of the total population of Spain. After the birth rate plunged in the 1980s and Spain's population growth rate dropped, the population again trended upward initially upon the return of many Spaniards who had emigrated to other European countries during the 1970s, and more recently, fuelled by large numbers of immigrants who make up 12% of the population. The immigrants originate mainly in Latin America (39%), North Africa (16%), Eastern Europe (15%), and Sub-Saharan Africa (4%).

In 2008, Spain granted citizenship to 84,170 persons, mostly to people from Ecuador, Colombia and Morocco. Spain has a number of descendants of populations from former colonies, especially Latin America and North Africa. Smaller numbers of immigrants from several Sub-Saharan countries have recently been settling in Spain. There are also sizeable numbers of Asian immigrants, most of whom are of Middle Eastern, South Asian and Chinese origin. The single largest group of immigrants are European; represented by large numbers of Romanians, Britons, Germans, French and others.

Urbanisation

Main article: List of metropolitan areas in Spain
   Largest cities or towns in Spain
Instituto Nacional de Estadística (2023)
Rank Name Autonomous community Pop. Rank Name Autonomous community Pop.
Madrid
Madrid
Barcelona
Barcelona 		1 Madrid Community of Madrid 3,332,035 11 Bilbao Basque Country 346,096 Valencia
Valencia
Seville
Seville
2 Barcelona Catalonia 1,660,122 12 Córdoba Andalusia 323,763
3 Valencia Valencian Community 807,693 13 Valladolid Castile and León 297,459
4 Seville Andalusia 684,025 14 Vigo Galicia 293,652
5 Zaragoza Aragon 682,513 15 L'Hospitalet Catalonia 274,455
6 Málaga Andalusia 586,384 16 Gijón Principality of Asturias 258,313
7 Murcia Region of Murcia 469,177 17 Vitoria-Gasteiz Basque Country 255,886
8 Palma Balearic Islands 423,350 18 A Coruña Galicia 247,376
9 Las Palmas Canary Islands 378,027 19 Elche Valencian Community 238,293
10 Alicante Valencian Community 349,282 20 Granada Andalusia 230,595

Immigration

Main article: Immigration to Spain
Distribution of the foreign population in Spain in 2005 by percentage

According to the official Spanish statistics (INE) there were 6.6 million foreign residents in Spain in 2024 (13.5%) while all citizens born outside of Spain were 8.9 million in 2024, 18.31% of the total population.

According to residence permit data for 2011, more than 860,000 were Romanian, about 770,000 were Moroccan, approximately 390,000 were British, and 360,000 were Ecuadorian. Other sizeable foreign communities are Colombian, Bolivian, German, Italian, Bulgarian, and Chinese. There are more than 200,000 migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa living in Spain, principally Senegaleses and Nigerians. Since 2000, Spain has experienced high population growth as a result of immigration flows, despite a birth rate that is only half the replacement level. This sudden and ongoing inflow of immigrants, particularly those arriving illegally by sea, has caused noticeable social tension.

Within the EU, Spain had the 2nd highest immigration rate in percentage terms after Cyprus, but by a great margin, the highest in absolute numbers, up to 2008. The number of immigrants in Spain had grown up from 500,000 people in 1996 to 5.2 million in 2008 out of a total population of 46 million. In 2005 alone, a regularisation programme increased the legal immigrant population by 700,000 people. There are a number of reasons for the high level of immigration, including Spain's cultural ties with Latin America, its geographical position, the porosity of its borders, the large size of its underground economy and the strength of the agricultural and construction sectors, which demand more low cost labour than can be offered by the national workforce.

Another statistically significant factor is the large number of residents of EU origin typically retiring to Spain's Mediterranean coast. In fact, Spain was Europe's largest absorber of migrants from 2002 to 2007, with its immigrant population more than doubling as 2.5 million people arrived. In 2008, prior to the onset of the economic crisis, the Financial Times reported that Spain was the most favoured destination for Western Europeans considering a move from their own country and seeking jobs elsewhere in the EU.

In 2008, the government instituted a "Plan of Voluntary Return" which encouraged unemployed immigrants from outside the EU to return to their home countries and receive several incentives, including the right to keep their unemployment benefits and transfer whatever they contributed to the Spanish Social Security. The programme had little effect. Although the programme failed to, the sharp and prolonged economic crisis from 2010 to 2011, resulted in tens of thousands of immigrants leaving the country due to lack of jobs. In 2011 alone, more than half a million people left Spain. For the first time in decades the net migration rate was expected to be negative, and nine out of 10 emigrants were foreigners.

Languages

Main article: Languages of Spain
Languages of Spain

Spain is a multilingual state. Spanish—featured in the 1978 Spanish Constitution as castellano ('Castilian')—has effectively been the official language of the entire country since 1931. As allowed in the third article of the Constitution, the other 'Spanish languages' can also become official in their respective autonomous communities. The territoriality created by the form of co-officiality codified in the 1978 Constitution creates an asymmetry, in which Spanish speakers' rights apply to the entire territory whereas vis-à-vis the rest of co-official languages, their speakers' rights only apply in their territories.

Besides Spanish, other territorialised languages include Aragonese, Aranese, Astur-Leonese, Basque, Ceutan Arabic (Darija), Catalan, Galician, Portuguese, Valencian and Tamazight, to which the Romani Caló and the sign languages may add up. The number of speakers varies widely and their legal recognition is uneven, with some of the most vulnerable languages lacking any sort of effective protection. Those enjoying recognition as official language in some autonomous communities include Catalan/Valencian (in Catalonia and the Balearic Islands officially named as Catalan and in the Valencian Community officially named as Valencian); Galician (in Galicia); Basque (in the Basque Country and part of Navarre); and Aranese in Catalonia.

Spanish is natively spoken by 74%, Catalan/Valencian by 17%, Galician by 7% and Basque by 2% of the Spanish population.

Some of the most spoken foreign languages used by the immigrant communities include Moroccan Arabic, Romanian and English.

Education

Main article: Education in Spain
University of Salamanca, one of the first European universities

State education in Spain is free and compulsory from the age of six to sixteen. The current education system is regulated by the 2006 educational law, LOE (Ley Orgánica de Educación), or Fundamental Law for the Education. In 2014, the LOE was partially modified by the newer and controversial LOMCE law (Ley Orgánica para la Mejora de la Calidad Educativa), or Fundamental Law for the Improvement of the Education System, commonly called Ley Wert (Wert Law). Since 1970 to 2014, Spain has had seven different educational laws (LGE, LOECE, LODE, LOGSE, LOPEG, LOE and LOMCE).

The levels of education are preschool education, primary education, secondary education and post-16 education. In regards to the professional development education or the vocational education, there are three levels besides the university degrees: the Formación Profesional Básica (basic vocational education); the Ciclo Formativo de Grado Medio or CFGM (medium level vocation education) which can be studied after studying the secondary education, and the Ciclo Formativo de Grado Superior or CFGS (higher level vocational education), which can be studied after studying the post-16 education level.

The Programme for International Student Assessment coordinated by the OECD currently ranks the overall knowledge and skills of Spanish 15-year-olds as significantly below the OECD average of 493 in reading literacy, mathematics, and science.

Health

Main articles: Health care in Spain and Abortion in Spain

The health care system of Spain (Spanish National Health System) is considered one of the best in the world, in 7th position in the ranking elaborated by the World Health Organisation. The health care is public, universal and free for any legal citizen of Spain. The total health spending is 9.4% of the GDP, slightly above the average of 9.3% of the OECD.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Spain

Religious self-definition in Spain (CIS survey; sample size: 3,935; February 2023)

  Practicing Catholic (18.5%)  Non-Practicing Catholic (37.5%)  Believer in another religion (2.7%)  Agnostic (12.6%)  Indifferent/Non-believer (12.3%)  Atheist (14.9%)  Did not answer (1.5%)

Roman Catholicism, which has a long history in Spain, remains the dominant religion. Although it no longer has official status by law, in all public schools in Spain students have to choose either a religion or ethics class. Catholicism is the religion most commonly taught, although the teaching of Islam, Judaism, and evangelical Christianity is also recognised in law. According to a 2020 study by the Spanish Centre for Sociological Research, about 61% of Spaniards self-identify as Catholics, 3% other faiths, and about 35% identify with no religion. Most Spaniards do not participate regularly in religious services. Recent polls and surveys suggest that around 30% of the Spanish population is irreligious.

The Spanish constitution enshrines secularism in governance, as well as freedom of religion or belief for all, saying that no religion should have a "state character", while allowing for the state to "cooperate" with religious groups.

Protestant churches have about 1,200,000 members. There are about 105,000 Jehovah's Witnesses. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has approximately 46,000 adherents in 133 congregations.

A study made by the Union of Islamic Communities of Spain demonstrated that there were more than 2,100,000 inhabitants of Muslim background living in Spain as of 2019, accounting for 4–5% of the total population of Spain. The vast majority was composed of immigrants and descendants originating from the Maghreb (especially Morocco) and other African countries. More than 879,000 (42%) of them had Spanish nationality.

Judaism was practically non-existent in Spain from the 1492 expulsion until the 19th century, when Jews were again permitted to enter the country. Currently there are around 62,000 Jews in Spain, or 0.14% of the total population.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Spain

Spain is a Western country and one of the major Latin countries of Europe, and has been noted for its international cultural influence. Spanish culture is marked by strong historic ties to the Catholic Church, which played a pivotal role in the country's formation and subsequent identity. Spanish art, architecture, cuisine, and music have been shaped by successive waves of foreign invaders, as well as by the country's Mediterranean climate and geography. The centuries-long colonial era globalised Spanish language and culture, with Spain also absorbing the cultural and commercial products of its diverse empire.

World Heritage Sites

Main article: World Heritage Sites in Spain See also: Castles in Spain and Cathedrals in Spain

Spain has 60 World Heritage Sites. These include the landscape of Monte Perdido in the Pyrenees, which is shared with France, the Prehistoric Rock Art Sites of the Côa Valley and Siega Verde, which is shared with Portugal, the Heritage of Mercury, shared with Slovenia and the Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests, shared with other countries of Europe. In addition, Spain has also 14 Intangible cultural heritage, or "Human treasures".

Literature

Main articles: Spanish literature, Catalan literature, Galician literature, and Basque literature See also: Latin American literature, Royal Spanish Academy, and Instituto Cervantes

Some early examples of vernacular Romance-based literature include short snippets of Mozarabic Romance (such as refrains) sprinkled in Arabic and Hebrew texts. Other examples of early Iberian Romance include the Glosas Emilianenses written in Latin, Basque and Romance.

Bronze statues of Don Quixote and Sancho Panza, at the Plaza de España in Madrid

Early Medieval literature in Christian Iberia was written in Latin, which remained as the standard literary language up until the mid-13th century, whereas Ibero-Romance vernaculars and Basque were spoken. A decisive development ensued in the 13th century in Toledo, where Arabic scholarship was translated to the local vernacular, Castilian. In the scope of lyric poetry Castilian co-existed alongside Galician-Portuguese across the Crown of Castile up until the 16th century. The Romance variety preferred in Eastern Iberia for lyrical poetry, Occitan, became increasingly Catalanised in the 14th and 15th centuries. Major literary works from the Middle Ages include the Cantar de Mio Cid, Tirant lo Blanch, The Book of Good Love and Coplas por la muerte de su padre. Genres such as Mester de Juglaría and Mester de Clerecía were cultivated.

Promoted by the monarchs in the late Middle Ages and even codified in the late 15th century, Castilian (thought to be widespread known as 'Spanish' from the 16th century on) progressively became the language of the elites in the Iberian Peninsula, which ushered in a Golden era of Castilian literature in the 16th and 17th centuries, also in the science domain, eclipsing Galician and Catalan. Famous Early Modern works include La Celestina and Lazarillo de Tormes. The famous Don Quijote de La Mancha by Miguel de Cervantes was written in this time. Other writers from the period are: Francisco de Quevedo, Lope de Vega, Calderón de la Barca or Tirso de Molina. During the Enlightenment authors included, Benito Jerónimo Feijóo, Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, and Leandro Fernández de Moratín.

Steps of Spanish Romantic literature (initially a rebellion against French classicism) have been traced back to the last quarter of the 18th century, even if the movement had its heyday between 1835 and 1850, waning thereafter. In a broader definition encompassing the period from 1868 or 1874 to 1936, the so-called Silver Age of Spanish Culture ensued.

The waning of Romantic literature was followed by the development of Spanish Realism, which offered depictions of contemporary life and society 'as they were', rather than romanticised or stylised presentations. The major realist writer was Benito Pérez Galdós. The second half of the 19th century also saw the resurgence of the literary use of local languages other than Spanish under cultural movements inspired by Romanticism such as the Catalan Renaixença or the Galician Rexurdimento. Rarely used before in a written medium, the true fostering of the literary use of the Basque language had to wait until the 1960s, even if some interest towards the language had developed in the late 19th century. 20th-century authors were classified in loose literary generations such as the Generation of '98, the Generation of '27, Generation of '36 and the Generation of '50. Premio Planeta de Novela and Miguel de Cervantes Prize are the two main awards in Spanish literature.

Philosophy

Main article: Spanish philosophy

The construct pertaining a distinctive Spanish philosophical thought has been variously approached by academia, either by diachronically tracing its development throughout the centuries from the Roman conquest of Hispania on (with early representatives such as Seneca, Trajan, Lucan, or Martial); by pinpointing its origins to the late 19th century (associated to the Generation of 98); or simply by outright denying its existence. The crux around the existence of a Spanish philosophy pitted the likes of Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo (chief architect of the myth around it) against Antonio Pérez. Foreign imports such as Krausism proved to be extremely influential in Spain in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Art

Main article: Spanish art
Las Meninas by Diego Velázquez

Artists from Spain have been highly influential in the development of various European and American artistic movements. Due to historical, geographical and generational diversity, Spanish art has known a great number of influences. The Mediterranean heritage with Greco-Roman and some Moorish influences in Spain, especially in Andalusia, is still evident today. European influences include Italy, Germany and France, especially during the Renaissance, Spanish Baroque and Neoclassical periods. There are many other autochthonous styles such as the Pre-Romanesque art and architecture, Herrerian architecture or the Isabelline Gothic.

During the Golden Age painters working in Spain included El Greco, José de Ribera, Bartolomé Esteban Murillo and Francisco Zurbarán. Also in the Baroque period, Diego Velázquez created some of the most famous Spanish portraits, such as Las Meninas and Las Hilanderas.

Francisco Goya painted during a historical period that includes the Spanish Independence War, the fights between liberals and absolutists, and the rise of contemporary nations-states.

Joaquín Sorolla is a well-known modern impressionist painter and there are many important Spanish painters belonging to the modernism art movement, including Pablo Picasso, Salvador Dalí, Juan Gris and Joan Miró.

Sculpture

The Comb of the Wind of Eduardo Chillida in San Sebastián

The Plateresque style extended from beginnings of the 16th century until the last third of the century and its stylistic influence pervaded the works of all great Spanish artists of the time. Alonso Berruguete (Valladolid School) is called the "Prince of Spanish sculpture". His main works were the upper stalls of the choir of the Cathedral of Toledo, the tomb of Cardinal Tavera in the same Cathedral, and the altarpiece of the Visitation in the church of Santa Úrsula in the same locality. Other notable sculptors were Bartolomé Ordóñez, Diego de Siloé, Juan de Juni and Damián Forment.

There were two Schools: the Seville School, to which Juan Martínez Montañés belonged, whose most celebrated works are the Crucifix in the Cathedral of Seville, another in Vergara, and a Saint John; and the Granada School, to which Alonso Cano belonged, to whom an Immaculate Conception and a Virgin of Rosary, are attributed.

Other notable Andalusian Baroque sculptors were Pedro de Mena, Pedro Roldán and his daughter Luisa Roldán, Juan de Mesa and Pedro Duque Cornejo. In the 20th century the most important Spanish sculptors were Julio González, Pablo Gargallo, Eduardo Chillida, and Pablo Serrano.

Cinema

Main article: Cinema of Spain
Pedro Almodóvar and Penélope Cruz in Oviedo

After the first projection of a cinematographer in Spain by 1896, cinema developed in the following years, with Barcelona becoming the largest production hub in the country (as well as a major European hub) on the eve of the World War I. The conflict offered the Spanish industry of silent films an opportunity for further growth. Local studios for sound films were created in 1932. The government imposition of dubbing of foreign films in 1941 accustomed Spanish audiences to watching dubbed films.

Spanish cinema has achieved major international success including Oscars for films such as Pan's Labyrinth and Volver.

Distinct exploitation genres that flourished in the second half of the 20th century include the Fantaterror, the cine quinqui and the so-called destape [es] films.

As of 2021, the festivals of San Sebastián and Málaga are ranked among the top cultural initiatives in the country.

Architecture

Main article: Spanish architecture
Basilica Sagrada Família in Barcelona

Earth and gypsum are very common materials of the traditional vernacular architecture in Spain (particularly in the East of the country, where most of the deposits of gypsum are located). Due to its historical and geographical diversity, Spanish architecture has drawn from a host of influences. Fine examples of Islamicate architecture, belonging to the Western Islamic tradition, were built in the Middle Ages in places such as Córdoba, Seville, or Granada. Similarly to the Maghreb, stucco decoration in Al-Andalus became an architectural stylemark in the high Middle Ages.

Simultaneously, the Christian kingdoms also developed their own styles; developing a pre-Romanesque style when for a while isolated from contemporary mainstream European architectural influences during the earlier Middle Ages, they later integrated the Romanesque and Gothic streams. There was then an extraordinary flourishing of the Gothic style that resulted in numerous instances being built throughout the entire territory. The so-called Mudéjar style came to designate works by Muslims, Christians and Jews in lands conquered from Muslims.

The arrival of Modernism produced much of the architecture of the 20th century. An influential style centred in Barcelona, known as modernisme, produced a number of important architects, of which Gaudí is one. The International style was led by groups like GATEPAC. Spain is currently experiencing a revolution in contemporary architecture and Spanish architects like Rafael Moneo, Santiago Calatrava, Ricardo Bofill as well as many others have gained worldwide renown.

Music and dance

Main article: Music of Spain
Flamenco is an Andalusian artistic form that evolved from Seguidilla.

Spanish music is often considered abroad to be synonymous with flamenco, a West Andalusian musical genre, which is not widespread outside that region. Various regional styles of folk music abound. Pop, rock, hip hop and heavy metal are also popular.

In the field of classical music, Spain has produced a number of noted composers such as Isaac Albéniz, Manuel de Falla and Enrique Granados and singers and performers such as Plácido Domingo, José Carreras, Montserrat Caballé, Alicia de Larrocha, Alfredo Kraus, Pablo Casals, Ricardo Viñes, José Iturbi, Pablo de Sarasate, Jordi Savall and Teresa Berganza. In Spain there are over forty professional orchestras, including the Orquestra Simfònica de Barcelona, Orquesta Nacional de España and the Orquesta Sinfónica de Madrid. Major opera houses include the Teatro Real, the Gran Teatre del Liceu, Teatro Arriaga and the El Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía.

Thousands of music fans also travel to Spain each year for internationally recognised summer music festivals Sónar which features pop and techno acts, and Benicàssim which tends to feature alternative rock and dance acts. The Vitoria-Gasteiz jazz festival is one of the main ones in its genre.

The most popular traditional musical instrument, the guitar, originated in Spain. Typical of the north are the traditional bag pipers or gaiteros, mainly in Asturias and Galicia.

Cuisine

Main article: Spanish cuisine

Spanish cuisine consists of a great variety of dishes which stem from differences in geography, culture and climate. It is heavily influenced by seafood available from the waters that surround the country, and reflects the country's deep Mediterranean roots. Spain's extensive history with many cultural influences has led to a unique cuisine. In particular, three main divisions are easily identified:

Mediterranean Spain – coastal regions, from Catalonia to Andalusia – heavy use of seafood, such as pescaíto frito (fried fish); cold soups like gazpacho; and many rice-based dishes like paella from Valencia and arròs negre (black rice) from Catalonia.

Inner Spain – Castile – hot, thick soups such as the bread and garlic-based Castilian soup, along with substantial stews such as cocido madrileño. Food is traditionally preserved by salting, such as Spanish ham, or immersed in olive oil, such as Manchego cheese.

Atlantic Spain – the Northern coast, including Asturian, Basque, Cantabrian and Galician cuisine – vegetable and fish-based stews like caldo gallego and marmitako. Also, the lightly cured lacón ham. The best known cuisine of the northern countries often rely on ocean seafood, as in the Basque-style cod, albacore or anchovy or the Galician octopus-based polbo á feira and shellfish dishes.

Paella, a traditional Valencian dishCochinillo asadoJamón ibérico is one of the most expensive hams.Empanadas, part of entire Latin American cuisine due Spanish colonizationTorta del Casar, a sheep milk cheese from Spain

Sport

Main article: Sport in Spain
Spain or La Roja celebrating their 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup victory

While varieties of football have been played in Spain as far back as Roman times, sport in Spain has been dominated by football since the early 20th century. Real Madrid CF and FC Barcelona are two of the most successful football clubs in the world. The country's national men's football team won the UEFA European Championship in 1964, 2008, 2012 and 2024 and the FIFA World Cup in 2010, and is the first team ever to win three back-to-back major international tournaments. Spain's women's national team were champions of the 2023 FIFA World Cup, becoming one of only five nations to win a Women's World Cup. Barcelona Femení has won a record 20 domestic trophies.

Basketball, tennis, cycling, handball, futsal, motorcycling and, lately, Formula One also can boast of Spanish champions. Today, Spain is a major world sports powerhouse, especially since the 1992 Summer Olympics and Paralympics that were hosted in Barcelona, which stimulated a great deal of interest in sports in the country. The tourism industry has led to an improvement in sports infrastructure, especially for water sports, golf and skiing. In their respective regions, the traditional games of Basque pelota and Valencian pilota both are popular.

Public holidays and festivals

Carnival in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria
Main articles: National Day of Spain, Public holidays in Spain, Fiestas of International Tourist Interest of Spain, and Fiestas of National Tourist Interest of Spain

Public holidays celebrated in Spain include a mix of religious (Roman Catholic), national and local observances. Each municipality is allowed to declare a maximum of 14 public holidays per year; up to nine of these are chosen by the national government and at least two are chosen locally. Spain's National Day (Fiesta Nacional de España) is celebrated on 12 October.

There are many festivals and festivities in Spain. One of the most famous is San Fermín, in Pamplona. While its most famous event is the encierro, or the running of the bulls. It has become one of the most internationally renowned fiestas in Spain, with over 1,000,000 people attending every year.

Other festivals include La Tomatina tomato festival in Buñol, Valencia, the carnivals in the Canary Islands, the Falles in Valencia or the Holy Week in Andalusia and Castile and León.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ In Spain, some other languages enjoy co-official status in certain regions (in accordance with the latter's Statutes of Autonomy) or have some degree of recognition. In each of these, Spain's conventional long name for international affairs in Spanish laws and the most used (Spanish: Reino de España, pronounced: Spanish pronunciation: [ˈrejno ð(e) esˈpaɲa]) is as follows:
  2. The official language of the State is established in the Section 3 of the Constitution of Spain to be Castilian.
  3. In some autonomous communities, Basque, Catalan, Galician, Valencian, and Occitan (locally known as Aranese) are co-official languages. Aragonese, Asturian, and Leonese have some degree of government recognition at the regional level.
  4. The Peseta before 2002
  5. The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states. Also, the .cat domain is used in Catalonia, .gal in Galicia and .eus in the Basque-Country autonomous regions.
  6. Spanish: España, [esˈpaɲa]
  7. The Spanish Constitution does not contain any one official name for Spain. Instead, the terms España (Spain), Estado español (Spanish State) and Nación española (Spanish Nation) are used throughout the document, sometimes interchangeably. In 1984, the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs established that the denominations España (Spain) and Reino de España (Kingdom of Spain) are equally valid to designate Spain in international treaties. The latter term is widely used by the government in national and international affairs of all kinds, including foreign treaties as well as national official documents, and is therefore recognised as the conventional name by many international organisations.
  8. See list of transcontinental countries.
  9. The latifundia (sing., latifundium), large estates controlled by the aristocracy, were superimposed on the existing Iberian landholding system.
  10. The poets Martial, Quintilian and Lucan were also born in Hispania.
  11. Those nationwide institutions are the Crown, the Cortes Generales, the Government, the Judiciary, and the Constitutional Tribunal.
  12. Most Spanish monarchs have been kings. However, a queen regnant – while uncommon – is possible due to Spain's adherence to male-preference primogeniture. Leonor, Princess of Asturias, will be Spain's first queen regnant since Isabella II, who reigned from 1833 to 1868, should she someday succeed her father Felipe VI as expected.
  13. Former king Juan Carlos I's intervention and foiling of the 1981 Spanish coup attempt is but one example of the Crown exercising its influence as the moderating branch to defend democracy and uphold the rule of law.
  14. The Spanish state honours system comprises the Order of Charles III, the Order of Isabella the Catholic, the Order of Civil Merit, the Civil Order of Alfonso X, the Wise, the Order of Saint Raymond of Peñafort, and the Order of Constitutional Merit, among other orders, decorations and medals. The prime minister is ex officio chancellor of the Order of Charles III. On the other hand, the ministers of foreign affairs, education, and justice are the corresponding chancellors for the orders of Isabella the Catholic and of Civil Merit, the Civil Order of Alfonso X, the Wise, and the orders of Saint Raymond of Peñafort and of Constitutional Merit, respectively.
  15. They being the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, the Real Academia de Ciencias Morales y Políticas, the Royal Academy of Engineering of Spain, the Real Academia de la Historia, the Royal Academy of Jurisprudence and Legislation, the Royal Academy of Pharmacy, the Royal Spanish Academy, and the Spanish Royal Academy of Sciences

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  • Considered European for cultural, political and historical reasons but is geographically in Western Asia.
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  • Governed by the Holy See which has sovereignty over Vatican City.
Countries and territories of the Mediterranean Sea
Sovereign states
States with limited recognition
Dependencies and other territories
Marginal seas
Member states of the European Union
See also: Potential enlargement and Former members
Members of the European Economic Area (EEA)
EFTA member states
EU member states
See also: UK membership, CH–EU relations, and UK–EU relations
Council of Europe
Institutions
Members
Observers
Former members

40°N 4°W / 40°N 4°W / 40; -4

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