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] in the late 18th century was an important element in the ] in Europe.]] ] in the late 18th century was an important element in the ] in Europe.]]
] took place in the late 18th century.]] ] took place in the late 18th century.]]
The '''18th century''' lasted from 1 January ] (represented by the ] MDCCI) to 31 December ] (MDCCC). During the 18th century, elements of ] thinking culminated in the ]. Revolutions began to challenge the legitimacy of monarchical and aristocratic power structures. The ] began during mid-century, leading to radical changes in ] and the ]. The ] and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as part of the ]. During the century, ] expanded across the shores of the ], while declining in ]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Volkov|first=Sergey|title=Concise History of Imperial Russia}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rowe|first=William T.|title=China's Last Empire}}</ref> The '''18th century''' lasted from 1 January ] (represented by the ] MDCCI) to 31 December ] (MDCCC). During the 18th century, elements of ] thinking culminated in the ]. Revolutions began to challenge the legitimacy of monarchical and aristocratic power structures. The ] began during mid-century, leading to radical changes in ] and the ]. The ] and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as part of the ]. During the century, ] expanded across the shores of the ], while declining in ]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Volkov|first=Sergey|title=Concise History of Imperial Russia}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rowe|first=William T.|title=China's Last Empire}}</ref>


] historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. For example, the "short" 18th century may be defined as 1715–1789, denoting the period of time between the death of ] and the start of the ], with an emphasis on directly interconnected events.<ref>{{cite book |author=Anderson, M. S. |url=https://archive.org/details/historianseighte0000ande |title=Historians and Eighteenth-Century Europe, 1715–1789 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-19-822548-5 |oclc=185538307 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Ribeiro, Aileen |title=Dress in Eighteenth-Century Europe 1715–1789 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-300-09151-9 |edition=revised |oclc=186413657}}</ref> To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, the "long" 18th century<ref name="Baines">{{cite book |last=Baines |first=Paul |title=The Long 18th Century |publisher=Arnold |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-340-81372-0 |location=London}}</ref> may run from the ] of 1688 to the ] in 1815<ref>{{cite book |title=The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century (Oxford History of the British Empire) |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-924677-9 |editor=Marshall, P. J. |oclc=174866045}}, "Introduction" by P. J. Marshall, page 1</ref> or even later.<ref>{{cite book |author=O'Gorman, Frank |url=https://archive.org/details/longeighteenthce0000ogor |title=The Long Eighteenth Century: British Political and Social History 1688–1832 (The Arnold History of Britain Series) |publisher=A Hodder Arnold Publication |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-340-56751-7 |oclc=243883533 |url-access=registration}}</ref> ] historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. For example, the "short" 18th century may be defined as 1715–1789, denoting the period of time between the death of ] and the start of the ], with an emphasis on directly interconnected events.<ref>{{cite book |author=Anderson, M. S. |url=https://archive.org/details/historianseighte0000ande |title=Historians and Eighteenth-Century Europe, 1715–1789 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-19-822548-5 |oclc=185538307 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Ribeiro, Aileen |title=Dress in Eighteenth-Century Europe 1715–1789 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-300-09151-9 |edition=revised |oclc=186413657}}</ref> To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, the "long" 18th century<ref name="Baines">{{cite book |last=Baines |first=Paul |title=The Long 18th Century |publisher=Arnold |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-340-81372-0 |location=London}}</ref> may run from the ] of 1688 to the ] in 1815<ref>{{cite book |title=The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century (Oxford History of the British Empire) |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-924677-9 |editor=Marshall, P. J. |oclc=174866045}}, "Introduction" by P. J. Marshall, page 1</ref> or even later.<ref>{{cite book |author=O'Gorman, Frank |url=https://archive.org/details/longeighteenthce0000ogor |title=The Long Eighteenth Century: British Political and Social History 1688–1832 (The Arnold History of Britain Series) |publisher=A Hodder Arnold Publication |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-340-56751-7 |oclc=243883533 |url-access=registration}}</ref>
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In ], ] led ] in successful ]. The ] experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking no part in European wars from 1740 to 1768. As a result, the empire was not exposed to Europe's military improvements during the Seven Years' War. The Ottoman military consequently lagged behind and suffered several defeats against Russia in the second half of the century. In ], ] led ] in successful ]. The ] experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking no part in European wars from 1740 to 1768. As a result, the empire was not exposed to Europe's military improvements during the Seven Years' War. The Ottoman military consequently lagged behind and suffered several defeats against Russia in the second half of the century.


In ], the death of Mughal emperor ] was followed by the expansion of the ] and an increasing level of European influence and control in the region. In 1739, Persian emperor Nader Shah invaded and plundered Delhi, the capital of the ]. Later, his general ] scored another victory against the Marathas, the then dominant power in India, in the ] in 1761.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Chandra |first=Bipin |title=Mordern India |location=India |language=en}}</ref> By the middle of the century, the ] began to conquer eastern India,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=John |url=https://www.wdl.org/en/item/2384/ |title=Memoirs of the Revolution in Bengal, anno Dom. 1757 |last2=Watts |first2=William |publisher=A. Millar, London |year=1760 |author-link1=John Campbell (author)}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> and by the end of the century, the ] against ] and his father ], led to ] over the south.<ref>{{Citation |title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_YEcvo-jqcC&pg=PA207 |page=207 |year=2011 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-139-49889-0 |given=Prasannan |surname=Parthasarathi}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Allana |first=Gulam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4nbiAAAAMAAJ |title=Muslim political thought through the ages: 1562–1947 |publisher=Royal Book Company |year=1988 |isbn=9789694070919 |edition=2 |location=Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania |page=78 |access-date=18 January 2013}}</ref> In ], the death of Mughal emperor ] was followed by the expansion of the ] and an increasing level of European influence and control in the region. In 1739, Persian emperor Nader Shah invaded and plundered Delhi, the capital of the ]. Later, his general ] scored another victory against the Marathas, the then dominant power in India, in the ] in 1761.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Chandra |first=Bipin |title=Mordern India |location=India |language=en}}</ref> By the middle of the century, the ] began to conquer eastern India,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=John |url=https://www.wdl.org/en/item/2384/ |title=Memoirs of the Revolution in Bengal, anno Dom. 1757 |last2=Watts |first2=William |publisher=A. Millar, London |year=1760 |author-link1=John Campbell (author)}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> and by the end of the century, the ] against ] and his father ], led to ] over the south.<ref>{{Citation |title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_YEcvo-jqcC&pg=PA207 |page=207 |year=2011 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-139-49889-0 |given=Prasannan |surname=Parthasarathi}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Allana |first=Gulam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4nbiAAAAMAAJ |title=Muslim political thought through the ages: 1562–1947 |publisher=Royal Book Company |year=1988 |isbn=9789694070919 |edition=2 |location=Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania |page=78 |access-date=18 January 2013}}</ref>


In ], the century was marked by the ], a period characterized by significant cultural and territorial expansion. This period also experienced relative peace and prosperity, allowing for societal growth, increasing literacy rates, flourishing trade, and consolidating imperial power across the vast Qing dynasty's territories. Conversely, the continual ] of the ] also brought a peaceful era called ] and experienced a flourishment of the ] as well as ], which were introduced to Japan through the Dutch port of Nagasaki. In ], the ] and the ] broke out while the ] established ] over the ].
In ], the century marked the ] and the continual ] of the ].


⚫ In ], the ] underwent the ], a period when the country was ruled by a class of regional noblemen and the emperor was merely a figurehead. The ] also saw the continued involvement of states such as the ]. In ], the European colonization of ] and ] began during the late half of the century. In the ], the ] declared its independence from Great Britain. In 1776, ] wrote the ]. In 1789, ] was inaugurated as the first president. ] traveled to Europe where he was hailed as an inventor. Examples of his inventions include the ] and ]. ] led an ] that sought to end ].
In ], the ] and the ] broke out while the ] established ] over the ].

In ], the ] underwent the ], a period when the country was ruled by a class of regional noblemen and the emperor was merely a figurehead. The ] also saw the continued involvement of states such as the ].

In ], the European colonization of ] and ] began during the late half of the century.

⚫ In the ], the ] declared its independence from Great Britain. In 1776, ] wrote the ]. In 1789, ] was inaugurated as the first president. ] traveled to Europe where he was hailed as an inventor. Examples of his inventions include the ] and ]. ] led an ] that sought to end ].


==Events== ==Events==
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* ]: End of Japan's ] period. * ]: End of Japan's ] period.
* ]: ].<ref name="RICKLEFSp82">Ricklefs (1991), page 82</ref> * ]: ].<ref name="RICKLEFSp82">Ricklefs (1991), page 82</ref>
* ]–]: The War of the Spanish Succession: French troops defeated at the battles of ] and ]. * ]–]: The War of the Spanish Succession: French troops defeated at the ] and the ].
* ]: Death of Mughal Emperor ] leads to the fragmentation of the ]. * ]: Death of Mughal Emperor ] leads to the fragmentation of the ].
* ]: The ] is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments, thus establishing the ].<ref>{{cite web |author=Historic uk – heritage of britain accommodation guide |url=http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/Scotland-History/ActofUnion.htm |title=The history of Scotland – The Act of Union 1707 |publisher=Historic-uk.com |date=2007-05-03 |access-date=2009-04-25 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090408060918/http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/Scotland-History/ActofUnion.htm |archive-date= 8 April 2009 |url-status= live}}</ref> * ]: The ] is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments, thus establishing the ].<ref>{{cite web |author=Historic uk – heritage of britain accommodation guide |url=http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/Scotland-History/ActofUnion.htm |title=The history of Scotland – The Act of Union 1707 |publisher=Historic-uk.com |date=2007-05-03 |access-date=2009-04-25 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090408060918/http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/Scotland-History/ActofUnion.htm |archive-date= 8 April 2009 |url-status= live}}</ref>
* ]: The ] and English Company Trading to the East Indies merge to form the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies. * ]: The ] and English Company Trading to the East Indies merge to form the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies.
* ]–]: Famine kills one-third of ]'s population. * ]–]: Famine kills one-third of ]'s population.
* ]: Foundation of the ]. * ]: Foundation of the ].
* ]: The ] marks the coldest winter in 500 years, contributing to the defeat of ] at ]. * ]: The ] marks the coldest winter in 500 years, contributing to the defeat of ] at ].
* ]: The world's first ], Britain's ], takes effect. * ]: The world's first ], Britain's ], takes effect.
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* ]–]: The ] of China oversees a huge expansion in territory. * ]–]: The ] of China oversees a huge expansion in territory.
* ]–]: ] across the ]; half the population of ] dies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ag.arizona.edu/~lmilich/desclim.html |title=Len Milich: Anthropogenic Desertification vs 'Natural' Climate Trends |publisher=Ag.arizona.edu |date=1997-08-10 |access-date=2009-04-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211081648/http://ag.arizona.edu/~lmilich/desclim.html |archive-date=2012-02-11 }}</ref> * ]–]: ] across the ]; half the population of ] dies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ag.arizona.edu/~lmilich/desclim.html |title=Len Milich: Anthropogenic Desertification vs 'Natural' Climate Trends |publisher=Ag.arizona.edu |date=1997-08-10 |access-date=2009-04-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211081648/http://ag.arizona.edu/~lmilich/desclim.html |archive-date=2012-02-11 }}</ref>
* ]–]: Hotaki Afghan Empire ends after the ] by ]. * ]–]: Hotak Empire ends after the ] by ].
* ]: Great Britain and Spain fight the ] in the Caribbean. * ]: Great Britain and Spain fight the ] in the Caribbean.
* ]: Nader Shah defeats a pan-Indian army of 300,000 at the ]. Taxation is stopped in Iran for three years. * ]: Nader Shah defeats a pan-Indian army of 300,000 at the ]. Taxation is stopped in Iran for three years.
Line 102: Line 96:
* ]: The ] is founded by ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/saudi-arabia/7.htm |title=Saudi Arabia – The Saud Family and Wahhabi Islam |publisher=Countrystudies.us |access-date=2009-04-25}}</ref> * ]: The ] is founded by ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/saudi-arabia/7.htm |title=Saudi Arabia – The Saud Family and Wahhabi Islam |publisher=Countrystudies.us |access-date=2009-04-25}}</ref>
* ]: ] is fought off the coast of France. * ]: ] is fought off the coast of France.
* ]–]: The ] is fought between the British, the French, the ], and ] in India. * ]–]: The ] is fought between the British, the French, the Marathas, and Mysore in India.
* ]: ] is begun by ] in Scotland. * ]: ] is begun by ] in Scotland.
* ]: The ] is founded by ]. * ]: The ] is founded by ].
* ]: The ] ends the War of the Austrian Succession and First Carnatic War. * ]: The ] ends the War of the Austrian Succession and First Carnatic War.
* ]–]: The ] is fought between the British, the French, the ], and ] in India. * ]–]: The ] is fought between the British, the French, the Marathas, and Mysore in India.
* ]: Peak of the ]. * ]: Peak of the ].


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* ]–]: The ] forces transfer of the French Acadian population from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. * ]–]: The ] forces transfer of the French Acadian population from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.
* ]–]: The ] is fought among European powers in various theaters around the world. * ]–]: The ] is fought among European powers in various theaters around the world.
* ]–]: The ] is fought between the British, the French, and ] in India. * ]–]: The ] is fought between the British, the French, and Mysore in India.
* ]: ]. * ]: ].
], Empress of Russia.]] ], Empress of Russia.]]
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* ]: Spanish ] establish the first of 21 ] in ]. * ]: Spanish ] establish the first of 21 ] in ].
* ]–]: ] explores and maps New Zealand and Australia. * ]–]: ] explores and maps New Zealand and Australia.
* ]–]: The ] kills one-third of the ] population. * ]–]: The ] kills one-third of the Bengal population.
* ]: The ] dissolves, only to be revived in 1785. * ]: The ] dissolves, only to be revived in 1785.
* ]: French expeditions capture ] plants in ], ending the ]'s (VOC) monopoly of the plant.<ref name="RICKLEFSp102">Ricklefs (1991), page 102</ref> * ]: French expeditions capture ] plants in ], ending the ]'s (VOC) monopoly of the plant.<ref name="RICKLEFSp102">Ricklefs (1991), page 102</ref>
* ]–]: ] kills hundreds of thousands. * ]–]: ] kills hundreds of thousands.
* ]: The ] in Moscow. * ]: The ] in Moscow.
* ]: The ] dissolves as the territory becomes colonized by Russians. More than a hundred thousand ] migrate back to ]. * ]: The ] dissolves as the territory becomes colonized by Russians. More than a hundred thousand ] migrate back to ].
* ]: ] stages a coup d'état, becoming almost an absolute monarch. * ]: ] stages a coup d'état, becoming almost an absolute monarch.
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* ]: Iran enters yet another period of conflict and civil war after the prosperous reign of ]. * ]: Iran enters yet another period of conflict and civil war after the prosperous reign of ].
* ]: Outbreak of the ] against Spanish colonization led by ] in ]. * ]: Outbreak of the ] against Spanish colonization led by ] in ].
* ]: The city of Los Angeles is founded by ] settlers.]]] * ]: The city of Los Angeles is founded by Spanish settlers.]]]
* ]–]: ] is abolished in the ] (first step; second step in ]). * ]–]: ] is abolished in the ] (first step; second step in ]).
* ]: The ] of Thailand is dissolved after a palace coup. * ]: The ] of Thailand is dissolved after a palace coup.
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* ]–]: The ], which were a series of incidents between settlers and ] and the ] clans of the ] in ], ]. * ]–]: The ], which were a series of incidents between settlers and ] and the ] clans of the ] in ], ].
* ]: The ] is officially adopted as the French ].] at the ]]] * ]: The ] is officially adopted as the French ].] at the ]]]
* ]: The ] in the final days of ] wars to ] the ]. * ]: The ] in the final days of King ]'s wars to ] the Hawaiian Islands.
* ]–]: ], prompting ]. * ]–]: ], prompting ].
* ]: ] administers the first ]; ] killed an estimated 400,000 Europeans each year during the 18th century, including five reigning ]s.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Riedel S |title=Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination |journal=Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent) |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=21–5 |year=2005 |pmid=16200144 |doi= 10.1080/08998280.2005.11928028|pmc=1200696}}</ref> * ]: ] administers the first ]; ] killed an estimated 400,000 Europeans each year during the 18th century, including five reigning ]s.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Riedel S |title=Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination |journal=Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent) |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=21–5 |year=2005 |pmid=16200144 |doi= 10.1080/08998280.2005.11928028|pmc=1200696}}</ref>
Line 210: Line 204:
* ]: ] is dissolved. * ]: ] is dissolved.
* ]: ] forces under ] ] from French occupation. * ]: ] forces under ] ] from French occupation.
* ]: ] - ] ] brings the end of the ]. * ]: ] - ]'s ] brings the end of the ].
* ]: Death of the Qianlong Emperor after ]. His favorite official, ], is ordered to commit suicide. * ]: Death of the Qianlong Emperor after ]. His favorite official, ], is ordered to commit suicide.
* ]: On 1 January, the bankrupt VOC is formally dissolved and the nationalized ] are established.<ref name="RICKLEFSp106">Ricklefs (1991), page 106</ref> * ]: On 1 January, the bankrupt VOC is formally dissolved and the nationalized ] are established.<ref name="RICKLEFSp106">Ricklefs (1991), page 106</ref>
Line 268: Line 262:
* ]: '']'' becomes one of the first ] * ]: '']'' becomes one of the first ]
* ]: '']'' (''The Treasury of Loyal Retainers''), popular Japanese ], composed * ]: '']'' (''The Treasury of Loyal Retainers''), popular Japanese ], composed
* ]: '']'' by ] * ]: '']'' by ]
* ]: '']'' by ] * ]: '']'' by ]
* ]: '']'' by ] published * ]: '']'' by ] published

Latest revision as of 22:08, 4 January 2025

One hundred years, from 1701 to 1800 For other uses, see 18th century (disambiguation).
Millennium
2nd millennium
Centuries
Timelines
State leaders
Decades
Categories:
Births – Deaths
Establishments – Disestablishments
Political boundaries at the beginning of year 1700
Storming of the Bastille, 14 July 1789, an iconic event of the French Revolution.
Development of the Watt steam engine in the late 18th century was an important element in the Industrial Revolution in Europe.
The American Revolutionary War took place in the late 18th century.

The 18th century lasted from 1 January 1701 (represented by the Roman numerals MDCCI) to 31 December 1800 (MDCCC). During the 18th century, elements of Enlightenment thinking culminated in the Atlantic Revolutions. Revolutions began to challenge the legitimacy of monarchical and aristocratic power structures. The Industrial Revolution began during mid-century, leading to radical changes in human society and the environment. The European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as part of the Age of Sail. During the century, slave trading expanded across the shores of the Atlantic Ocean, while declining in Russia and China.

Western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. For example, the "short" 18th century may be defined as 1715–1789, denoting the period of time between the death of Louis XIV of France and the start of the French Revolution, with an emphasis on directly interconnected events. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, the "long" 18th century may run from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 to the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 or even later.

In Europe, philosophers ushered in the Age of Enlightenment. This period coincided with the French Revolution of 1789, and was later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but in the wake of the French Revolution they feared loss of power and formed broad coalitions to oppose the French Republic in the French Revolutionary Wars. Various conflicts throughout the century, including the War of the Spanish Succession and the Seven Years' War, saw Great Britain triumph over its rivals to become the preeminent power in Europe. However, Britain's attempts to exert its authority over the Thirteen Colonies became a catalyst for the American Revolution. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state. Its semi-democratic government system was not robust enough to prevent partition by the neighboring states of Austria, Prussia, and Russia.

In West Asia, Nader Shah led Persia in successful military campaigns. The Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking no part in European wars from 1740 to 1768. As a result, the empire was not exposed to Europe's military improvements during the Seven Years' War. The Ottoman military consequently lagged behind and suffered several defeats against Russia in the second half of the century.

In South Asia, the death of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb was followed by the expansion of the Maratha Confederacy and an increasing level of European influence and control in the region. In 1739, Persian emperor Nader Shah invaded and plundered Delhi, the capital of the Mughal Empire. Later, his general Ahmad Shah Durrani scored another victory against the Marathas, the then dominant power in India, in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761. By the middle of the century, the British East India Company began to conquer eastern India, and by the end of the century, the Anglo-Mysore Wars against Tipu Sultan and his father Hyder Ali, led to Company rule over the south.

In East Asia, the century was marked by the High Qing era, a period characterized by significant cultural and territorial expansion. This period also experienced relative peace and prosperity, allowing for societal growth, increasing literacy rates, flourishing trade, and consolidating imperial power across the vast Qing dynasty's territories. Conversely, the continual seclusion policy of the Tokugawa shogunate also brought a peaceful era called Pax Tokugawa and experienced a flourishment of the arts as well as scientific knowledge and advancements, which were introduced to Japan through the Dutch port of Nagasaki. In Southeast Asia, the Konbaung–Ayutthaya Wars and the Tây Sơn Wars broke out while the Dutch East India Company established increasing levels of control over the Mataram Sultanate.

In Africa, the Ethiopian Empire underwent the Zemene Mesafint, a period when the country was ruled by a class of regional noblemen and the emperor was merely a figurehead. The Atlantic slave trade also saw the continued involvement of states such as the Oyo Empire. In Oceania, the European colonization of Australia and New Zealand began during the late half of the century. In the Americas, the United States declared its independence from Great Britain. In 1776, Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence. In 1789, George Washington was inaugurated as the first president. Benjamin Franklin traveled to Europe where he was hailed as an inventor. Examples of his inventions include the lightning rod and bifocal glasses. Túpac Amaru II led an uprising that sought to end Spanish colonial rule in Peru.

Events

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the 18th century. See also: Georgian era

1701–1750

Europe at the beginning of the War of the Spanish Succession, 1700
The Battle of Poltava in 1709 turned the Russian Empire into a European power.
John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough
Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah with the Persian invader Nader Shah.
Qianlong Emperor
The extinction of the Scottish clan system came with the defeat of the clansmen at the Battle of Culloden in 1746.

1751–1800

Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia.
Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

Inventions, discoveries, and introductions

Main articles: Timeline of historic inventions § 18th century, and Timeline of scientific discoveries § 18th century
The spinning jenny
The Chinese Putuo Zongcheng Temple of Chengde, completed in 1771, during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor.

Literary and philosophical achievements

Main articles: 18th century in literature and 18th century in philosophy

Musical works

References

  1. Volkov, Sergey. Concise History of Imperial Russia.
  2. Rowe, William T. China's Last Empire.
  3. Anderson, M. S. (1979). Historians and Eighteenth-Century Europe, 1715–1789. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-822548-5. OCLC 185538307.
  4. Ribeiro, Aileen (2002). Dress in Eighteenth-Century Europe 1715–1789 (revised ed.). Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09151-9. OCLC 186413657.
  5. Baines, Paul (2004). The Long 18th Century. London: Arnold. ISBN 978-0-340-81372-0.
  6. Marshall, P. J., ed. (2001). The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century (Oxford History of the British Empire). Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-924677-9. OCLC 174866045., "Introduction" by P. J. Marshall, page 1
  7. O'Gorman, Frank (1997). The Long Eighteenth Century: British Political and Social History 1688–1832 (The Arnold History of Britain Series). A Hodder Arnold Publication. ISBN 978-0-340-56751-7. OCLC 243883533.
  8. ^ Chandra, Bipin. Mordern India. India.
  9. Campbell, John; Watts, William (1760). Memoirs of the Revolution in Bengal, anno Dom. 1757. A. Millar, London.
  10. Parthasarathi, Prasannan (2011), Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850, Cambridge University Press, p. 207, ISBN 978-1-139-49889-0
  11. Allana, Gulam (1988). Muslim political thought through the ages: 1562–1947 (2 ed.). Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania: Royal Book Company. p. 78. ISBN 9789694070919. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
  12. "War of the Spanish Succession, 1701–1714". Historyofwar.org. Retrieved 25 April 2009.
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Further reading

  • Black, Jeremy and Roy Porter, eds. A Dictionary of Eighteenth-Century World History (1994) 890pp
  • Klekar, Cynthia. "Fictions of the Gift: Generosity and Obligation in Eighteenth-Century English Literature." Innovative Course Design Winner. American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies: Wake Forest University, 2004. <Home | American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies (ASECS)>. Refereed.
  • Langer, William. An Encyclopedia of World History (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of events online free
  • Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present (1970) online
  • Milward, Alan S, and S. B. Saul, eds. The economic development of continental Europe: 1780–1870 (1973) online; note there are two different books with identical authors and slightly different titles. Their coverfage does not overlap.
    • Milward, Alan S, and S. B. Saul, eds. The development of the economies of continental Europe, 1850–1914 (1977) online
  • The Wallace Collection, London, houses one of the finest collections of 18th-century decorative arts from France, England and Italy, including paintings, furniture, porcelain and gold boxes.

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