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			{{Short description|Largest city in Turkey}}
	{{other uses}}
			{{Other uses}}
	{{pp-protected|expiry=2013-03-26T13:28:56Z|small=yes}}{{Infobox settlement
			{{Pp-sock|small=yes}}
	| name=Istanbul
			{{Pp-move}}
	| native_name=''İstanbul''
			{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
	| native_name_lang=
			{{Infobox settlement
	| settlement_type=]
			| official_name = Istanbul
	| image_skyline=Istanbul City Collage.jpg
			| native_name = ''İstanbul''
	| image_caption=Clockwise from top: The ] between ] and the ], with the ] on the horizon; nostalgic tram on ]; skyscrapers of ] financial district; the ]; and the ]
			| native_name_lang = tr
	| image_alt=See caption
			| settlement_type = {{wrap|] and ]}}
	| imagesize=300px
			| image_skyline = {{multiple image|total_width=280px|perrow=1/3/2/1|border=infobox|caption_align = center
	| image_blank_emblem=
			| image1 = Historical peninsula and modern skyline of Istanbul.jpg
	| blank_emblem_type=Logo
			| caption1 = ], including the ] and ]
	| blank_emblem_size=100px
			| image2 = Istanbul_asv2020-02_img53_Maiden's_Tower.jpg
	| pushpin_map=Turkey
			| caption2 = ]
	| pushpin_map_caption=Location in Turkey
			| image3 = Galata tower 01 23.jpg
	| pushpin_map_alt=Turkey, with Istanbul pinpointed at the northwest along a thin strip of land bounded by water
			| caption3 = ]
	| pushpin_mapsize=300px
			| image4 = Istiklal Street tram in January 2024.jpg
	| latd=41|latm=00|lats=49|latNS=N
			| caption4 = ] and ]
	| longd=28|longm=57|longs=18|longEW=E
			| image5 = View of Topkapı Palace from the Galata Tower, Istanbul, Turkey 001 (cropped).jpg
	| coordinates_region=TR
			| caption5 = ]
	| subdivision_type=Country
			| image6 = View of Levent financial district from Istanbul Sapphire.jpg
	| subdivision_name=]
			| caption6 = ] business district
	| subdivision_type1=]
			| image7 = Istanbul, Turkey Bosporus.jpg
	| subdivision_name1=]
			| caption7 = ], ] and ]
	| subdivision_type2=]
			}}
	| subdivision_name2=]
			| image_blank_emblem =
	| leader_party=]
			| blank_emblem_type = Emblem of Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality
	| leader_title=Mayor
			| image_flag =
	| leader_name=]
			| mapsize = 230px
	| established_title=Established
			| pushpin_map = Turkey#Europe#Asia
	| established_date=
			| pushpin_map_alt = Turkey, with Istanbul pinpointed at the northwest along a thin strip of land bounded by water
	| established_title1= - ]
			| pushpin_map_caption = Location within Turkey##Location within Europe##Location within Asia
	| established_date1=c. 660 BC{{efn|name=byz-date}}
			| pushpin_relief = 1
	| established_title2= - ]
			| coordinates = {{Coord|41|00|49|N|28|57|18|E|region:TR-34_type:adm2nd|display=inline,title}}
	| established_date2=330 AD
			| subdivision_type = Country
	| established_title3= - Istanbul
			| subdivision_name = {{flag|Turkey}}
	| established_date3=1930 (officially){{efn|name=name-1930|The name of the city was officially changed to its present name of Istanbul in 1930, but the name has been in use since even before the 1453 ].<ref name="roo177" />}}
			| subdivision_type1 = ]
	| parts_type=Districts
			| subdivision_type2 = ]
	| parts=]
			| subdivision_name1 = ]
	| area_metro_km2=5343
			| subdivision_name2 = '''Istanbul'''
	| area_metro_mi2=2063
			| seat_type = Provincial seat
	| area_metro_footnotes={{efn|name=city-area}}
			| seat = ], Fatih
	| population_total=13,483,052
			| parts_type = Districts
	| population_as_of=2011
			| parts = ]
	| population_footnotes=<ref name="tuik" />
			| leader_party = ]
	| population rank=], ]
			| leader_title = ]
	| population_density_km2=2523
			| leader_name = ]
	| population_demonym=Istanbulite(s)<br />(Turkish: ''İstanbullu(lar)'')
			| leader_title1 = ]
	| timezone=]
			| leader_name1 =
	| utc_offset=+2
			| area_footnotes = <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ibb.istanbul/SitePage/Index/82|publisher=Istanbul Buyuksehir Belediyesi|title=YETKİ ALANI|access-date=4 February 2020|archive-date=6 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200406112545/https://www.ibb.istanbul/SitePage/Index/82|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{efn|İstanbul Province {{=}} 5,460.85&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>{{Plain list|
	| timezone_DST=]
			* Land area {{=}} 5,343.22&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>
	| utc_offset_DST=+3
			* Lake/Dam {{=}} 117.63&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>
	| postal_code_type=]
			* Europe (25 districts) {{=}} 3,474.35&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>
	| postal_code=34000 to 34850
			* Asia (14 districts) {{=}} 1,868.87&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>
	| area_code=(+90) 212 (European side) <br /> (+90) 216 (Asian side)
			* Urban (36 districts) {{=}} 2,576.85&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>
	| website={{URL|http://www.ibb.gov.tr/en-US/Pages/Home.aspx|Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality}}
			}}
			<nowiki>*</nowiki>According to the size of the population and the status of megacity, the limits of the Istanbul city correspond to the limits of the province, and the province is treated like as the metropolitan-city of Istanbul.
			}}
			| area_water_km2 =
			| area_urban_km2 = 2,576.85
			| area_metro_km2 = 5,343.22
			| elevation_max_footnotes = <ref>{{cite web |title=İstanbul'un En Yüksek Tepeleri |url=https://www.kartal24.com/104583-istanbulun-en-yuksek-tepesi-neresidir |website=Hava Forumu |date=15 April 2020 |publisher=Hava Durumu Forumu}}</ref>
			| elevation_max_m = 537
			| population_total = 15,655,924
			| population_urban = 15,305,657
			| population_as_of = 31 December 2023
			| population_footnotes = <ref name="Population of Turkey">{{cite web |url=https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=The-Results-of-Address-Based-Population-Registration-System-2023-49684&dil=2 |title=The Results of Address Based Population Registration System, 2023 |publisher=] |website=www.tuik.gov.tr |date=6 February 2024 |access-date=6 February 2024}}</ref> <!-- do not add update figure as that stat is only published once a year due to legal reasons -->
			| population_density_urban_km2 = 5,939
			| population_density_metro_km2 = 2,930
			| population_rank = ]
			| population_demonym = Istanbulite {{nwr|({{langx|tr|İstanbullu}})}}
			| demographics_type1 = ] Nominal {{Nobold|(2023)}}
			| demographics1_footnotes = <ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Gross-Domestic-Product-by-Provinces-2023-53575&dil=2 |title=GDP by Provinces, 2023 - İstanbul had the highest share of GDP with 30.4% (Tables 1 and 3) |publisher=] |website=www.tuik.gov.tr |date=12 December 2024 |access-date=12 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://cip.tuik.gov.tr/ |language=tr|title=Ulusal Hesaplar - Kişi başına GSYH ($)|trans-title=National Accounts - GDP per capita ($) |publisher=] |website=www.tuik.gov.tr |access-date=12 December 2024}}</ref>
			| demographics1_title1 = ] and ]
			| demographics1_info1 = ] 8,060 billion<br>] 340.4 billion
			| demographics1_title2 = ]
			| demographics1_info2 = ₺ 510,733<br>US$ 21,741
			| postal_code_type = ]
			| postal_code = 34000 to 34990
			| area_codes = {{ubl|+90 212 (European side)|+90 216 (Asian side)}}
			| registration_plate = 34
			| blank_name_sec2 = ]
			| blank_info_sec2 = ], ]
			| website = {{Ubl|{{URL|https://ibb.istanbul/en|ibb.istanbul}}|{{URL|http://en.istanbul.gov.tr/|istanbul.gov.tr}}}}
			| blank3_name = ] (2021)
			| blank3_info = 0.867<ref>{{cite web|url=https://hdi.globaldatalab.org/areadata/shdi/|title=Sub-national HDI – Area Database – Global Data Lab|website=hdi.globaldatalab.org}}</ref> (<span style="color:#090;">very high</span>) · ]
			| timezone = ]
			| utc_offset = +3
			| iso_code = TR-34
			| module = {{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site
			| child = yes
			| official_name = ]
			| criteria = {{UNESCO WHS type|(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)}}(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)
			| ID = 356bis
			| year = 1985
			| extension = 2017
			| area = {{convert|765.5|ha|acre|abbr=on}}
			}}
			| name =
			| government_type = ]
			| governing_body = ]
			| image_shield =
			| established_date = 11 May 330
			| image_map1 = {{hidden begin|title=OpenStreetMap|ta1=center}}{{Infobox mapframe|frame-width=250|zoom=8}}{{hidden end}}
			| image_map = Istanbul in Turkey.svg
	}}		}}
			'''Istanbul'''{{efn|name=naming|English pronunciation: {{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɪ|s|t|æ|n|ˈ|b|ʊ|l}} {{respell|IST|an|BUUL}},<ref>{{cite LPD|3}}</ref><ref>{{cite RDPCE|page=704}}</ref> {{IPAc-en|USalso|ˈ|ɪ|s|t|æ|n|b|ʊ|l}} {{respell|IST|an|buul}}; {{langx|tr|İstanbul}} ({{IPA|tr|isˈtanbuɫ|audio=Istanbul pronunciation.ogg}}, <small>colloquial</small> {{IPA|tr|ɯsˈtambuɫ}})}} is the ] in ], straddling the ], the boundary between Europe and Asia. It is considered the country's ], ] and ] capital. The city has a population of over 15 million residents, comprising 19% of the ],<ref name="Population of Turkey" /> and is the ]{{efn|Istanbul straddles both Europe and Asia, with its commercial and historical centre and two-thirds of the population in Europe, the rest in Asia. Since Istanbul is a transcontinental city, ] is the largest city entirely within Europe.|group=lower-alpha}} and the world's ].
	'''Istanbul''' ({{lang-tr|İstanbul}}) is the largest city in ], constituting the country's economic, cultural, and historical heart. With a population of {{nowrap|13.5 million}}, the city forms one of the ]{{efn|name=un-agg}} and is among the ] by population within city limits.<ref name="tuik">{{cite web|url=http://rapor.tuik.gov.tr/reports/rwservlet?adnksdb2&ENVID=adnksdb2Env&report=wa_buyukbelediye.RDF&p_kod=1&p_yil=2011&p_dil=1&desformat=html|publisher=The Turkish Statistical Institute|title=Province by Province / Town Center and Town / Village Population – 2011|work=Address Population-Based Registration System (ABPRS) Database|year=2011|accessdate=9 May 2012}}</ref><ref name="mocljo145">{{harvnb|Mossberger|Clarke|John|2012|p=145}}</ref> Istanbul's vast area of {{convert|5343|km2|mi2|sp=us}} is coterminous with ], of which the city is the administrative capital.{{efn|name=city-area}} Istanbul is a transcontinental city, straddling the ]—one of the world's busiest waterways—in northwestern Turkey, between the ] and the ]. Its commercial and historical center lies in Europe, while a third of its population lives in Asia.<ref name="wctr281">{{harvnb|WCTR Society; Unʼyu Seisaku Kenkyū Kikō|2004|p=281}}</ref>
			The city was founded as ] in the 7th century BCE by ] settlers from ].<ref name="Herrin2009">{{cite book | last=Herrin|first= Judith | date = 28 September 2009 | page=5| title = Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire | publisher = Princeton University Press | isbn = 978-0-691-14369-9 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=n2aYDwAAQBAJ}}</ref> In 330 CE, the ] ] made it his imperial capital, renaming it first as ] ({{langx|grc|Νέα Ῥώμη}} {{lang|grc-Latn|Nea Rhomē}}; {{langx|la|Nova Roma}})<ref name="Britannica-Istanbul">{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Istanbul|title=Istanbul|website=]|date=3 October 2023 }}</ref> and then finally as ] ({{lang|grc-Latn|Constantinopolis}}) after himself.<ref name="Britannica-Istanbul"/><ref name="ODB">{{ODB|title=Constantinople|last=Mango|first=Cyril|authorlink=Cyril Mango|pages=508–512}}</ref> In 1930, the city's name was officially changed to Istanbul, the Turkish rendering of {{lang|grc|εἰς τὴν Πόλιν}} {{lang|grc-Latn|eis tḕn Pólin}} 'to the City', the appellation ] speakers used since the 11th century to colloquially refer to the city.<ref name="Britannica-Istanbul"/>
	Founded on the ] promontory around 660 BC as ], the city now known as Istanbul developed to become one of the most significant cities in history. For nearly sixteen centuries following its reestablishment as ] in 330 AD, it served as the capital of four empires: the ] (330–395), the ] (395–1204 and 1261–1453), the ] (1204–1261), and the ] (1453–1922).<ref>{{harvnb|Çelik|1993|p=xv}}</ref> It was instrumental in the advancement of Christianity during Roman and Byzantine times, before the Ottomans ] in 1453 and transformed it into an Islamic stronghold and the seat of the ].<ref name="maag1145">{{harvnb|Masters|Ágoston|2009|pp=114–5}}</ref> Although the Republic of Turkey established its capital in ], palaces and imperial mosques still line Istanbul's hills as visible reminders of the city's previous central role.
			The city served as an imperial capital for almost 1600 years: during the ] (330–1204), ] (1204–1261), ] (1261–1453), and ] (1453–1922) empires.{{sfn|Çelik|1993|p=xv}} The city grew in size and influence, eventually becoming a beacon of the ] and one of the most important cities in history. The city played a key role in the advancement of Christianity during Roman/Byzantine times, hosting four of the ] before its transformation to an Islamic stronghold following the ] in 1453 CE—especially after becoming the seat of the ] in 1517.<ref name="maag1145">{{harvnb|Masters|Ágoston|2009|pp=114–15}}</ref> In 1923, after the ], ] replaced the city as the capital of the newly formed Republic of Turkey.
	Istanbul's strategic position along the historic ],<ref>{{harvnb|Dumper|Stanley|2007|p=320}}</ref> rail networks to Europe and the Middle East, and the only sea route between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean have helped foster an eclectic populace, although less so since the establishment of the Republic in 1923. Overlooked for the new capital during the interwar period, the city has since regained much of its prominence. The population of the city has increased tenfold since the 1950s, as migrants from across ] have flocked to the metropolis and city limits have expanded to accommodate them.<ref name="tu224">{{harvnb|Turan|2010|p=224}}</ref><ref name="ecoc-popdem">{{cite web|url=http://www.ibb.gov.tr/sites/ks/en-US/0-Exploring-The-City/Location/Pages/PopulationandDemographicStructure.aspx|publisher=Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality|title=Population and Demographic Structure|year=2008|accessdate=27 March 2012|work=Istanbul 2010: European Capital of Culture}}</ref> Arts festivals were established at the end of the 20th century, while infrastructure improvements have produced a complex transportation network.
			Istanbul was the 2010 ]. The city has surpassed ] and ] to become the ] in the world, with more than {{nowrap|20 million}} foreign visitors in 2023.<ref name="euromonitor">{{cite web |title=2023's Top 100 City Destinations Ranking: Triumphs and Turmoil Uncovered |website=] |date=11 December 2023 |access-date=12 December 2023 |url=https://www.euromonitor.com/article/2023s-top-100-city-destinations-ranking-triumphs-and-turmoil-uncovered}}</ref> In 2024, ] ranks Istanbul as the second most visited cities in the world, welcoming 23 million visitors.<ref>{{Cite news |last=VnExpress |title=Bangkok named world's top tourism city for 2024 - VnExpress International |url=https://e.vnexpress.net/news/travel/places/bangkok-named-world-s-top-tourism-city-for-2024-4824916.html# |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20241208154639/https://e.vnexpress.net/news/travel/places/bangkok-named-world-s-top-tourism-city-for-2024-4824916.html |archive-date=2024-12-08 |access-date=2024-12-17 |work=VnExpress International – Latest news, business, travel and analysis from Vietnam |language=en}}</ref> ] is a ], and the city hosts the headquarters of numerous Turkish companies, accounting for more than thirty percent of ].<ref name="hisdic"/><ref name="oecd">{{cite book |url=http://www.oecdbookshop.org/get-it.php?REF=5KZSL2MLL49Q&TYPE=browse |title=OECD Territorial Reviews: Istanbul, Turkey |publisher=] |date=March 2008 |series=Policy Briefs |isbn=978-92-64-04383-1}}</ref>
	Seven million foreign visitors arrived in Istanbul in 2010, when it was named a ], making the city the world's tenth-most-popular tourist destination.<ref name="weiner">{{cite web|url=http://travel.usnews.com/features/Worlds_Most_Visited_Cities|last=Weiner|first=Miriam B|work=U.S. News & World Report|title=World's Most Visited Cities|accessdate=21 May 2012}}</ref> The city's biggest draw remains its historic center, partially listed as a UNESCO ], but its cultural and entertainment hub can be found across the city's natural harbor, the ], in the ] district. Considered a ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/world2010.html|title=The World According to GaWC 2010|work=Globalization and World Cities (GaWC) Study Group and Network|publisher=Loughborough University|accessdate=8 May 2012}}</ref> Istanbul hosts the headquarters of many Turkish companies and media outlets and accounts for more than a quarter of the country's ].<ref name="oecd">{{cite web|url=http://www.oecd.org/gov/regionaldevelopment/40317916.pdf|title=OECD Territorial Reviews: Istanbul, Turkey|publisher=The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|date=March 2008|work=Policy Briefs|accessdate=20 August 2012}}</ref> Hoping to capitalize on its revitalization and rapid expansion, Istanbul is ] for the ].<ref name="olympic.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/news/ioc-selects-three-cities-as-candidates-for-the-2020-olympic-games/166288|publisher=The International Olympic Committee|title=IOC selects three cities as Candidates for the 2020 Olympic Games|date=24 May 2012|accessdate=18 June 2012}}</ref>
	==Toponymy==		==Names==
	{{main|Names of Istanbul}}		{{Main|Names of Istanbul}}
	The first known name of the city is ''Byzantium'' ({{lang-el|Βυζάντιον}}, ''Byzántion''), originating from the name of the king, ], whose colony founded it around 660 BC.{{efn|name=byz-date|The foundation of Byzantion (]) is sometimes, especially in encyclopedic or other tertiary sources, placed firmly in 667 BC. However, historians have disputed the precise year the city was founded. Commonly cited is the work of 5th-century-BC historian ], which says the city was founded seventeen years after the city of ],<ref>Herodotus ''Histories'' 4.144, translated in {{harvnb|De Sélincourt|2003|p=288}}</ref> which came into existence around 685 BC. However, ], while concurring with 685 BC as the year Chalcedon was founded, places Byzantion's establishment in 659 BC.<ref name="isa199">{{harvnb|Isaac|1986|p=199}}</ref> Among more modern historians, Carl Roebuck proposed the 640s BC<ref>{{harvnb|Roebuck|1959|p=119}}, also as mentioned in {{harvnb|Isaac|1986|p=199}}</ref> while others have suggested even later. Further, the foundation date of Chalcedon is itself subject to some debate; while many sources place it in 685 BC,<ref>{{harvnb|Lister|1979|p=35}}</ref> others put it in 675 BC<ref name="fre10">{{harvnb|Freely|1996|p=10}}</ref> or even 639 BC (with Byzantion's establishment placed in 619 BC).<ref name="isa199" /> As such, some sources have opted to refer to Byzantium's foundation as simply located in the 7th century BC.}}<ref name="roo177">{{harvnb|Room|2006|pp=177}}</ref> After ] made it the new eastern capital of the ] in 330 AD, the city became widely known as ''Constantinopolis'' (]), which, as the Latinized form of {{lang|grc|"Κωνσταντινούπολις"}} (''Kōnstantinoúpolis''), means the "City of Constantine".<ref name="roo177" /> He also attempted to promote the name ''Nea Roma'' ("New Rome"), but this did not attain widespread usage.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregory|2010|pp=62–3}}</ref> ''Constantinople'' remained the most common name for the city in the West until the establishment of the Turkish Republic, and ''Kostantiniyye'' (] {{lang|osm|قسطنطينيه}}) was the primary name used by the Ottomans during their rule. Nevertheless, the use of ''Constantinople'' to refer to the city during the Ottoman period (from the mid-15th century) is now considered politically incorrect, even if not historically inaccurate, by Turks.<ref name="maag286">{{harvnb|Masters|Ágoston|2009|p=286}}</ref>
			The first known name of the city is '']'' ({{langx|grc|Βυζάντιον}}, {{transl|grc|Byzántion}}), the name given to it at its foundation by ] colonists around 657 BCE.<ref name="Britannica-Istanbul"/><ref name="roo177">{{harvnb|Room|2006|p=177}}</ref> Megarian colonists claimed a direct line back to the founders of the city, Byzas, the son of the god Poseidon and the nymph Ceroëssa.<ref name="roo177"/> Modern excavations have raised the possibility that the name Byzantium might reflect the sites of native ] settlements that preceded the fully-fledged town.{{sfn|Georgacas|1947|p=352ff}} ] comes from the Latin name {{langr|la|Constantinus}}, after ], the Roman emperor who refounded the city in 324 CE.<ref name="roo177"/> Constantinople remained the most common name for the city in the West until the 1930s, when Turkish authorities began to press for the use of ''Istanbul'' in foreign languages. {{transl|ota|Ḳosṭanṭīnīye}} ({{langx|ota|قسطنطينيه}}) and {{lang|tr|İstanbul}} were the names used alternatively by the Ottomans during their rule.{{sfn|Necipoğlu|2010|p=262}}
	By the 19th century, the city had acquired a number of other names used by either foreigners or Turks. Europeans used ''Constantinople'' to refer to the whole of the city, but used the name ''Stamboul''—as the Turks also did—to describe the walled peninsula between the ] and the Sea of Marmara.<ref name="maag286" /> ''Pera'' (from the Greek word for "across") was used to describe the area between the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus, but Turks also used the name '']'', which is still in use today.<ref>{{harvnb|Masters|Ágoston|2009|pp=226–7}}</ref> ''Islambol'' (meaning either "City of Islam" or "Full of Islam") was sometimes colloquially used to refer to the city, and was even engraved on some Ottoman coins,<ref>{{harvnb|Finkel|2005|pp=57, 383}}</ref> but the belief that it was the precursor to the present name, ''İstanbul'', is belied by the fact that the latter existed well before the former and even predates the Ottoman and Muslim conquest of the city.<ref name="roo177" />
	Etymologically, the name ''İstanbul'' ({{IPA-tr|isˈtanbuɫ}}, colloquially {{IPA-tr|ɯsˈtambuɫ|}}) derives from the ] phrase {{lang|grc|"εἰς τὴν ]"}} (pronounced {{IPA-el|is tin ˈpolin|}}), which means "in the city" or "to the city". This reflected its status as the only major city in the vicinity, much in the same way people today often colloquially refer to their nearby urban centers as "the City". An alternative view is that the name evolved directly from the name ''Constantinople'', with the first and third syllables dropped.<ref name="roo177" /> In modern ], the name is written as ''İstanbul'', with a dotted İ, as the ] distinguishes between a ]. Also, while in English the stress is on the first syllable (''Is''), in Turkish it is on the second syllable (''tan'').<ref>{{harvnb|Göksel|Kerslake|2005|p=27}}</ref> ''İstanbul'' was officially adopted as the sole name of the city in 1930.<ref>{{harvnb|Room|2006|pp=177–8}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Göktürk|Soysal|Türeli|2010|p=7}}</ref> A person from the city is an ''İstanbullu'' (plural: ''İstanbullular''), although ''Istanbulite'' is used in English.<ref>{{harvnb|Keyder|1999|p=95}}</ref>		The name {{lang|tr|İstanbul}} ({{langx|ota|استانبول}}; {{IPA|tr|isˈtanbuɫ|pron|audio=Istanbul pronunciation.ogg}}, colloquially {{IPA|tr|ɯsˈtambuɫ|}}) is commonly held to derive from the ] phrase {{transl|grc|eis tḕn ]}} ({{lang|grc|εἰς τὴν Πόλιν}}, {{IPA|grc|is tim ˈbolin|pron}}), literally 'to the city'<ref>Necdet Sakaoğlu (1993/94a): "İstanbul'un adları" . In: ''Dünden bugüne İstanbul ansiklopedisi'', ed. Türkiye Kültür Bakanlığı, Istanbul.</ref> and is how Constantinople was referred to by the local Greeks. This reflected its status as the only major city in the vicinity. The importance of Constantinople in the Ottoman world was also reflected by its nickname {{lang|tr|Dersaadet}} ({{langx|ota|درساعدت}}) meaning the 'Gate to Prosperity' in Ottoman Turkish.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Grosvenor |first1=Edwin Augustus |title=Constantinople |date=1895 |publisher=Roberts Brothers |volume=1 |page=69 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IGoLAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA69 |access-date=15 March 2021}}</ref> An alternative view is that the name evolved directly from "Constantinople", with the first and third syllables dropped.<ref name="roo177"/> Some Ottoman sources of the 17th century, such as ], describe it as the common Turkish name of the time; between the late 17th and late 18th centuries, it was also in official use. The first use of the word {{transl|ota|Islambol}} ({{langx|ota|اسلامبول}}) on coinage was in 1730 during the reign of Sultan ].{{sfn|Finkel|2005|pp=57, 383}} In modern ], the name is written as {{lang|tr|İstanbul}}, with a dotted İ, as the ] distinguishes between a ] and ]. In English, the stress is on the first or last syllable, but in Turkish it is on the second syllable.{{sfn|Göksel|Kerslake|2005|p=27}} A person from the city is an {{lang|tr|İstanbullu}} (plural {{lang|tr|İstanbullular}}); ''Istanbulite'' is used in English.{{sfn|Keyder|1999|p=95}}
	==History==		==History==
	{{main|History of Istanbul}}		{{Main|History of Istanbul}}
			{{for timeline|Timeline of Istanbul history}}
	]'s ], located today within the ] complex|alt=A stout cylindrical column in a courtyard in front of palatial arches of Islamic style]]
			] at the ] (present-day ])<ref name="Forum of Constantine">{{cite web|url=http://www.byzantium1200.com/forum-c.html|title=Forum of Constantine|website=www.byzantium1200.com|accessdate=31 January 2021}}</ref>]]
	] artifacts, dating back to the 7th millennium BC and uncovered by archaeologists at the beginning of the 21st century AD, indicate Istanbul's historic peninsula was settled earlier than previously thought and before the Bosphorus was even formed.<ref>{{cite news |last=Rainsford |first=Sarah|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7820924.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Istanbul's ancient past unearthed |date=10 January 2009 |accessdate=21 April 2010}}</ref> Before the discovery, conventional wisdom held that ] tribes, including the ], began settling on the Sarayburnu in the late 6th millennium BC.<ref name="fre10" /> On the Asian side, artifacts originating around the 4th millennium BC have been found in Fikirtepe (within ]).<ref>{{harvnb|Düring|2010|pp=181–2}}</ref> The same location was the site of a ]n trading post at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC as well as the town of ], which was established in ] 680 BC.{{efn|name=byz-date}}
			] artifacts, uncovered by archeologists at the beginning of the 21st century, indicate that Istanbul's historic peninsula was settled as far back as the 6th millennium BCE.<ref name="BBC-Rainsford-2009"/> That early settlement, important in the spread of the ] from the Near East to Europe, lasted for almost a millennium before being inundated by rising water levels.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Algan | first1 = O. | last2 = Yalçın | first2 = M.N.K. | last3 = Özdoğan | first3 = M. | last4 = Yılmaz | first4 = Y.C. | last5 = Sarı | first5 = E. | last6 = Kırcı-Elmas | first6 = E. | last7 = Yılmaz | first7 = İ. | last8 = Bulkan | first8 = Ö. | last9 = Ongan | first9 = D. | last10 = Gazioğlu | first10 = C. | last11 = Nazik | first11 = A. | last12 = Polat | first12 = M.A. | last13 = Meriç | first13 = E. | title = Holocene coastal change in the ancient harbor of Yenikapı–İstanbul and its impact on cultural history | doi = 10.1016/j.yqres.2011.04.002 | journal = Quaternary Research | volume = 76 | issue = 1 | page = 30 | year = 2011 | bibcode = 2011QuRes..76...30A| s2cid = 129280217 |issn=0033-5894}}</ref><ref name="BBC-Rainsford-2009"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/10027341.asp?gid=229&sz=32429|title=Bu keşif tarihi değiştirir|work=hurriyet.com.tr|date=3 October 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Marmaray kazılarında tarih gün ışığına çıktı |url=http://fotogaleri.hurriyet.com.tr/galeridetay.aspx?cid=16504&rid=2|work=fotogaleri.hurriyet.com.tr}}</ref> The first human settlement on the Asian side, the Fikirtepe mound, is from the ] period, with artifacts dating from 5500 to 3500 BCE,<ref>{{cite web|title=Cultural Details of Istanbul |url=http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF6169B43EA8C08474 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070912131044/http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF6169B43EA8C08474|archive-date=12 September 2007 |publisher=Republic of Turkey, Minister of Culture and Tourism|access-date=2 October 2007}}</ref> On the European side, near the point of the peninsula (]), there was a Thracian settlement during the early 1st millennium BCE. Modern authors have linked it to the Thracian toponym ''Lygos'',<ref name="janin">{{cite book|title=Constantinople byzantine|last=Janin|first=Raymond |author-link= Raymond Janin|place=Paris|publisher=Institut Français d'Études Byzantines|year=1964|pages=10ff}}</ref> mentioned by ] as an earlier name for the site of Byzantium.<ref>
	However, the history of Istanbul generally begins around 660 BC,{{efn|name=byz-date}} when settlers from ], under the command of King ], established ] on the European side of the Bosphorus. The settlers proceeded to build an ] adjacent to the Golden Horn on the site of the early Thracian settlements, fueling the nascent city's economy.<ref>{{harvnb|Çelik|1993|p=11}}</ref> The city experienced a brief period of ] rule at the turn of the 5th century BC, but the Greeks recaptured it during the ].<ref>{{harvnb|De Souza|2003|p=88}}</ref> Byzantium then continued as part of the ] and its successor, the ], before ultimately gaining independence in 355 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Freely|1996|p=20}}</ref> Long allied with the Romans, Byzantium officially became a part of the ] in 73 AD.<ref>{{harvnb|Freely|1996|p=22}}</ref>
			{{cite web |url=http://www.masseiana.org/pliny.htm#BOOK%20IV |title=Pliny the Elder, book IV, chapter XI:<br /> "''On leaving the Dardanelles we come to the Bay of Casthenes, ... and the promontory of the Golden Horn, on which is the town of Byzantium, a free state, formerly called Lygos; it is 711 miles from Durazzo,'' ..." |access-date=21 June 2015 |url-status=usurped |archive-date=1 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170101063545/http://www.masseiana.org/pliny.htm#BOOK%20IV}}
			</ref>
			The history of the city proper begins around 660 BCE,<ref name="Britannica-Istanbul"/>{{sfn|Bloom|Blair|2009|p=1}}{{efn|name=byz-date|The foundation of Byzantion (]) is sometimes, especially in encyclopedic or other tertiary sources, placed firmly in 667 BCE. Historians have disputed the precise year the city was founded. Commonly cited is the work of 5th-century-BCE historian ], which says the city was founded seventeen years after ],<ref>Herodotus ''Histories'' 4.144, translated in {{harvnb|De Sélincourt|2003|p=288}}</ref> which came into existence around 685 BCE. ] concurs with 685 BCE as the year Chalcedon was founded, but places Byzantion's establishment in 659 BCE.{{sfn|Isaac|1986|p=199}} Among more modern historians, Carl Roebuck proposed the 640s BCE<ref>{{harvnb|Roebuck|1959|p=119}}, also as mentioned in {{harvnb|Isaac|1986|p=199}}</ref> and others have suggested even later. The foundation date of Chalcedon is itself subject to some debate; while many sources place it in 685 BC,{{sfn|Lister|1979|p=35}} others put it in 675 BCE{{sfn|Freely|1996|p=10}} or even 639 BCE (with Byzantion's establishment placed in 619 BCE).{{sfn|Isaac|1986|p=199}} Some sources refer to Byzantium's foundation as the 7th century BCE.}} when Greek settlers from Megara established Byzantium on the European side of the Bosporus. The settlers built an ] adjacent to the ] on the site of the early Thracian settlements, fueling the nascent city's economy.{{sfn|Çelik|1993|p=11}} The city experienced a brief period of ] rule at the turn of the 5th century BCE, but the Greeks recaptured it during the ].{{sfn|De Souza|2003|p=88}} Byzantium then continued as part of the ] and its successor, the ], before gaining independence in 355 BCE.{{sfn|Freely|1996|p=20}} Long allied with the Romans, Byzantium officially became a part of the ] in 73 CE.{{sfn|Freely|1996|p=22}} Byzantium's decision to side with the ] ] against Emperor ] cost it dearly; by the time it surrendered at the end of 195 CE, two years of siege had left the city devastated.{{sfn|Grant|1996|pp=8–10}} Five years later, Severus began to rebuild Byzantium, and the city regained—and, by some accounts, surpassed—its previous prosperity.{{sfn|Limberis|1994|pp=11–12}}
	Byzantium's decision to side with the ] ] against Roman Emperor ] cost it dearly; by the time it surrendered at the end of 195 AD, two years of siege had left the city devastated.<ref>{{harvnb|Grant|1996|pp=8–10}}</ref> Still, five years later, Severus began to rebuild Byzantium, and the city regained—and, by some accounts, surpassed—its previous prosperity.<ref>{{harvnb|Limberis|1994|pp=11–2}}</ref>
			===Byzantine era===
	===Rise and fall of Constantinople===
	{{main|Constantinople}}
			{{multiple image
	] effectively became the emperor of the whole of the Roman Empire in September 324.<ref>{{harvnb|Barnes|1981|p=77}}</ref> Two months later, Constantine laid out the plans for a new, Christian city to replace Byzantium. As the eastern capital of the empire, the city was named '']''; however, most simply called it Constantinople, a name that persisted into the 20th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Barnes|1981|p=212}}</ref> Six years later, on 11 May 330, Constantinople was proclaimed the capital of an empire that eventually became known as the ] or Eastern Roman Empire.<ref name="ba222">{{harvnb|Barnes|1981|p=222}}</ref>
			| align = left
			| direction = vertical
			| width = 230
			| image1 = Istanbul_Hagia_Irene_IMG_8067_1920.jpg|245
			| caption1 = Originally built by Constantine the Great in the 4th century and later rebuilt by ] after the ] in 532, the ] is an ] located in the outer courtyard of ] in Istanbul. It is one of the few Byzantine era churches that were never converted into mosques; during the Ottoman period it served as Topkapı's principal armoury.
			| image2 = Turkey-3019 - Hagia Sophia (2216460729).jpg|245
			| caption2 = Originally a church, later a mosque, the 6th-century ] (532–537) by Byzantine emperor Justinian I was the largest cathedral in the world for nearly a thousand years, until the completion of the ] (1507) in Spain.
			| alt = A reddish building topped by a large dome and surrounded by smaller domes and four towers
			| total_width =
			| alt1 =
			}}
			Constantine the Great effectively became the emperor of the whole of the Roman Empire in September 324.<ref>{{harvnb|Barnes|1981|p=77}}</ref> Two months later, he laid out the plans for a new, Christian city to replace Byzantium. As the eastern capital of the empire, the city was named '']''; most called it Constantinople, a name that persisted into the 20th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Barnes|1981|p=212}}</ref> On 11 May 330, Constantinople was proclaimed the capital of the Roman Empire, which was later permanently divided between the two sons of ] upon his death on 17 January 395, when the city became the capital of the empire; during the following millennium of Roman history the state is commonly referred to as the "Byzantine Empire".<ref name="ba222">{{harvnb|Barnes|1981|p=222}}</ref>
	], this is the oldest surviving map of Constantinople.|alt=A crudely drawn map depicting a walled city on a peninsula with a park, a network of roads, and a scattering of buildings]]
	The establishment of Constantinople served as one of Constantine's most lasting accomplishments, shifting Roman power eastward as the city became a center of Greek culture and Christianity.<ref name="ba222" /><ref name="gr63">{{harvnb|Gregory|2010|p=63}}</ref> Numerous churches were built across the city, including the ], which remained the world's largest cathedral for a thousand years.<ref name="klwa171">{{harvnb|Klimczuk|Warner|2009|p=171}}</ref> Other improvements to the city undertaken by Constantine included a major renovation and expansion of the ]; accommodating tens of thousands of spectators, the hippodrome became central to civic life and, in the 5th and 6th centuries, the epicenter of episodes of unrest, including the ].<ref>{{cite web|last=Dash|first=Mike|url=http://blogs.smithsonianmag.com/history/2012/03/blue-versus-green-rocking-the-byzantine-empire/|title=Blue Versus Green: Rocking the Byzantine Empire|publisher=The Smithsonian Institution|work=Smithsonian Magazine|date=2 March 2012|accessdate=30 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Dahmus|1995|p=117}}</ref> Constantinople's location also ensured its existence would stand the test of time; for many centuries, its walls and seafront protected Europe against invaders from the east and the advance of Islam.<ref name="gr63" /> During most of the ], the latter part of the Byzantine era, Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city on the European continent and at times the largest in the world.<ref>{{harvnb|Cantor|1994|p=226}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Morris|2010|pp=109–18}}</ref>
			The establishment of Constantinople was one of Constantine's most lasting accomplishments, shifting Roman power eastward as the city became a center of Greek culture and Christianity.<ref name="ba222"/><ref name="gr63">{{harvnb|Gregory|2010|p=63}}</ref> Numerous churches were built across the city, including ] which was built during the reign of ] and remained the world's largest cathedral for a thousand years.<ref name="klwa171">{{harvnb|Klimczuk|Warner|2009|p=171}}</ref> Constantine also undertook a major renovation and expansion of the ]; accommodating tens of thousands of spectators, the hippodrome became central to civic life and, in the 5th and 6th centuries, the center of episodes of unrest, including the ].<ref>{{cite web|last=Dash|first=Mike|url=http://blogs.smithsonianmag.com/history/2012/03/blue-versus-green-rocking-the-byzantine-empire/|title=Blue Versus Green: Rocking the Byzantine Empire|publisher=The Smithsonian Institution|work=Smithsonian Magazine|date=2 March 2012|access-date=30 July 2012|archive-date=5 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805185404/http://blogs.smithsonianmag.com/history/2012/03/blue-versus-green-rocking-the-byzantine-empire/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Dahmus|1995|p=117}}</ref> Constantinople's location also ensured its existence would stand the test of time; for many centuries, its walls and seafront protected Europe against invaders from the east and the advance of Islam.<ref name="gr63"/> During most of the ], the latter part of the Byzantine era, Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city on the European continent and at times the largest in the world.<ref>{{harvnb|Cantor|1994|p=226}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Morris|2010|pp=109–18}}</ref> Constantinople is generally considered to be the center and the "cradle of Orthodox ]".<ref>{{cite book|title=Christianity: Religions of the World|first=Ken |last=Parry|year= 2009| isbn=9781438106397| page =139|publisher=Infobase Publishing|quote= }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity|first=Ken|last=Parry|year= 2010| isbn=9781444333619| page =368|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|quote= }}</ref>
	Constantinople began to decline after the ], during which it was sacked and pillaged.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregory|2010|pp=324–9}}</ref> The city subsequently became the center of the ], created by Catholic crusaders to replace the Orthodox Byzantine Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregory|2010|pp=330–3}}</ref> However, the Latin Empire was short-lived, and the Byzantine Empire was restored, albeit weakened, in 1261.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregory|2010|p=340}}</ref> Constantinople's churches, defenses, and basic services were in disrepair,<ref>{{harvnb|Gregory|2010|pp=341–2}}</ref> and its population had dwindled to a hundred thousand from up to half a million during the 8th century.{{efn|name=pop-figures}}
			Constantinople began to decline continuously after the end of the reign of ] in 1025. The ] was diverted from its purpose in 1204, and the city was sacked and pillaged by the crusaders.{{sfn|Gregory|2010|pp=324–29}} They established the ] in place of the Orthodox Byzantine Empire.{{sfn|Gregory|2010|pp=330–333}} Hagia Sophia was converted to a Catholic church in 1204. The Byzantine Empire was restored, albeit weakened, in 1261.{{sfn|Gregory|2010|p=340}} Constantinople's churches, defenses, and basic services were in disrepair,{{sfn|Gregory|2010|pp=341–342}} and its population had dwindled to a hundred thousand from half a million during the 8th century.{{efn|name=pop-figures}} After the reconquest of 1261, however, some of the city's monuments were restored, and some, like the two ] mosaics in Hagia Sophia and Kariye, were created.<ref>{{cite web|title=Deesis Mosaic |website=Hagia Sophia|date=5 November 2017|url=https://hagiasophiaturkey.com/deesis-mosaic/|accessdate=31 January 2021}}</ref>
	Various economic and military policies instituted by ], such as the reduction of military forces, weakened the empire and left it more vulnerable to attack.<ref>{{harvnb|Reinert|2002|pp=258–60}}</ref> In the mid-14th century, the ] began a strategy of taking smaller towns and cities over time, cutting off Constantinople's supply routes and strangling it slowly.<ref>{{harvnb|Baynes|1949|p=47}}</ref> Finally, on 29 May 1453, after an eight-week siege (during which the last Roman emperor, ], was killed), ] ] "the Conqueror" ] and declared it the new capital of the ]. Hours later, the sultan rode to the Hagia Sophia and summoned an imam to proclaim the ], converting the grand cathedral into an imperial mosque.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregory|2010|pp=394–9}}</ref>
			] was built by ].]]
			Various economic and military policies instituted by ], such as the reduction of military forces, weakened the empire and left it vulnerable to attack.{{sfn|Reinert|2002|pp=258–260}} In the mid-14th-century, the ] began a strategy of gradually taking smaller towns and cities, cutting off Constantinople's supply routes and strangling it slowly.{{sfn|Baynes|1949|p=47}} On 29 May 1453, after an eight-week siege during which the last Roman emperor, ], was killed, Sultan ] "the Conqueror" ].
	===Ottoman and Turkish era===
	] is one of several mosques in Istanbul designed by ].|alt=A lithograph depicting a building with a complex set of domes, arches, and towers on a deserted street.]]
			===Ottoman Empire===
	Following the fall of Constantinople, Mehmed II immediately set out to revitalize the city, by then also known as Istanbul. He urged the return of those who had fled the city during the siege, and forcibly resettled Muslims, Jews, and Christians from other parts of Anatolia. The sultan invited people from all over Europe to his capital, creating a cosmopolitan society that persisted through much of the Ottoman period.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|pp=306–7}}</ref> Meanwhile, Mehmed II repaired the city's damaged infrastructure, began to build the ], and constructed ], the sultan's official residence.<ref name="holale307">{{harvnb|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|pp=307}}</ref>
			Sultan Mehmed declared Constantinople the new capital of the ]. Hours after the fall of the city, the sultan rode to the Hagia Sophia and summoned an imam to proclaim the '']'', converting the grand cathedral into an imperial mosque due to the city's refusal to surrender peacefully.{{sfn|Gregory|2010|pp=394–399}} Mehmed declared himself as the new '']'', the Ottoman Turkish equivalent of the ] of Rome, and the Ottoman state was reorganized into an empire.{{sfn|Béhar|1999|p=38}}{{sfn|Bideleux|Jeffries|1998|p=71}}
			]]]
	The Ottomans quickly transformed the city from a bastion of Christianity to a symbol of ]. ] were established to fund the construction of grand ], often adjoined by schools, hospitals, and public baths.<ref name="holale307" /> The ] claimed the status of ] in 1517, with Istanbul remaining the capital of this ] for four centuries.<ref name="maag1145" /> ]'s reign from 1520 to 1566 was a period of especially great artistic and architectural achievement; chief architect ] designed several iconic buildings in the city, while Ottoman arts of ceramics, ], and ] flourished.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|pp=735–6}}</ref> The total population of Istanbul amounted to 570,000 by the end of the 18th century.<ref name="chfo">{{cite journal|last1=Chandler|first1=Tertius|last2=Fox|first2=Gerald|title=3000 Years of Urban Growth|year=1974|publisher=Academic Press|location=London|isbn=978-0-12-785109-9|ref=harv}}</ref>
			Following the capture of Constantinople, Mehmed II immediately set out to revitalize the city. Cognizant that revitalization would fail without the repopulation of the city, ] welcomed everyone–foreigners, criminals, and runaways– showing extraordinary openness and willingness to incorporate outsiders that came to define Ottoman political culture.<ref>Inalcik, Halil. "The Policy of Mehmed II toward the Greek Population of Istanbul and the Byzantine Buildings of the City." Dumbarton Oaks Papers 23, (1969): 229–49. p. 236</ref> He also invited people from all over Europe to his capital, creating a cosmopolitan society that persisted through much of the Ottoman period.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|pp=306–07}}</ref> Revitalizing Istanbul also required a massive program of restorations, of everything from roads to ].<ref name="hughes2020">{{cite book |last1=Hughes |first1=Bettany |title=Istanbul: A Tale of Three Cities |date=2018 |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |location=London |isbn=978-1-78022-473-2}}</ref> Like many monarchs before and since, Mehmed II transformed Istanbul's urban landscape with wholesale redevelopment of the city center.<ref name="madden2020">{{cite book |last1=Madden |first1=Thomas F. |title=Istanbul: City of Majesty at the Crossroads of the World |date=7 November 2017 |publisher=Penguin Books |location=New York |isbn=978-0-14-312969-1}}</ref> There was a ] to rival, if not overshadow, ], a new covered market (still standing as the ]), porticoes, pavilions, walkways, as well as more than a dozen new mosques.<ref name="hughes2020"/> Mehmed II turned the ramshackle old town into something that looked like an imperial capital.<ref name="madden2020"/>
	A period of rebellion at the start of the 19th century led to the rise of the progressive Sultan ] and eventually to the '']'' period, which produced political reforms and allowed new technology to be introduced to the city.<ref>{{harvnb|Shaw|Shaw|1977|pp=4–6, 55}}</ref> Bridges across the ] were constructed during this period,<ref>{{harvnb|Çelik|1993|pp=87–9}}</ref> and Istanbul was connected to the rest of the European railway network in the 1880s.<ref name="ha251">{{harvnb|Harter|2005|p=251}}</ref> Modern facilities, such as a stable water network, electricity, telephones, and trams, were gradually introduced to Istanbul over the following decades, although later than to other European cities.<ref>{{harvnb|Shaw|Shaw|1977|pp=230, 287, 306}}</ref> Still, the modernization efforts were not enough to forestall the ].
			] was ignored by the rampant plague, which killed the rich and the poor alike in the 16th century.<ref name="blackd">{{cite book |last1=Byrne |first1=Joseph Patrick |title=Encyclopedia of the Black Death |date=2012 |publisher=] |location=Santa Barbara, CA |isbn=978-1-59884-253-1}}</ref> Money could not protect the rich from all the discomforts and harsher sides of Istanbul.<ref name="blackd"/> Although the Sultan lived at a safe remove from the masses, and the wealthy and poor tended to live side by side, for the most part Istanbul was not zoned as modern cities are.<ref name="blackd"/> Opulent houses shared the same streets and districts with tiny hovels.<ref name="blackd"/> Those rich enough to have secluded country properties had a chance of escaping the periodic epidemics of sickness that blighted Istanbul.<ref name="blackd"/>
	In the early 20th century, the ] disposed of Sultan ] and a series of wars plagued the ailing empire's capital.<ref>{{harvnb|Çelik|1993|p=31}}</ref> The last of these, ], resulted in the British, French, and Italian ]. The final Ottoman sultan, ], was exiled in November 1922; the following year, the occupation of Istanbul ended with the signing of the ] and the recognition of the Republic of Turkey, declared by ].<ref>{{harvnb|Landau|1984|p=50}}</ref>
			] and the ] from ]]]
	In the early years of the republic, Istanbul was overlooked in favor of ], selected as Turkey's capital to distance the new, secular country from its Ottoman history.<ref>{{harvnb|Dumper|Stanley|2007|p=39}}</ref> However, starting from the late 1940s and early 1950s, Istanbul underwent great structural change, as new public squares, boulevards, and avenues were constructed throughout the city, sometimes at the expense of historical buildings.<ref>{{harvnb|Keyder|1999|pp=11–2, 34–6}}</ref> The population of Istanbul began to rapidly increase in the 1970s, as people from Anatolia migrated to the city to find employment in the many new factories that were built on the outskirts of the sprawling metropolis. This sudden, sharp rise in the city's population caused a large demand for housing development, and many previously outlying villages and forests became engulfed into the ] of Istanbul.<ref>{{harvnb|Efe|Cürebal|2011|pp=718–9}}</ref>
			The ] claimed the status of ] in 1517, with Constantinople remaining the capital of this ] for four centuries.<ref name="maag1145" /> ]'s reign from 1520 to 1566 was a period of especially great artistic and architectural achievement; chief architect ] designed several iconic buildings in the city, while Ottoman arts of ], ], ], and ] flourished.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|pp=735–36}}</ref> The population of Constantinople was 570,000 by the end of the 18th century.<ref name="chfo">{{cite book|last1=Chandler|first1=Tertius|last2=Fox|first2=Gerald|title=3000 Years of Urban Growth|year=1974|publisher=Academic Press|location=London|isbn=978-0-12-785109-9|url=https://archive.org/details/3000yearsofurban0000chan}}</ref>
	==Geography==
	{{Further|Geography of Turkey|Geology of Turkey}}
			A period of rebellion at the start of the 19th century led to the rise of the progressive Sultan ] and eventually to the '']'' period, which produced political reforms and allowed new technology to be introduced to the city.<ref>{{harvnb|Shaw|Shaw|1977|pp=4–6, 55}}</ref> Bridges across the Golden Horn were constructed during this period,<ref>{{harvnb|Çelik|1993|pp=87–89}}</ref> and Constantinople was connected to the rest of the European railway network in the 1880s.<ref name="ha251">{{harvnb|Harter|2005|p=251}}</ref> Modern facilities, such as a water supply network, electricity, telephones, and trams, were gradually introduced to Constantinople over the following decades, although later than to other European cities.<ref>{{harvnb|Shaw|Shaw|1977|pp=230, 287, 306}}</ref> The modernization efforts were not enough to forestall the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Çelik |first=Zeynep |title=The Remaking of Istanbul: Portrait of an Ottoman City in the Nineteenth Century|publisher=University of California Press |year=1986 |location=Berkeley. Los Angeles. London |page=37}}</ref>
	] ]|alt=Satellite image showing a thin piece of land, densely populated on the south, bisected by a waterway]]
			] in 1912 (present-day ] in ]). The entrance of the ] is seen at left. A ] advertisement is visible on a building in the background.]]
	Istanbul is located in northwestern ] within the ] on a total area of {{convert|5343|km2|sqmi|sp=us}}.{{efn|name=city-area|Sources have provided conflicting figures on the area of Istanbul. The most authoritative source on this figure ought to be the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (MMI), but the English version of its website suggests a few figures for this area. One page states that "Each MM is sub-divided into District Municipalities ("DM") ''of which there are 27 in Istanbul''" with a total area of {{convert|1538.9|km2|sqmi|sp=us}}.<ref name="mmi-districts">{{cite web|url=http://www.ibb.gov.tr/en-US/Organization/Jurisdiction/Pages/Districts.aspx |title=Districts |publisher=Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality |accessdate=21 December 2011}}</ref> However, the Municipal History page appears to be the most explicit and most updated, saying that in 2004, "Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality's jurisdiction was enlarged to cover all the area within the provincial limits". It also states a 2008 law merged the ] district into the ] district (a point that is not reflected in the previous source) and increased the number of districts in Istanbul to thirty-nine.<ref name="mmi-history">{{cite web|url=http://www.ibb.gov.tr/en-US/Organization/MunicipalHistory/Pages/AnaSayfa.aspx |title=History of Local Governance in Istanbul |publisher=Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality |accessdate=21 December 2011}}</ref> That total area, as corroborated on the Turkish version of the MMI website,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibb.gov.tr/tr-TR/kurumsal/Pages/IlceveIlkKademe.aspx |title=İstanbul İl ve İlçe Alan Bilgileri |publisher=Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality |accessdate=20 June 2010 |language=Turkish |trans_title=Istanbul Province and District Area Information}}</ref> and a recently updated Jurisdiction page on the English site<ref name="mmi-jurisdiction">{{cite web|url=http://www.ibb.gov.tr/en-US/Organization/Jurisdiction/Pages/AnaSayfa.aspx |title=Jurisdiction |publisher=Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality |accessdate=21 December 2011}}</ref> is {{convert|5343|km2|sqmi|sp=us}}.}} The ], which connects the ] to the ], divides the city into a European, ] side—comprising the historic and economic centers—and an Asian, ]n side. The city is further divided by the ], a natural harbor bounding the peninsula where the former Byzantium and Constantinople were founded. The confluence of the Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus, and the Golden Horn at the heart of present-day Istanbul has deterred attacking forces for thousands of years and still remains a prominent feature of the city's landscape.<ref name="gr63" />
			With the ] in 1908, the ], closed since 14 February 1878, was reopened 30 years later on 23 July 1908, which marked the beginning of the ].<ref name=tarihiolaylar>{{cite news|url=http://www.tarihiolaylar.com/tarihi-olaylar/meclis-i-mebusan-mebuslar-meclisi-991|title=Meclis-i Mebusan (Mebuslar Meclisi) |newspaper=Tarihi Olaylar}}</ref> The civil strife and political uncertainties in the Ottoman Empire during the months after the revolution encouraged ] to ] and ] to ] in a jointly coordinated move on 5 October 1908. Sultan ] was deposed in 1909, following the counter-revolution attempt known as the ]. A series of wars in the early 20th century, such as the ] (1911–1912) and the ] (1912–1913), plagued the ailing empire's capital and resulted in the ], which brought the regime of the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Çelik|1993|p=31}}</ref>
	] in western Turkey are concentrated just southwest of Istanbul, passing under the ] and the ].|alt=A high concentration of fault lines in northwestern Turkey, where the Eurasian and African plates meet; a small number of faults and ridges also appear under the Mediterranean]]
			The Ottoman Empire joined ] (1914–1918) on the side of the ] and was ultimately defeated. The ] was among the major events which marked the start of the ] during WWI.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Freedman|first1=Jeri|title=The Armenian genocide|date=2009|publisher=Rosen Pub. Group|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4042-1825-3|pages=21–22|edition=1st|url={{Google books|cuqxYldvClQC|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref> Due to Ottoman and Turkish policies of ] and ], the city's ] population declined from 450,000 to 240,000 between 1914 and 1927.<ref>. Marc Baer, University of California, Irvine.</ref> The ] was signed on 30 October 1918 and the ] ] on 13 November 1918. The Ottoman Parliament was dissolved by the Allies on 11 April 1920 and the Ottoman delegation led by ] was forced to sign the ] on 10 August 1920.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}
	Following ], the historic peninsula is said to be characterized by ], each topped by imperial mosques. The easternmost of these hills is the site of Topkapı Palace on the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.istanbul.gov.tr/Default.aspx?pid=294|publisher=Governorship of Istanbul|title=Istanbul from a Bird's Eye View|accessdate=13 June 2010}}</ref> Rising from the opposite side of the Golden Horn is another, conical hill, where the modern Beyoğlu district is situated. Because of the topography, buildings in Beyoğlu were once constructed with the help of terraced retaining walls, and roads were laid out in the form of steps.<ref name="topo" /> ] on the Asian side exhibits similarly hilly characteristics, with the terrain gradually extending down to the Bosphorus coast, but the landscape in Şemsipaşa and Ayazma is more abrupt, akin to a ]. The highest point in Istanbul is ], with an altitude of {{convert|288|m|ft|sp=us}}.<ref name="topo">{{cite web|url=http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN,33069/the-topography-of-istanbul.html|publisher=Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism|title=The Topography of İstanbul|accessdate=19 June 2012}}</ref>
			Following the ] (1919–1922), the ] in Ankara abolished the Sultanate on 1 November 1922, and the last Ottoman Sultan, ], was declared '']''. Leaving aboard the British warship ] on 17 November 1922, he went into exile and died in ], Italy, on 16 May 1926.
	Istanbul is situated near the ], close to the boundary between the ] and ] Plates. This fault zone, which runs from northern Anatolia to the Sea of Marmara, has been responsible for several deadly earthquakes throughout the city's history. Among the most devastating of these seismic events was the ], which caused a tsunami that broke over the walls of the city and killed more than 10,000 people. More recently, in 1999, ] with its epicenter in nearby ] left 18,000 people dead, including 1,000 people in Istanbul's suburbs. The people of Istanbul remain concerned that an even more catastrophic seismic event may be in the city's near future, as thousands of structures recently built to accommodate Istanbul's rapidly increasing population may not have been constructed properly.<ref name="dis-awaits">{{cite news|last=Revkin|first=Andrew C.|title=Disaster Awaits Cities in Earthquake Zones|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/25/science/earth/25quake.html|work=The New York Times|date=24 February 2010|accessdate=13 June 2010}}</ref> Seismologists say the risk of a 7.6-] or greater earthquake striking Istanbul by 2030 is more than {{nowrap|60 percent}}.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.288.5466.661|last1=Parsons|first1=Tom|last2=Toda|first2=Shinji|last3=Stein|first3=Ross S.|last4=Barka|first4=Aykut|last5=Dieterich|first5=James H.|year=2000|title=Heightened Odds of Large Earthquakes Near Istanbul: An Interaction-Based Probability Calculation|journal=Science|pmid=10784447|publisher=The American Association for the Advancement of Science|location=Washington, D.C.|volume=288|issue=5466|pages=661–5|ref=harv}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Traynor|first=Ian|title=A Disaster Waiting to Happen – Why a Huge Earthquake Near Istanbul Seems Inevitable|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2006/dec/09/turkey.naturaldisasters|work=The Guardian |location=UK |date=9 December 2006|accessdate=13 June 2010}}</ref>
			] (''Banks Street'') in the late 1920s. Completed in 1892, the ] headquarters is seen at left. In 1995 the ] moved to ], while numerous Turkish banks have moved to ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.borsaistanbul.com/en/sayfa/24/milestones-in-borsa-istanbul-history|title=Milestones in Borsa Istanbul History|website=www.borsaistanbul.com|accessdate=31 January 2021}}</ref>]]
	=== Climate ===
	Istanbul is characterized as having a ], according to the updated ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kottek| first1=Markus| last2=Grieser| first2=Jürgen| last3=Beck| first3=Christoph| last4=Rudolf| first4=Bruno| last5=Rubel| first5=Franz| title=World Map of the Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification Updated| journal=Meteorologische Zeitschrift| volume=15| issue=3| year=2006| date=June 2006| pages=259–63| publisher=E. Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung| location=Stuttgart| url=http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/present.htm| accessdate=5 July 2012| doi=10.1127/0941-2948/2006/0130| ref=harv}}</ref> However, due to its vast size, diverse topography, and maritime location, Istanbul exhibits ]s. Northern parts of the city express characteristics of an ] because of humidity from the Black Sea and the relatively high concentration of vegetation. The climate in the populated areas of the city in the south is warmer and less affected by humidity.<ref name="efcu716">{{harvnb|Efe|Cürebal|2011|pp=716–7}}</ref>
			The ] was signed on 24 July 1923, and the occupation of Constantinople ended with the departure of the last forces of the Allies from the city on 4 October 1923.<ref name=liberation-of-istanbul>{{cite web|url=https://www.sozcu.com.tr/2017/gundem/6-ekim-istanbulun-kurtulusu-2039060/|title=6 Ekim İstanbul'un Kurtuluşu|publisher=]|language=tr|date=6 October 2017}}</ref> Turkish forces of the Ankara government, commanded by ] (3rd Corps), entered the city with a ceremony on 6 October 1923, which has been marked as the "Liberation Day of Istanbul" ({{lang|tr|İstanbul'un Kurtuluşu}}), and has been commemorated annually since.<ref name=liberation-of-istanbul/>
	], frequently forms in the morning.|alt=Skyscrapers, both near and far, soar above a dense layer of fog that keeps the ground hidden from view.]]
			===Turkish Republic===
	Indeed, one of the most salient characteristics of the climate in parts of Istanbul is its persistently high ], which reaches {{nowrap|80 percent}} most mornings.<ref name="bbc-weather">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/745044|publisher=BBC Weather Centre|work=World Weather|title=Weather – Istanbul|accessdate=15 October 2012}}</ref> Because of these conditions, fog is very common, although more so in northern parts of the city and away from the city center.<ref name="efcu716" /> Notably dense fog events that disrupt transportation in the region, including on the Bosphorus, are perennial occurrences during the autumn and winter months, when the humidity remains high into the afternoon.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/default.aspx?pageid=438&n=istanbul-enshrouded-in-dense-fog-2005-01-14|title=Istanbul Enshrouded in Dense Fog|work=Turkish Daily News|date=14 January 2005|accessdate=15 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action;jsessionid=FAB4C1B60E306ABF22F28B59203430B2?pageNo=137&category=&dt=2009&newsId=193715&columnistId=0|work=Today's Zaman|date=23 November 2009|accessdate=15 October 2012|title=Thick Fog Causes Disruption, Flight Delays in İstanbul}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action;jsessionid=86594F6ACB2187D581BA55332977A69F?newsId=226474|work=Today's Zaman|title=Dense Fog Disrupts Life in Istanbul|date=6 November 2010|accessdate=15 October 2012}}</ref> The humid conditions and the fog tend to dissipate by midday during the summer months, but the lingering humidity still has the effect of exacerbating the moderately high summer temperatures.<ref name="bbc-weather" /><ref name="pelit">{{cite web|last=Pelit|first=Attila|url=http://www.timeout.com/istanbul/features/306/when-to-go-to-istanbul|work=TimeOut Istanbul|title=When to Go to Istanbul|accessdate=19 December 2011}}</ref> During these summer months, high temperatures average around {{convert|29|°C|°F|abbr=on}} and rainfall is uncommon; there are only about fifteen days with measurable precipitation between June and August.<ref name="tsms-main">{{cite web|url=http://www.dmi.gov.tr/veridegerlendirme/il-ve-ilceler-istatistik.aspx?m=ISTANBUL|title=Resmi İstatistikler (İl ve İlçelerimize Ait İstatistiki Veriler)|trans_title=Official Statistics (Statistical Data of Provinces and Districts) - Istanbul|publisher=Turkish State Meteorological Service|language=Turkish|accessdate=22 September 2012}}</ref> Nevertheless, despite the low precipitation, the summer months also have the highest concentration of thunderstorms.<ref>{{harvnb|Quantic|2008|p=155}}</ref>
			On 29 October 1923 the Grand National Assembly of Turkey declared the establishment of the Turkish Republic, with Ankara as its capital. ] became the Republic's first ].<ref>{{harvnb|Landau|1984|p=50}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Dumper|Stanley|2007|p=39}}</ref>
			A ] assessed mainly on non-Muslims led to the transfer or liquidation of many businesses owned by religious minorities.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ağır |first1=Seven |last2=Artunç |first2=Cihan |title=The Wealth Tax of 1942 and the Disappearance of Non-Muslim Enterprises in Turkey |journal=The Journal of Economic History |date=2019 |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=201–243 |doi=10.1017/S0022050718000724|s2cid=159425371 }}</ref> The state-sanctioned ], in which hundreds of Greek men, women and children were attacked and raped and dozens murdered, led to the emigration of most of the remaining Greeks in Istanbul.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Erdemir |first1=Aykan |title=The Turkish Kristallnacht |url=http://www.politico.eu/article/the-turkish-kristallnacht-greece-1955-pogrom-polites-orthodox/ |work=] |date=7 September 2016 |access-date=6 September 2016 |archive-date=20 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020061818/http://www.politico.eu/article/the-turkish-kristallnacht-greece-1955-pogrom-polites-orthodox/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="zayas">{{cite journal |last1=de Zayas |first1=Alfred |date=August 2007 |title=The Istanbul Pogrom of 6–7 September 1955 in the Light of International Law |url=http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/gsp/vol2/iss2/4/ |journal=Genocide Studies and Prevention |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=137–154 |issn=1911-0359 |quote=The Septemvriana satisfies the criteria of article 2 of the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (UNCG) because the ‘‘intent to destroy in whole or in part’’ the Greek minority in Istanbul was demonstrably present, the pogrom having been orchestrated by the government of Turkish Prime Minister Adnan Menderes. Even if the number of deaths (estimated at thirty-seven) among members of the Greek community was relatively low, the result of the pogrom was the flight and emigration of the Greek minority of Istanbul, which once numbered some 100,000 and was subsequently reduced to a few thousand. The vast destruction of Greek property, businesses, and churches provides evidence of the Turkish authorities’ intent to terrorize the Greeks in Istanbul into abandoning the territory, thus eliminating the Greek minority. This practice falls within the ambit of the crime of ‘‘ethnic cleansing,’’ which the UN General Assembly and the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia have interpreted as constituting a form of genocide... Besides the deaths, thousands were injured; some 200 Greek women were raped, and there are reports that Greek boys were raped as well. Many Greek men, including at least one priest, were subjected to forced circumcision. The riots were accompanied by enormous material damage, estimated by Greek authorities at US$500 million, including the burning of churches and the devastation of shops and private homes. As a result of the pogrom, the Greek minority eventually emigrated from Turkey. |access-date=11 October 2015 |archive-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519230229/https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/gsp/vol2/iss2/4/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Government persecution of Greeks and religious minorities, especially ], intensified through the 1960s as part of the process of ]. Further ] took place in 1964–1965.<ref name="o112">{{cite book | last=Roudometof | first=V. | last2=Agadjanian | first2=A. | last3=Pankhurst | first3=J. | title=Eastern Orthodoxy in a Global Age: Tradition Faces the 21st Century | publisher=AltaMira Press | year=2005 | isbn=978-0-7591-1477-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mQRtAAAAQBAJ | access-date=2024-08-27 | page=273}}</ref> As a result of these policies, the Greek population of Istanbul decreased from 110,000 in 1919 to 2,500 today.<ref name="m310">{{cite book | last=Whitman | first=L. | author2=Helsinki Watch (Organization : U.S.) | author3=Human Rights Watch (Organization) | title=Denying Human Rights and Ethnic Identity: The Greeks of Turkey | publisher=Human Rights Watch | series=Helsinki Watch report | year=1992 | isbn=978-1-56432-056-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7YJpAAAAMAAJ | access-date=2024-08-27}}</ref>
	Winter is colder in Istanbul than in most other cities around the ], with low temperatures averaging {{convert|4|-|5|C|F|abbr=on}}.<ref name="tsms-main" /> ] from the Black Sea is common, although difficult to forecast, with the potential to be heavy and—as with the fog—disruptive to the city's infrastructure.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kindap|first=Tayfin|title=A Severe Sea-Effect Snow Episode Over the City of Istanbul|journal=Natural Hazards|volume=54|issue=3|year=2010|date=19 January 2010|pages=703–23|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/cu66841r30p20v72/|accessdate=15 October 2012|issn=1573-0840|ref=harv}}</ref> Spring and autumn are mild, but often wet and unpredictable; chilly winds from the northwest and warm gusts from the south—sometimes in the same day—tend to cause fluctuations in temperature.<ref name="pelit" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/default.aspx?pageid=438&n=istanbul-winds-2009-10-15|work=Turkish Daily News|title=Istanbul Winds Battle Over the City|date=17 October 2009|accessdate=15 October 2012}}</ref> Overall, Istanbul has an annual average of {{nowrap|115 days}} with significant precipitation, which amounts to {{convert|852|mm|in|1|sp=us}} per year.<ref name="tsms-main" /><ref name="tsms-rain">{{cite web|url=http://www.dmi.gov.tr/veridegerlendirme/yillik-toplam-yagis-verileri.aspx?m=istanbul |title=Yıllık Toplam Yağış Verileri|language=Turkish|trans_title=Annual Total Participation Data: Istanbul, Turkey|publisher=Turkish State Meteorological Service|accessdate=6 July 2012}}</ref> The highest and lowest temperatures ever recorded in the city are {{convert|40.5|°C|0}} and {{convert|-16.1|°C|0}}, respectively. The highest amount of rainfall recorded in a single day is {{convert|227|mm|in|sp=us}}, whereas the highest recorded snow cover is {{convert|80|cm|in|sp=us}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dmi.gov.tr/files/kurumsal/ekitap/4mevsim2/s5152.pdf |title=İstanbul Bölge Müdürlüğü'ne Bağlı İstasyonlarda Ölçülen Ekstrem Değerler|language=Turkish|trans_title=Extreme Values Measured in Istanbul Regional Directorate|publisher=Turkish State Meteorological Service |accessdate=27 July 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0493(1998)126%3C3036%3AMCBOTE%3E2.0.CO%3B2 |title=March 1987 Cyclone (Blizzard) over the Eastern Mediterranean and Balkan Region Associated with Blocking |publisher=American Meteorological Society |accessdate=27 July 2010}}</ref>
			From the late 1940s and early 1950s, Istanbul underwent great structural change, as new public squares, boulevards, and avenues were constructed throughout the city, sometimes at the expense of historical buildings.<ref>{{harvnb|Keyder|1999|pp=11–12, 34–36}}</ref> The overall population of Istanbul began to rapidly increase in the 1970s, as people from Anatolia migrated to the city to find employment in the many new factories that were built on the outskirts of the sprawling metropolis. This sudden, sharp rise in the city's population caused a large demand for housing, and many previously outlying villages and forests became engulfed into the ] of Istanbul as result of ].<ref>{{harvnb|Efe|Cürebal|2011|pp=718–719}}</ref>
	{{Weather box
	| location = Istanbul (1970–2011)
			==Geography and environment==
			{{Further|Geography of Turkey|Geology of Turkey}}
			]
			Istanbul is in north-western Turkey and straddles the ], which provides the only passage from the ] to the ] via the ].<ref name="hisdic"/> Historically, the city has been ideally situated for trade and defense: The confluence of the Sea of Marmara, the Bosporus, and the Golden Horn provide both ideal defense against enemy attack and a natural toll-gate.<ref name="hisdic"/> Several picturesque islands—], ], ], ], and five smaller islands—are part of the city.<ref name="hisdic"/> Istanbul's shoreline has grown beyond its natural limits. Large sections of ] sit on areas of landfill, increasing the total area of the city to {{convert|5343|km2|sqmi|sp=us}}.<ref name="hisdic"/>
			Despite the myth that ], there are, in fact, more than 50 hills within the city limits. Istanbul's tallest hill, Aydos, is {{convert|537|m|sp=us}} high.<ref name="hisdic"/>
			=== Earthquakes ===
			{{See also|Architecture of Turkey#Earthquakes}}
			The ], under the ], is ] just south of the city.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-08-04 |title=Locked and creeping fault segments off Istanbul |url=https://www.gfz-potsdam.de/en/press/news/details/kriechen-und-verhaken-vor-istanbul-systematisches-bild-der-plattengrenze-im-marmara-meer |access-date=2024-04-04 |website=www.gfz-potsdam.de |language=en-US}}</ref> This fault caused the earthquakes in ] and ],<ref name="econ1214">{{cite news |date=5 December 2020 |title=Turkey recovers from one earthquake and braces for more |url=https://www.economist.com/europe/2020/12/05/turkey-recovers-from-one-earthquake-and-braces-for-more |access-date=14 December 2020 |newspaper=The Economist}}</ref> and a quake of at least ] 7.0 is very likely in the 21st century,<ref>{{Cite web |title=64 pct chance of Istanbul quake to hit before 2030: Expert |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/64-pct-chance-of-istanbul-quake-to-hit-before-2030-expert-171945 |access-date=2023-02-09 |website=] |date=4 March 2022 |language=en}}</ref> though an earthquake with a magnitude above 7.5 is thought to be impossible.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Earthquake hazard in Istanbul |url=https://www.eskp.de/en/natural-hazards/earthquake-hazard-in-istanbul-935494/ |access-date=2024-03-31 |website=www.eskp.de |language=en}}</ref> Istanbul Municipality's Directorate of Earthquake and Ground Research is responsible for analysing the methods to reduce the ],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Directorate of Earthquake and Geotechnical Investigation |url=https://depremzemin.ibb.istanbul/en/ |access-date=2024-03-31 |website=depremzemin.ibb.istanbul}}</ref> whereas the national government-controlled ] is responsible for ], and will be helped by NGOs such as ].<ref>{{Cite web |title=İHH Humanitarian Relief Foundation |url=https://ihh.org.tr/en/news/istanbul-earthquake-expected-to-affect-40-million-people |access-date=2024-03-31 |website=İHH Humanitarian Relief Foundation |language=en}}</ref>
			The threat of major earthquakes plays a large role in the city's infrastructure development, with over 500,000 vulnerable buildings demolished and replaced since 2012.<ref name="econ1214" /> According to ministry statements and geologist comments made in 2023, the city's infrastructure was in reasonably good shape, however, due to very high costs, buildings were not: over half a million flats were still vulnerable to collapse, and ] on how many collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkey's earthquake is a warning for Istanbul, which would face even more deaths from a quake |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/turkey-death-toll-building-structures-1.6741119}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2023-02-08 |title=600,000 flats would collapse in major earthquake in Istanbul, says minister |url=https://www.duvarenglish.com/600000-flats-would-collapse-in-major-earthquake-in-istanbul-says-minister-news-62834 |access-date=2024-03-31 |website=] |language=tr-TR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Earthquake fears loom large in Istanbul's mayoral race |url=https://www.economist.com/europe/2024/03/18/earthquake-fears-loom-large-in-istanbuls-mayoral-race |access-date=2024-03-31 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> {{As of|2024}}, most ] were built to a low seismic standard in the 20th century,<ref>{{Cite web |last=EFE |first=Agencia |date=2024-02-05 |title=Is Istanbul prepared for a big earthquake? |url=https://efe.com/en/latest-news/2024-02-05/is-istanbul-prepared-for-a-big-earthquake/ |access-date=2024-03-31 |website=EFE Noticias |language=en-US}}</ref> and residents think the city is not properly ].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-28 |title=Istanbulites concerned over impending earthquake: Survey - Türkiye News |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/survey-reveals-istanbulites-concerns-over-impending-earthquake-191971 |access-date=2024-03-31 |website=Hürriyet Daily News |language=en}}</ref>
			===Climate===
			{{Main|Climate of Istanbul}}
			] and ] are two seaside resorts on the Black Sea, the body of water which tempers Istanbul's climate.]]
			Istanbul's climate is ], and is often described as transitional between the ] typical of the western and southern coasts of Turkey, and the ] of the northwestern coasts of the country.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |url=https://www.mgm.gov.tr/iklim/iklim.aspx?key=C |title=Klimatoloji 2 |publisher=Çevre ve Orman Bakanlığı}}</ref> Much divergence exists in the ], however.
			The city's summers are warm to hot and moderately dry, with an average daytime temperature of about {{Convert|28|C|F}}, and less than 7 days of precipitation per month. Despite the generally acceptable temperature range, mid-summer in Istanbul is considered moderately uncomfortable, due to high dew points and relative humidity.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Abbasnia |first1=Mohsen |last2=Toros |first2=Hüseyin |last3=Memarian |first3=Hadi |date=2019 |title=Analysis of Climate in the Megacity of Istanbul Based on Human Bioclimatic Comfort Index |url=https://avesis.itu.edu.tr/yayin/26af2d5e-0c30-4b5d-83a5-9ffe2be7a179/analysis-of-climate-in-the-megacity-of-istanbul-based-on-human-bioclimatic-comfort-index |journal=Journal of Research in Atmospheric Science |volume=1 |issue=1 |issn=0000-0000}}</ref> Winters, meanwhile, are cool, quite rainy, and relatively snow-rich for a city with above-freezing average temperatures.
			Istanbul's precipitation is unevenly distributed, with winter months getting at least twice the level of precipitation of their summerly counterparts. The mode of precipitation also varies by season. Winter precipitation is generally light, persistent and often of mixed precipitation such as ] and ]; while summer precipitation is generally abrupt and sporadic. Cloudiness, as with precipitation, varies greatly by season. Winters are quite cloudy, with around 20 percent of days being sunny or partly cloudy. Meanwhile, summers experience 60-70 percent of possible sunshine.
			Snowfall is sporadic, but accumulates virtually every winter; and when it does, it is highly disruptive to city infrastructure. ] with more than {{Convert|30|cm|ft|sigfig=1}} of snowfall happen almost annually, most recently in ].<ref name=":10">{{cite web |title=La neve sulle coste del Mediterraneo |url=http://www.nimbus.it/liguria/rlm44/neve_mediterraneo.htm |access-date=28 April 2021 |website=www.nimbus.it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=İstanbul'da bazı ilçelerde kar kalınlığı 85 santimetreyi buldu |url=https://www.birgun.net/haber/istanbul-da-bazi-ilcelerde-kar-kalinligi-85-santimetreyi-buldu-374544 |website=www.birgun.net}}</ref><!-- Do not replace weatherbox with other data without consensus, per earlier discussions on talk page. -->{{Weather box
			| location = ] (normals 1991–2020, precipitation days and sunshine 1981–2010; see ] for more information)
	| metric first = yes		| metric first = yes
	| single line = yes		| single line = yes
	| Jan high C = 9.3		| Jan high C = 8.8
	| Feb high C = 9.7		| Feb high C = 9.4
	| Mar high C = 12.1		| Mar high C = 12.0
	| Apr high C = 17.0		| Apr high C = 16.1
	| May high C = 22.1		| May high C = 21.0
	| Jun high C = 26.9		| Jun high C = 25.7
	| Jul high C = 29.4		| Jul high C = 28.0
	| Aug high C = 29.2		| Aug high C = 28.2
	| Sep high C = 25.5		| Sep high C = 24.6
	| Oct high C = 20.2		| Oct high C = 19.9
	| Nov high C = 15.2		| Nov high C = 15.0
	| Dec high C = 11.2		| Dec high C = 10.7
	| year high C =		| year high C =
	| Jan low C = 4.2		| Jan mean C = 5.9
	| Feb low C = 4.0		| Feb mean C = 6.1
	| Mar low C = 5.5		| Mar mean C = 8.0
	| Apr low C = 9.3		| Apr mean C = 11.5
	| May low C = 13.5		| May mean C = 16.3
	| Jun low C = 18.0		| Jun mean C = 21.1
	| Jul low C = 20.4		| Jul mean C = 23.7
	| Aug low C = 20.5		| Aug mean C = 24.2
			| Sep mean C = 20.5
			| Oct mean C = 16.2
			| Nov mean C = 11.7
			| Dec mean C = 7.9
			| year mean C =
			| Jan low C = 3.6
			| Feb low C = 3.5
			| Mar low C = 4.9
			| Apr low C = 8.1
			| May low C = 12.8
			| Jun low C = 17.4
			| Jul low C = 20.3
			| Aug low C = 21.2
	| Sep low C = 17.4		| Sep low C = 17.4
	| Oct low C = 13.6		| Oct low C = 13.6
	| Nov low C = 9.3		| Nov low C = 9.2
	| Dec low C = 6.2		| Dec low C = 5.5
	| year low C =		| year low C =
	| precipitation colour = green		| precipitation colour = green
	| Jan precipitation mm = 100.9		| Jan precipitation mm = 96.1
	| Feb precipitation mm = 80.9		| Feb precipitation mm = 87.7
	| Mar precipitation mm = 69.6		| Mar precipitation mm = 69.8
	| Apr precipitation mm = 45.4		| Apr precipitation mm = 45.1
	| May precipitation mm = 35.5		| May precipitation mm = 37.1
	| Jun precipitation mm = 37.5		| Jun precipitation mm = 44.7
	| Jul precipitation mm = 39.0		| Jul precipitation mm = 36.3
	| Aug precipitation mm = 46.3		| Aug precipitation mm = 43.5
	| Sep precipitation mm = 62.9		| Sep precipitation mm = 81.3
	| Oct precipitation mm = 100.7		| Oct precipitation mm = 98.3
	| Nov precipitation mm = 108.6		| Nov precipitation mm = 100.5
	| Dec precipitation mm = 124.7		| Dec precipitation mm = 124.8
	| year precipitation mm =		| year precipitation mm =
	| Jan precipitation days = 15.6		| Jan precipitation days = 16.9
	| Feb precipitation days = 14.2		| Feb precipitation days = 15.2
	| Mar precipitation days = 11.8		| Mar precipitation days = 13.2
	| Apr precipitation days = 10.7		| Apr precipitation days = 10.0
	| May precipitation days = 7.3		| May precipitation days = 7.4
	| Jun precipitation days = 5.4		| Jun precipitation days = 7.0
	| Jul precipitation days = 3.7		| Jul precipitation days = 4.7
	| Aug precipitation days = 4.0		| Aug precipitation days = 5.1
	| Sep precipitation days = 5.6		| Sep precipitation days = 8.1
	| Oct precipitation days = 10.2		| Oct precipitation days = 12.3
	| Nov precipitation days = 11.2		| Nov precipitation days = 13.9
	| Dec precipitation days = 15.4		| Dec precipitation days = 17.5
	| year precipitation days =		| year precipitation days = 131.3
	| unit precipitation days = 0.1 mm		| unit precipitation days = 0.1 mm
	| Jan sun= 68.2		| Jan snow days = 4.5
	| Feb sun= 87.6		| Feb snow days = 4.7
	| Mar sun= 133.3		| Mar snow days = 2.9
	| Apr sun= 180.0		| Apr snow days = 0.1
	| May sun= 251.1		| May snow days = 0.0
	| Jun sun= 285.0		| Jun snow days = 0.0
	| Jul sun= 319.3		| Jul snow days = 0.0
	| Aug sun= 288.3		| Aug snow days = 0.0
	| Sep sun= 228.0		| Sep snow days = 0.0
	| Oct sun= 158.1		| Oct snow days = 0.0
	| Nov sun= 99.0		| Nov snow days = 0.3
	| Dec sun= 68.2		| Dec snow days = 2.7
			| year snow days =
	| source 1 = ]<ref name="tsms-main" /><ref name="tsms-rain" /> (all exc. rain data: 1970–2011; rain data: 1970–2010)}}
			| unit snow days = 0.1 cm
			| Jan sun = 68.2
			| Feb sun = 89.6
			| Mar sun = 142.6
			| Apr sun = 180.0
			| May sun = 248.0
			| Jun sun = 297.6
			| Jul sun = 319.3
			| Aug sun = 288.3
			| Sep sun = 234.0
			| Oct sun = 158.1
			| Nov sun = 93.0
			| Dec sun = 62.0
			| year sun =
			| Jan percentsun = 22
			| Feb percentsun = 29
			| Mar percentsun = 38
			| Apr percentsun = 46
			| May percentsun = 57
			| Jun percentsun = 64
			| Jul percentsun = 69
			| Aug percentsun = 66
			| Sep percentsun = 65
			| Oct percentsun = 46
			| Nov percentsun = 31
			| Dec percentsun = 22
			| Jan humidity = 79.8
			| Feb humidity = 78.6
			| Mar humidity = 75.8
			| Apr humidity = 75.1
			| May humidity = 76.5
			| Jun humidity = 75.7
			| Jul humidity = 75.3
			| Aug humidity = 75.9
			| Sep humidity = 75.0
			| Oct humidity = 78.4
			| Nov humidity = 78.9
			| Dec humidity = 78.4
			| year humidity =
			| year percentsun =
			| source = <ref name="mgm2020">{{cite web |title=Resmi İstatistikler |url=https://mgm.gov.tr/veridegerlendirme/il-ve-ilceler-istatistik.aspx?m=ISTANBUL |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201223163236/https://www.mgm.gov.tr/veridegerlendirme/il-ve-ilceler-istatistik.aspx?k=H&m=ISTANBUL |archive-date=23 December 2020 |access-date=13 December 2020 |publisher=Meteoroloji Genel Müdürlüğü}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Rivista Ligure di Meteorologia 44 - La neve sulle coste del Mediterraneo|url=http://www.nimbus.it/liguria/rlm44/neve_mediterraneo.htm|access-date=3 June 2021|website=www.nimbus.it}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
			|url = https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/2.2/data/0-data/Region-6-WMO-Normals-9120/Turkiye/CSV/Sariyer_17061.csv
			|title = World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1991-2020
			|publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
			|access-date = January 16, 2024}}</ref>
			}}
	== Cityscape ==		==== Climate change ====
			] in ] is the first climate change museum in Turkey.]]
	{{see also|List of urban centers in Istanbul}}
			{{Further|Climate change in Turkey}}
			] has caused an increase in Istanbul's heatwaves,<ref>{{cite news |title=Turkey reeling from African heat wave |url=https://www.dailysabah.com/turkey/2017/07/03/turkey-reeling-from-african-heat-wave |work=Daily Sabah |date=2 July 2017}}</ref> droughts,<ref>{{cite news |title=Gov't forced to take measures amid below average rainfall across Turkey |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/govt-forced-to-take-measures-amid-below-average-rainfall-across-turkey-126069 |work=Hürriyet Daily News |date=21 January 2018}}</ref> storms,<ref>{{cite news |title=Lightning electrifies Istanbul, northwestern Turkey skies as thunderstorms take over |url=https://www.dailysabah.com/istanbul/2018/07/24/lightning-electrifies-istanbul-northwestern-turkey-skies-as-thunderstorms-take-over |work=Daily Sabah |date=24 July 2018}}</ref> and flooding<ref>{{cite news |title=Istanbul flood result of Turkey's climate change |url=https://www.dailysabah.com/life/2017/07/21/istanbul-flood-result-of-turkeys-climate-change |agency=Anadolu Agency|date=27 July 2017}}</ref><ref name="CCTur">{{cite web |last1=Şen |first1=Ömer Lütfi|title=Climate Change in Turkey |url=http://climatechangeinturkey.com/effects-of-climate-change-population.html |publisher=Mercator–IPC Fellowship Program= |access-date=27 September 2018}}</ref> in Istanbul. Furthermore, as Istanbul is a large and rapidly expanding city, its ] has been intensifying the effects of climate change.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|title=Climatologie globale à Istanbul / Ataturk - Infoclimat |url=https://www.infoclimat.fr/climatologie/globale/istanbul-ataturk/17060.html|access-date=28 April 2021|website=www.infoclimat.fr}}</ref> If trends continue, sea level rise is likely to affect city infrastructure, for example ] is threatened with flooding.<ref>{{cite news |title=Temperature to increase significantly in Turkey in 30 years due to global warming, warns climate expert |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/temperature-to-increase-significantly-in-turkey-in-30-years-due-to-global-warming-warns-climate-expert-128980 |work=Hürriyet Daily News |date=19 March 2018}}</ref> ] of green spaces has been suggested,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Çetin |first1=Nefise |last2=Mansuroğlu |first2=Sibel |last3=Kalaycı Önaç |first3=Ayşe |title=Xeriscaping Feasibility as an Urban Adaptation Method for Global Warming: A Case Study from Turkey |journal=Pol. J. Environ. Stud. |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=1009–18 |doi=10.15244/pjoes/76678 |year=2018 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and Istanbul has a climate-change action plan.<ref>{{cite web|title=İstanbul İklim Değişikliği Eylem Planı|url=https://www.iklim.istanbul/|access-date=22 April 2019|archive-date=17 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417071317/https://www.iklim.istanbul/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
			=== Flora and fauna ===
	{{Infobox World Heritage Site
			] is a ] to the north of Istanbul.]]
	| WHS = Historic Areas of Istanbul
	| Image =
	| State Party = ]
	| Type = Cultural
	| Criteria = I, II, III, IV
	| ID = 356
	| Region = ]
	| Year = ]
	| Session = 9th
	| Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/356
	}}
			The natural vegetation of the province is made up of ] and ], reflecting the city's transitional, Mediterranean-influenced ] climate.<ref name=":4" /> ], ], ], ], ] and ] comprise the most prominent temperate forest genera, while ], ], '']'', ], ], and oak species such as '']'' and ''] are'' the most important species of ] and ] distribution. Apart from the natural flora, ], ], ] and ] make up the ] that got ] to Istanbul.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bosphorus as our cultural heritage |url=http://cipa.icomos.org/text%20files/antalya/203.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722110923/http://cipa.icomos.org/text%20files/antalya/203.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2011}}</ref> In a study that examined urban flora in ], a total of 576 plant taxa were recorded; of those 477 were natural and 99 were exotic and cultivated. The most prominent native taxa were in the ] family (50 species), while the most diverse exotic plant family was ] (16 species).<ref>Altay, Volkan; Ouml, Brahim Lker; zyiit; Yarci, Celal (31 January 2010). "Urban flora and ecological characteristics of the Kartal District (Istanbul): A contribution to urban ecology in Turkey".</ref>
	The ] district corresponds to what was, until the Ottoman conquest, the whole of the city, across from which stood the ] citadel of ]. Those Genoese fortifications were largely demolished in the 19th century, leaving only the ], to make way for northward expansion of the city.<ref>{{harvnb|Çelik|1993|pp=70, 169}}</ref> Galata is now a part of the ] district, which forms Istanbul's commercial and entertainment center around ].<ref>{{harvnb|Çelik|1993|p=127}}</ref>
			] and Sea of Marmara play a vital role for ] and other marine animals between Mediterranean, Marmara and Black Sea. Bosporus hosts ], ] and semipelagic fish species and more than 130 different taxa have been documented in the strait.<ref>Artüz M.L. (1999) . Marine bio abs., 1: 112–023.</ref> ], ], ], ] and ] compose the economically important species. Fish diversity in the waters of Istanbul has dwindled in the recent decades. From around 60 different fish species recorded in the 1970s only 20 of them still survive in the Bosporus.<ref>{{cite web |title=Deniz Kirliliğini Önlemeye İlişkin Hedefler |url=http://www.iski.gov.tr/Web/statik.aspx?KID=1001221 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722093754/http://www.iski.gov.tr/Web/statik.aspx?KID=1001221 |archive-date=22 July 2011 |website=İstanbul Su ve Kanalizasyon İdaresi}}</ref>{{Dubious|date=July 2021}}<!-- Most studies show more fish species compared to İSKİ's stated numbers. This is either excluding seasonal fishes, only including economically viable species or just plainly wrong. --> ] (Turkish: ''afalina''), ] (Turkish: ''tırtak'') and ] (Turkish: ''mutur'') make up the marine mammals presently found in the Bosporus and surrounding waters, though since the 1950s the number of dolphin observations has become increasingly rare. ]s were present in Bosporus, and Princes' Islands and Tuzla shores were seal breeding areas during summer, but they have not been observed in Istanbul since the 1960s and thought to be extinct in the region.<ref>"İstanbul'da balıklar". ''Dünden Bugüne İstanbul Ansiklopedisi''. '''II'''. İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı.</ref> Water pollution, ] and destruction of coastal habitats caused by urbanization are main threats to Istanbul's marine ecology.
	], the seat of government during the late Ottoman period, is located in ], just north of Beyoğlu, across from ], home to ].<ref name="fifa-bes">{{cite web|url=http://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/clubs/club=44163/index.html |publisher=FIFA |accessdate=8 April 2012|title=Besiktas: The Black Eagles of the Bosporus}}</ref> The former village of ] is situated within Beşiktaş and provides its name to the ], along the Bosphorus near the First Bosphorus Bridge. Lining the shores of the Bosphorus north of there are '']'', luxurious chalet mansions originally built by 19th-century aristocrats and elites as summer homes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/1999/10/29/arts/antiques-for-turks-art-to-mark-700th-year.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm|last=Moonan|first=Wendy|work=The New York Times|title=For Turks, Art to Mark 700th Year|date=29 October 1999|accessdate=4 July 2012}}</ref> Farther inland, outside the city's inner ring road, are ] and ], Istanbul's primary economic centers.<ref>{{harvnb|Oxford Business Group|2009|p=105}}</ref>
			]
			Apart from the wild land mammals Istanbul hosts a sizeable ] population. The presence of ] (]: ''sokak kedisi'') is noted to be very prevalent, with estimates ranging from a hundred thousand to over a million stray cats. The feral cats in the city have gained widespread media and public attention and are considered to be symbols of the city.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Why so many stray cats in Istanbul? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-europe-37880274 |access-date=31 July 2021 |work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Brady |first=Tara |title=How the street cats of Istanbul landed on their feet |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/film/how-the-street-cats-of-istanbul-landed-on-their-feet-1.3129936 |access-date=31 July 2021 |newspaper=The Irish Times}}</ref> ] colonies are present in urban areas, similar to other European cities as ]s, and considered as ].<ref>{{cite web |title=İstanbul'da istilacı yeşil papağan uyarısı: Sayıları 5-6 bini geçti, kent faunası bozulabilir |url=https://www.birgun.net/haber/istanbul-da-istilaci-yesil-papagan-uyarisi-sayilari-5-6-bini-gecti-kent-faunasi-bozulabilir-318525 |access-date=31 July 2021 |website=birgun.net |language=Turkish}}</ref>
			===Pollution===
	]'' residences along the Bosphorus are now homes in some of Istanbul's elite neighborhoods.|alt=Two- and three-story colored houses with docks and balconies, built directly on the edge of the water]]
			] is acute in İstanbul with cars, buses and taxis causing frequent urban ],<ref>{{cite web |date=20 February 2017 |title=Fed up with Istanbul traffic |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/opinion/melis-alphan/fed-up-with-istanbul-traffic--109965 |access-date=28 September 2018}}</ref> as it is one of the few European cities without a ]. {{As of|2019}} the city's mean ] remains at a level so as to affect the heart and lungs of healthy street bystanders during peak traffic hours,<ref>{{cite news |date=1 March 2019 |title=Understanding Vehicular Pollution – AQI, Harmful Effects and How to Reduce It? |url=https://www.news18.com/news/auto/understanding-vehicular-pollution-aqi-harmful-effects-and-how-to-reduce-it-2047845.html |work=News18}}</ref> and almost 200 days of pollution were measured by the ]s at ], ], Alibeyköy and ].<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.temizhavahakki.com/kararapor2020/ |title=Kara Rapor 2020: Hava Kirliliği ve Sağlık Etkileri |trans-title=Black Report 2020: Air Pollution and Health Effects |date=August 2020 |publisher=] |language=tr}}</ref> It is one of the 10 worst cities for {{Chem|link=Nitrogen_dioxide#Long-term|N|O|2}}.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Harvey |first1=Fiona |author-link=Fiona Harvey |date=17 August 2022 |title=Major cities blighted by nitrogen dioxide pollution, research finds &#124; Air pollution |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/aug/17/major-cities-blighted-by-nitrogen-dioxide-pollution-research-finds |accessdate=2022-10-01 |work=]}}</ref> However a trial of congestion pricing is planned for the historic peninsula.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2023-12-14 |title=Istanbul Municipality launches sustainable transportation program |url=https://www.duvarenglish.com/istanbul-municipality-launches-sustainable-transportation-program-news-63488 |access-date=2024-05-07 |website=] |language=}}</ref>
	During the Ottoman period, ] and ] were outside the scope of urban Istanbul, serving as tranquil outposts with seaside ''yalıs'' and gardens. However, during the second half of the 20th century, the Asian side experienced massive urban growth; the late development of this part of the city led to better infrastructure and tidier urban planning when compared with most other residential areas in the city.<ref name="wctr281" /> Much of the Asian side of the Bosphorus functions as a suburb of the economic and commercial centers in European Istanbul, accounting for a third of the city's population but only a quarter of its employment.<ref name="wctr281" /> As a result of Istanbul's exponential growth during the 20th century, a significant portion of the city is composed of '']lar'' (literally "built overnight"), referring to illegally constructed squatter buildings.<ref name="kar7896">{{harvnb|Karpat|1976|pp=78–96}}</ref> At present, some ''gecekondu'' areas are being gradually demolished and replaced by modern mass-housing compounds.<ref name="yavuz">{{cite news|last=Yavuz|first=Ercan|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action?load=detay&link=177450&bolum=103|work=Today's Zaman|title=Gov't launches plan to fight illegal construction|date=8 June 2009|accessdate=20 December 2011}}</ref>
			]s and ]s were reported in the Sea of Marmara and Bosporus (especially in Golden Horn), and regularly happen in urban lakes such as ] and ]. In June 2021, a ] wave allegedly caused by water pollution spread to Sea of Marmara.<ref>{{cite web |date=1 June 2021 |title='Sea snot' outbreak off Turkish coast poses threat to marine life |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/sea-snot-outbreak-off-turkish-coast-poses-threat-marine-life-2021-06-01/ |access-date=31 July 2021 |website=Reuters}}</ref>
	Istanbul does not have a primary ], unlike other large cities, but it does have a number of green areas. ] and ] were originally included within the grounds of two of Istanbul's palaces—Topkapı Palace and Yıldız Palace—but they were repurposed as public parks in the early decades of the Turkish Republic.<ref>{{harvnb|Boyar|Fleet|2010|p=247}}</ref> Another park, ], is situated on a hillside adjacent to the Bosphorus Bridge in Anatolia, opposite Yıldız Palace. Along the European side, and closer to the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge, is ]; originally a private estate belonging to Ottoman leaders, the {{convert|47|ha|acre|adj=on}} park is known for its diversity of plants and an annual tulip festival held since 2005.<ref>{{harvnb|Taylor|2007|p=241}}</ref> Popular during the summer among Istanbulites is ], spreading across {{convert|5500|ha|acre|adj=off}} at the northern edge of the city. The forest originally supplied water to the city and remnants of reservoirs used during Byzantine and Ottoman times still survive.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/belge/2-14846/water-supply-systems-reservoirs-charity-and-free-founta-.html|publisher=Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism|title=Water Supply Systems, Reservoirs, Charity and Free Fountains, Turkish Baths|accessdate=29 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Time Out Guides|2010|p=212}}</ref>
			==Cityscape==
			===Districts and neighborhoods===
			{{see also|Historic Areas of Istanbul|List of urban centers in Istanbul}}
			====European side====
			] district comprises the ] of Istanbul]]
			The ] district, which was named after Mehmed II (]: ''Fatih Sultan Mehmed''), corresponds to what was the whole of Constantinople until the Ottoman conquest; today it is the capital district and called the ''historic peninsula'' of Istanbul on the southern shore of the ], across the medieval ] citadel of ] on the northern shore. The Genoese fortifications in Galata were largely demolished in the 19th century, leaving only the ], to make way for the northward expansion of the city.<ref>{{harvnb|Çelik|1993|pp=70, 169}}</ref> Galata (]) is today a quarter within the Beyoğlu district, which forms Istanbul's commercial and entertainment center and includes ] and ].<ref>{{harvnb|Çelik|1993|p=127}}</ref>
			]'' residences along the Bosporus are now homes in some of Istanbul's elite neighborhoods.|alt=Two- and three-story colored houses with docks and balconies, built directly on the edge of the water]]
			], the seat of government during the late Ottoman period, is in the ] district on the European shore of the Bosporus, to the north of Beyoğlu. The former village of ] is within Beşiktaş and gives its name to the ] on the Bosporus, near the ]. Lining both the European and Asian shores of the Bosporus are the historic '']s'', luxurious chalet mansions built by Ottoman aristocrats and elites as summer homes.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/10/29/arts/antiques-for-turks-art-to-mark-700th-year.html |last=Moonan|first=Wendy|work=The New York Times|title=For Turks, Art to Mark 700th Year|date=29 October 1999|access-date=4 July 2012}}</ref> Inland, north of Taksim Square is the ], a set of corridors lined with office buildings, residential towers, shopping centers, and university campuses, and over {{convert|2000000|m2|abbr=on}} of class-A office space in total. ], ], and ] are important nodes within the CBD.{{sfn|Oxford Business Group|2009|p=105}}<ref name=property2021>{{cite report|title=Istanbul Office Market General Overview: Third Quarter 2021|pages=3, 9 |url=https://www.propin.com.tr/UserFiles/image/PROPIN_Istanbul_Office_Market_General_Overview_2021_Q3.pdf |publisher=Prop In}}</ref>
			The Atatürk Airport corridor is another such ]-style business, residential and shopping corridor with over {{convert|900000|m2|abbr=on}} of class-A office space.<ref name=property2021/>
			====Asian side====
			] from ] across the Bosporus]]
			During the Ottoman period, ] (then Scutari) and ] were outside the scope of the urban area, serving as tranquil outposts with seaside ''yalıs'' and gardens. But in the second half of the 20th century, the Asian side experienced major urban growth; the late development of this part of the city led to better infrastructure and tidier urban planning when compared with most other residential areas in the city.{{sfn|WCTR Society|Unʼyu Seisaku Kenkyū Kikō|2004|p=281}} Much of the Asian side of the Bosporus functions as a suburb of the economic and commercial centers in European Istanbul, accounting for a third of the city's population but only a quarter of its employment.{{sfn|WCTR Society|Unʼyu Seisaku Kenkyū Kikō|2004|p=281}} However, ]–], ], ] and ], all together having around 1.4 million sqm of class-A office space, are now important "]", i.e. corridors and nodes of business and shopping centers and of tall residential buildings.<ref name=property2021/>
			====Expansion====
			As a result of Istanbul's exponential growth in the 20th century, a significant portion of the city is composed of '']s'' (literally "built overnight"), referring to illegally constructed squatter buildings.<ref name="kar7896">{{harvnb|Karpat|1976|pp=78–96}}</ref> At present, some ''gecekondu'' areas are being gradually demolished and replaced by modern mass-housing compounds.<ref name="yavuz">{{cite news|last=Yavuz |first=Ercan |url=http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action?load=detay&link=177450&bolum=103 |work=Today's Zaman |title=Gov't launches plan to fight illegal construction |date=8 June 2009 |access-date=20 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120120204750/http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action?load=detay&link=177450&bolum=103 |archive-date=20 January 2012 }}</ref> Moreover, large scale ] and ] projects have been taking place,<ref name="AtkinsonBridge2005">{{cite book|first1=Rowland|last1=Atkinson|first2=Gary|last2=Bridge|title=Gentrification in a Global Context: The New Urban Colonialism|url={{Google books|s_Z8dxsXWxQC|page=PA123|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|access-date=6 May 2013|year=2005|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-32951-4|pages=123–}}</ref> such as the one in ];<ref>{{cite news |title=Poor but Proud Istanbul Neighborhood Faces Gentrification |first=Jessica |last=Bourque |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/05/world/middleeast/05iht-m05-turkey-tarlabasi.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=4 July 2012 |access-date=6 May 2013}}</ref> some of these projects, like the one in ], have faced criticism.<ref>{{cite news |title=Forced gentrification plan spells end for old Roma district in Istanbul |first=Robert |last=Tait |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jul/22/roma.turkey |newspaper=The Guardian |date=22 July 2008 |access-date=6 May 2013}}</ref> The Turkish government also has ambitious plans for an expansion of the city west and northwards on the European side in conjunction with the new ], opened in 2019; the new parts of the city will include four different settlements with specified urban functions, housing 1.5&nbsp;million people.<ref>{{cite news |title=New city construction to begin in six months |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/new-city-construction-to-begin-in-six-months.aspx?nid=41622&pageID=238 |newspaper=Hurriyet Daily News |date=22 February 2013 |access-date=6 May 2013}}</ref>
			===Parks===
			] connects ] to ]]]
			Istanbul does not have a primary urban park, but it has several green areas. ] and ] were originally included within the grounds of two of Istanbul's palaces — Topkapı Palace and ]—but they were repurposed as public parks in the early decades of the Turkish Republic.<ref>{{harvnb|Boyar|Fleet|2010|p=247}}</ref> Another park, ], is on a hillside adjacent to the Bosphorus Bridge in Anatolia, opposite Yıldız Palace in Europe.
			Along the European side, and close to the ], is ], which was known as the ''Kyparades'' ('Cypress Forest') during the Byzantine period. In the Ottoman period, it was first granted to ] ] in the 16th century, before being granted by Sultan ] to the ] emir Gûne Han in the 17th century, hence the name ''Emirgan''. The {{convert|47|ha|acre|adj=on}} park was later owned by Khedive ] of ] in the 19th century. Emirgan Park is known for its diversity of plants and an annual ] festival is held there since 2005.<ref>{{harvnb|Taylor|2007|p=241}}</ref>
			The ] government's decision to replace ] with a replica of the Ottoman era ] (which was transformed into the ] in 1921, before being demolished in 1940 for building Gezi Park) sparked a series of ] covering a wide range of issues.
			Popular during the summer among Istanbulites is ], spreading across {{convert|5500|ha|acre|adj=off}} at the northern edge of the city. The forest originally supplied water to the city and remnants of reservoirs used during Byzantine and Ottoman times survive.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/belge/2-14846/water-supply-systems-reservoirs-charity-and-free-founta-.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101119053754/http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/belge/2-14846/water-supply-systems-reservoirs-charity-and-free-founta-.html|archive-date=19 November 2010 |publisher=Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism|title=Water Supply Systems, Reservoirs, Charity and Free Fountains, Turkish Baths|access-date=29 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Time Out Guides|2010|p=212}}</ref>
			{{wide image|Istanbul panorama and skyline.jpg|800px|align-cap=center|Panoramic view of Istanbul from the confluence of the Bosporus and ]. Several landmarks—including ], the Hagia Sophia, ], and ]—can be seen along their shores.}}
	===Architecture===		===Architecture===
	{{main|Architecture of Istanbul}}		{{see also|Architecture of Istanbul|Ottoman architecture|Architecture of Turkey}}
	] was built in the 6th century.|alt=A reddish building topped by a large dome and surrounded by smaller domes and four towers]]
			] dominates the skyline of the medieval ] at the north of the Golden Horn.]]
	Istanbul is primarily known for its Byzantine and Ottoman architecture, but its buildings reflect the various peoples and empires that have previously ruled the city. Examples of Genoese and Roman architecture remain visible in Istanbul alongside their Ottoman counterparts. While nothing of the ] has survived, ] has proved to be more durable. Obelisks from the ] are still visible in Sultanahmet Square, while a section of the ], constructed in the late 4th century, stands relatively intact at the western edge of the Fatih district.<ref name="coaot">{{harvnb|Chamber of Architects of Turkey|2006|pp=80, 118}}</ref> The ], erected in 330 AD to mark the new Roman capital, still stands not far from the Hippodrome.<ref name="coaot" />
			Istanbul is primarily known for its Byzantine and Ottoman architecture. Despite its development as a Turkish city since 1923, it contains many ancient, Roman, Byzantine, Christian, Muslim, and Jewish monuments.
	Early ] followed the classical Roman model of domes and arches, but improved upon these elements, as in the ]. The oldest surviving Byzantine church in Istanbul—albeit in ruins—is the ] (later converted into the Imrahor Mosque), which was built in 454.<ref>{{harvnb|Chamber of Architects of Turkey|2006|p=176}}</ref> After the recapture of Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantines enlarged two of the most important churches still extant, ] and ]. Still, the pinnacle of Byzantine architecture, and one of Istanbul's most iconic structures, is the ]. Topped by a dome {{convert|31|m|ft|sp=us}} in diameter,<ref>{{harvnb|Gregory|2010|p=138}}</ref> the Hagia Sophia stood as the world's largest cathedral for more than a thousand years, before being converted into a mosque and, as it stands now, a museum.<ref name="klwa171" />
			The Neolithic settlement in the ] quarter on the European side, which dates back to {{c.|6500 BCE}} and predates the formation of the Bosporus by approximately a millennium, when the Sea of Marmara was still a lake,{{citation needed|date=April 2024}} was discovered during the construction of the ] railway tunnel.<ref name="BBC-Rainsford-2009">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7820924.stm|title=Istanbul's ancient past unearthed|website=www.bbc.com|publisher=BBC|first=Sarah|last=Rainsford|date=10 January 2009|accessdate=29 May 2021}}</ref> It is the oldest known human settlement on the European side of the city.<ref name="BBC-Rainsford-2009"/> The oldest known human settlement on the Asian side is the Fikirtepe Mound near Kadıköy, with relics dating to the ] period {{circa|5500|3500&nbsp;BCE}}.
	Among the oldest surviving examples of ] in Istanbul are the ] and ] fortresses, which assisted the Ottomans during their siege of the city.<ref>{{harvnb|Freely|2000|p=283}}</ref> Over the next four centuries, the Ottomans proceeded to make an indelible impression on the skyline of Istanbul, building towering mosques and ornate palaces. The largest palace, ], includes a diverse array of architectural styles, from ] inside the ], to its ] style ].<ref>{{harvnb|Necipoğlu|1991|pp=180, 136–137}}</ref> The ] include ] (the Blue Mosque), Süleymaniye Mosque, and ], all of which were built at the peak of the Ottoman Empire, in the 16th and 17th centuries. In the following centuries, and especially after the '']'' reforms, Ottoman architecture was supplanted by European styles.<ref>{{harvnb|Çelik|1993|p=159}}</ref> Areas around ] were filled with grand European embassies and rows of buildings in Neoclassical, ] and ] styles, which went on to influence the architecture of a variety of structures in Beyoğlu—including churches, stores, and theaters—and official buildings such as ].<ref>{{harvnb|Çelik|1993|pp=133–34, 141}}</ref>
			There are numerous ancient monuments in the city.<ref name="coaot"/> The most ancient is the ] of ] (]).<ref name="coaot"/> Built of red granite, 31&nbsp;m (100&nbsp;ft) high, it came from the ] in ], and was erected there by ] Thutmose III ({{reign|1479|1425 BCE}}) to the south of the seventh ].<ref name="coaot"/> The Roman emperor ] ({{reign|337–361 CE}}) had it and another obelisk transported along the ] to ] for commemorating his ''ventennalia'' or 20 years on the throne in 357. The other obelisk was erected on the '']'' of the ] in Rome in the autumn of that year, and is now known as the ]. The obelisk that would become the ''Obelisk of Theodosius'' remained in Alexandria until 390, when Theodosius I ({{reign|379|395}}) had it transported to Constantinople and put up on the ''spina'' of the Hippodrome there.<ref name = Habachi>], ''The Obelisks of Egypt, skyscrapers of the past'', American University in Cairo Press, 1985, p.145-151.</ref> When re-erected at the Hippodrome of Constantinople, the obelisk was mounted on a decorative base, with ]s that depict Theodosius I and his courtiers.<ref name="coaot">{{harvnb|Chamber of Architects of Turkey|2006|pp=80, 118}}</ref> The lower part of the obelisk was damaged in antiquity, probably during its transport to Alexandria in 357 CE or during its re-erection at the Hippodrome of Constantinople in 390 CE. As a result, the current height of the obelisk is only 18.54 meters, or 25.6 meters if the base is included. Between the four corners of the obelisk and the pedestal are four bronze cubes, used in its transportation and re-erection.<ref name = Wallis>], ''Cleopatra's Needles and Other Egyptian Obelisks'', The Religious Tract Society, London, 1926, reprinted 1990, p.160-165.</ref>
			{{Multiple image|align=right|direction=vertical|image1=Istanbul_-_Sul_Bosforo_01.JPG|image2=Ciragan Palace 2014.JPG |image3=Istanbul_Beylerbeyi_Palace_IMG_7663_1805.jpg |image4=Istanbul_Bosphorus_Küçüksu_Palace_IMG_7764_1920.jpg |caption4=Built by Ottoman sultans ] and ], the 19th-century ], ], ] and ] palaces on the Bosporus were designed by members of the Armenian ] of court architects.<ref>"Continuity and Change in Nineteenth-Century Istanbul: Sultan Abdulaziz and the Beylerbeyi Palace", Filiz Yenişehirlioğlu, ''Islamic Art in the 19th Century: Tradition, Innovation, And Eclecticism'', 65.</ref>}}
			Next in age is the ], from 479 BCE.<ref name="coaot"/> It was brought from ] in 324 CE, during the reign of Constantine the Great, and also erected at the ''spina'' of the Hippodrome.<ref name="coaot"/> It was originally part of an ] ] in Delphi that was erected to commemorate the Greeks who fought and defeated the ] at the ] in 479 BCE. The three serpent heads of the {{convert|8|m|adj=on|sp=us}} high column remained intact until the end of the 17th century (one is on display at the nearby ]).<ref>Istanbul Governor's official website – ''The Serpent Column''. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070802063059/http://english.istanbul.gov.tr/Default.aspx?pid=303 |date=2 August 2007 }}</ref>
			Built in ] and erected at the center of the ] in 330 CE to mark the founding of the new Roman capital, the ] was originally adorned with a sculpture of the Roman emperor Constantine the Great depicted as the solar god ] on its top, which fell in 1106 and was later replaced by a cross during the reign of Byzantine emperor ] (r. 1143–1180).<ref name="Forum of Constantine"/><ref name="coaot"/>
			There are traces of the Byzantine era throughout the city, from ancient churches that were built over early Christian meeting places like the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], etc.; to palaces like the Great Palace of Constantinople and its ], the ], ] and ]; and other public places and buildings like the Hippodrome, the ], the ], ], ] and ], the ], the ], the ] and the ] (Golden Gate), among numerous others. The 4th century ] in Yenikapı, once the busiest port in Constantinople, was among the numerous archeological discoveries that took place during the excavations of the Marmaray tunnel.<ref name="BBC-Rainsford-2009"/>
			However, it is the Hagia Sophia that fully conveys the period of Constantinople as a city without parallel in ]. The Hagia Sophia, topped by a dome {{convert|31|m|ft|sp=us}} in diameter over a square space defined by four arches, is the pinnacle of ].<ref name="mangocyril">{{cite book |last1=Mango |first1=Cyril |title=Byzantine Architecture |date=1985 |publisher=Electa Editrice |location=Milan |isbn=978-0-8478-0615-7}}</ref> The Hagia Sophia stood as the world's largest cathedral in the world until it was converted into a mosque in the 15th century.<ref name="mangocyril"/> The minarets date from that period.<ref name="mangocyril"/> Because of its historical significance, it was reopened as a museum in 1935. However, it was re-converted into a mosque in July 2020.
			] is known as the ''Blue Mosque'' due to the blue ] which adorn its interior.<ref name=bluemosque>{{cite web|title=Blue Mosque |url=http://www.bluemosque.co/|website=bluemosque.co|access-date=12 June 2014}}</ref> The ] of ] (]) is seen in the foreground.]]
			Over the next four centuries, the Ottomans transformed Istanbul's urban landscape with a vast building scheme that included the construction of towering mosques and ornate palaces. The ] (Blue Mosque), another landmark of the city, faces the Hagia Sophia at Sultanahmet Square (Hippodrome of Constantinople). The ], built by Suleiman the Magnificent, was designed by his chief architect Mimar Sinan, the most illustrious of all Ottoman architects, who designed many of the city's renowned mosques and other types of public buildings and monuments.<ref name="sinan-britannica">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sinan|title=Sinan, Ottoman architect|date=8 April 2024 |publisher=]}}</ref>
			Among the oldest surviving examples of ] in Istanbul are the ] and ] fortresses, which assisted the Ottomans during their siege of the city.<ref>{{harvnb|Freely|2000|p=283}}</ref> Over the next four centuries, the Ottomans made an indelible impression on the skyline of Istanbul, building towering mosques and ornate palaces.
			], the inner core of which was built in 1459–1465, from across the ], with the ] in the background]]
			Topkapı Palace, dating back to 1465, is the oldest seat of government surviving in Istanbul. Mehmed II built the original palace as his main residence and the seat of government.<ref name="freely">{{harvnb|Freely|2011}}</ref> The present palace grew over the centuries as a series of additions enfolding four courtyards and blending ], ], and ] architectural forms.<ref name="wharton">{{cite book |last1=Wharton |first1=Alyson |title=Architects of Ottoman Constantinople |date=2015 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-78076-852-6}}</ref> In 1639, Murad IV made some of the most lavish additions, including the ], to commemorate his ] the previous year.<ref name="necipoglu">{{cite book |last1=Necipoğlu |first1=Gülru |title=The age of Sinan: architectural culture in the Ottoman Empire |date=2005 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=978-0-691-12326-4}}</ref> Government meetings took place here until 1786, when the seat of government was moved to the Sublime Porte.<ref name="freely"/> After several hundred years of royal residence, it was abandoned in 1853 in favor of the baroque Dolmabahçe Palace.<ref name="wharton"/> Topkapı Palace became public property following the ] in 1922.<ref name="wharton"/> After extensive renovation, it became one of Turkey's first national museums in 1924.<ref name="freely"/>
			The ] include ], ], ], Süleymaniye Mosque, Sultan Ahmed Mosque (the Blue Mosque), and ], all of which were built at the peak of the Ottoman Empire, in the 16th and 17th centuries. In the following centuries, and especially after the '']'' reforms, Ottoman architecture was supplanted by European styles.<ref>{{harvnb|Çelik|1993|p=159}}</ref> An example of which is the imperial ]. Areas around İstiklal Avenue were filled with grand European embassies and rows of buildings in Neoclassical, ] and ] styles, which went on to influence the architecture of a variety of structures in Beyoğlu—including churches, stores, and theaters—and official buildings such as Dolmabahçe Palace.<ref>{{harvnb|Çelik|1993|pp=133–34, 141}}</ref>
			{{clear left}}
	==Administration==		==Administration==
			{{Main|List of districts of Istanbul|List of neighbourhoods of Istanbul}}
	]
			Since 2004, the municipal boundaries of Istanbul have been coincident with the boundaries of its province.<ref>{{cite web|title=Büyükşehir Belediyesi Kanunu|trans-title=Metropolitan Municipal Law|url=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/kanunlar/k5216.html|access-date=30 November 2010|quote=Bu Kanunun yürürlüğe girdiği tarihte; büyükşehir belediye sınırları, İstanbul ve Kocaeli ilinde, il mülkî sınırıdır. (On the date this law goes in effect, the metropolitan city boundaries, in the provinces of İstanbul and Kocaeli, are those of the province.)|work=Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi|date=10 July 2004|language=tr|archive-date=1 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150401055615/http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/kanunlar/k5216.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The city, considered capital of the larger Istanbul Province, is administered by the ] (IMM, {{langx|tr|İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyesi}}, IBB), which oversees the ] of the city-province.
			The current city structure can be traced back to the ''Tanzimat'' period of reform in the 19th century, before which ] and imams led the city under the auspices of the ]. Following the model of French cities, this religious system was replaced by a mayor and a citywide council composed of representatives of the confessional groups ('']'') across the city. Pera (now Beyoğlu) was the first area of the city to have its own director and council, with members instead being longtime residents of the neighborhood.<ref>{{harvnb|Gül|2012|pp=43–49}}</ref> Laws enacted after the ] aimed to expand this structure across the city, imitating the twenty ], but they were not fully implemented until 1908 when the city was declared a province with nine constituent districts.<ref>{{harvnb|Çelik|1993|pp=42–48}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Kapucu|Palabiyik|2008|p=145}}</ref> This system continued beyond the founding of the Turkish Republic, with the province renamed a ''belediye'' (municipality), but the municipality was disbanded in 1957.<ref>{{harvnb|Taşan-Kok|2004|p=87}}</ref>
	Since 2004, Istanbul has been one of only two cities in Turkey (the other being ]) whose city boundaries are concurrent with the boundaries of its province.<ref>{{cite web|title=Büyükşehir Belediyesi Kanunu|trans_title=Metropolitan Municipal Law|url=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/kanunlar/k5216.html|accessdate=30 November 2010|quote=Bu Kanunun yürürlüğe girdiği tarihte; büyükşehir belediye sınırları, İstanbul ve Kocaeli ilinde, il mülkî sınırıdır. (On the date this law goes in effect, the metropolitan city boundaries, in the provinces of İstanbul and Kocaeli, are those of the province.)|work=Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi|date=10 July 2004|language=Turkish}}</ref> The city, considered capital of ], is administered by the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (MMI), which oversees the ] of the city-province.{{efn|name=city-area}}
			] in ], the largest of the ] to the southeast of Istanbul, which collectively form the Adalar district of ]]]
	The current city structure can be traced back to the ''Tanzimat'' period of reform in the 19th century, before which ] and imams led the city under the auspices of the ]. Following the model of French cities, this religious system was replaced by a mayor and a citywide council composed of representatives of the confessional groups ('']'') across Istanbul. Beyoğlu was the first area of the city to have its own director and council, with members instead being longtime residents of the neighborhood. Laws enacted after the ] aimed to expand this structure across the city, imitating the twenty ], but they were not fully implemented until 1908, when Istanbul was declared a province with nine constituent districts.<ref>{{harvnb|Çelik|1993|pp=42–8}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Kapucu|Palabiyik|2008|p=145}}</ref> This system continued beyond the founding of the Turkish Republic, with the province renamed a ''belediye'' (municipality), but the municipality was disbanded in 1957.<ref name="mmi-history" /><ref>{{harvnb|Taşan-Kok|2004|p=87}}</ref>
	Small settlements adjacent to major population centers in Turkey, including Istanbul, were merged into their respective primary cities during the early 1980s, resulting in metropolitan municipalities.<ref>{{harvnb|Wynn|1984|p=188}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Taşan-Kok|2004|pp=87–8}}</ref> The main decision-making body of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality is the Municipal Council, with members drawn from district councils. The Municipal Council is responsible for citywide issues, including managing the budget, maintaining civic infrastructure, and overseeing museums and major cultural centers.<ref name="kapa1535">{{harvnb|Kapucu|Palabiyik|2008|pp=153–5}}</ref> Since the government operates under a "powerful mayor, weak council" approach, the council's leader—the metropolitan mayor—has the authority to make swift decisions, often at the expense of transparency.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Erder|first=Sema|title=Local Governance in Istanbul|year=2009|date=November 2009|series=Urban Age|journal=Istanbul: City of Intersections|publisher=London School of Economics|location=London|page=46|url=http://v0.urban-age.net/publications/newspapers/istanbul/media/UrbanAgeIstanbulNewspaper_en.pdf|format=pdf|accessdate=16 July 2012|ref=harv}}</ref> The Municipal Council is advised by the Metropolitan Executive Committee, although the Committee also has limited power to make decisions of its own.<ref name="kapa156">{{harvnb|Kapucu|Palabiyik|2008|p=156}}</ref> All representatives on the Committee are appointed by the metropolitan mayor and the Council, with the mayor—or someone of his or her choosing—serving as head.<ref name="kapa156" /><ref name="mmi-mec">{{cite web|url=http://www.ibb.gov.tr/en-US/Organization/Encumen/Pages/AnaSayfa.aspx|publisher=Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality|title=Metropolitan Executive Committee|accessdate=21 December 2011}}</ref>		Small settlements adjacent to major population centers in Turkey, including Istanbul, were merged into their respective primary cities during the early 1980s, resulting in metropolitan municipalities.<ref>{{harvnb|Wynn|1984|p=188}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Taşan-Kok|2004|pp=87–88}}</ref> The main decision-making body of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality is the Municipal Council, with members drawn from district councils.
			The ] is responsible for citywide issues, including managing the budget, maintaining civic infrastructure, and overseeing museums and major cultural centers.<ref name="kapa1535">{{harvnb|Kapucu|Palabiyik|2008|pp=153–55}}</ref> Since the government operates under a "powerful mayor, weak council" approach, the council's leader—the metropolitan mayor—has the authority to make swift decisions, often at the expense of transparency.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Erder|first=Sema|title=Local Governance in Istanbul|date=November 2009|series=Urban Age|journal=Istanbul: City of Intersections|location=London|page=46|url=http://v0.urban-age.net/publications/newspapers/istanbul/media/UrbanAgeIstanbulNewspaper_en.pdf|access-date=16 July 2012|archive-date=29 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829002736/http://v0.urban-age.net/publications/newspapers/istanbul/media/UrbanAgeIstanbulNewspaper_en.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Municipal Council is advised by the Metropolitan Executive Committee, although the committee also has limited power to make decisions of its own.<ref name="kapa156">{{harvnb|Kapucu|Palabiyik|2008|p=156}}</ref> All representatives on the committee are appointed by the metropolitan mayor and the council, with the mayor—or someone of his or her choosing—serving as head.<ref name="kapa156"/><ref name="mmi-mec">{{cite web|url=http://www.ibb.gov.tr/en-US/Organization/Encumen/Pages/AnaSayfa.aspx|publisher=Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality|title=Metropolitan Executive Committee|access-date=21 December 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120102011328/http://www.ibb.gov.tr/en-US/Organization/Encumen/Pages/AnaSayfa.aspx|archive-date=2 January 2012}}</ref>
	]
	Meanwhile, district councils are chiefly responsible for waste management and construction projects within their respective districts. They each maintain their own budgets, although the metropolitan mayor reserves the right to review district decisions. One-fifth of all district council members, including the district mayors, also represent their districts in the Municipal Council.<ref name="kapa1535" /> All members of the district councils and the Municipal Council, including the metropolitan mayor, are elected to five-year terms.<ref>{{harvnb|Kapucu|Palabiyik|2008|pp=155–6}}</ref> Representing the ], ] has been ] since March 2004.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibb.gov.tr/en-US/Baskan/Pages/Baskan.aspx|publisher=Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality|title=The Mayor's Biography|accessdate=21 December 2011}}</ref>
			District councils are chiefly responsible for waste management and construction projects within their respective districts. They each maintain their own budgets, although the metropolitan mayor reserves the right to review district decisions. One-fifth of all district council members, including the district mayors, also represent their districts in the Municipal Council.<ref name="kapa1535"/> All members of the district councils and the Municipal Council, including the metropolitan mayor, are elected to five-year terms.<ref>{{harvnb|Kapucu|Palabiyik|2008|pp=155–56}}</ref> Representing the ], ] has been the ] since ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ibb.istanbul/en/SitePage/Index/86|title=The Mayor|publisher=Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality|access-date=12 July 2018|archive-date=12 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712122926/https://www.ibb.istanbul/en/SitePage/Index/86|url-status=dead}}{{cite web|url=https://www.ibb.istanbul/News/Detail/35528|title=The Mayor|publisher=Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality|access-date=20 November 2020|archive-date=15 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190715194209/https://www.ibb.istanbul/News/Detail/35528|url-status=dead}}</ref>
	With the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality and Istanbul Province having equivalent jurisdictions, few responsibilities remain for the provincial government. Similar to the MMI, the Istanbul Special Provincial Administration has a governor, a democratically elected decision-making body—the Provincial Parliament—and an appointed Executive Committee. Mirroring the executive committee at the municipal level, the Provincial Executive Committee includes a secretary-general and leaders of departments that advise the Provincial Parliament.<ref name="mmi-mec" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ioi.gov.tr/index.php?yol=0_1_124|publisher=Istanbul Special Provincial Administration|title=Organizasyon|trans_title=Organization|accessdate=21 December 2011|language=Turkish}}</ref> The Provincial Administration's duties are largely limited to the building and maintenance of schools, residences, government buildings, and roads, and the promotion of arts, culture, and nature conservation.<ref>{{harvnb|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|2008|p=206}}</ref> Hüseyin Avni Mutlu has been ] since May 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ioi.gov.tr/encumen_baskani.php|publisher=Istanbul Special Provincial Administration|title=Encümen Başkanı|trans_title=Head of the Council|accessdate=21 December 2011|language=Turkish}}</ref>
			With the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality and Istanbul Province having equivalent jurisdictions, few responsibilities remain for the provincial government. Like the MMI, the Istanbul Special Provincial Administration has a governor, a democratically elected decision-making body—the Provincial Parliament—and an appointed Executive Committee. Mirroring the executive committee at the municipal level, the Provincial Executive Committee includes a secretary-general and leaders of departments that advise the Provincial Parliament.<ref name="mmi-mec"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ioi.gov.tr/index.php?yol=0_1_124 |publisher=Istanbul Special Provincial Administration |title=Organizasyon |trans-title=Organization |access-date=21 December 2011 |language=tr |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111126141113/http://www.ioi.gov.tr/index.php?yol=0_1_124 |archive-date=26 November 2011 }}</ref> The Provincial Administration's duties are largely limited to the building and maintenance of schools, residences, government buildings, and roads, and the promotion of arts, culture, and nature conservation.<ref>{{harvnb|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|2008|p=206}}</ref> ] has been the ] since 5 June 2023.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.istanbul.gov.tr/istanbul-valisi-davut-gul|title=İstanbul Valisi Davut GÜL|publisher=Governorship of Istanbul|access-date=7 June 2024}}</ref>
	== Demographics ==
			==Demographics==
			{{main|Demographics of Istanbul}}
	{{see also|Demographics of Turkey}}		{{see also|Demographics of Turkey}}
			]
	{| class="toccolours" style="clear: right; float: right; border-spacing: 0; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; width: 27em; text-align: center;"
			{| class="toccolours" style="clear: right; float: right; border-spacing: 0; margin-left: 1em;"
	|+ <span style="font-size: 110%;">'''Historical populations'''</span>
			|+ {{resize|110%|'''Historical populations'''}}
	|-
			| style="padding-right:0.2em" |
	! colspan="2" | Pre-Republic
			{{Historical populations
	! colspan="3" style="border-left: 1px solid black;" | Post-Republic
			| title = Pre-Republic
	|-
	! style="border-bottom: 1px solid black; padding: 1px;" | Year		| style="width:12em;"| subbox = yes
			| percentages = off
	! style="border-bottom: 1px solid black; padding: 1px;" | {{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
			| 100| 36,000
	! style="border-bottom: 1px solid black; padding: 1px; border-left: 1px solid black;" | Year
			| 361| 300,000
	! style="border-bottom: 1px solid black; padding: 1px;" | {{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
			| 500| 400,000
	! style="border-bottom: 1px solid black; padding: 1px;" | {{abbr|±%|Percentage}}
			| 7th {{abbr|c.|century}}| 150–350,000
	|-
			| 8th {{abbr|c.|century}}| 125–500,000
	! 100
			| 9th {{abbr|c.|century}}| 50–250,000
	| 36,000
			| 1000| 150–300,000
	! style="border-left: 1px solid black;" | 1924
	| 500,000		| 1100| 200,000
			| 1200| 150,000| ]| 100,000
	| —
			| 1350| 80,000| ]| 45,000
	|-
			| 1500| 200,000
	! 361
	| 300,000		| 1550| 660,000
			| 1700| 700,000
	! style="border-left: 1px solid black;" | 1927
	| 680,000		| 1815| 500,000
			| 1860| 715,000
	| +36.0%
			| 1890| 874,000
	|-
			| 1900| 942,900
	! 500
			}}
	| 400,000
	! style="border-left: 1px solid black;" | 1935		| style="border-left:solid 1px black; padding-left:0.2em" |
			{{Historical populations
	| 741,000
			| title = Republic
	| +9.0%
			| percentages = pagr
	|-
			| subbox = yes
	! 7th {{abbr|c.|century}}
	| 150–350,000		| 1925| 881,000
			| 1927| 691,000
	! style="border-left: 1px solid black;" | 1940
			| 1935| 740,800
	| 793,000
			| 1940| 793,900
	| +8.4%
			| 1945| 845,300
			| 1950| 983,000
			| 1960| 1,459,500
			| 1965| 1,743,000
			| 1970| 2,132,400
			| 1975| 2,547,400
			| 1980| 2,853,500
			| 1985| 5,494,900
			| 1990| 6,620,200
			| 1994| 7,615,500
			| 1997| 8,260,400
			| 2000| 8,831,800
			| 2007| 11,174,200
			| 2015| 14,657,434
			| 2016| 14,804,116
			| 2017| 15,029,231
			| 2018| 15,067,724
			| 2019| 15,519,267
			}}
	|-		|-
			| colspan=2 style="font-size:100%; text-align:center" | Sources: Jan Lahmeyer 2004, {{harvnb|Chandler|1987}}, {{harvnb|Morris|2010}},{{harvnb|Turan|2010}}<ref name="mfa">{{cite web | url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/899051/turkey-population-of-istanbul/| title= Population of Istanbul in Turkey from 2007 to 2019|publisher=Statista}}</ref><br /> Pre-Republic figures estimated{{efn|name=pop-figures|Historians disagree—sometimes substantially—on population figures of Istanbul (Constantinople), and other world cities, prior to the 20th century. A follow-up to Chandler & Fox 1974,{{harvnb|Chandler|1987|pp=463–505}}<ref name="chfo"/> examines different sources' estimates and chooses the most likely based on historical conditions; it is the source of most population figures between 100 and 1914. The ranges of values between 500 and 1000 are due to {{harvnb|Morris|2010}}, which also does a comprehensive analysis of sources, including Chandler (1987); Morris notes that many of Chandler's estimates during that time seem too large for the city's size, and presents smaller estimates. Chandler disagrees with {{harvnb|Turan|2010}} on the population of the city in the mid-1920s (with the former suggesting 817,000 in 1925), but Turan, p. 224, is used as the source of population figures between 1924 and 2005. Turan's figures, as well as the 2010 figure,<ref name="turkstat-curr">{{cite web|url=http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id=8428|title=Address Based Population Registration System Results of 2010|date=28 January 2011|publisher=Turkish Statistical Institute|access-date=24 December 2011|format=doc}}</ref> come from the Turkish Statistical Institute. The drastic increase in population between 1980 and 1985 is largely due to an enlargement of the city's limits (see the ]). Explanations for population changes in pre-Republic times can be inferred from the ].}}
	! 8th {{abbr|c.|century}}
	| 125–500,000
	! style="border-left: 1px solid black;" | 1945
	| 860,000
	| +8.4%
	|-
	! 9th {{abbr|c.|century}}
	| 50–250,000
	! style="border-left: 1px solid black;" | 1950
	| 983,000
	| +14.3%
	|-
	! 1000
	| 150–300,000
	! style="border-left: 1px solid black;" | 1955
	| 1,258,000
	| +28.0%
	|-
	! 1100
	| 200,000
	! style="border-left: 1px solid black;" | 1960
	| 1,466,000
	| +16.5%
	|-
	! 1200
	| 150,000
	! style="border-left: 1px solid black;" | 1965
	| 1,742,000
	| +18.8%
	|-
	! ]
	| 100,000
	! style="border-left: 1px solid black;" | 1970
	| 2,132,000
	| +22.4%
	|-
	! 1350
	| 80,000
	! style="border-left: 1px solid black;" | 1975
	| 2,547,000
	| +19.5%
	|-
	! ]
	| 45,000
	! style="border-left: 1px solid black;" | 1980
	| 2,772,000
	| +8.8%
	|-
	! 1500
	| 200,000
	! style="border-left: 1px solid black;" | 1985
	| 5,475,000
	| +97.5%
	|-
	! 1550
	| 660,000
	! style="border-left: 1px solid black;" | 1990
	| 7,620,000
	| +39.2%
	|-
	! 1700
	| 700,000
	! style="border-left: 1px solid black;" | 1995
	| 9,260,000
	| +21.5%
	|-
	! 1800
	| 570,000
	! style="border-left: 1px solid black;" | 2000
	| 10,923,000
	| +18.0%
	|-
	! 1850
	| 785,000
	! style="border-left: 1px solid black;" | 2005
	| 12,061,000
	| +10.4%
	|-
	! ]
	| 1,125,000
	! style="border-left: 1px solid black;" | 2010
	| 13,256,000
	| +9.9%
	|-
	| colspan="5" | <span style="font-size: 90%;">Sources: {{harvnb|Chandler|1987}}, {{harvnb|Morris|2010}}, and {{harvnb|Turan|2010}} <br /> Pre-Republic figures estimated{{efn|name=pop-figures|Historians disagree—sometimes substantially—on population figures of Istanbul (Constantinople), and other world cities, prior to the 20th century. However, {{harvnb|Chandler|1987|pp=463–505}}, a follow-up to Chandler & Fox 1974,<ref name="chfo" /> performs a comprehensive look at different sources' estimates and chooses the most likely based on historical conditions; it, therefore, is the source of most population figures between 100 and 1914. The ranges of values between 500 and 1000 are due to {{harvnb|Morris|2010}}, which also does a comprehensive analysis of sources, including Chandler (1987); Morris notes that many of Chandler's estimates during that time seem too large for the city's size, and presents alternative, smaller estimates. Chandler disagrees with {{harvnb|Turan|2010}} on the population of the city in the mid-1920s (with the former suggesting 817,000 in 1925), but Turan, p. 224, is, nevertheless, used as the source of population figures between 1924 and 2005. Turan's figures, as well as the 2010 figure,<ref name="turkstat-curr">{{cite web|url=http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id=8428|title=Address Based Population Registration System Results of 2010|date=28 January 2011|publisher=Turkish Statistical Institute|accessdate=24 December 2011|format=doc}}</ref> come from the . The drastic increase in population between 1980 and 1985 is largely due to an enlargement of the city's limits (see the ]). Explanations for population changes in pre-Republic times can be inferred from the ].}}</span>
	|}		|}
	Throughout most of its history, Istanbul has ranked among the largest cities in the world. By 500 AD, Constantinople had somewhere between 400,000 and 500,000 people, edging out its predecessor, Rome, for ].<ref>{{harvnb|Morris|2010|p=113}}</ref> Constantinople jostled with other major historical cities, such as ] and ], for the position of world's most populous city until the 13th century. While it never returned to being the world's largest, it remained Europe's largest city from not long after the Fall of Constantinople until the start of the 19th century, when it was surpassed by ].<ref name="cha463">{{harvnb|Chandler|1987|pp=463–505}}</ref> Today, it still forms one of the ], alongside ].{{efn|name=un-agg|The United Nations defines an urban agglomeration as "the population contained within the contours of a contiguous territory inhabited at urban density levels without regard to administrative boundaries". The agglomeration "usually incorporates the population in a city or town plus that in the suburban areas lying outside of, but being adjacent to, the city boundaries".<ref name="wup-faq">{{cite web|url=http://esa.un.org/unup/Documentation/faq.htm|publisher=The United Nations|work=World Urbanization Prospects, the 2011 Revision|title=Frequently Asked Questions|date=5 April 2012|accessdate=20 September 2012}}</ref> Figures dated 1 July 2011 place the populations of the agglomerations of Moscow and Istanbul at 11.62 million and 11.25 million, respectively.<ref name="wup-pop">{{cite web|url=http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/CD-ROM/WUP2011-F11a-30_Largest_Cities.xls|publisher=The United Nations|work=World Urbanization Prospects, the 2011 Revision|title=File 11a: The 30 Largest Urban Agglomerations Ranked by Population Size at Each Point in Time, 1950–2025|format=xls|date=5 April 2012|accessdate=20 September 2012}}</ref> The UN estimates that the agglomeration of Istanbul will exceed the agglomeration of Moscow in population by 2015 (with 12.46 million and 12.14 million, respectively), although extrapolation suggests that the former will not surpass latter until the second half of 2013. A revision with 2013 data is due in the first half of 2014.<ref name="wup-faq" />}}		Throughout most of its history, Istanbul has ranked among the largest cities in the world. By 500 CE, Constantinople had somewhere between 400,000 and 500,000 people, edging out its predecessor, Rome, for the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Morris|2010|p=113}}</ref> Constantinople jostled with other major historical cities, such as ], ], ] and ] for the position of the world's largest city until the 12th century. It never returned to being the world's largest, but remained the ] in Europe from 1500 to 1750, when it was surpassed by ].<ref name="cha463">{{harvnb|Chandler|1987|pp=463–505}}</ref>
			The ] estimates that the population of Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality was 15,519,267 at the end of 2019, hosting {{nowrap|19 percent}} of the country's population.<ref name="tuikpop">{{cite web |title=The Results of Address Based Population Registration System, 2019 |url=http://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=The-Results-of-Address-Based-Population-Registration-System-2019-33705 |website=data.tuik.gov.tr |publisher=Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu |access-date=12 December 2020|location=Istanbul, Turkey |date=4 February 2020}}</ref> 64.4% of the residents live on the European side and 35.6% on the Asian side.<ref name="tuikpop"/>
	The Turkish Statistic Institute estimates that the population of Istanbul was 13,483,052 on 31 December 2011, making it the largest city in Turkey, with {{nowrap|18 percent}} of the country's population.<ref name="tuik" /> Because of its vast land area, Istanbul is among the five ], even though its ]—roughly equivalent to the ]—ranks below fifteenth.<ref name="mocljo145" /><ref name="wup-pop" /> The city's annual population growth of {{nowrap|3.45 percent}} ranks as the highest among the seventy-eight largest metropolises in the ]. The high population growth mirrors an urbanization trend across the country, as the second- and third-fastest growing OECD metropolises are the Turkish cities of ] and Ankara.<ref name="oecd" />
			Istanbul ranks as the ] in the world, and the ] in Europe, after ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://esa.un.org/unup/Documentation/faq.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907071902/http://esa.un.org/unup/Documentation/faq.htm|archive-date=7 September 2012 |publisher=The United Nations|work=World Urbanization Prospects, the 2011 Revision |title=Frequently Asked Questions|date=5 April 2012|access-date=20 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Download/Files/WUP2018-F11a-30_Largest_Cities.xls |publisher=The United Nations|work=World Urbanization Prospects, the 2018 Revision|title=File 11a: The 30 Largest Urban Agglomerations Ranked by Population Size at Each Point in Time, 1950–2035|format=xls |date=5 April 2012|access-date=21 August 2018}}</ref> The city's annual population growth of {{nowrap|1.5 percent}} ranks as one of the highest among the seventy-eight largest metropolises in the ]. The high population growth mirrors an urbanization trend across the country, as the second and third fastest-growing ] metropolises are the Turkish cities of ] and Ankara.<ref name="oecd"/>
	Istanbul experienced especially rapid growth during the second half of the 20th century, with its population increasing tenfold between 1950 and 2000.<ref name="tu224" /> This growth in population comes, in part, from an expansion of city limits—particularly between 1980 and 1985, when the number of Istanbulites nearly doubled.<ref name="mmi-history" /> The remarkable growth was, and still is, largely fueled by migrants from eastern Turkey seeking employment and improved living conditions. The number of residents of Istanbul originating from seven northern and eastern provinces is greater than the populations of their entire respective provinces; notably, ] and ] each account for more than half a million residents of Istanbul.<ref name="ecoc-popdem" /> Istanbul's foreign population, by comparison, is very small, amounting to just 42,228 residents in 2007.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/news-201695-starting-up-in-turkey-expats-getting-organized.html|work=Today's Zaman|last=Kamp|first=Kristina|date=17 February 2010|accessdate=27 March 2012|title=Starting Up in Turkey: Expats Getting Organized}}</ref> Only {{nowrap|28 percent}} of the city's residents are originally from Istanbul.<ref name="konda">{{cite web|url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/37355320/Social-structure-survey-2006-KONDA-Research|publisher=KONDA Research|title=Social Structure Survey 2006|year=2006|accessdate=27 March 2012}} (Note: Accessing KONDA reports directly from 's own website requires registration.)</ref> Istanbul's population density of 2,523&nbsp;people per square kilometer (6,530/mi<sup>2</sup>) far exceeds Turkey's 102&nbsp;people per square kilometer (264/mi<sup>2</sup>).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tu.html|publisher=The Central Intelligence Agency|title=Turkey|work=The World Factbook|date=28 June 2012|accessdate=6 July 2012}}</ref> The most densely populated areas tend to lie to the northwest, west, and southwest of the city center, on the European side; the most densely populated district on the Asian side is ].<ref name="ecoc-popdem" />
			Istanbul experienced especially rapid growth during the second half of the 20th century, with its population increasing tenfold between 1950 and 2000.<ref name="tu224">{{harvnb|Turan|2010|p=224}}</ref> This growth was fueled by internal and international migration. Istanbul's foreign population with a residence permit increased dramatically, from 43,000 in 2007<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/news-201695-starting-up-in-turkey-expats-getting-organized.html |work=Today's Zaman |last=Kamp |first=Kristina |date=17 February 2010 |access-date=27 March 2012 |title=Starting Up in Turkey: Expats Getting Organized |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509024340/http://www.todayszaman.com/news-201695-starting-up-in-turkey-expats-getting-organized.html |archive-date=9 May 2013 }}</ref> to 856,377 in 2019.<ref name="immig">{{cite web |title=International Migration Statistics, 2019 |url=https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=International-Migration-Statistics-2019-33709 |website=data.tuik.gov.tr |publisher=Türk İstatistik Kurumu |access-date=12 December 2020 |location=Istanbul, Turkey |date=17 July 2020}}</ref><ref name="immigft">{{cite news |last1=Peace |first1=Fergus |title=City stats: Istanbul versus Athens |url=https://www.ft.com/content/d5c87fd0-117d-11ea-a225-db2f231cfeae |access-date=12 December 2020 |newspaper=Financial Times |date=29 November 2020}}</ref>
	===Religious and ethnic groups===
	{{main|Religion in Istanbul}}
	{{see also|Greeks in Turkey|Armenians in Turkey|Jews in Turkey}}
			According to 2020 TÜİK data around 2.1 million people in a population of over 15.4 million have been registered{{Efn|Based on state register data, which is unchangeable and inherited from the family. A married women is also registered to her husband's province.|group=lower-alpha}} in Istanbul, meanwhile the vast majority of the residents ultimately originate from Anatolian provinces, especially those in the ], ] and ] regions due to internal migration since the 1950s.<ref>{{cite web|last=Murat|first=Sedat|title=Doğum yerlerine göre İstanbul nüfusu ve iç göçler|url=https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/9281}}</ref> People registered in ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ] provinces represent the biggest population groups in Istanbul, meanwhile people registered in ] has the highest percentage with more than 760 thousand residents in the city.<ref>{{cite web|last=Şafak|first=Yeni|date=11 February 2021|title=İstanbul'da en çok nereli var: İstanbul'da en çok hangi ilden vatandaş yaşıyor?|url=https://www.yenisafak.com/istanbulda-en-cok-nereli-var-istanbulda-en-cok-hangi-ilden-vatandas-yasiyor-h-3598629|access-date=22 September 2021|website=Yeni Şafak|language=tr-TR}}</ref> A 2019 survey found that only 36% of the Istanbul's population was born in the province.<ref name=":2">{{cite web|title=23 Haziran 2019 Sandık Analizi ve Seçmen Kümeleri|url=https://konda.com.tr/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/23Haziran2019_Istanbul_Sandik_Analizi.pdf|website=KONDA}}</ref>
	], the resting place of ], is a popular place of pilgrimage.<ref>{{harvnb|Davidson|Gitlitz|2002|p=180}}</ref>|alt=Mihrab and minbar of the Eyüp Sultan Mosque]]
			===Ethnic and religious groups===
	Istanbul has been a cosmopolitan city throughout much of its history, but it has become more homogenized since the end of the Ottoman Empire. Still, most of Turkey's religious and ethnic minorities remain concentrated in Istanbul. The vast majority of people across Turkey, and in Istanbul, consider themselves ], and more specifically members of the ] branch of ]. Most Sunnis follow the ] school of Islamic thought, although approximately {{nowrap|10 percent}} of Sunnis follow the ] school. The largest non-Sunni Muslim sect, accounting for {{nowrap|4.5 million}} Turks, is the ]s; a third of all Alevis in the country live in Istanbul.<ref name="konda" /> Mystic movements, like ], were officially banned after the establishment of the Turkish Republic, but they still boast numerous followers.<ref>{{cite web|author=U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor|url=http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2007/90204.htm|publisher=U.S. Department of State|title=Turkey: International Religious Freedom Report 2007|accessdate=27 March 2012}}</ref>
			{{Main|Religion in Istanbul}}
			{{see also|Assyrians in Turkey|Kurds in Istanbul|Bosniaks in Turkey|Greeks in Turkey|Armenians in Turkey|Jews in Turkey|Albanians in Turkey}}
			{{bar box|title=Ethnic groups among Turkish citizens in Istanbul (2019 KONDA survey)|title bar=#fff|float=left|bars={{bar percent|]|blue|78}}
			{{bar percent|]|red|17}}
			{{bar percent|]|green|1}}
			{{bar percent|]|yellow|1}}
			{{bar percent|Others|turquoise|3}}}}
			Istanbul has been a cosmopolitan city throughout much of its history, but it has become more homogenized since the end of the Ottoman era. The dominant ethnic group in the city is ], which also forms the majority group in Turkey. According to survey data 78% of the voting-age Turkish citizens in Istanbul state "Turkish" as their ethnic identity.<ref name=":2" />
			With estimates ranging from 2 to 4 million, ] form one of the largest ethnic minorities in Istanbul and are the biggest group after Turks among Turkish citizens.<ref name="Karadaghi1995">{{cite book|author=Mustafa Mohamed Karadaghi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2HagAAAAMAAJ|title=Handbook of Kurdish Human Rights Watch, Inc: A Non-profit Humanitarian Organization|publisher=UN|year=1995}}</ref><ref name="Tirman1997">{{cite book|first=John|last=Tirman|url=https://archive.org/details/spoilsofwarhuman00tirm|title=Spoils of War: The Human Cost of America's Arms Trade|publisher=Free Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-684-82726-1|url-access=registration}}</ref> According to a 2019 ] study, Kurds constituted around 17% of Istanbul's adult total population who were Turkish citizens.<ref name=":2" /> Although the initial Kurdish presence in the city dates back to the early Ottoman period,<ref>{{harvnb|Masters|Ágoston|2009|pp=520–21}}</ref> the majority of Kurds in the city originate from villages in eastern and southeastern Turkey.<ref name="BaserToivanen2018">{{cite book|first1=Bahar|last1=Baser|first2=Mari|last2=Toivanen|first3=Begum|last3=Zorlu|first4=Yasin|last4=Duman|title=Methodological Approaches in Kurdish Studies: Theoretical and Practical Insights from the Field|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=spJ5DwAAQBAJ|date=6 November 2018|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-1-4985-7522-5|page=87}}</ref> ] are also present in the city and constitute around 1% of the total voting-age population.<ref name=":2" />
	] in the ] district is one of the most ] areas of Istanbul. It is also the heart of fine arts, festivals and cultural activities in the city.]]
			] form the city's other largest ethnic minority, with an estimated population of more than 2 million.<ref name="guardian2020">{{cite news |last1=McKernan |first1=Bethan |title=How Istanbul won back its crown as heart of the Muslim world |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/18/how-istanbul-won-back-its-crown-as-heart-of-the-muslim-world |access-date=11 December 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=18 April 2020}}</ref> Following Turkey's support for the ], Istanbul emerged as a hub for dissidents from across the ], including former presidential candidates from Egypt, Kuwaiti MPs, and former ministers from Jordan, Saudi Arabia (including ]), Syria, and Yemen.<ref name="atlantic2013">{{cite news |last1=Lepeska |first1=David |title=Istanbul: An Unlikely Refuge for Exiled Journalists |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/12/istanbul-an-unlikely-refuge-for-exiled-journalists/282671/ |access-date=11 December 2020 |publisher=The Atlantic |date=27 December 2013}}</ref><ref name="nytarabs">{{cite news |last1=Hubbard |first1=Ben |title=Arab Exiles Sound Off Freely in Istanbul Even as Turkey Muffles Its Own Critics |work=The New York Times |date=14 April 2019 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/14/world/middleeast/istanbul-turkey-arab-exiles.html |access-date=11 December 2020}}</ref><ref name="economist2018">{{cite news |title=Why dissidents are gathering in Istanbul |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2018/10/11/why-dissidents-are-gathering-in-istanbul |access-date=11 December 2020 |newspaper=The Economist |date=11 October 2018}}</ref> As of August 2019, the number of ] residing in Istanbul was estimated to be around 1 million.<ref>{{Cite news|date=20 August 2019|title=Syrian migrants in Turkey face deadline to leave Istanbul|work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-49404739|access-date=28 January 2021}}</ref> ] who are Turkish citizens are found to be making up less than 1% of city's total adult population.<ref name=":2" /> As of August 2023, there were more than 530,000 refugees of the Syrian civil war in Istanbul, the highest number in any Turkish city.<ref>{{cite web |title=Number of Syrians in Turkey July 2023 – Refugees Association |url=https://multeciler.org.tr/eng/number-of-syrians-in-turkey/ |website=multeciler.org.tr}}</ref>
	The ] has been designated Ecumenical Patriarch since the 6th century, and has subsequently come to be widely regarded as the leader of the world's {{nowrap|300 million}} ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.patriarchate.org/patriarchate/history|publisher=The Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|title=History of the Ecumenical Patriarch|accessdate=20 June 2012}}</ref> Since 1601, the Patriarchate has been based in Istanbul's ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.patriarchate.org/patriarchate/stgeorge|publisher=The Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|title=The Patriarchal Church of Saint George|accessdate=20 June 2012}}</ref> Into the 19th century, the Christians of Istanbul tended to be either ] or members of the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Çelik|1993|p=38}}</ref> Because of a number of events during the 20th century—including the ] between Greece and Turkey, a ], and the ]—the Greek population, originally centered in ] and ], has decreased substantially. At the start of the 21st century, Istanbul's Greek population numbered just 3,000 (down from 130,000 in 1923).<ref>{{harvnb|Athanasopulos|2001|p=82}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www1.mfa.gr/en/issues-of-greek-turkish-relations/relevant-documents/the-greek-minority-and-its-foundations-in-istanbul-gokceada-imvros-and-bozcaada-tenedos.html|publisher=Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=The Greek Minority and its foundations in Istanbul, Gokceada (Imvros) and Bozcaada (Tenedos)|date=21 March 2011|accessdate=21 June 2012}}</ref> The ] also saw a decline, in part due to the ], but it has been on the rebound because of recent immigration from ]; today, there are between 50,000 and {{nowrap|70,000 Armenians}} in Istanbul, down from 164,000 in 1913.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.armenianow.com/news/10672/armenian_in_istanbul_diaspora_in_t|work=Armenia Now|title=Armenian in Istanbul: Diaspora in Turkey welcomes the setting of relations and waits more steps from both countries|last=Khojoyan|first=Sara|date=16 October 2009|accessdate=21 June 2012}}</ref>
			], the ] (1550–1557) was designed by his chief architect ], the most illustrious of all ].<ref name="sinan-britannica"/>]]
	The largest ethnic minority in Istanbul is the ] community, originating from eastern and southeastern Turkey. Although the Kurdish presence in the city dates back to the early Ottoman period,<ref>{{harvnb|Masters|Ágoston|2009|pp=520–1}}</ref> the influx of Kurds into the city has accelerated since the beginning of the ] with the ] (i.e. since the late 1970s).<ref>{{harvnb|Wedel|2000|p=182}}</ref> Between two and four million residents of Istanbul are Kurdish, meaning there are more Kurds in Istanbul than in any other city in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.economist.com/node/4389654|work=The Economist|title=Can't They Get Along Anymore?|date=8 September 2005|accessdate=23 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2104027,00.html|work=TIME|last=Zalewski|first=Piotr|title=Istanbul: Big Trouble in Little Kurdistan|date=9 January 2012|accessdate=23 June 2012}}</ref> The neighborhood of ] used to be home to a sizable ] community, first formed during the period of the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Rôzen|2002|pp=55–8, 49}}</ref> ] and ] resided in Istanbul even before the Sephardim, but their proportion has since dwindled; today, just {{nowrap|1 percent}} of Istanbul's Jews are Ashkenazi.<ref>{{harvnb|Rôzen|2002|pp=49–50}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Brink-Danan|2011|p=176}}</ref> In large part due to emigration to ], the Jewish population nationwide dropped from 100,000 in 1950 to just 18,000 in 2005, with the majority of them living in either Istanbul or Izmir.<ref>{{harvnb|ʻAner|2005|p=367}}</ref> ], Latin Christians who settled in Galata during the Ottoman period, played a seminal role in shaping the culture and architecture of Istanbul during the 19th and early 20th centuries; their population has dwindled, but they still remain in the city in small numbers.<ref>{{harvnb|Schmitt|2005|loc=passim}}</ref>
			A 2019 survey study by KONDA that examined the religiosity of the voting-age adults in Istanbul showed that 57% of the surveyed had a religion and were trying to practise its requirements. This was followed by nonobservant people with 26% who identified with a religion but generally did not practise its requirements. 11% stated they were fully devoted to their religion, meanwhile 6% were ] who did not believe the rules and requirements of a religion. 24% of the surveyed also identified themselves as "]". Around 90% of Istanbul's population are ] and ] forms the second biggest religious group.<ref name=":2"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Sözlük |website=Konda İnteraktif |url=https://interaktif.konda.com.tr/sozluk |access-date=22 September 2021 |archive-date=27 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927164500/https://interaktif.konda.com.tr/sozluk |url-status=dead }}</ref>
			Into the 19th century, the Christians of Istanbul tended to be either ], members of the ] or Catholic ].<ref>{{harvnb|Çelik|1993|p=38}}</ref> Greeks and ] form the largest Christian population in the city. While Istanbul's Greek population was exempted from the 1923 population exchange with Greece, changes in tax status and the ] prompted ].<ref name="greek">{{Cite news |last1=Magra |first1=Iliana |title=Greeks in Istanbul keeping close eye on developments |url=https://www.ekathimerini.com/258839/article/ekathimerini/community/greeks-in-istanbul-keeping-close-eye-on-developments |access-date=1 December 2020 |agency=Ekathimerini |date=5 November 2020}}</ref> Following Greek migration to the city for work in the 2010s, the Greek population rose to nearly 3,000 in 2019, still greatly diminished since 1919, when it stood at 350,000.<ref name="greek"/> There are today 50,000 to 70,000 ]<ref>{{cite web | last=Turay | first=Anna | title=Tarihte Ermeniler | publisher=Bolsohays: Istanbul Armenians | url=http://www.bolsohays.com/webac.asp?referans=1 | access-date=2007-01-04| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061206185130/http://www.bolsohays.com/webac.asp?referans=1| archive-date= 6 December 2006 | url-status= dead }}</ref> down from a peak of 164,000 in 1913.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Grigoryan |first1=Iliana |title=Armenian Labor Migrants in Istanbul: Reality Check |date=2018 |url=https://mirekoc.ku.edu.tr/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Report_Armenian-Labor-Migrants-in-Istanbul.pdf |website=Migration Research Center at Koç University |access-date=1 December 2020}}</ref> As of 2019, an estimated 18,000 of the country's 25,000 Christian ] live in Istanbul.<ref>{{cite web|title=Assyrian community thrives again in southeastern Turkey|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/turkey/2019/01/10/assyrian-community-thrives-again-in-southeastern-turkey |date=10 January 2019|website=Daily Sabah|access-date=20 May 2020}}</ref>
			] on ] in ].]]
			The majority of the Catholic '']'' (Turkish: {{lang|tr|Levanten}}) in Istanbul and ] are the descendants of traders/colonists from the Italian ] of the Mediterranean (especially Genoa and ]) and France, who obtained special rights and privileges called the ] from the Ottoman sultans in the 16th century.<ref></ref> The community had more than 15,000 members during Atatürk's presidency in the 1920s and 1930s, but today is reduced to only a few hundreds, according to Italo-Levantine writer ].<ref></ref> They continue to live in Istanbul (mostly in Karaköy, Beyoğlu and ]), and İzmir (mostly in ], ] and ]).
			Istanbul became one of the world's most important Jewish centers in the 16th and 17th century.<ref name="epstein">{{cite book |last1=Epstein |first1=Mark Alan |title=The Ottoman Jewish communities and their role in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries |date=1980 |publisher=K. Schwarz |location=Freiburg |isbn=978-3-87997-077-3}}</ref> Romaniote and Ashkenazi communities existed in Istanbul before the conquest of Istanbul, but it was the arrival of Sephardic Jews that ushered a period of cultural flourishing. Sephardic Jews settled in the city after their expulsion from Spain and Portugal in 1492 and 1497.<ref name="epstein"/> Sympathetic to the plight of Sephardic Jews, ] sent out the ] under the command of admiral ] to Spain in 1492 in order to evacuate them safely to Ottoman lands.<ref name="epstein"/> In marked contrast to ], ] were allowed to work in any profession.<ref name="makovetsky">{{cite book |last1=Makovetsky |first1=Leah |title=The Mediterranean and the Jews. |date=1989 |publisher=Bar-Ilan University Press |location=Ramat-Gan |isbn=978-965-226-099-4 |pages=75–104}}</ref> Ottoman Jews in Istanbul excelled in commerce and came to particularly dominate the medical profession.<ref name="makovetsky"/> By 1711, using the printing press, books came to be published in ] and ], Yiddish, and Hebrew.<ref name="nassigad">{{cite book |last1=Nassi |first1=Gad |title=Jewish journalism and printing houses in the Ottoman Empire and modern Turkey |date=2010 |publisher=Gorgias Press |location=Piscataway, NJ |isbn=978-1-61719-909-7}}</ref> In large part due to emigration to Israel, the Jewish population in the city dropped from 100,000 in 1950<ref name="solomon">{{cite book |last1=Solomon |first1=Norman |title=Historical dictionary of Judaism |date=2015 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |location=Lanham, MD |isbn=978-1-4422-4141-1 |edition=Third}}</ref> to 15,000 in 2021.<ref name="jewishvirtuallibrary">{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Turkey.html|title=Turkey Virtual Jewish History Tour - Jewish Virtual Library|publisher=jewishvirtuallibrary.org|access-date=9 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-1.714614/|title=Why Jews in Terror-stricken Turkey Aren't Fleeing to Israel Yet|newspaper=Haaretz |publisher=haaretz.com|access-date=9 October 2016}}</ref><ref name="pop2021"></ref>
			==Politics==
			Politically, Istanbul is seen as the most important administrative region in Turkey. In the run-up to ], Erdoğan claimed 'if we fail in Istanbul, we will fail in Turkey'.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tele1.com.tr/erdogan-istanbulda-teklersek-turkiyede-tokezleriz-44258/|title=Erdoğan: 'İstanbul'da teklersek, Türkiye'de tökezleriz'|date=2 April 2019|website=Tele1|access-date=4 May 2019}}</ref> The ] carried deep political, economic and symbolic significance for Erdoğan, whose ] had served as his launchpad.<ref name="inglebylove">{{cite news |last1=Ingleby |first1=Melvyn |title=A Turkish Opposition Leader Is Fighting Erdoğan With 'Radical Love' |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2019/06/ex-istanbul-mayor-imamoglu-fights-erdogan-radical-love/591541/ |access-date=14 December 2020 |work=The Atlantic |date=14 June 2019}}</ref> For ], winning the mayoralty of Istanbul was a huge moral victory, but for Erdoğan it had practical ramifications: His party, AKP, lost control of the $4.8&nbsp;billion municipal budget, which had sustained patronage at the point of delivery of many public services for 25 years.<ref name="pitel2019">{{cite news|last1=Pitel|first1=Laura|title=Erdoğan's defeat in Istanbul shows opposition's changing tactics|url=https://www.ft.com/content/93736230-95f9-11e9-8cfb-30c211dcd229 |access-date=14 December 2020|newspaper=Financial Times|date=24 June 2019}}</ref>
			] of the ] is the 32nd and current ], ] and ].]]
			More recently, Istanbul and many of Turkey's metropolitan cities are following a trend away from the government and their right-wing ideology. In 2013 and 2014, large scale ] began in İstanbul and spread throughout the nation. This trend first became evident electorally in the ] where the center-left opposition candidate won an impressive 40% of the vote, despite not winning. The first government defeat in Istanbul occurred in the ], where Istanbul voted 'No' by 51.4% to 48.6%. The AKP government had supported a 'Yes' vote and won the vote nationally due to high support in rural parts of the country. A major turning point for the government came in the 2019 local elections, where their candidate for Mayor, former Prime Minister ], was defeated by a very narrow margin by the ] candidate Ekrem İmamoğlu. İmamoğlu won the vote with 48.77% of the vote, against Yıldırım's 48.61%, but the elections were controversially annulled by the ] due to AKP's claim of electoral fraud. In the re-run İmamoğlu gathered 54.22% of the total vote and widened his margin of victory.<ref>{{cite news|author=Isil Sariyuce and Ivana Kottasová|title=Istanbul election rerun set to be won by opposition, in blow to Erdogan|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/06/23/europe/turkey-istanbul-mayor-election-intl/index.html|website=CNN}}</ref>
			Following the 2019 election, a trend towards the CHP has persisted across the city. In the ] the CHP candidate, ], received 48.56% of the city's vote, while the incumbent president and AKP candidate, ], received 46.68%.
			In the ], Ekrem İmamoğlu was re-elected by a 12-point margin. İmamoğlu won 51.15% of the vote, while the AKP's candidate ] received 39.59%. Additionally, the CHP won the mayoralties in 26 of İstanbul's 39 districts.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Seçim 2024 |url=https://secim.aa.com.tr/ |access-date=2024-04-04 |website=secim.aa.com.tr |archive-date=14 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230514223153/https://secim.aa.com.tr// |url-status=dead }}</ref>
			Administratively, Istanbul is divided into 39 districts, more than any other ] in Turkey. ] sends 98 ] to the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, which has a total of 600 seats. For the purpose of parliamentary elections, Istanbul is divided into ]; two on the European side and ], electing 28, 35 and 35 MPs respectively.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}
	==Economy==		==Economy==
	{{main|Economy of Istanbul}}		{{Main|Economy of Istanbul}}
			] is one of the main business districts in Istanbul, together with ] and ] on the European side and ] on the Asian side]]
			Istanbul had the ] among the world's urban areas in 2018, and is responsible for {{nowrap|30 percent}} of Turkey's industrial output,<ref name="oecd2020">{{cite book |title=OECD Regions and Cities at a Glance 2020 |url=https://doi.org/10.1787/959d5ba0-en.|year=2020|publisher=OECD Publishing|doi=10.1787/959d5ba0-en|isbn=978-92-64-58785-4|s2cid=240715488|access-date=1 December 2020}}</ref> {{nowrap|31 percent}} of GDP,<ref name="oecd2020"/> and {{nowrap|47 percent}} of tax revenues.<ref name="oecd2020"/> The city's ] adjusted by ] stood at {{nowrap|US$537.507 billion}} in 2018,<ref>{{cite web |title=Regions and Cities in Turkey at a Glance in 2018 |url=https://www.oecd.org/cfe/TURKEY-Regions-and-Cities-2018.pdf |website=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |publisher=OECD Publishing |access-date=2 December 2020}}</ref> with manufacturing and services accounting for {{nowrap|36 percent}} and {{nowrap|60 percent}} of the economic output respectively.<ref name="oecd2020"/> Istanbul's productivity is {{nowrap|110 percent}} higher than the national average.<ref name="oecd2020"/> Trade is economically important, accounting for {{nowrap|30 percent}} of the economic output in the city.<ref name="hisdic"/> In 2019, companies based in Istanbul produced exports worth {{nowrap|$83.66 billion}} and received imports totaling {{nowrap|$128.34 billion}}; these figures were equivalent to {{nowrap|47 percent}} and {{nowrap|61 percent}}, respectively, of the national totals.<ref name="wbtrade">{{cite web |title=Turkey trade statistics |url=https://wits.worldbank.org/countryprofile/en/tur |website=World Bank |access-date=1 December 2020}}</ref>
	] business district is home to Istanbul's tallest buildings.|alt=A half dozen skyscrapers interspersed among low- and mid-rises, with open expanse visible in the background]]
	With a GDP of {{nowrap|US$182 billion}} in 2008, Istanbul ranked 34th among the world's urban areas in terms of ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ukmediacentre.pwc.com/imagelibrary/downloadMedia.ashx?MediaDetailsID=1562|publisher=PricewaterhouseCoopers|title=III – Which are the largest city economies in the world and how might this change by 2025?|date=November 2009|accessdate=27 March 2012}}</ref> Istanbul is responsible for {{nowrap|27 percent}} of Turkey's GDP, with {{nowrap|20 percent}} of the country's industrial labor force residing in the city.<ref name="oecd" /><ref name="urge">{{cite web|url=http://www.urge-project.ufz.de/istanbul/general.htm|title=Presentation of Reference City: Istanbul|publisher=Urban Green Environment|year=2001|accessdate=30 December 2011}}</ref> Its GDP per capita and ] are greater than their national averages by {{nowrap|70 percent}} and {{nowrap|50 percent}}, respectively, owing in part to the focus on high-] activities. With its high population and significant contribution to the Turkish economy, Istanbul is responsible for two-fifths of the nation's tax revenue.<ref name="oecd" /> That includes the taxes of thirty billionaires based in Istanbul, the fifth-highest number among cities around the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forbes.com/sites/calebmelby/2012/03/16/moscow-beats-new-york-london-in-list-of-billionaire-cities/|last=Melby|first=Caleb|work=Forbes|title=Moscow Beats New York, London In List Of Billionaire Cities|date=16 March 2012|accessdate=27 March 2012}}</ref>
			Istanbul, which straddles the Bosporus strait, houses international ports that link Europe and Asia. The Bosporus, providing the only passage from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, is the world's busiest and narrowest ], with more than {{nowrap|200 million}} tons of oil passing through it each year.{{sfn|Oxford Business Group|2009|p=112}} ] ] between the Black and the Mediterranean seas,<ref name="canalguardian">{{cite news|last1=Jones|first1=Sam|date=27 April 2011|title=Istanbul's new Bosphorus canal 'to surpass Suez or Panama|work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/apr/27/istanbul-new-bosphorus-canal|access-date=2 December 2020}}</ref> even when tankers carry oil, natural gas, chemicals, and other flammable or explosive materials as cargo. In 2011, as a workaround solution, the then Prime Minister Erdoğan presented ], a project to open a new strait between the Black and Marmara seas.<ref name="canalguardian"/> While the project was still on Turkey's agenda in 2020, there has not been a clear date set for it.<ref name="hisdic">{{cite book|last1=Heper|first1=Metin|chapter=Istanbul |title=Historical dictionary of Turkey|date=2018|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |location=Lanham, MD |isbn=978-1-5381-0224-4|edition=4th}}</ref>
	As expected for a city of its size, Istanbul has a diverse industrial economy, producing commodities as varied as olive oil, tobacco, transport vehicles, and electronics.<ref name="urge" /> Despite having a focus on high-value-added work, its low-value-added manufacturing sector is substantial, representing just {{nowrap|26 percent}} of Istanbul's GDP, but four-fifths of the city's total exports.<ref name="oecd" /> In 2005, companies based in Istanbul produced exports worth {{nowrap|$41.4 billion}} and received imports totaling {{nowrap|$69.9 billion}}; these figures were equivalent to {{nowrap|57 percent}} and {{nowrap|60 percent}}, respectively, of the national totals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://arsiv.ntvmsnbc.com/news/361031.asp|publisher=NTV-MSNBC|title=Dış Ticaretin Lokomotifi İstanbul|trans_title=Istanbul is the Locomotive of Foreign Trade|language=Turkish|date=13 February 2006|accessdate=28 March 2012}}</ref>
			]]]
	Istanbul is home to Turkey's only ], the ]. Although it was originally established as the Ottoman Stock Exchange in 1866, its importance declined after the ] in the 1930s. It was ultimately reorganized into its current form at the start of 1986, following a series of governmental financial liberalization programs.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Odabaşı|first1=Attila|last2=Aksu|first2=Celal|last3=Akgiray|first3=Vedat|year=2004|month=December|title=The Statistical Evolution of Prices on the Istanbul Stock Exchange|journal=The European Journal of Finance|volume=10|pages=510–25|doi=10.1080/1351847032000166931|publisher=Routledge|location=London|ref=harv|issue=6}}</ref> During the 19th and early 20th centuries, ] (Banks Street) in Galata was the financial center of the Ottoman Empire, where the Ottoman Stock Exchange was located.<ref name="OBM">{{cite web|url=http://www.obarsiv.com/english/history.html|publisher=The Ottoman Bank Archives and Research Centre|title=History of the Bank|accessdate=28 March 2012}}</ref> Bankalar Caddesi continued to be Istanbul's main financial district until the 1990s, when most Turkish banks began moving their headquarters to the modern central business districts of ] and ]. In 1995, the ] moved to its current building in the ] quarter of the ] district.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ise.org/aboutus/History.aspx|publisher=Istanbul Stock Exchange|title=Milestones in ISE History|year=2012|accessdate=28 March 2012}}</ref>
			Shipping is a significant part of the city's economy, with {{nowrap|73.9 percent}} of exports and {{nowrap|92.7 percent}} of imports in 2018 executed by sea.<ref name="hisdic"/> Istanbul has three major shipping ports – the ], the Port of Ambarlı, and the Port of Zeytinburnu – as well as several smaller ports and oil terminals along the Bosporus and the Sea of Marmara.<ref name="hisdic"/>
	], the ] is one of the busiest waterways in the world. The ] is at left, while the ] is at right.|alt=A large ship passes underneath a suspension bridge and behind a small mosque with two towering minarets.]]
			Haydarpaşa, at the southeastern end of the Bosporus, was Istanbul's largest port until the early 2000s.<ref name="lloyds"/> Since then operations were shifted to Ambarlı, with plans to convert Haydarpaşa into a tourism complex.<ref name="hisdic"/> In 2019, Ambarlı, on the western edge of the urban center, had an annual capacity of 3,104,882 ]s, making it the third-largest cargo terminal in the Mediterranean basin.<ref name="lloyds">{{cite web |title=Maritime intelligence on Ambarlı port |url=https://lloydslist.maritimeintelligence.informa.com/LL1133308/55-Ambarli-Turkey |website=Lloyd's List Maritime Intelligence|date=24 August 2020 |publisher=Lloyd's Insurance Services |access-date=2 December 2020}}</ref>
	As the only sea route between the oil-rich Black Sea and the Mediterranean, the Bosphorus is one of the busiest waterways in the world; more than {{nowrap|200 million}} tonnes of oil pass through the strait each year, and the traffic on the Bosphorus is three times that on the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Oxford Business Group|2009|p=112}}</ref> As a result, there have been proposals to build a canal, known as ], parallel to the strait, on the European side of the city.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/apr/27/istanbul-new-bosphorus-canal|work=The Guardian|title=Istanbul's new Bosphorus canal 'to surpass Suez or Panama'|author=Jones, Sam, and agencies|date=27 April 2011|accessdate=29 April 2012}}</ref> Istanbul has three major shipping ports—the ], the Port of Ambarlı, and the Port of Zeytinburnu—as well as several smaller ports and oil terminals along the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmara.<ref>{{harvnb|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|2008|p=80}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cerrahogullari.com.tr/ports.htm|publisher=Cerrahogullari T.A.S.|title=Ports of Turkey|accessdate=28 August 2012}}</ref> Haydarpaşa, situated at the southeastern end of the Bosphorus, was Istanbul's largest port until the early 2000s. Shifts in operations to Ambarlı since then have left Haydarpaşa running under capacity and with plans to decommission the port.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.lse.ac.uk/LSECities/citiesProgramme/pdf/Haydarpasa%20Summary.pdf|publisher=London School of Economics|last=Cavusoglu|first=Omer|title=Summary on the Haydarpasa Case Study Site|year=2010|month=March|work=Cities Programme|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> As of 2007, Ambarlı, on the western edge of the urban center, had an annual capacity of {{nowrap|1.5 million}} ] (compared to 354,000 TEUs at Haydarpaşa), making it the fourth-largest cargo terminal in the Mediterranean basin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.muhtesemkaynak.com/56.pdf|title=What Role for Turkish Ports in the Regional Logistics Supply Chains?|last1=Zeybek|first1=Hülya|last2=Kaynak|first2=Muhtesem|date=27–30 May 2008|publisher=International Conference on Information Systems and Supply Chain|accessdate=28 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{harnvb|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|2008|p=82}}</ref> The Port of Zeytinburnu is advantaged by its proximity to motorways and ],<ref>{{harvnb|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|2008|p=143}}</ref> and long-term plans for the city call for greater connectivity between all terminals and the road and rail networks.<ref>{{harnvb|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|2008|p=81}}</ref>
			Istanbul has been an international banking hub since the 1980s,<ref name="hisdic"/> and is home to the only active ] in Turkey, ], which was originally established as the Ottoman Stock Exchange in 1866.<ref name="bnf"/>
	Istanbul is an increasingly popular tourist destination; whereas just {{nowrap|2.4 million}} foreigners visited the city in 2000, it welcomed {{nowrap|7 million}} foreign tourists in 2010, making it the world's tenth-most visited city.<ref name="weiner" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-sre.wu-wien.ac.at/ersa/ersaconfs/ersa06/papers/237.pdf|publisher=Vienna University of Economics and Business|title=Urban Tourism: An Analysis of Visitors to Istanbul|last1=Kerimoğlu|first1=Ebra|last2=Ciraci|first2=Hale}}</ref> Istanbul is Turkey's second-largest international gateway, after ], receiving a quarter of the nation's foreign tourists. Istanbul's tourist industry is concentrated in the European side, with {{nowrap|90 percent}} of the city's hotels located there. Low- and mid-range hotels tend to be located on the ], while higher-end hotels are primarily located in the entertainment and financial centers north of the Golden Horn. Istanbul's seventy museums, the most visited of which are the Topkapı Palace Museum and the Hagia Sophia, bring in {{nowrap|$30 million}} in revenue each year. The city's environmental master plan also notes that there are {{nowrap|17 palaces}}, {{nowrap|64 mosques}}, and {{nowrap|49 churches}} of historical significance in Istanbul.<ref name="iv&c">{{cite web|url=http://www.igd.com.tr/Upload/file_4d9f1f3815b2d.pdf|publisher=Istanbul Valuation and Consulting|title=Istanbul '10|work=Turkey Tourism Market Research Reports|year=2010|accessdate=29 March 2012}} (n.b. Source indicates that the Topkapı Palace Museum and the Hagia Sophia together bring in {{nowrap|55 million ]}}, approximately {{nowrap|$30 million}} in 2010, on an annual basis.)</ref>
			]]]
			In 1995, keeping up with the financial trends, Borsa Istanbul moved its headquarters (which was originally located on ], the financial center of the Ottoman Empire,<ref name="bnf">{{cite web|title=The Imperial Ottoman Bank Patrimoines Partagés تراث مشترك|url=https://heritage.bnf.fr/bibliothequesorient/en/imperial-ottoman-bank|website=heritage.bnf.fr|publisher=Bibliothèques d'Orient|access-date=2 December 2020}}</ref> and later at the ] building in ]) to ], in the vicinity of Maslak, which hosts the headquarters of numerous Turkish banks.<ref name="bist">{{cite web|title=nBorsa Istanbul: A Story of Transformation |url=https://www.borsaistanbul.com/data/kilavuzlar/Borsa_Istanbul_A_Story_of_Transformation.pdf |website=borsaistanbul.com|publisher=Borsa Istanbul|access-date=2 December 2020}}</ref>
			Since 2023, the ] district on the Asian side of the city is home to the ] (IFC), where the new headquarters of the state-owned Turkish banks, including the ], are located.<ref name="ifm-aa">{{cite web|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/economy/istanbul-finance-center-opens-with-inauguration-of-banking-section/2874556|title=Istanbul Finance Center opens with inauguration of banking section|author=Tuba Ongun|publisher=]|date=17 April 2023}}</ref><ref name="ifm-1">{{cite web|url=https://ifm.gov.tr/properties|title=Istanbul Financial Center: Properties|website=ifm.gov.tr|access-date=13 May 2023}}</ref> As of 2023, the five ] and Turkey are the {{convert|352|m|ftin|abbr=on}} tall Turkish Central Bank Tower<ref>{{cite web|url=https://skyscraperpage.com/cities/?buildingID=103411|title=Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey|website=skyscraperpage.com|access-date=20 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.skyscrapercenter.com/building/central-bank-of-the-republic-of-turkey/41146|title=Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey|website=skyscrapercenter.com|access-date=20 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.limak.com.tr/sectors/construction/projects/domestic/central-bank-turkey|title=Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey Campus Phase I-II|website=limak.com.tr|access-date=15 May 2023|archive-date=16 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516060941/https://www.limak.com.tr/sectors/construction/projects/domestic/central-bank-turkey|url-status=dead}}</ref> in the Ataşehir district on the Asian side of the city; ] (70 floors / 301 metres including its twin spires)<ref name="GAP_Insaat">{{cite web|url=https://www.gapinsaat.com/en/superstructure/metropol-istanbul.html|title=Metropol İstanbul|website=gapinsaat.com|access-date=16 May 2023}}</ref><ref name="aremas">{{cite web|url=https://aremas.net/assets/img/ProjectHeader/metropol%20eren.png|title=Image of Metropol Istanbul Towers|website=aremas.net|access-date=22 November 2020}}</ref> also in the Ataşehir district; ] (2 x 284 metres)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.skylandistanbul.com/|title=Skyland Istanbul}}</ref> located adjacent to ] in the Huzur neighbourhood of the ] district on the European side, and ] (54 floors / 238 metres; 261 metres including its spire)<ref name=Sapphire>{{usurped|1=}}</ref> in ] on the European side.
			{{nowrap|13.4 million}} foreign tourists visited the city in 2018, making Istanbul the world's fifth most-visited city in that year.<ref name="statista.com">{{cite web |title=Top city destinations by overnight visitors|website=Statista |access-date=1 December 2020 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/310355/overnight-visitors-to-top-city-destinations-worldwide/}}</ref> Istanbul and ] are Turkey's two largest international gateways, receiving a quarter of the nation's foreign tourists. Istanbul has more than fifty museums, with the Topkapı Palace, the most visited museum in the city, bringing in more than {{nowrap|$30 million}} in revenue each year.<ref name="hisdic"/>
			Istanbul expects 1 million tourists from cruise companies after the renovation of its cruise port, also known as ] in Karaköy district.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-expects-cruise-tourism-boom-in-2022-170574|title=Turkey expects cruise tourism boom in 2022|website=Hürriyet|date=6 January 2022 |access-date=22 January 2022}}</ref>
			{{wide image|Istanbul_Skyline_Beşiktaş_Şişli.JPG|750px|align-cap=center|A view of ] and the skyscrapers of Levent financial district in the background.<ref name="Istanbul-panoramic1">{{cite web |url=https://farm8.staticflickr.com/7399/13960279827_8dce6ae69d_k.jpg|title=Panoramic view of the modern skyline of Istanbul's European side, with the skyscrapers of Levent at the center and the Bosphorus Bridge (1973) at right |access-date=2 December 2020}}</ref><ref name="levent-sporcular-park">{{cite web|url=https://i.hizliresim.com/JDM8NY.jpg|title=A view of the skyscrapers in Levent from Sporcular Park|access-date=2 December 2020}}</ref> Providing the only sea route to the Black Sea, the Bosporus is the world's busiest waterway that is used for international navigation.<ref name="hisdic"/>}}
	==Culture==		==Culture==
	{{main|Culture of Istanbul}}		{{Main|Culture of Istanbul}}
			] houses on the ] are among the frequently used settings in ].]]
	Istanbul was historically known as a cultural hub, but its cultural scene stagnated after the Turkish Republic shifted its focus toward Ankara.<ref>{{harvnb|Göktürk|Soysal|Türeli|2010|p=8}}</ref> The new national government established programs that served to orient Turks toward musical traditions, especially those originating in Europe, but musical institutions and visits by foreign classical artists were primarily centered in the new capital.<ref>{{harvnb|Reisman|2006|p=88}}</ref> Although much of Turkey's cultural scene had its roots in Istanbul, it was not until the 1980s and 1990s that Istanbul reemerged globally as a city whose cultural significance is not solely based on its past glory.<ref>{{harvnb|Göktürk|Soysal|Türeli|2010|pp=2–4}}</ref>		Istanbul was historically known as a cultural hub, but its cultural scene stagnated after the Turkish Republic shifted its focus toward Ankara.<ref>{{harvnb|Göktürk|Soysal|Türeli|2010|p=8}}</ref> The new national government established programs that served to orient Turks toward musical traditions, especially those originating in Europe, but musical institutions and visits by foreign classical artists were primarily centered in the new capital.<ref>{{harvnb|Reisman|2006|p=88}}</ref>
			Much of Turkey's cultural scene had its roots in Istanbul, and by the 1980s and 1990s Istanbul reemerged globally as a city whose cultural significance is not solely based on its past glory.<ref>{{harvnb|Göktürk|Soysal|Türeli|2010|pp=2–4}}</ref>
	], founded by ] in 1891, form Turkey's oldest modern museum.<ref name="kultur">{{cite web|url=http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/belge/2-19958/istanbul---archaeology-museum.html|publisher=Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism|title=İstanbul – Archaeology Museum|accessdate=19 April 2012}}</ref>|alt=The facade of a masonry building, with four Greek adorning its entrance, under a clear blue sky]]
	By the end of the 19th century, Istanbul had established itself as a regional artistic center, with Turkish, European, and Middle Eastern artists flocking to the city. Despite efforts to make Ankara Turkey's cultural heart, Istanbul had the country's primary institution of art until the 1970s.<ref name="gosotu2213">{{harvnb|Göktürk|Soysal|Türeli|2010|pp=221–3}}</ref> Furthermore, when additional universities and art journals were founded in Istanbul during the 1980s, artists formerly based in Ankara moved in.<ref>{{harvnb|Göktürk|Soysal|Türeli|2010|pp=223–4}}</ref> ] has been transformed into the artistic center of the city, with young artists and older Turkish artists formerly residing abroad finding footing there. Modern art museums, including ], the ], ] and ], opened in the 2000s to complement the exhibition spaces and auction houses that have already contributed to the cosmopolitan nature of the city.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/12/magazine/istanbul-art-boom-bubble.html?pagewanted=all|work=The New York Times|title=The Istanbul Art-Boom Bubble|last=Hansen|first=Suzy|date=10 February 2012|accessdate=19 April 2012}}</ref> Still, these museums have yet to attain the popularity of older museums on the historic peninsula, including the ], which ushered in the era of modern museums in Turkey, and the ].<ref name="iv&c" /><ref name="kultur" />		By the end of the 19th century, Istanbul had established itself as a regional artistic center, with Turkish, European, and Middle Eastern artists flocking to the city. Despite efforts to make Ankara Turkey's cultural heart, Istanbul had the country's primary institution of art until the 1970s.<ref name="gosotu2213">{{harvnb|Göktürk|Soysal|Türeli|2010|pp=221–23}}</ref> When additional universities and art journals were founded in Istanbul during the 1980s, artists formerly based in Ankara moved in.<ref>{{harvnb|Göktürk|Soysal|Türeli|2010|pp=223–24}}</ref>
			], founded by ] in 1891, form Turkey's oldest modern museum.<ref name="kultur">{{cite web|url=http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/belge/2-19958/istanbul---archaeology-museum.html|publisher=Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism|title=İstanbul – Archaeology Museum|access-date=19 April 2012|archive-date=3 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203101742/http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/belge/2-19958/istanbul---archaeology-museum.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>|alt=The façade of a masonry building, with four Greek adorning its entrance, under a clear blue sky]]
	The first film screening in Turkey was at ] in 1896, just a year after the technology publicly debuted in Paris.<ref>{{harvnb|Göktürk|Soysal|Türeli|2010|pp=130–1}}</ref> Movie theaters rapidly cropped up in Beyoğlu, with the greatest concentration of theaters being along the street now known as ].<ref>{{harvnb|Göktürk|Soysal|Türeli|2010|pp=133–4}}</ref> Istanbul also became the heart of ], although Turkish films were not consistently developed until the 1950s.<ref>{{harvnb|Göktürk|Soysal|Türeli|2010|p=146}}</ref> Since then, Istanbul has been the most popular location to film Turkish dramas and comedies.<ref>{{harvnb|Göktürk|Soysal|Türeli|2010|p=165}}</ref> While the Turkish film industry ramped up in the second half of the century, it was not until '']'' (2002) and '']'' (2005), both filmed in Istanbul, that the nation's movies began to see substantial international success.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://publications.credit-suisse.com/app/article/index.cfm?fuseaction=OpenArticle&aoid=340736&coid=341935&lang=en|publisher=Credit-Suisse|title=Golden Age for Turkish Cinema|last=Nikitin|first=Nikolaj|date=6 March 2012|accessdate=6 July 2012}}</ref> Istanbul and its picturesque skyline have also served as a backdrop for a number of foreign films, including '']'' (1964), '']'' (1999), and '']'' (2008).<ref>{{harvnb|Köksal|2012|pp=24–5}}</ref>
			Beyoğlu has been transformed into the artistic center of the city, with young artists and older Turkish artists formerly residing abroad finding footing there. Modern art museums, including ], ], ], the ], ], ] and ], opened in the 2000s to complement the exhibition spaces and auction houses that have already contributed to the cosmopolitan nature of the city.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/12/magazine/istanbul-art-boom-bubble.html|work=The New York Times|title=The Istanbul Art-Boom Bubble|last=Hansen|first=Suzy|date=10 February 2012|access-date=19 April 2012}}</ref> These museums have yet to attain the popularity of older museums on the historic peninsula, including the Istanbul Archaeology Museums, which ushered in the era of modern museums in Turkey, and the ].<ref name="kultur"/>
	Coinciding with this cultural reemergence was the establishment of the Istanbul Festival, which began showcasing a variety of art from Turkey and around the world in 1973. From this flagship festival came the ] and the ] in the early 1980s. With its focus now solely on music and dance, the Istanbul Festival has been known as the ] since 1994.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://muzik.iksv.org/en/thefestival/history|publisher=The Istanbul Foundation for Culture and Arts|title=History|accessdate=13 April 2012}}</ref> The most prominent of the festivals that evolved from the original Istanbul Festival is the ], held every two years since 1987. While its early incarnations were aimed at showcasing Turkish visual art, it has since opened to international artists and risen in prestige to become among the elite ]s, alongside the ] and the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/2011/sep/21/istanbul-biennial-2011-modern-art|work=The Guardian|last=Gibbons|first=Fiachra|title=10 of the Best Exhibitions at the Istanbul Biennial|date=21 September 2011|accessdate=13 April 2012}}</ref>
			]. The district is also home to Museums Square.]]
			The first film screening in Turkey was at Yıldız Palace in 1896, a year after the technology publicly debuted in Paris.<ref>{{harvnb|Göktürk|Soysal|Türeli|2010|pp=130–31}}</ref> Movie theaters rapidly cropped up in Beyoğlu, with the greatest concentration of theaters being along the street now known as İstiklal Avenue.<ref>{{harvnb|Göktürk|Soysal|Türeli|2010|pp=133–34}}</ref> Istanbul also became the heart of ], although Turkish films were not consistently developed until the 1950s.<ref>{{harvnb|Göktürk|Soysal|Türeli|2010|p=146}}</ref> Since then, Istanbul has been the most popular location to film ].<ref>{{harvnb|Göktürk|Soysal|Türeli|2010|p=165}}</ref> The Turkish film industry ramped up in the second half of the century, and with '']'' (2002) and '']'' (2005), both filmed in Istanbul, the nation's movies began to see substantial international success.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://publications.credit-suisse.com/app/article/index.cfm?fuseaction=OpenArticle&aoid=340736&coid=341935&lang=en|publisher=Credit-Suisse|title=Golden Age for Turkish Cinema|last=Nikitin|first=Nikolaj|date=6 March 2012|access-date=6 July 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121217131735/https://publications.credit-suisse.com/app/article/index.cfm?fuseaction=OpenArticle&aoid=340736&coid=341935&lang=en|archive-date=17 December 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> Istanbul and its picturesque skyline have also served as a backdrop for several foreign films, including '']'' (1963), '']'' (1964), '']'' (1999), and '']'' (2008).<ref>{{harvnb|Köksal|2012|pp=24–25}}</ref>
			Coinciding with this cultural reemergence was the establishment of the Istanbul Festival, which began showcasing a variety of art from Turkey and around the world in 1973. From this flagship festival came the ] and the ] in the early 1980s. With its focus now solely on music and dance, the Istanbul Festival has been known as the ] since 1994.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://muzik.iksv.org/en/thefestival/history|publisher=The Istanbul Foundation for Culture and Arts|title=History|access-date=13 April 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503092124/http://muzik.iksv.org/en/thefestival/history|archive-date=3 May 2011}}</ref> The most prominent of the festivals that evolved from the original Istanbul Festival is the ], held every two years since 1987. Its early incarnations were aimed at showcasing Turkish visual art, and it has since opened to international artists and risen in prestige to join the elite ]s, alongside the ] and the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2011/sep/21/istanbul-biennial-2011-modern-art|work=The Guardian|last=Gibbons|first=Fiachra|title=10 of the Best Exhibitions at the Istanbul Biennial|date=21 September 2011|access-date=13 April 2012}}</ref>
	===Leisure and entertainment===		===Leisure and entertainment===
			] in Beyoğlu]]
	] is one of the largest covered markets in the world.|alt=Goods overflow out of storefronts, leaving a narrow passageway where shoppers move about.]]
	Istanbul has ], from the historic to the modern. The ], in operation since 1461, is among the world's oldest and largest covered markets.<ref>{{cite journal|editor-last=Hensel|editor-first=Michael|editor2-last=Sungurogl|editor2-first=Defne|editor3-last=Ertaş|editor3-first=Hülya|title=Turkey at the Threshold|journal=Architectural Design|volume=80|year=2010|month=January/February|isbn=978-0-470-74319-5|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|location=London|ref=harv|issue=1}}</ref><ref name="kos9192">{{harvnb|Köse|2009|pp=91–2}}</ref> ] is an open-air market extending between the Grand Bazaar and the ], which has been Istanbul's major spice market since 1660. ] ushered in the age of modern shopping malls in Turkey when it opened in 1987.<ref>{{harvnb|Taşan-Kok|2004|p=166}}</ref> Since then, malls have become major shopping centers outside the historic peninsula. ] was awarded the titles of "Europe's best" and "World's best" shopping mall by the ] in 1995 and 1996; ] has been among the continent's largest since opening in 2005; while ] won the Cityscape Architectural Review Award in the Commercial Built category in 2006.<ref name="kos9192" /> ] in ] and ] on the Anatolian side of the city have evolved into high-end shopping districts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/default.aspx?pageid=438&n=abdi-ipekci-street-to-be-the-new-champs-elysee-2010-09-03|work=Hürriyet Daily News|title=Abdi İpekçi Avenue to be new Champs Elysee|date=3 September 2010|last=Emeksiz|first=İpek|accessdate=28 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnngo.com/explorations/shop/mystery-shoppers-rank-worlds-best-shopping-avenues-060108|publisher=CNN|title=Shopping in Singapore is Better than Paris|date=6 January 2012|accessdate=28 April 2012}}</ref>
			] in ], ] Shopping Area in ] and ] on the Anatolian side of the city have evolved into high-end shopping districts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/default.aspx?pageid=438&n=abdi-ipekci-street-to-be-the-new-champs-elysee-2010-09-03|work=Hürriyet Daily News|title=Abdi İpekçi Avenue to be new Champs Elysee|date=3 September 2010|last=Emeksiz|first=İpek|access-date=28 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnngo.com/explorations/shop/mystery-shoppers-rank-worlds-best-shopping-avenues-060108|publisher=CNN|title=Shopping in Singapore is Better than Paris|date=6 January 2012|access-date=28 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120417153848/http://www.cnngo.com/explorations/shop/mystery-shoppers-rank-worlds-best-shopping-avenues-060108|archive-date=17 April 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> Other focal points for shopping, leisure and entertainment include Nişantaşı, ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Tomasetti|first1=Kathryn|last2=Rutherford|first2=Tristan|url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2012/mar/23/istanbul-nightlife-bars-breakfast-brunch|work=The Guardian|title=A Big Night Out in Istanbul – And a Big Breakfast the Morning After|date=23 March 2012|access-date=29 April 2012}}</ref> The city has ], from the historic to the modern. Istanbul also has an active nightlife and historic taverns, a signature characteristic of the city for centuries, if not millennia.
			The ], in operation since 1461, is among the world's oldest and largest covered markets.<ref>{{cite journal|editor-last=Hensel|editor-first=Michael|editor2-last=Sungurogl|editor2-first=Defne|editor3-last=Ertaş|editor3-first=Hülya|title=Turkey at the Threshold|journal=Architectural Design|volume=80|date=January–February 2010|isbn=978-0-470-74319-5|location=London|issue=1}}</ref><ref name="kos9192">{{harvnb|Köse|2009|pp=91–92}}</ref> ] is an open-air market extending between the Grand Bazaar and the ], which has been Istanbul's major spice market since 1660.
			] ushered in the age of modern shopping malls in Turkey when it opened in 1987.<ref>{{harvnb|Taşan-Kok|2004|p=166}}</ref> Since then, malls have become major shopping centers outside the historic peninsula. ] was awarded the titles of "Europe's best" and "World's best" shopping mall by the ] in 1995 and 1996; ] has been one of the continent's largest since opening in 2005; and ] won the Cityscape Architectural Review Award in the Commercial Built category in 2006.<ref name="kos9192"/> ] and ] are among the other upscale ] which include the stores of the world's top fashion brands.
			] is situated on the Asian side of Istanbul and ] is the main ] on the European side.]]
			Along ] is the ] ('Flower Passage'), a 19th-century shopping gallery which is today home to winehouses (known as ''meyhanes''), pubs and restaurants.<ref>{{harvnb|Freely|2011|p=429}}</ref> İstiklal Avenue, originally known for its taverns, has shifted toward shopping, but the nearby Nevizade Street is still lined with winehouses and pubs.<ref>{{harvnb|Keyder|1999|p=34}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Kugel|first=Seth|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E00E4DB1030F934A25754C0A9679D8B63|title=The $100 Istanbul Weekend|work=The New York Times|date=17 July 2011|access-date=29 April 2012}}</ref> Some other neighborhoods around İstiklal Avenue have been revamped to cater to Beyoğlu's nightlife, with formerly commercial streets now lined with pubs, cafes, and restaurants playing live music.<ref>{{harvnb|Knieling|Othengrafen|2009|pp=228–34}}</ref>
			], designed by ] and ], includes ], the city's largest performing arts theatre and concert hall.]]
			Istanbul is known for its historic seafood restaurants. Many of the city's most popular and upscale seafood restaurants line the shores of the Bosporus (particularly in neighborhoods like ], ], ], ], ] and ]). ] along the Sea of Marmara has a pedestrian zone that hosts around fifty fish restaurants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/default.aspx?pageid=438&n=managing-the-difficult-balance-between-tourism-and-authenticity-kumkapi-2008-07-26|work=Hürriyet Daily News|title=Managing the Difficult Balance Between Tourism and Authenticity|last=Schäfers|first=Marlene|date=26 July 2008|access-date=29 April 2012}}</ref>
			The ], {{convert|15|km|mi|sp=us|0}} from the city center, are also popular for their seafood restaurants. Because of their restaurants, historic summer mansions, and tranquil, car-free streets, the Princes' Islands are a popular vacation destination among Istanbulites and foreign tourists.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://travel.nytimes.com/2011/07/10/travel/buyukada-near-istanbul-is-an-island-idyll.html|work=The New York Times|title=A Turkish Idyll Lost in Time|last=Schillinger|first=Liesl|date=8 July 2011|access-date=29 April 2012}}</ref>
			Istanbul is also famous for its sophisticated and elaborately-cooked dishes of the ]. Following the influx of immigrants from southeastern and eastern Turkey, which began in the 1960s, the city's foodscape has drastically changed by the end of the century; with influences of Middle Eastern cuisine such as ] taking an important place in the food scene.
			Restaurants featuring foreign cuisines are mainly concentrated in the ], ], ] and ] districts.
			Apart from the city's numerous stadiums, sports halls and concert halls, there are several open-air venues for concerts and festivals, such as the ] in ], Paraf Kuruçeşme Open-Air on the Bosphorus shore in ], and Parkorman in the forest of ]. The annual ] has been held every year since 1994. Organized between 2003 and 2013, ] was the biggest open-air rock festival in Turkey, sponsored by Coca-Cola. It was traditionally held at the ] in Istanbul.
	] decorations in ]]]		], one of Istanbul's premier shopping streets]]
			The ] has been held annually since 1973, and the ] has been held annually since 1982. The ] is a contemporary art exhibition that has been held biennially since 1987. The ] is an annual shopping festival held since 2011, and ] is an annual festival of aviation, aerospace and technology, held since 2018.
	Aside from typical ] like ], Istanbul is also famous for its historic seafood restaurants. Many of the city's most popular and upscale seafood restaurants line the shores of the Bosphorus, while the ] neighborhood along the Sea of Marmara has a pedestrian zone that hosts around fifty fish restaurants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/default.aspx?pageid=438&n=managing-the-difficult-balance-between-tourism-and-authenticity-kumkapi-2008-07-26|work=Hürriyet Daily News|title=Managing the Difficult Balance Between Tourism and Authenticity|last=Schäfers|first=Marlene|date=26 July 2008|accessdate=29 April 2012}}</ref> The ], {{convert|15|km|mi|sp=us|0}} from the city center, are also popular for their seafood restaurants. Because of their restaurants, historic summer mansions, and tranquil, car-free streets, the Princes' Islands are a popular vacation destination among Istanbulites and foreign tourists.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://travel.nytimes.com/2011/07/10/travel/buyukada-near-istanbul-is-an-island-idyll.html?pagewanted=all|work=The New York Times|title=A Turkish Idyll Lost in Time|last=Schillinger|first=Liesl|date=8 July 2011|accessdate=29 April 2012}}</ref>
			When it was held for the first time in 2003, the annual ] became the first gay pride event in a Muslim-majority country.<ref>{{cite web|title=Turkey's LGBT community draws hope from Harvey Milk|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2013/12/turkey-lgbt-discrimination-legal-protection-public-awareness.html|access-date=27 January 2022|website=Al Monitor|date=17 June 2016}}</ref> Since 2015, all types of parades at ] and ] (where, in 2013, the ] took place) have been denied permission by the ] government, citing security concerns, but hundreds of people have defied the ban each year. Critics have claimed that the bans were in fact due to ideological reasons.
	Restaurants featuring foreign cuisines are mainly concentrated in the ] district. Residing along ] is the ], now home to winehouses (known as ''meyhanes''), pubs, and restaurants.<ref>{{harvnb|Freely|2011|p=429}}</ref> While the focus of İstiklal Avenue, originally famous for its taverns, has shifted toward shopping, the nearby Nevizade Street is still lined with winehouses and pubs.<ref>{{harvnb|Keyder|1999|p=34}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Kugel|first=Seth|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E00E4DB1030F934A25754C0A9679D8B63&pagewanted=all|title=The $100 Istanbul Weekend|work=The New York Times|date=17 July 2011|accessdate=29 April 2012}}</ref> Some other neighborhoods around İstiklal Avenue have recently been revamped to cater to Beyoğlu's nightlife, with formerly commercial streets now lined with pubs, cafés, and restaurants playing live music.<ref>{{harvnb|Knieling|Othengrafen|2009|pp=228–34}}</ref> Other focal points for Istanbul's nightlife include ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Tomasetti|first1=Kathryn|last2=Rutherford|first2=Tristan|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/2012/mar/23/istanbul-nightlife-bars-breakfast-brunch|work=The Guardian|title=A Big Night Out in Istanbul – And a Big Breakfast the Morning After|date=23 March 2012|accessdate=29 April 2012}}</ref>
	==Sports==		==Sports==
	{{see also|List of sport facilities in Istanbul}}		{{see also|List of sport facilities in Istanbul}}
	] is Turkey's largest multi-purpose stadium.|alt=A stadium with a football pitch and track surrounded by multi-tier seating and covered by a large hanging roof]]
	Istanbul has some of Turkey's oldest ]s. ], established in 1903, is considered the oldest of these sports clubs; because of its initial status as Turkey's only club, it occasionally played as the national team.<ref name="fifa-bes" /> While its football team has seen several periods of dominance in national competition,<ref name="fifa-bes" /> Istanbul's ] and ] have fared better in international competition and tie for the honor of winning the most ] championships.<ref name="fifa-gal">{{cite web|url=http://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/clubs/club=31018/index.html|publisher=FIFA|title=Galatasaray: The Lions of the Bosporus|accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/season=2008/clubs/club=52692/matches/index.html|publisher=The Union of European Football Associations|title=UEFA Champions League 2007/08 – History – Fenerbahçe|date=8 October 2011|accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref> Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe have a long-standing rivalry across the Bosphorus, with Galatasaray based in European Istanbul and Fenerbahçe based in the Anatolian part of the city.<ref name="fifa-gal" /> Istanbul has four basketball teams—], ], ], and ]—that play in the premier-level ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tbl.org.tr/beko/index.asp?sezon=2011-2012|publisher=The Turkish Basketball League|title=Türkiye Basketbol Ligleri|trans_title=Turkish Basketball League|language=Turkish|date=27 June 2012}}</ref>
			{{Multiple image
	Many of Istanbul's sports facilities have been built or upgraded since 2000 to bolster the city's bids for the ]. ], the largest multi-purpose stadium in Turkey, was completed in 2002 as an ] first-class venue for ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iaaf.org/mm/Document/06/02/67/60267_PDF_English.pdf|publisher=The International Association of Athletics Federations|title=List of Certified Athletics Facilities|date=1 April 2012|accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref> The stadium hosted the ] and remains the home field of ]. ], Fenerbahçe's home field, hosted the ] three years after its completion, and ] opened in 2011 to replace ] as Galatasaray's home turf.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.archive.uefa.com/competitions/uefacup/history/season=2009/intro.html|publisher=The Union of European Football Associations|title=2008/09: Pitmen strike gold in Istanbul|date=20 May 2009|accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/ascioglu-sues-partners-in-joint-project-over-ali-sami-yen-land.aspx?pageID=238&nID=15972&NewsCatID=345|work=Hürriyet Daily News|title=Aşçıoğlu Sues Partners in Joint Project Over Ali Sami Yen Land|last=Aktaş|first=İsmail|date=14 March 2012|accessdate=3 July 2012}}</ref> All three stadiums are elite ] (formerly five-star) UEFA stadiums.{{efn|name=uefa-category|While UEFA does not apparently keep a list of Category 4 stadiums, regulations stipulate that only these elite stadiums are eligible to host UEFA Champions League Finals,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uefa.com/MultimediaFiles/Download/Regulations/uefa/Others/91/48/36/914836_DOWNLOAD.pdf|publisher=The Union of European Football Associations|format=pdf|page=14|title=Regulations of the UEFA European Football Championship 2010–12|accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref> which Atatürk Olympic Stadium did in 2005, and UEFA Europa League (formerly UEFA Cup) Finals,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uefa.com/MultimediaFiles/Download/Regulations/competitions/Regulations/01/48/48/90/1484890_DOWNLOAD.pdf|publisher=The Union of European Football Associations|format=pdf|page=17|title=Regulations of the UEFA Europa League 2010/11|accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref> which Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium did in 2009. ] is noted as an elite UEFA stadium by its architects.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asp-stuttgart.de/index2.php?lan=en&n=2&s=3&d=1&id=38&type=&site=http%3A//www.asp-stuttgart.de/asp_content.php%3Flan%3Den%26n%3D2%26s%3D3%26d%3D1%26id%3D38|publisher='asp' Architekten|title=Türk Telekom Arena Istanbul|accessdate=5 July 2012}}</ref>}}
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			Istanbul is home to some of Turkey's oldest ]s. ], established in 1903, is considered the oldest of these sports clubs. Due to its initial status as Turkey's only club, Beşiktaş occasionally represented the Ottoman Empire and Turkish Republic in international sports competitions, earning the right to place the Turkish flag inside its team logo.<ref name="fifa-bes">{{cite web|url=https://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/clubs/club=44163/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629192432/http://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/clubs/club=44163/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 June 2009 |publisher=FIFA |access-date=8 April 2012|title=Besiktas: The Black Eagles of the Bosporus}}</ref> ] and ] have fared better in international competitions and have won more ] titles, at 24 and 19 times, respectively.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rsssf.org/tablest/turkchamp.html|title=Turkey – List of Champions|website=]|publisher=]|access-date=31 May 2018}}</ref><ref name="fifa-gal">{{cite web|url=https://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/clubs/club=31018/index.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110116183044/http://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/clubs/club=31018/index.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 January 2011|publisher=FIFA|title=Galatasaray: The Lions of the Bosporus|access-date=10 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/season=2008/clubs/club=52692/matches/index.html|publisher=The Union of European Football Associations|title=UEFA Champions League 2007/08 – History – Fenerbahçe|date=8 October 2011|access-date=10 April 2012}}</ref> Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe have a long-standing rivalry, with Galatasaray based in the European part and Fenerbahçe based in the Anatolian part of the city.<ref name="fifa-gal"/> Istanbul has seven basketball teams—], ], ], ], ], ] and ]—that play in the premier-level ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bsl.org.tr/bsl/istatistikler/puan-durumu |publisher=Turkish Basketball Super League |title=Puan Durumu: 2015–2016 Sezonu 30. Hafta |trans-title=League Table: 2015–16 Season, Round 30 |language=tr |access-date=6 June 2016 |archive-date=14 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514115655/http://www.bsl.org.tr/bsl/istatistikler/puan-durumu |url-status=dead }}</ref>
	], completed in 2012, is the home court of ]'s basketball and volleyball teams.|alt=A brightly lit basketball court and game, with spectators filling the surrounding darkened bowl of seats]]
	The ], among the largest indoor arenas in Europe, hosted the final of the ], the ], and the ] Final Four.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://turkey2010.fiba.com/pages/eng/fe/10/fwcm/event-guide/cities/istanbul/p/arena.html|publisher=FIBA|title=2010 FIBA World Championship Istanbul: Arenas|accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref> Prior to the completion of the Sinan Erdem Dome in 2010, ] was Istanbul's primary indoor arena, having hosted the finals of ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://turkey2010.fiba.com/pages/eng/fe/10/fwcm/event-guide/cities/istanbul/p/arena.html|publisher=FIBA|title=Istanbul – Arenas|year=2010|accessdate=29 June 2012}}</ref> Several other indoor arenas, including the ], have also been inaugurated since 2000, serving as the home courts of Istanbul's sports clubs. The most recent of these is the 13,800-seat ], which opened in 2012 as the home court of Fenerbahçe's basketball teams.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.euroleague.net/news/i/92943/180/fenerbahce-ulker-s-new-home-ulker-sports-arena-opens|publisher=Euroleague Basketball|title=Fenerbahce Ulker's new home, Ulker Sports Arena, opens|date=24 January 2012|accessdate=29 June 2012}}</ref> Despite the construction boom, four consecutive bids for the Summer Olympics—in ], ], ], and ]—and national bids for ] and ] have ended unsuccessfully.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Latest-News-Wires/2011/0902/2020-Olympics-Six-cities-lodge-bids-for-the-games|work=The Christian Science Monitor|last=Wilson|first=Stephen|title=2020 Olympics: Six cities lodge bids for the games|date=2 September 2011|accessdate=29 June 2012}}</ref> Istanbul is currently ] for the ], with the host city expected to be announced in September 2013, and is at the center of Turkey's ], on which a decision is expected in early 2014.<ref name="olympic.org" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football/international/uefa-announce-new-euro-2020-bid-process-7757074.html|work=The Independent|title=UEFA Announce New Euro 2020 Bid Process|date=16 May 2012|accessdate=29 June 2012}}</ref>
			Many of Istanbul's sports facilities have been built or upgraded since 2000 to bolster the city's bids for the ]. ], the largest multi-purpose stadium in Turkey, was completed in 2002 as an ] first-class venue for ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iaaf.org/download/download?filename=5b516685-e0c0-499e-8f93-5aa1d5d8b05a.pdf&urlslug=IAAF%20CERTIFICATES%20-%20Certified%20Athletics%20Facilities|publisher=The International Association of Athletics Federations|title=List of Certified Athletics Facilities|date=1 January 2013|access-date=2 January 2013}}</ref> The stadium hosted the ], and was selected by the ] to host the CL Final games of ] and ], which were relocated to ] (2020) and ] (2021) due to the ].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football/european/champions-league-final-2020-istanbul-host-uefa-a8367176.html|title=Istanbul to host 2020 Champions League final, Uefa confirms|date=24 May 2018|work=The Independent|access-date=24 May 2018}}</ref> ], Fenerbahçe's home field, hosted the ] three years after its completion. ] opened in 2011 to replace ] as Galatasaray's home turf,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.archive.uefa.com/competitions/uefacup/history/season=2009/intro.html |publisher=The Union of European Football Associations |title=2008/09: Pitmen strike gold in Istanbul |date=20 May 2009 |access-date=10 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130917034224/http://en.archive.uefa.com/competitions/uefacup/history/season%3D2009/intro.html |archive-date=17 September 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/ascioglu-sues-partners-in-joint-project-over-ali-sami-yen-land.aspx?pageID=238&nID=15972&NewsCatID=345|work=Hürriyet Daily News|title=Aşçıoğlu Sues Partners in Joint Project Over Ali Sami Yen Land|last=Aktaş|first=İsmail|date=14 March 2012|access-date=3 July 2012}}</ref> while ], opened in 2016 to replace ] as the home turf of Beşiktaş, hosted the ] game. All four stadiums are elite ] (formerly five-star) UEFA stadiums.{{efn|name=uefa-category|UEFA does not apparently keep a list of Category 4 stadiums, but regulations stipulate that only these elite stadiums are eligible to host UEFA Champions League Finals,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uefa.com/MultimediaFiles/Download/Regulations/uefa/Others/91/48/36/914836_DOWNLOAD.pdf|publisher=The Union of European Football Associations|page=14|title=Regulations of the UEFA European Football Championship 2010–12|access-date=10 April 2012}}</ref> which Atatürk Olympic Stadium did in 2005, and UEFA Europa League (formerly UEFA Cup) Finals,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uefa.com/MultimediaFiles/Download/Regulations/competitions/Regulations/01/48/48/90/1484890_DOWNLOAD.pdf|publisher=The Union of European Football Associations|page=17|title=Regulations of the UEFA Europa League 2010/11|access-date=10 April 2012}}</ref> which Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium did in 2009. ] is noted as an elite UEFA stadium by its architects.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asp-stuttgart.de/index2.php?lan=en&n=2&s=3&d=1&id=38&type=&site=http%3A//www.asp-stuttgart.de/asp_content.php%3Flan%3Den%26n%3D2%26s%3D3%26d%3D1%26id%3D38|publisher='asp' Architekten|title=Türk Telekom Arena Istanbul|access-date=5 July 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130426015930/http://www.asp-stuttgart.de/index2.php?lan=en&n=2&s=3&d=1&id=38&type=&site=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.asp-stuttgart.de%2Fasp_content.php%3Flan%3Den%26n%3D2%26s%3D3%26d%3D1%26id%3D38|archive-date=26 April 2013}}</ref>}}
	] was a stop on the ] circuit and the ] in 2005 and 2006, but the track has not seen either of these competitions since then.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fiawtcc.com/events|publisher=FIA World Touring Car Championship|title=Events|year=2012|accessdate=29 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europeanlemansseries.com/en/s02_corporate/s02p17_circuits.php|title=The Circuits|publisher=European Le Mans Series|year=2012|accessdate=3 July 2012}}</ref> Between its opening in 2005 and 2011, ] also hosted the annual ]; its future remains uncertain due to financial troubles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2011/apr/22/turkey-f1-grand-prix|work=The Guardian|last=Richards|first=Giles|title=Turkey Grand Prix Heads for the Scrapyard Over $26m Price Tag|date=22 April 2011|accessdate=3 July 2012}}</ref> The Istanbul Sailing Club, established in 1952, hosts a number of races, showcases, and events on the waterways in and around Istanbul each year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.istanbulyelken.org.tr/yarislar/48-2012-yar%C4%B1%C5%9F-program%C4%B1-ve-genel-yar%C4%B1%C5%9F-talimat%C4%B1.html|publisher=The Istanbul Sailing Club|title=2012 Yarış Programı ve Genel Yarış Talimatı|language=Turkish|trans_title=2012 Race Schedule and General Sailing Instructions|year=2012|accessdate=3 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/default.aspx?pageid=438&n=sailing-week-starts-in-istanbul-2008-08-23|work=Hürriyet Daily News|author=Turkish Daily News|title=Sailing Week Starts in Istanbul|date=23 August 2008|accessdate=3 July 2012}}</ref> The Turkish Offshore Racing Club also hosts major races, with its most prestigious being its race for the Marine Forces Trophy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tayk.org.tr/about-us|publisher=The Turkish Offshore Racing Club|title=About Us|date=31 March 2012|accessdate=3 July 2012}}</ref> Istanbul was also an occasional stop on the ] circuit, although its last appearance on the Bosphorus was in 2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.f1h2o.com/races/index.php|publisher=F1 Powerboat World Championship|title=Races|year=2012|accessdate=3 July 2012}}</ref>
			The ], among the largest indoor arenas in Europe, hosted the final of the ], the ], as well as the ] and ] Final Fours.<ref name="turkey2010"/> Prior to the completion of the Sinan Erdem Dome in 2010, ] was Istanbul's primary indoor arena, having hosted the finals of ].<ref name="turkey2010">{{cite web|url=http://turkey2010.fiba.com/pages/eng/fe/10/fwcm/event-guide/cities/istanbul/p/arena.html|publisher=FIBA|title=Istanbul – Arenas|year=2010|access-date=29 June 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603101234/http://turkey2010.fiba.com/pages/eng/fe/10/fwcm/event-guide/cities/istanbul/p/arena.html|archive-date=3 June 2013}}</ref> Several other indoor arenas, including the ], have also been inaugurated since 2000, serving as the home courts of Istanbul's sports clubs. The most recent of these is the 13,800-seat ], which opened in 2012 as the home court of Fenerbahçe's basketball teams.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.euroleague.net/news/i/92943/180/fenerbahce-ulker-s-new-home-ulker-sports-arena-opens|publisher=Euroleague Basketball|title=Fenerbahce Ulker's new home, Ulker Sports Arena, opens|date=24 January 2012|access-date=29 June 2012}}</ref> Despite the construction boom, five bids for the Summer Olympics—in ], ], ], ], and ]—and national bids for ] and ] have ended unsuccessfully.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Latest-News-Wires/2011/0902/2020-Olympics-Six-cities-lodge-bids-for-the-games|work=The Christian Science Monitor|last=Wilson|first=Stephen|title=2020 Olympics: Six cities lodge bids for the games|date=2 September 2011|access-date=29 June 2012}}</ref> The city will host the ] of the ].
			The ] is one of the major volleyball arenas in the city and hosts clubs such as ], ], and ] who have won numerous ] and ] titles.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}
			Between the 2005–2011 seasons,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2011/apr/22/turkey-f1-grand-prix|work=The Guardian|last=Richards|first=Giles|title=Turkey Grand Prix Heads for the Scrapyard Over $26m Price Tag |date=22 April 2011|access-date=3 July 2012}}</ref> and in the 2020 season,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.formula1.com/en/racing/2020/Turkey.html|title=Turkish Grand Prix 2020 (12-15 November 2020) |website=formula1.com |accessdate=2 June 2021}}</ref> ] racing circuit hosted the Formula One ]. The 2021 F1 Turkish Grand Prix was initially cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic,<ref>{{cite web|date=14 May 2021|title=2021 F1 calendar reshuffled as Turkey drops off and extra Austria race added|url=https://www.formula1.com/en/latest/article.breaking-2021-f1-calendar-reshuffled-as-turkey-drops-off-and-extra-austria.3TufMtNBGTB4ALrfGaiN9e.html|access-date=14 May 2021|website=Formula1.com}}</ref> but on 25 June 2021, it was announced that the 2021 F1 Turkish Grand Prix will take place on 3 October 2021.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.formula1.com/en/latest/article.breaking-turkish-grand-prix-to-rejoin-2021-formula-1-calendar.7JsDzHsgxu26IxaOmPVnOX.html|title=Turkish Grand Prix to rejoin 2021 Formula 1 calendar|website=formula1.com|date=25 June 2021}}</ref> Istanbul Park was also a venue of the ] and the ] in 2005 and 2006, but the track has not seen either of these competitions since then.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fiawtcc.com/events |publisher=FIA World Touring Car Championship |title=Events |year=2012 |access-date=29 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616194425/http://www.igd.com.tr/Upload/file_4d9f1f3815b2d.pdf |archive-date=16 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europeanlemansseries.com/en/s02_corporate/s02p17_circuits.php |title=The Circuits |publisher=European Le Mans Series |year=2012 |access-date=3 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120707235004/http://www.europeanlemansseries.com/en/s02_corporate/s02p17_circuits.php |archive-date=7 July 2012}}</ref> It also hosted the ] between 2005 and 2007. Istanbul was occasionally a venue of the ], with the last race on the Bosporus strait on 12–13 August 2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.f1h2o.net/calendar/2000|publisher=F1 Powerboat World Championship|title=2000 Race Calendar|year=2000|access-date=8 January 2017}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=December 2020}} The last race of the ] on the Bosporus took place on 19–21 June 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LcrqUrNO4dU |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/LcrqUrNO4dU |archive-date=21 December 2021 |url-status=live|title=Powerboat P1 – 2009 World Championship – Istanbul, Turkey|publisher=Supersport|date=21 June 2009}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Istanbul Sailing Club, established in 1952, hosts races and other sailing events on the waterways in and around Istanbul each year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.istanbulyelken.org.tr/yarislar/48-2012-yar%C4%B1%C5%9F-program%C4%B1-ve-genel-yar%C4%B1%C5%9F-talimat%C4%B1.html |publisher=The Istanbul Sailing Club |title=2012 Yarış Programı ve Genel Yarış Talimatı |language=tr |trans-title=2012 Race Schedule and General Sailing Instructions |year=2012 |access-date=3 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120604022738/http://www.istanbulyelken.org.tr/yarislar/48-2012-yar%C4%B1%C5%9F-program%C4%B1-ve-genel-yar%C4%B1%C5%9F-talimat%C4%B1.html |archive-date=4 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/default.aspx?pageid=438&n=sailing-week-starts-in-istanbul-2008-08-23|work=Hürriyet Daily News|author=Turkish Daily News|title=Sailing Week Starts in Istanbul|date=23 August 2008|access-date=3 July 2012}}</ref>
	==Media==		==Media==
			] ({{convert|369|m|ft|abbr=on}}) is the tallest structure in the city.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://camlicakule.istanbul/kule-hakkinda |title=About the Tower|website=camlicakule.istanbul|accessdate=11 November 2021}}</ref>]]
	]'' is one of Turkey's most circulated newspapers.|alt=Entrance to an office building with an overhead sign saying 'Hürriyet']]
	While most state-run radio and television stations are based in Ankara, Istanbul is the primary hub of Turkish media. The industry has its roots in the former Ottoman capital, where the first Turkish newspaper, ''Takvim-i Vekayi'' (Calendar of Affairs), was published in 1831. The ] street on which the newspaper was printed, Bâb-ı Âli Street, rapidly became the center of Turkish print media, alongside Beyoğlu across the Golden Horn.<ref>{{harvnb|Brummett|2000|pp=11, 35, 385–6}}</ref>		Most state-run radio and television stations are based in Ankara, but Istanbul is the primary hub of Turkish media. The industry has its roots in the former Ottoman capital, where the first Turkish newspaper, ''Takvim-i Vekayi'' (Calendar of Affairs), was published in 1831. The ] street on which the newspaper was printed, Bâb-ı Âli Street, rapidly became the center of Turkish print media, alongside Beyoğlu across the Golden Horn.<ref>{{harvnb|Brummett|2000|pp=11, 35, 385–86}}</ref>
	Today, Istanbul hosts a wide variety of periodicals. Most nationwide newspapers are based in Istanbul, with simultaneous Ankara and İzmir editions.<ref name="loc-pro">{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Turkey.pdf|publisher=The Library of Congress Federal Research Division|title=Country Profile: Turkey|date=August 2008|accessdate=8 May 2012}}</ref> Istanbul-based '']'', although only founded in 1986, is Turkey's most widely circulated paper, with a weekly distribution of more than one million. '']'', '']'', '']'', and '']'', which round out the country's top five papers, are all headquartered in Istanbul, boasting more than 200,000 weekly sales each. ''Hürriyet'''s English-language edition, '']'', has been printed since 1961, but the English-language '']'', first published by ''Zaman'' in 2007, has overtaken it in circulation. Several smaller newspapers, including popular publications like '']'' and '']'', are also based in Istanbul.<ref name="loc-pro" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medyatava.com/tiraj.asp|title=Gazete Net Satışları|trans_title=Net Sales of Newspapers|language=Turkish|work=Medyatava|accessdate=8 May 2012|date=30 April 2012}}</ref>		Istanbul now has a wide variety of periodicals. Most nationwide newspapers are based in Istanbul, with simultaneous Ankara and İzmir editions.<ref name="loc-pro">{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Turkey.pdf|publisher=The Library of Congress Federal Research Division|title=Country Profile: Turkey|date=August 2008|access-date=8 May 2012}}</ref> '']'', '']'', '']'' and '']'', the country's top four papers, are all headquartered in Istanbul, boasting more than 275,000 weekly sales each.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.medyatava.com/tiraj |title=Tiraj |language=tr |work=Medyatava |access-date=25 December 2016 |date=25 December 2016 |archive-date=28 March 2018 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20180328181234/http://www.medyatava.com/tiraj |url-status=dead }}</ref> ''Hürriyet''{{'}}s English-language edition, '']'', has been printed since 1961, but the English-language '']'', first published by ''Sabah'' in 2014, has overtaken it in circulation. Several smaller newspapers, including popular publications like {{Lang|tr|]}}, {{lang|tr|]}} and '']'' are also based in Istanbul.<ref name="loc-pro"/> Istanbul also has long-running ] newspapers, notably the dailies '']'' and '']'' and the bilingual weekly '']'' in Armenian and Turkish.<ref>{{cite news |author=Vercihan Ziflioğlu |title=Young editor to take helm of Turkish-Armenian weekly |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=young-editor-in-chief-to-weekly-agos-2010-06-17 |newspaper=] |date=17 June 2010 |access-date=21 February 2011}}</ref>
			Radio broadcasts in Istanbul date back to 1927, when Turkey's first radio transmission came from atop the Central Post Office in Eminönü. Control of this transmission, and other radio stations established in the following decades, ultimately came under the state-run ] (TRT), which held a monopoly on radio and television broadcasts between its founding in 1964 and 1990.<ref name="trt-radio">{{cite web|url=http://www.trt.net.tr/Generic/SayfaTasarimiGoster.aspx?TaslakKodu=bc738c28-15c7-4f98-8793-8d75c4a15cba&dil=en |publisher=The Turkish Radio and Television Corporation |title=TRT – Radio |access-date=8 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110609031759/http://www.trt.net.tr/Generic/SayfaTasarimiGoster.aspx?TaslakKodu=bc738c28-15c7-4f98-8793-8d75c4a15cba&dil=en |archive-date=9 June 2011}}</ref> Today, TRT runs four national radio stations; these stations have transmitters across the country so each can reach over {{nowrap|90 percent}} of the country's population, but only {{nowrap|Radio 2}} is based in Istanbul. Offering a range of content from educational programming to coverage of sporting events, {{nowrap|Radio 2}} is the most popular radio station in Turkey.<ref name="trt-radio"/> Istanbul's airwaves are the busiest in Turkey, primarily featuring either Turkish-language or English-language content. One of the exceptions, offering both, is ] (94.9 FM). Among Turkey's first private stations, and the first featuring foreign popular music, was Istanbul's ] (97.2 FM). The state-run {{nowrap|Radio 3}}, although based in Ankara, also features English-language popular music, and English-language news programming is provided on NTV Radyo (102.8 FM).<ref>{{harvnb|Time Out Guides|2010|p=224}}</ref>
	]
	Radio broadcasts in Istanbul date back to 1927, when Turkey's first radio transmission came from atop the Central Post Office in Eminönü. Control of this transmission, and other radio stations established in the following decades, ultimately came under the state-run ] (TRT), which held a monopoly on radio and television broadcasts between its founding in 1964 and 1990.<ref name="trt-radio">{{cite web|url=http://www.trt.net.tr/Generic/SayfaTasarimiGoster.aspx?TaslakKodu=bc738c28-15c7-4f98-8793-8d75c4a15cba&dil=en|publisher=The Turkish Radio and Television Corporation|title=TRT – Radio|accessdate=8 May 2012}}</ref> Today, TRT runs four national radio stations; while these stations have transmitters across the country so each can reach over {{nowrap|90 percent}} of the country's population, only one—{{nowrap|Radio 2}}—is based in Istanbul. Offering a range of content from educational programming to coverage of sporting events, {{nowrap|Radio 2}} is the most popular radio station in Turkey.<ref name="trt-radio" /> Istanbul's airwaves are the busiest in Turkey, primarily featuring either Turkish-language or English-language content. One of the rare exceptions, offering both, is ] (94.9 FM). Among Turkey's first private stations, and the first featuring foreign popular music, was Istanbul's ] (97.2 FM). The state-run {{nowrap|Radio 3}}, although based in Ankara, also features English-language popular music, while English-language news programming is provided on NTV Radyo (102.8 FM).<ref>{{harvnb|Time Out Guides|2010|p=224}}</ref>
	TRT-Children is the only TRT television station based in Istanbul.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trt.net.tr/Generic/SayfaTasarimiGoster.aspx?TaslakKodu=a7de2f34-dc4f-475e-840f-54812bc5b567&dil=en|publisher=The Turkish Radio and Television Corporation|title=TRT – Television|accessdate=8 May 2012}}</ref> Regardless, Istanbul is home to the headquarters of a number of Turkish stations and regional headquarters of international media outlets. Istanbul-based ] was the first private television network to be established following the end of the TRT monopoly; Star TV and ] (also based in Istanbul) remain highly popular throughout the country, airing Turkish and American series.<ref>{{harvnb|Norris|2010|p=184}}</ref> ], ], and ] are other stations in Istanbul that offer a mix of news and series, while ] (partnered with U.S. media outlet ]) and ]—both based in the city—are mainly just known for their news coverage in Turkish. The ] has a regional office in Istanbul, assisting its Turkish-language news operations, while American news channel ] established the Turkish-language ] there in 1999.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/aboutbbcnews/hi/profiles/newsid_3660000/3660911.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Chris Morris|accessdate=8 May 2012}}</ref> The Istanbul-based business and entertainment channel ] began broadcasting in 2000.		TRT-Children is the only TRT television station based in Istanbul.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trt.net.tr/Generic/SayfaTasarimiGoster.aspx?TaslakKodu=a7de2f34-dc4f-475e-840f-54812bc5b567&dil=en |publisher=The Turkish Radio and Television Corporation |title=TRT – Television |access-date=8 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814161319/http://www.trt.net.tr/Generic/SayfaTasarimiGoster.aspx?TaslakKodu=a7de2f34-dc4f-475e-840f-54812bc5b567&dil=en |archive-date=14 August 2011}}</ref> Istanbul is home to the headquarters of several Turkish stations and regional headquarters of international media outlets. Istanbul-based ] was the first private television network to be established following the end of the TRT monopoly; Star TV and ] (also based in Istanbul) remain highly popular throughout the country, airing Turkish and American series.<ref>{{harvnb|Norris|2010|p=184}}</ref> ] and ] are other stations in Istanbul that offer a mix of news and series; ] (partnered with American media outlet ]) and ]—both based in the city—are mainly just known for their news coverage in Turkish. The ] has a regional office in Istanbul, assisting its Turkish-language news operations, and the American news channel ] established the Turkish-language ] there in 1999.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/aboutbbcnews/hi/profiles/newsid_3660000/3660911.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Chris Morris|access-date=8 May 2012}}</ref>
			{{Further|topic=the monthly publication|Mostar (magazine)}}
	==Education==		==Education==
	{{further|Education in Turkey}}		{{Further|Education in Turkey}}
			], the city's oldest Turkish institution, established in 1453|alt=A triumphal arch adjacent to a Turkish flag and in front of an open plaza]]
			As of 2019, excluding universities more than 3.1 million students attended ] in Istanbul, about half of the schools being ]s.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı İstanbul Eğitim İstatistikleri Açıklandı |url=http://istanbul.gov.tr/milli-egitim-bakanligi-istanbul-egitim-istatistikleri-aciklandi |access-date=2023-07-28 |website=istanbul.gov.tr}}</ref> The average class size was 30 for primary education institutes, 27 for vocational schools and 23 for general high schools.<ref name=":1" /> Of the 842 public high schools, 263 are ]s, another 263 are ], 207 are religiously oriented ]s, and 14 are ]-oriented ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Şafak |first=Yeni |title=İstanbul'daki en iyi liseler hangileri: 2022 İstanbul Anadolu Liseleri, Fen Liseleri, İmam Hatip ve Teknik Liseleri taban puanları ve yüzdelik dilimleri belli oldu mu? |url=https://www.yenisafak.com/istanbuldaki-en-iyi-liseler-hangileri-2022-istanbul-anadolu-liseleri-fen-liseleri-imam-hatip-ve-teknik-liseleri-taban-puanlari-ve-yuzdelik-dilimleri-belli-oldu-mu-h-3833401 |access-date=2023-07-28 |website=Yeni Şafak |language=tr-TR}}</ref> ] was established in 1481 and is the oldest public high school in Turkey.<ref name="educationheper">{{cite book |last1=Heper |first1=Metin |title=Historical dictionary of Turkey |date=2018 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-1-5381-0224-4 |edition=Fourth |location=Lanham, MD |pages=155–57}}</ref> ], ] and ] are among other public high schools in the city. Istanbul also contains high schools established by the European and American expatriates and missionaries in the 19th century that currently offer secular, foreign-language education such as ], ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-06-15 |title=Türkiye'de kaç yabancı lise var? Yasaktan neden muaflar? |url=https://www.gazeteilksayfa.com/turkiyede-kac-yabanci-lise-var-186210h.htm |access-date=2023-07-20 |website=Gazete İlk Sayfa |language=tr}}</ref> Furthermore ] are allowed to establish and attend their respective schools as granted in the ], ] being an example.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Azınlık Okulları Sorunlarla Açılıyor |url=https://bianet.org/bianet/azinliklar/167867-azinlik-okullari-sorunlarla-aciliyor |website=bianet.org}}</ref> Most ] are highly selective and demand high scores from the national standardized {{ill|LGS exam|tr|Liselere Geçiş Sistemi|vertical-align=sup}} for admission, with Galatasaray and Robert College only accepting the top 0.1% to 0.01% of the exam takers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Aydınlık |date=2023-03-07 |title=İstanbul'un en iyi liseleri açıklandı! İşte 2023 lise taban puanları |url=https://www.aydinlik.com.tr/haber/istanbulun-en-iyi-liseleri-aciklandi-iste-2023-lise-taban-puanlari-istanbulun-en-iyi-liseleri-istanbul-lise-taban-puanlari-2023-lise-taban-puanlari-lgs-400928 |access-date=2023-07-28 |website=aydinlik.com.tr |language=tr-TR}}</ref>
	], the city's oldest Turkish institution|alt=A triumphal arch adjacent to a Turkish flag and in front of an open plaza]]
	], founded in 1453, is the oldest Turkish educational institution in the city. Although originally an ], the university established law, medicine, and science departments in the 19th century and was secularized after the founding of the Turkish Republic.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Istanbul University|url=http://www2.istanbul.edu.tr/english/?p=68|title=History|date=11 August 2011|accessdate=20 August 2012}}</ref> ], founded in 1773 as the Royal School of Naval Engineering, is the world's third-oldest university dedicated entirely to engineering sciences.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itu.edu.tr/en/?about/history|publisher=Istanbul Technical University|title=History|accessdate=4 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.best.eu.org/student/education/universityProfile.jsp?universityPtr=7h066pc|publisher=Board of European Students of Technology|title=University Profile: Istanbul Technical University, Turkey|accessdate=30 March 2012}}</ref> These public universities are two of just eight across the city;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yok.gov.tr/en/content/view/761/lang,tr/|publisher=The Turkish Council of Higher Education|title=State Universities|accessdate=30 March 2012}}</ref> other prominent state universities in Istanbul include the ], which served as Turkey's primary institution of art until the 1970s,<ref name="gosotu2213" /> and ], the country's third-largest institution of higher learning.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marmara.edu.tr/en/information/general-information|publisher=Marmara University|title=About Marmara|accessdate=4 July 2012}}</ref> ], founded in 2010, is the newest public university, offering two-year degrees through eleven academic departments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medeniyet.edu.tr/General_Information.html|publisher=Istanbul Medeniyet University|location=Ankara|title=General Information|accessdate=30 March 2012}}</ref>
			Istanbul contains almost a third of all ]. As of 2019 Istanbul has 61 colleges and universities, with more than 1.8 million students enrolled according to official figures. Of those, fourteen are state-owned, 44 are "foundation-owned" ] and three are foundation-owned ] of higher education. There are also military academies, including the ] and ] as well as four foundation-owned vocational universities of higher education which are not affiliated with any university.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The City of Universities: Istanbul |url=http://en.istanbul.gov.tr/the-city-of-universities-istanbul |access-date=2023-07-28 |website=en.istanbul.gov.tr}}</ref>
	While the most established universities in Istanbul are backed by the government, the city has a number of prominent private institutions. The first modern private university in Istanbul was ], founded by a group from the United States in 1863. The tertiary element of its education program has become the public ] in 1971, while the remaining portion in Arnavutköy continues as a boarding school under the name Robert College.<ref name="dog">{{cite web|last=Doğramacı|first=İhsan|url=http://www.intconfhighered.org/Dogramaci-final.doc|format=DOC|title=Private Versus Public Universities: The Turkish Experience|work=18th International Conference on Higher Education|location=Ankara|year=2005|month=August|accessdate=30 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://webportal.robcol.k12.tr/About-RC/HistoryOfRc/Pages/default.aspx|publisher=Robert College|title=History of RC|year=2012|accessdate=15 October 2012}}</ref> Private universities were officially outlawed in Turkey before the ], but there were already fifteen private "higher schools", which were effectively universities, in Istanbul by 1970. The first private university established in Istanbul since 1982 was ] (founded in 1992), and another dozen had opened within the following decade.<ref name="dog" /> Today, there are at least thirty private universities in the city, including ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yok.gov.tr/en/content/view/762/lang,tr/|publisher=The Turkish Council of Higher Education|title=Private Universities|accessdate=30 March 2012}}</ref>
			{{multiple image
	], ] has been an American boarding school|alt=An ivy-covered neoclassical building atop a hill, with a greenery-adorned walkway leading to its entrance]]
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	In 2007, there were about ], about half of which were ]s; on average, each school had 688 students. In recent years, Istanbul's educational system has expanded substantially; from 2000 to 2007, the number of classrooms and teachers nearly doubled and the number of students increased by more than {{nowrap|60 percent}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.istanbul.gov.tr/Modules/SayilarlaIst2/tabloizleme2.aspx?id=83|publisher=Governorship of Istanbul|title=2007 Yılına Ait Veriler|language=Turkish|trans_title=Data for 2007|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/60e31AvfM|archivedate=2 August 2011|accessdate=30 March 2012}}</ref> ], established in 1481 as the Galata Palace Imperial School, is the oldest high school in Istanbul and the second-oldest educational institution in the city. It was built at the behest of Sultan ], who sought to bring students with diverse backgrounds together as a means of further strengthening his growing empire.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gsu.edu.tr/fr/universite/tarihce|publisher=Galatasaray University|title=Historique|language=French|trans_title=History|accessdate=30 March 2012}}</ref> It is one of Turkey's ]s, elite public high schools that place a stronger emphasis on instruction in foreign languages. Galatasaray, for example, offers instruction in French, while other Anatolian High Schools primarily teach in English or German alongside Turkish.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mevzuat.meb.gov.tr/html/45.html|publisher=Ministry of Education|title=Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Anadolu Liseleri Yönetmeliği|language=Turkish|trans_title=Ministry of Education Regulation on Anatolian High Schools|date=5 November 1999|accessdate=30 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gsl.k12.tr/europecelebratesit/galatasaray.htm|publisher=Galatasaray High School|title=Galatasaray Lisesi|accessdate=4 July 2012}}</ref> The city also has foreign high schools, such as ], that were established in the 19th century to educate foreigners.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.liceoitaliano.net/en/pages/history.htm|publisher=Liceo Italiano|title=The History of the Italian School|accessdate=3 July 2012}}</ref>
			| image1 = Istanbul asv2020-02 img69 Maçka Armory.jpg
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			| footer = ] (left) and Taşkışla (right) campuses of ]
			}}
			Some of the most renowned and highly ranked universities in Turkey are in Istanbul. ], the nation's oldest institute of higher education, dates back to 1453 and its dental, law, medical schools were founded in the 19th century.The city's largest private universities include ], with its main campus in ], ] in Sarıyer, ] near ]. Istanbul's first private university, Koç University, was founded as late as 1992, because private universities were not allowed in Turkey before the ] to the constitution.<ref name="educationheper" /> Istanbul is also home to several conservatories and art schools, including ], founded in 1882.<ref name="finearts">{{cite book |last1=Heper |first1=Metin |title=Historical dictionary of Turkey |date=2018 |publisher=Scarecrow Preess |location=Lanham, MD |isbn=978-1-5381-0224-4 |pages=183–85 |edition=Fourth}}</ref>
	A few of Istanbul's other high schools are notable for their styles of teaching or entrance requirements. ], located along the shores of the Bosphorus in ], and ], located on one of the ],
	are military high schools, complemented by three ]—the ], ], and ] Academies. Another important school in Istanbul is ], which provides free education to children across the country missing at least one parent. Darüşşafaka begins instruction with the fourth grade, providing instruction in English and, starting in sixth grade, a second foreign language—German or French.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darussafaka.k12.tr/English/Sayfalar/Principles-of-Education.aspx|publisher=Darüşşafaka High School|title=Principles of Education|accessdate=6 July 2012}}</ref> Other prominent high schools in the city include ] (founded in 1908)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kabataserkeklisesi.k12.tr/|publisher=Kabataş Erkek Lisesi|title=Kabataş Erkek Lisesi|language=Turkey|accessdate=31 March 2012}}</ref> and ] (founded in 1955).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kalev.org.tr/MenuContent.aspx?id=77|publisher=Kadıköy Anadolu Lisesi|title=KAL Uygulamalı Yabancı Dil Laboratuvarı|language=Turkish|trans_title=KAL Applied Foreign Language Lab|accessdate=31 March 2012}}</ref>
			Public universities with a major presence in the city, such as Istanbul University, ] (the world's third-oldest university dedicated entirely to engineering, established in 1773), and ] (formerly the higher education section of Robert College until 1971) provide education in English as the primary foreign language, while the primary foreign language of education at ] is French.<ref name="educationheper"/>
	==Public services==		==Public services==
	{{main|Utilities in Istanbul}}		{{Main|Utilities in Istanbul}}
	{{further|Telecommunications in Turkey|Health care in Turkey}}		{{Further|Telecommunications in Turkey|Health care in Turkey}}
			Istanbul's first ] systems date back to the city's early history, when ] (such as the ]) deposited the water in the city's numerous ]s.<ref name=iskitarihce>{{cite web|url=http://www.iski.gov.tr/en-US/arasayfalar.php?sayfa=0-1&dosya=tarihce_1.phtm |title=Istanbul and the History of Water in Istanbul |publisher=Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration |access-date=11 March 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929003533/http://www.iski.gov.tr/en-US/arasayfalar.php?sayfa=0-1&dosya=tarihce_1.phtm |archive-date=29 September 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> At the behest of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Kırkçeşme water supply network was constructed; by 1563, the network provided {{convert|4200|m3|ft3|sp=us}} of water to {{nowrap|158 sites}} each day.<ref name=iskitarihce/> In later years, in response to increasing public demand, water from various springs was channeled to public fountains, like the ], by means of supply lines.<ref>{{harvnb|Tigrek|Kibaroğlu|2011|pp=33–34}}</ref> Today, Istanbul has a chlorinated and filtered water supply and a ] system managed by the Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration (İstanbul Su ve Kanalizasyon İdaresi, İSKİ).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iski.gov.tr/en-US/arasayfalar.php?sayfa=0-1&dosya=tarihce_2.phtm |title=İSKİ Administration |publisher=Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration |access-date=31 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929003514/http://www.iski.gov.tr/en-US/arasayfalar.php?sayfa=0-1&dosya=tarihce_2.phtm |archive-date=29 September 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
			], known as ], part of the ], was Istanbul's sole source of power between 1914 and 1952|alt=A brick factory stands in front of a park, with open green space, a reflecting pool, and benches]]
			The ], a ] along the Golden Horn, was the sole source of Istanbul's electricity between 1914, when its first engine room was completed, and 1952.<ref name="silah">{{cite web|url=http://www.santralistanbul.org/pages/index/silahtaraga-elektrik-santrali/en |title=Silahtarağa Power Plant |publisher=SantralIstanbul |access-date=31 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120730074538/http://www.santralistanbul.org/pages/index/silahtaraga-elektrik-santrali/en |archive-date=30 July 2012}}</ref> Following the founding of the Turkish Republic, the plant underwent renovations to accommodate the city's increasing demand; its capacity grew from {{nowrap|23 megawatts}} in 1923 to a peak of {{nowrap|120 megawatts}} in 1956.<ref name="silah"/><ref name="teias">{{cite web|url=http://www.teias.gov.tr/istatistikler/tarihce(ing).htm |year=2001 |title=Short History of Electrical Energy in Turkey |publisher=Turkish Electricity Transmission Company |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091128083310/http://www.teias.gov.tr/istatistikler/tarihce%28ing%29.htm |archive-date=28 November 2009 |url-status=dead |access-date=5 July 2012}}</ref> Capacity declined until the power station reached the end of its economic life and shut down in 1983.<ref name="silah"/> The state-run Turkish Electrical Authority (TEK) briefly—between its founding in 1970 and 1984—held a monopoly on the generation and distribution of electricity, but now the authority—since split between the Turkish Electricity Generation Transmission Company (TEAŞ) and the Turkish Electricity Distribution Company (TEDAŞ)—competes with private ].<ref name="teias"/>
			The Ottoman Ministry of Post and Telegraph was established in 1840 and the first post office, the Imperial Post Office, opened near the courtyard of Yeni Mosque. By 1876, the first international mailing network between Istanbul and the lands beyond the Ottoman Empire had been established.<ref name="PTT">{{cite web|url=http://www.ptt.gov.tr/index.snet?wapp=histor_en&open=1|publisher=The Post and Telegraph Organization|title=About Us &#124; Brief History|access-date=31 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807083921/http://www.ptt.gov.tr/index.snet?wapp=histor_en&open=1|archive-date=7 August 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> Sultan ] issued ] his first official honor for the ] in 1847, and construction of the first telegraph line—between Istanbul and ]—finished in time to announce the end of the ] in 1856.<ref>{{harvnb|Masters|Ágoston|2009|p=557}}</ref>
	], now the art museum ], was Istanbul's sole source of power between 1914 and 1952.|alt=A brick factory stands in front of a park, with open green space, a reflecting pool, and benches]]
	Istanbul's first ] systems date back to the city's early history, when ]s (such as the ]) deposited the water in the city's numerous ]s.<ref name=iskitarihce>{{cite web|url=http://www.iski.gov.tr/en-US/arasayfalar.php?sayfa=0-1&dosya=tarihce_1.phtm|title=Istanbul and the History of Water in Istanbul|publisher=Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration|accessdate=11 March 2006 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070929003533/http://www.iski.gov.tr/en-US/arasayfalar.php?sayfa=0-1&dosya=tarihce_1.phtm|archivedate=29 September 2007}}</ref> At the behest of ], the Kırkçeşme water supply network was constructed; by 1563, the network provided {{convert|4200|m3|ft3|sp=us}} of water to {{nowrap|158 sites}} each day.<ref name=iskitarihce/> In later years, with the aim of responding to the ever-increasing public demand, water from various springs was channeled to public fountains, like the ], by means of supply lines.<ref>{{harvnb|Tigrek|Kibaroğlu|2011|pp=33–4}}</ref> Today, Istanbul has a chlorinated and filtered water supply and a ] system managed by the Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration (İSKİ).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iski.gov.tr/en-US/arasayfalar.php?sayfa=0-1&dosya=tarihce_2.phtm|title=İSKİ Administration|publisher=Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration|accessdate=31 March 2012|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070929003514/http://www.iski.gov.tr/en-US/arasayfalar.php?sayfa=0-1&dosya=tarihce_2.phtm |archivedate=29 September 2007}}</ref>
			] in ], Istanbul, was designed by ] in the ] of the early 20th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.emporis.com/building/centralpostoffice-istanbul-turkey|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130430172824/http://www.emporis.com/building/centralpostoffice-istanbul-turkey|url-status=usurped|archive-date=30 April 2013|publisher=Emporis|title=Central Post Office|access-date=4 April 2012}}</ref>|alt=An arched neoclassical building with hanging PTT banners]]
	The ], a ] along the Golden Horn, was the sole source of Istanbul's electricity between 1914, when its first engine room was completed, and 1952.<ref name="silah">{{cite web|url=http://www.santralistanbul.org/pages/index/silahtaraga-elektrik-santrali/en|title=Silahtarağa Power Plant|publisher=SantralIstanbul|accessdate=31 March 2012}}</ref> Following the founding of the Turkish Republic, the plant underwent a number of renovations to accommodate the city's increasing demand; its capacity grew from {{nowrap|23 megawatts}} in 1923 to a peak of {{nowrap|120 megawatts}} in 1956.<ref name="silah" /><ref name="teias">{{cite web|url=http://www.teias.gov.tr/istatistikler/tarihce(ing).htm|year=2001|title=Short History of Electrical Energy in Turkey|publisher=Turkish Electricity Transmission Company|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20091128083310/http://www.teias.gov.tr/istatistikler/tarihce(ing).htm|archivedate=28 November 2009|deadurl=yes|accessdate=5 July 2012}}</ref> Capacity proceeded to decline until the Silahtarağa Power Station reached the end of its economic life and shut down in 1983.<ref name="silah" /> The state-run Turkish Electrical Authority (TEK) briefly—between its founding in 1970 and 1984—held a monopoly on the generation and distribution of electricity, but now the authority—since split between the Turkish Electricity Generation Transmission Company (TEAŞ) and the Turkish Electricity Distribution Company (TEDAŞ)—competes with private ].<ref name="teias" />
	]
	The Ottoman Ministry of Post and Telegraph was established in 1840 and the first post office, the Imperial Post Office, opened near the courtyard of ]. By 1876, the first international mailing network between Istanbul and the lands beyond the vast Ottoman Empire had been established.<ref name="PTT">{{cite web|url=http://www.ptt.gov.tr/index.snet?wapp=histor_en&open=1|publisher=The Post and Telegraph Organization|title=About Us &#124; Brief History|accessdate=31 March 2012}}</ref> Sultan ] issued ] his first official honor for the ] in 1847, and construction of the first telegraph line—between Istanbul and ]—finished in time to announce the end of the ] in 1856.<ref>{{harvnb|Masters|Ágoston|2009|p=557}}</ref> A nascent telephone circuit began to emerge in Istanbul in 1881 and after the first manual ] became operational in Istanbul in 1909, the Ministry of Post and Telegraph became the Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone.<ref name="PTT" /><ref>{{harvnb|Shaw|Shaw|1977|p=230}}</ref> Of course, Istanbul's telecommunications infrastructure has developed substantially in the century since. ] cellular networks arrived in Turkey in 1994, with Istanbul among the first cities to receive the service.<ref name="turkt">{{cite web|url=http://www.turktelekom.com.tr/tt/portal/About-TT/Company-Profile/History/|title=About Türk Telekom: History|publisher=Türk Telekom|accessdate=31 March 2012}}</ref> Today, ] and ] service is provided by a number of private companies, after ], which split from the Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone in 1995, was privatized in 2005.<ref name="PTT" /><ref name="turkt" /> Postal services remain under the purview of what is now the Post and Telegraph Organization (retaining the initialism PTT).<ref name="PTT" />		A nascent telephone system began to emerge in Istanbul in 1881 and after the first manual ] became operational in Istanbul in 1909, the Ministry of Post and Telegraph became the Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone.<ref name="PTT"/><ref>{{harvnb|Shaw|Shaw|1977|p=230}}</ref> ] cellular networks arrived in Turkey in 1994, with Istanbul among the first cities to receive the service.<ref name="turkt">{{cite web|url=http://www.turktelekom.com.tr/tt/portal/About-TT/Company-Profile/History/|title=About Türk Telekom: History|publisher=Türk Telekom|access-date=31 March 2012|archive-date=6 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306193336/http://turktelekom.com.tr/tt/portal/about-tt/company-profile/history|url-status=dead}}</ref> Today, ] and ] service is provided by private companies, after ], which split from the Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone in 1995, was privatized in 2005.<ref name="PTT"/><ref name="turkt"/> Postal services remain under the purview of what is now the Post and Telegraph Organization (retaining the acronym PTT).<ref name="PTT"/>
	In 2000, Istanbul had {{nowrap|137 hospitals}}, of which 100 were private.<ref>{{harvnb|Sanal|2011|p=85}}</ref> Turkish citizens are entitled to subsidized healthcare in the nation's state-run hospitals.<ref name="loc-pro" /> As public hospitals tend to be overcrowded or otherwise slow, private hospitals are preferable for those who can afford them. Their prevalence has increased significantly over the last decade, as the percentage of outpatients using private hospitals increased from {{nowrap|6 percent}} to {{nowrap|23 percent}} between 2005 and 2009.<ref name="loc-pro" /><ref>{{harvnb|Oxford Business Group|2009|p=197}}</ref> Many of these private hospitals, as well as some of the public hospitals, are equipped with high-tech equipment, including ] machines, or associated with medical research centers.<ref>{{harvnb|Oxford Business Group|2009|p=198}}</ref> Turkey has more hospitals accredited by the U.S.-based ] than any other country in the world, with most concentrated in its big cities. The high quality of healthcare, especially in private hospitals, has contributed to a recent upsurge in ] to Turkey (with a {{nowrap|40 percent}} increase between 2007 and 2008 alone).<ref>{{harvnb|Connell|2010|pp=52–3}}</ref> Laser ] is particularly common among medical tourists, as Turkey is known for specializing in the procedure.<ref>{{harvnb|Papathanassis|2011|p=63}}</ref>		In 2000, Istanbul had {{nowrap|137 hospitals}}, of which 100 were private.<ref>{{harvnb|Sanal|2011|p=85}}</ref>{{Update inline|date=August 2020|reason=}} Turkish citizens are entitled to subsidized healthcare in the nation's state-run hospitals.<ref name="loc-pro"/> As public hospitals tend to be overcrowded or otherwise slow, private hospitals are preferable for those who can afford them. Their prevalence has increased significantly over the last decade, as the percentage of outpatients using private hospitals increased from {{nowrap|6 percent}} to {{nowrap|23 percent}} between 2005 and 2009.<ref name="loc-pro"/>{{sfn|Oxford Business Group|2009|p=197}} Many of these private hospitals, as well as some of the public hospitals, are equipped with high-tech equipment, including ] machines, or associated with medical research centers.{{sfn|Oxford Business Group|2009|p=198}} Turkey has more hospitals accredited by the United States–based ] than any other country in the world, with most concentrated in its big cities. The high quality of healthcare, especially in private hospitals, has contributed to a recent upsurge in ] to Turkey (with a {{nowrap|40 percent}} increase between 2007 and 2008).<ref>{{harvnb|Connell|2010|pp=52–53}}</ref> Laser ] and ] surgery is particularly common among medical tourists, as Turkey is known for specializing in the procedure.<ref>{{harvnb|Papathanassis|2011|p=63}}</ref>
	==Transportation==		==Transportation==
			{{multiple image
	{{main|Public transport in Istanbul}}
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			| header = The ]s at the Bosporus
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			| image1 = Bosphorus Bridge.jpg
			| caption1 = ]
			| image2 = Fatih sultan mehmet köprüsü (cropped).jpg
			| caption2 = ]
			| image3 = Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge-1642 (47470304532).jpg
			| caption3 = ]
			}}{{Main|Public transport in Istanbul|Istanbul Metro|Ferries in Istanbul}}
			{{Further|Roads in Turkey|Rail transport in Turkey|Aviation in Turkey}}
			===Roads===
	] is one of two ]s on the Bosphorus.|alt=A docked sailboat floats in front of a suspension bridge, under twilight.]]
	Istanbul's primary motorways are the {{TUR-O|1}}, {{TUR-O|2}}, {{TUR-O|3}}, and {{TUR-O|4}}. The O-1 forms the city's inner ], traversing the ], and the O-2 is the city's outer ring road, crossing the ]. The O-2 continues west to ] and the O-4 continues east to Ankara; the O-2, O-3, and O-4 are coterminous with ] (the Trans European Motorway) between Portugal and the Turkish–Iranian border.<ref name="googma">{{Google maps|url=http://maps.google.com/maps?hl=en&ll=41.036118,29.047165&spn=0.147611,0.292168&t=m&z=12|title=Istanbul Overview|accessdate=1 April 2012|link=no}}</ref> The two Bosphorus Bridges currently form the only fixed links between the Asian and European sides of Turkey, together carrying {{nowrap|400,000 vehicles}} each day.<ref>{{harvnb|Efe|Cürebal|2011|p=720}}</ref> The dual-deck, {{convert|14.6|km|mi|adj=on|sp=us}} ] is currently under construction beneath the Bosphorus, between Fatih and Kadıköy.<ref name="eib">{{cite web|url=http://www.eib.org/attachments/pipeline/20090678_nts_en.pdf|publisher=The European Investment Bank|work=Eurasia Tunnel Environmental and Social Impact Assessment|title=Volume I: Non Technical Summary (NTS)|author=ERM Group (Germany and UK) and ELC-Group (Istanbul)|date=January 2011|year=2011|accessdate=4 July 2012}}</ref> The ], first considered in the 1990s, may also finally be coming to fruition, as the project was officially launched in 2012.<ref name="let">{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/jun/08/bosphorus-bridge-row-istanbul-turkey|work=The Guardian|last=Letsch|first=Constanze|title=Plan for New Bosphorus Bridge Sparks Row Over Future of Istanbul|date=8 June 2012|accessdate=4 July 2012}}</ref> Both projects may be completed as early as 2015.<ref name="eib" /><ref name="let" />		Istanbul's motorways network are the ], ], ], ] and ]. The total length of Istanbul Province's network of ]s is {{Cvt|543|km}} (2023) and the state highways network (''devlet yollari'') is {{Cvt|353|km}} (2021), totaling {{Cvt|896|km}} of expressway roads (minimum 2x2 lanes), excluding secondary roads and urban streets.<ref>{{cite web |title=YILLAR İTİBARIYLA YAPIMI TAMAMLANMIŞ OTOYOLLAR (2023) |url=https://www.kgm.gov.tr/SiteCollectionDocuments/KGMdocuments/Istatistikler/OtoyolEnvanterBilgisi/Yillara%C4%B0tibariyleYapimiTamamlanmisOtoyollar.pdf |website=Kgm.gov.tr |access-date=1 May 2024 |language=tr}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Lengths of State Highways according to surface types by Provinces (Km)(2024) |url=https://www.kgm.gov.tr/SiteCollectionDocuments/KGMdocuments/Istatistikler/DevletIlYolEnvanter/IllereGoreDevletYollari.pdf |website=Kgm.gov.tr |access-date=1 May 2024}}</ref><ref name="Otoyollar1">{{cite web |title=Otoyollar Istanbul (2024) |url=https://www.kgm.gov.tr/SiteCollectionImages/KGMimages/Otoyollar/istanbul.jpg |website=Kgm.gov.tr |access-date=1 May 2024}}</ref> The density of expressway network is 16.8&nbsp;km/100&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>. The O-1 forms the city's inner ], traversing the ], and the O-2 is the city's outer ring road, crossing the ]. The O-2 continues west to Edirne and the O-4 continues east to Ankara. The O-2, O-3, and O-4 are part of ] (the Trans-European Motorway) between Portugal and the ].<ref name="googma">{{Google maps|url=https://maps.google.com/maps?ll=41.036118,29.047165&spn=0.147611,0.292168&t=m&z=12|title=Istanbul Overview|access-date=1 April 2012|link=no}}</ref> In 2011, the first and second bridges on the Bosphorus carried {{nowrap|400,000 vehicles}} each day.<ref>{{harvnb|Efe|Cürebal|2011|p=720}}</ref> The O-7<ref name="Otoyollar1" /> or Kuzey Marmara Otoyolu, is a motorway that bypass Istanbul to the north. The O-7 motorway from Kinali Gişeleri to Istanbul Park Service has {{Cvt|139.2|km}}, with 8 lanes (4x4), and from Odayeri-K10 to ] has {{Cvt|30.4|km}}.<ref name="Otoyollar1"/> The completed section of highway crosses the Bosporus via the ], entered service on 26 August 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trtworld.com/turkey/3rd-bosphorus-bridge-opening-ceremony-172455|title=3rd Bosphorus bridge opening ceremony|publisher=]|date=25 August 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828093449/http://www.trtworld.com/turkey/3rd-bosphorus-bridge-opening-ceremony-172455|archive-date=28 August 2016}}</ref> The O-7(Northen Beltway) 3.Beltway connects Istanbul Atatürk Airport with Istanbul Airport and ].<ref>https://www.ysskoprusuveotoyolu.com.tr/tr/harita</ref> Environmentalist groups worry that the third bridge will endanger the remaining green areas to the north of Istanbul.<ref name="eib">{{cite web|url=http://www.eib.org/attachments/pipeline/20090678_nts_en.pdf|publisher=The European Investment Bank|work=Eurasia Tunnel Environmental and Social Impact Assessment|title=Volume I: Non Technical Summary (NTS)|author=ERM Group (Germany and UK) and ELC-Group (Istanbul)|date=January 2011|access-date=4 July 2012}}</ref><ref name="let">{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jun/08/bosphorus-bridge-row-istanbul-turkey|work=The Guardian|last=Letsch|first=Constanze|title=Plan for New Bosphorus Bridge Sparks Row Over Future of Istanbul|date=8 June 2012|access-date=4 July 2012}}</ref> Apart from the three Bosphorus Bridges, the dual-deck, {{convert|14.6|km|mi|adj=on|sp=us}} ] (which entered service on 20 December 2016) under the Bosphorus strait also provides road crossings for motor vehicles between the Asian and European sides of Turkey.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aa.com.tr/en/economy/istanbuls-13bn-eurasia-tunnel-prepares-to-open/709440|title=Istanbul's $1.3BN Eurasia Tunnel prepares to open|publisher=]|date=19 December 2016}}</ref> Road transport emits significant carbon dioxide, estimated at 7 million tons in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Emissions Map - Climate TRACE |url=https://climatetrace.org/map/turkey-co2e100 |access-date=2022-12-18 |website=climatetrace.org |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112141728/https://climatetrace.org/map/turkey-co2e100 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
			===Public transportation===
	] are a long way from the horse-drawn trams that debuted in 1872.|alt=A red and silver electrified tram running through a street as a crossing pedestrian waits for it to pass]]
	Istanbul's local public transportation system is a complex network of ]s, ]s, ] lines, buses, ], and ferries. Fares across modes are integrated, using the ] ], introduced in 2010, or the older ] electronic ticket device.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/default.aspx?pageid=438&n=new-card-alternative-to-akbil-raises-questions-2010-07-16|last=Songün|first=Sevim|work=Hürriyet Daily News|title=Istanbul Commuters Skeptical of Transit Change|date=16 July 2010|accessdate=5 July 2012}}</ref> ] date back to 1872, when they were horse-drawn, but even the first electrified trams were decommissioned in the 1960s.<ref name="iett-history">{{cite web|url=http://www.iett.gov.tr/en/metin.php?no=8|publisher=Istanbul Electricity, Tramway and Tunnel General Management|title=Chronological History of IETT|accessdate=1 April 2012}}</ref> Operated by Istanbul Electricity, Tramway, and Tunnel (IETT), trams slowly returned to the city in the 1990s with the introduction of ] and a faster ], which now carries {{nowrap|265,000 passengers}} each day.<ref name="iett-history" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.istanbul-ulasim.com.tr/rayl%C4%B1-sistemler/t1-kabata%C5%9F-%E2%80%93-ba%C4%9Fc%C4%B1lar.aspx|publisher=İstanbul Ulaşım A.Ş. (Istanbul Transport Corporation)|title=T1 Bağcılar–Kabataş Tramvay Hattı|language=Turkish|trans_title=T1 Bağcılar–Kabataş Tram Line|accessdate=20 August 2012}}</ref> The ] opened in 1875 as the world's second-oldest subterranean rail line (after London's ]).<ref name="iett-history" /> It still carries passengers between ] and İstiklal Avenue along a steep {{convert|573|m|ft|adj=on|sp=us}} track, while a more modern funicular between Taksim Square and ] began running in 2006.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iett.gov.tr/en/metin.php?no=46|publisher=Istanbul Electricity, Tramway and Tunnel|title=Tunnel|accessdate=3 April 2012}} (Note: It is apparent this is merely a machine translation of the original .)</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.istanbul-ulasim.com.tr/rayl%C4%B1-sistemler/f1-taksim-%E2%80%93-kabata%C5%9F.aspx|publisher=İstanbul Ulaşım A.Ş. (Istanbul Transport Corporation)|title=F1 Taksim–Kabataş Füniküler Hattı|language=Turkish|trans_title=F1 Bağcılar–Kabataş Funicular Line|accessdate=20 August 2012}}</ref> The ] comprises three disconnected lines (the ], ], and ]) with several other lines (including the M3) and extensions under construction or proposed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.istanbul-ulasim.com.tr/rayl%C4%B1-sistemler.aspx|publisher=İstanbul Ulaşım A.Ş. (Istanbul Transport Corporation)|title=Raylı Sistemler|language=Turkish|trans_title=Rail Systems|accessdate=20 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.istanbul-ulasim.com.tr/yolcu-hizmetleri/a%C4%9F-haritalar%C4%B1.aspx|publisher=İstanbul Ulaşım A.Ş. (Istanbul Transport Corporation)|title=Ağ Haritaları|language=Turkish|trans_title=Network Maps|accessdate=20 August 2012}}</ref>		Istanbul's local public transportation system is a network of ], ]s, ]s, ] lines, buses, ], and ]. Fares across modes are integrated, using the ] ], introduced in 2009, or the older ] electronic ticketing device.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/default.aspx?pageid=438&n=new-card-alternative-to-akbil-raises-questions-2010-07-16|last=Songün|first=Sevim|work=Hürriyet Daily News|title=Istanbul Commuters Skeptical of Transit Change|date=16 July 2010|access-date=5 July 2012}}</ref> ] date back to 1872, when they were horse-drawn, but even the first electrified trams were decommissioned in the 1960s.<ref name="iett-history">{{cite web|url=http://www.iett.gov.tr/en/metin.php?no=8 |publisher=Istanbul Electricity, Tramway and Tunnel General Management |title=Chronological History of IETT |access-date=1 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616194425/http://www.igd.com.tr/Upload/file_4d9f1f3815b2d.pdf |archive-date=16 June 2012}}</ref> Operated by Istanbul Electricity, Tramway and Tunnels General Management (İETT), trams slowly returned to the city in the 1990s with the introduction of the ] and a faster ], which now carries {{nowrap|265,000 passengers}} each day.<ref name="iett-history"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.istanbul-ulasim.com.tr/rayl%C4%B1-sistemler/t1-kabata%C5%9F-%E2%80%93-ba%C4%9Fc%C4%B1lar.aspx|publisher=İstanbul Ulaşım A.Ş. (Istanbul Transport Corporation)|title=T1 Bağcılar–Kabataş Tramvay Hattı|language=tr|trans-title=T1 Bağcılar–Kabataş Tram Line|access-date=20 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418201109/http://www.istanbul-ulasim.com.tr/rayl%C4%B1-sistemler/t1-kabata%C5%9F-%E2%80%93-ba%C4%9Fc%C4%B1lar.aspx|archive-date=18 April 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> The ] opened in 1875 as the world's second-oldest subterranean rail line, after the ] in London.<ref name="iett-history"/> It still carries passengers between Karaköy and İstiklal Avenue along a steep {{convert|573|m|ft|adj=on|sp=us}} track; a more modern funicular between Taksim Square and ] began running in 2006.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iett.gov.tr/en/metin.php?no=46 |publisher=Istanbul Electricity, Tramway and Tunnel |title=Tunnel |access-date=3 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106054844/http://www.iett.gov.tr/en/metin.php?no=46 |archive-date=6 January 2012}} (Note: It is apparent this is a machine translation of the original.)</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.istanbul-ulasim.com.tr/rayl%C4%B1-sistemler/f1-taksim-%E2%80%93-kabata%C5%9F.aspx|publisher=İstanbul Ulaşım A.Ş. (Istanbul Transport Corporation)|title=F1 Taksim–Kabataş Füniküler Hattı|language=tr|trans-title=F1 Bağcılar–Kabataş Funicular Line|access-date=20 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120826135525/http://www.istanbul-ulasim.com.tr/rayl%C4%B1-sistemler/f1-taksim-%E2%80%93-kabata%C5%9F.aspx|archive-date=26 August 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>
			The ] comprises ten lines (the ], ], ], ], ], ] and ] on the European side, and the ], ] and ] on the Asian side) with several other lines (] and ]) and extensions under construction.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.istanbul-ulasim.com.tr/rayl%C4%B1-sistemler.aspx|publisher=İstanbul Ulaşım A.Ş. (Istanbul Transport Corporation)|title=Raylı Sistemler|language=tr|trans-title=Rail Systems|access-date=20 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140409202426/http://www.istanbul-ulasim.com.tr/rayl%C4%B1-sistemler.aspx|archive-date=9 April 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.istanbul-ulasim.com.tr/yolcu-hizmetleri/a%C4%9F-haritalar%C4%B1.aspx|publisher=İstanbul Ulaşım A.Ş. (Istanbul Transport Corporation)|title=Ağ Haritaları|language=tr|trans-title=Network Maps|access-date=20 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120815003309/http://www.istanbul-ulasim.com.tr/yolcu-hizmetleri/a%C4%9F-haritalar%C4%B1.aspx|archive-date=15 August 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> The two sides of Istanbul's metro are connected under the Bosphorus by the ], inaugurated in 2013 as the first rail connection between Thrace and Anatolia, having {{Cvt|13.5|km}} length.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordbusinessgroup.com/economic_updates/turkey-connecting-continents|publisher=Oxford Business Group|title=Turkey: Connecting Continents|work=Economic Updates|date=7 March 2012|access-date=3 April 2012|archive-date=26 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130426121906/http://www.oxfordbusinessgroup.com/economic_updates/turkey-connecting-continents|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Marmaray tunnel together with the suburban railways lines along the Sea of Marmara, form the intercontinental commuter rail line in Istanbul, named officially B1, from ] on the European side to ] on the Asian side. This rail line has {{Cvt|76.6|km}}, and the full line opened on 12 March 2019.<ref>{{cite web|title=GEBZE-HALKALI BANLİYÖ HATTI 2018 SONUNDA HİZMETE GİRİYOR|url=http://www.marmaray.gov.tr/duyurudetay/Haber/GEBZE-HALKALI-BANL%C4%B0Y%C3%96-HATTI-2018-SONUNDA-H%C4%B0ZMETE-G%C4%B0R%C4%B0YOR/182|publisher=Marmaray|date=18 November 2018|language=tr|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190312225203/http://www.marmaray.gov.tr/duyurudetay/Haber/GEBZE-HALKALI-BANL%C4%B0Y%C3%96-HATTI-2018-SONUNDA-H%C4%B0ZMETE-G%C4%B0R%C4%B0YOR/182|archive-date=12 March 2019|url-status=dead|access-date=18 November 2018}}</ref> Until then, buses provide transportation within and between the two-halves of the city, accommodating {{nowrap|2.2 million}} passenger trips each day.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iett.gov.tr/en/metin.php?no=38 |publisher=Istanbul Electricity, Tramway and Tunnel General Management |title=Public Transportation in Istanbul |access-date=3 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104133258/http://www.iett.gov.tr/en/metin.php?no=38 |archive-date=4 January 2013}}</ref> The ], a form of bus rapid transit, crosses the Bosphorus Bridge, with dedicated lanes leading to its termini.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iett.gov.tr/en/metin.php?no=58 |publisher=Istanbul Electricity, Tramway and Tunnel General Management |title=Metrobus |access-date=3 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006035227/http://www.iett.gov.tr/en/metin.php?no=58}}</ref>
	The two sides of Istanbul's metro will ultimately be connected under the Bosphorus when the ] tunnel, the first rail connection of any kind between Thrace and Anatolia, is completed in 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordbusinessgroup.com/economic_updates/turkey-connecting-continents|publisher=Oxford Business Group|title=Turkey: Connecting Continents|work=Economic Updates|date=7 March 2012|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> Upon its completion, rail use in the city is expected to increase to {{nowrap|28 percent}} (from just {{nowrap|4 percent}}), behind only ] and ].<ref>{{harvnb|Efe|Cürebal|2011|p=723}}</ref> Until then, buses provide transportation within and between the two halves of the city, accommodating {{nowrap|2.2 million}} passenger-trips each day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iett.gov.tr/en/metin.php?no=38|publisher=Istanbul Electricity, Tramway and Tunnel General Management|title=Public Transportation in Istanbul|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> The ], a form of bus rapid transit, traverses the Bosphorus Bridge, with dedicated lanes leading to its termini.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iett.gov.tr/en/metin.php?no=58|publisher=Istanbul Electricity, Tramway and Tunnel General Management|title=Metrobus|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> ] (Istanbul Seabuses) runs a combination of all-passenger ferries and car-and-passenger ferries to ports on both sides of the Bosphorus, as far north as the Black Sea.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ido.com.tr/tr/interaktif-haritalar/ic-hatlar|publisher=İDO|title=Interaktif Haritalar &#124; İç Hatlar|language=Turkish|trans_title=Interactive Map of Timetables &#124; Inner-City Lines|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ido.com.tr/tr/interaktif-haritalar/dis-hatlar|publisher=İDO|title=Dış Hatlar|language=Turkish|trans_title=Interactive Map of Timetables &#124; Inter-City Lines|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> With additional destinations around the Sea of Marmara, İDO runs the largest municipal ferry operation in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ebrd.com/pages/news/press/2011/110927.shtml|last=Grytsenko|first=Sergiy|publisher=The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development|title=EBRD Supports Privatisation of Ferry Operations in Istanbul|date=26 September 2011|accessdate=4 April 2012}}</ref> The city's main cruise ship terminal is the ] in Karaköy, with a capacity of 10,000 passengers per hour.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tdi.com.tr/?s=icerikDetay&icerikId=44|publisher=Turkey Maritime Organization|title=Liman Hizmetleri|language=Turkish|trans_title=Port Services|date=10 February 2011|accessdate=28 August 2012}}</ref> While most visitors enter Istanbul by air, about half a million foreign tourists enter the city by sea each year.<ref name="iv&c" />
			<gallery widths="200px" heights="165px">
	], which handled {{nowrap|37.4 million}} passengers in 2011, is the city's primary airport.|alt=An aerial view of an airport with three runways and several taxiways arranged around a terminal]]
			File:Nostalgic tram on Istiklal Avenue in Istanbul.jpg|]
	International rail service from Istanbul launched in 1889, with a line between ] and Istanbul's ], which ultimately became famous as the eastern terminus of the ] from ].<ref name="ha251" /> Regular service to Bucharest and ] continued until the early 2010s, when the former was interrupted for Marmaray construction and the latter was halted due to ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tcdd.gov.tr/home/detail/?id=599|publisher=Turkish State Railways|language=Turkish|title=Bölgesel Yolcu Trenleri|trans_title=Regional Passenger Trains|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/2012/jun/22/greek-summer-holiday-save-greece|publisher=The Guardian|last=Keenan|first=Steve|title=How Your Greek Summer Holiday Can Help Save Greece|date=22 June 2012|accessdate=28 September 2012}}</ref> After Istanbul's ] opened in 1908, it served as the western terminus of the ] and an extension of the ]; today, neither service is offered directly from Istanbul.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.emporis.com/building/haydarpasatrainstation-istanbul-turkey|publisher=Emporis|title=Haydarpasa Train Station|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8518109.stm|publisher=BBC|last=Head|first=Jonathan|date=16 February 2010|accessdate=3 April 2012|title=Iraq – Turkey railway link re-opens}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tcdd.gov.tr/tcdding/ortadogu_ing.html|publisher=Turkish National Railways|title=Transports to Middle-Eastern Countries|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> Service to Ankara and other points across Turkey is normally offered by ], but construction of Marmaray and the ] forced the station to close in 2012.<ref name="akay">{{cite web|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action?newsId=270498|last=Akay|first=Latifa|work=Today's Zaman|title=2012 Sees End of Line for Haydarpaşa Station|date=5 February 2012|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> New stations to replace both the Haydarpaşa and Sirkeci terminals, and connect the city's disjointed railway networks, are expected to open upon completion of the Marmaray project; until then, Istanbul is left without intercity rail service.<ref name="akay" /> Private bus companies instead operate routes along—and well beyond—those offered by the rail network. Istanbul's main bus station is the largest in Europe, with a daily capacity of {{nowrap|15,000 buses}} and {{nowrap|600,000 passengers}}, serving destinations as far as ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.otogaristanbul.com/index.php?sayfa=otogar1|publisher=Avrasya Terminal İşletmeleri A.Ş. (Eurasian Terminal Management, Inc.)|title=İstanbul Otogarı|language=Turkish|trans_title=Istanbul Bus Station|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.touring.de/index.php?id=2&L=1|publisher=Touring|title=Eurolines Germany–Deutsche Touring GmbH–Europabus|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref>
			File:Istanbul T1 line Alstom Citadis tram.jpg|]
			File:Bogazici_Universitesi_metro.jpg|] station of the ]
			File:MarmarayAyrılıkÇeşmesiStation.JPG|] at Ayrılıkçeşmesi station
			</gallery>
			===Ferries===
	Istanbul has two international airports, the larger of which is ]. Atatürk, located {{convert|24|km|mi|sp=us}} west of the city center, handled {{nowrap|37.4 million}} passengers in 2011, making it the ] and the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/datablog/2012/may/04/world-top-100-airports|work=The Guardian|title=The World's Top 100 Airports: Listed, Ranked, and Mapped|last=Rogers|first=Simon|date=4 May 2012|accessdate=6 July 2012}}</ref> ], {{convert|45|km|mi|0|sp=us}} southeast of the city center, opened in 2001 to relieve Atatürk International. Dominated by ]s, Istanbul's second airport has rapidly become popular among travelers, especially since inaugurating a new international terminal in 2009;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/3f88624c-d88f-11de-b63a-00144feabdc0.html|work=The Financial Times|last=Strauss|first=Delphine|title=Sabiha Gökçen: New Terminal Lands On Time and Budget|date=25 November 2009|accessdate=4 July 2012}}</ref> the airport handled {{nowrap|12.7 million}} passengers in 2011, when ] named it the world's fastest growing airport.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dhmi.gov.tr/getBinaryFile.aspx?Type=13&dosyaID=3&IstatistikID=54|publisher=General Directorate of State Airports Authority|title=Yolcu Trafiği (Gelen-Giden)|language=Turkish|trans_title=Passenger Traffic (Incoming-Outgoing)|accessdate=3 April 2012|format=pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action;jsessionid=80B2A61513A6823BCDA930B0513BCC04?newsId=254217|work=Today's Zaman|title=Sabiha Gökçen Named World's Fastest Growing Airport|date=18 August 2011|accessdate=4 April 2012}}</ref> A third airport has been proposed for the Black Sea coast.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/minister-names-location-for-3rd-istanbul-airport.aspx?pageID=238&nid=26973|work=Hürriyet Daily News|title=Minister Names Location for 3rd Airport|date=3 August 2012|accessdate=18 August 2012}}</ref>
			{{Multiple image
			| image1 = Emin Kul.jpg
			| caption1 = M/V ''Emin Kul'', a '']'' operated by ], crossing the Bosphorus
			| image2 = Ido2.JPG
			| alt2 =
			| direction = vertical
			| caption2 = An ] ''deniz otobüsü'' (seabus) high-speed ferry departs Istanbul
			}}
			There are three main ] in Istanbul. The municipally-owned ] operates the traditional ''vapur'' ferries on 891 daily trips between 53 piers across the Bosporus and the ]<ref>.{{Cite web |url=https://sehirhatlari.istanbul/en/corporate/sehir-hatlari-616 |access-date=2024-04-05 |title=Sehir Hatlari}}</ref>
	== See also ==
			The privately owned ] (Istanbul Sea Buses) runs a combination of high-speed passenger ferries and vehicle ferries within Istanbul and to destinations across the Sea of Marmara.<ref>{{Cite web |title=İstanbul Deniz Otobüsleri - Online Bilet Al|url=https://www.ido.com.tr/tr/hizmetlerimiz/iskelelerimiz |access-date=2024-04-05 |website=www.ido.com.tr}}</ref> A smaller private company, ] also operates services across the Bosphorus. The city's main cruise ship terminal is the ] in Karaköy, with a capacity of 10,000 passengers per hour.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tdi.com.tr/?s=icerikDetay&icerikId=44 |publisher=Turkey Maritime Organization |title=Liman Hizmetleri |language=tr |trans-title=Port Services |date=10 February 2011 |access-date=28 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016021601/http://www.tdi.com.tr/?s=icerikDetay&icerikId=44 |archive-date=16 October 2012}}</ref>
			===Railroads===
			], which connected Istanbul with ], the current ] building was constructed between 1888 and 1890, and became the eastern terminus of the ] from Paris.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Orient-Express|title=Orient Express|date=21 December 2023 |publisher=]}}</ref>]]
			International rail service from Istanbul launched in 1889, with a line between Bucharest and Istanbul's ], which ultimately became famous as the eastern terminus of the ] from Paris.<ref name="ha251"/> Regular service to Bucharest and ] continued until the early 2010s, when the former was interrupted for Marmaray construction but started running again in 2019 and the latter was halted due to economic problems in Greece.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tcdd.gov.tr/home/detail/?id=599|publisher=Turkish State Railways|language=tr|title=Bölgesel Yolcu Trenleri|trans-title=Regional Passenger Trains|access-date=3 April 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120404194631/http://www.tcdd.gov.tr/home/detail/?id=599|archive-date=4 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2012/jun/22/greek-summer-holiday-save-greece|work=The Guardian|last=Keenan|first=Steve|title=How Your Greek Summer Holiday Can Help Save Greece|date=22 June 2012|access-date=28 September 2012}}</ref> After Istanbul's ] opened in 1908, it served as the western terminus of the ] and an extension of the ]; today, neither service is offered directly from Istanbul.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.emporis.com/building/haydarpasatrainstation-istanbul-turkey|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023021752/http://www.emporis.com/building/haydarpasatrainstation-istanbul-turkey|url-status=usurped|archive-date=23 October 2012|publisher=Emporis|title=Haydarpasa Train Station|access-date=3 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8518109.stm|publisher=BBC|last=Head|first=Jonathan|date=16 February 2010|access-date=3 April 2012|title=Iraq – Turkey railway link re-opens}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tcdd.gov.tr/tcdding/ortadogu_ing.html |publisher=Turkish National Railways |title=Transports to Middle-Eastern Countries |access-date=3 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415025732/http://www.tcdd.gov.tr/tcdding/ortadogu_ing.html |archive-date=15 April 2012}}</ref> Service to Ankara and other points across Turkey is normally offered by ], but the construction of Marmaray and the ] forced the station to close in 2012.<ref name="akay">{{cite web|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action?newsId=270498 |last=Akay |first=Latifa |work=Today's Zaman |title=2012 Sees End of Line for Haydarpaşa Station |date=5 February 2012 |access-date=3 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130916191411/http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action?newsId=270498 |archive-date=16 September 2013 }}</ref> New stations to replace both the Haydarpaşa and Sirkeci terminals, and connect the city's disjointed railway networks, now the Marmaray second phase opened to the public.<ref name="akay"/> Private bus companies still operation to this day. Istanbul's main bus station is the largest in Europe, with a daily capacity of {{nowrap|15,000 buses}} and {{nowrap|600,000 passengers}}, serving destinations as distant as ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.otogaristanbul.com/index.php?sayfa=otogar1 |publisher=Avrasya Terminal İşletmeleri A.Ş. (Eurasian Terminal Management, Inc.) |title=İstanbul Otogarı |language=tr |trans-title=Istanbul Bus Station |access-date=3 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120420152916/http://www.otogaristanbul.com/index.php?sayfa=otogar1 |archive-date=20 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.touring.de/index.php?id=2&L=1|publisher=Touring|title=Eurolines Germany–Deutsche Touring GmbH–Europabus|access-date=3 April 2012}}</ref>
			===Airports===
			Istanbul has had three large international airports, two of which currently serve commercial passenger flights. The largest is the new ], opened in 2018 in the ] district to the northwest of the city center, on the European side, near the Black Sea coast.
			All scheduled commercial passenger flights were transferred from ] to Istanbul Airport on 6 April 2019, following the closure of Istanbul Atatürk Airport for scheduled passenger flights.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-airport/last-flight-leaves-ataturk-as-istanbul-switches-airports-idUSKCN1RI0CY|title=Last flight leaves Ataturk as Istanbul switches airports|website=Reuters|date=6 April 2019}}</ref> The ] IST was also transferred to the new airport.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://atwonline.com/airports-routes/turkish-airlines-relocates-new-istanbul-airport|title=Turkish Airlines relocates to new Istanbul Airport|publisher=ATWOnline|date=5 April 2019}}</ref> Once all phases are completed in 2025, the airport will have six sets of runways (eight in total), 16 taxiways, and will be able to accommodate 200&nbsp;million passengers a year.<ref>{{cite news|title=Turkish Airlines is switching to a new Istanbul airport – all in 45 hours|date=6 April 2019|url=https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2019/apr/06/turkish-airlines-switching-to-new-airport-all-in-45-hours|work=The Guardian|access-date=13 April 2019|quote=The opening date has been pushed back three times, but authorities insist that the main terminal building and two runways will be fully operational by Sunday, in what critics say it is a rushed and dangerous attempt to stay on schedule.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Ay|first1=Hasan|title=Havalimanı değil zafer anıtı|url=http://www.sabah.com.tr/Gundem/2014/06/08/havalimani-degil-zafer-aniti|website=sabah.com.tr|publisher=Sabah|access-date=8 June 2014}}</ref> The transfer from the airport to the city is via the O-7, and it will eventually be linked by two lines of the Istanbul Metro.
			], {{convert|45|km|mi|0|sp=us}} southeast of the city center, on the Asian side, was opened in 2001 to relieve Atatürk. Dominated by ]s, Istanbul's second airport has rapidly become popular, especially since the opening of a new international terminal in 2009;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/3f88624c-d88f-11de-b63a-00144feabdc0.html|work=The Financial Times|last=Strauss|first=Delphine|title=Sabiha Gökçen: New Terminal Lands on Time and Budget|date=25 November 2009|access-date=4 July 2012}}</ref> the airport handled {{nowrap|14.7 million}} passengers in 2012, a year after ] named it the world's fastest-growing airport.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dhmi.gov.tr/getBinaryFile.aspx?Type=13&dosyaID=3&IstatistikID=67|publisher=General Directorate of State Airports Authority|title=Yolcu Trafiği (Gelen-Giden)|language=tr|trans-title=Passenger Traffic (Incoming-Outgoing)|access-date=30 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104222525/http://dhmi.gov.tr/getBinaryFile.aspx?Type=13&dosyaID=3&IstatistikID=67|archive-date=4 November 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action;jsessionid=80B2A61513A6823BCDA930B0513BCC04?newsId=254217 |work=Today's Zaman |title=Sabiha Gökçen Named World's Fastest Growing Airport |date=18 August 2011 |access-date=4 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130916183259/http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action%3Bjsessionid%3D80B2A61513A6823BCDA930B0513BCC04?newsId=254217 |archive-date=16 September 2013 }}</ref> Atatürk had also experienced rapid growth, as its {{nowrap|20.6 percent}} rise in passenger traffic between 2011 and 2012 was the highest among the world's top 30 airports.<ref name="aci"/>
			Istanbul Atatürk Airport, located {{convert|24|km|mi|sp=us}} west of the city center, on the European side, near the Marmara Sea coast, was formerly the city's largest airport. After its closure to commercial flights in 2019, it was briefly used by cargo aircraft and the official state aircraft owned by the Turkish government, until the demolition of its runway began in 2020. It handled {{nowrap|61.3 million}} passengers in 2015, which made it the ] and the ] in that year.<ref name="aci">{{cite web|url=http://www.aci.aero/Data-Centre/Monthly-Traffic-Data/Passenger-Summary/Year-to-date|publisher=Airports Council International|title=Preliminary 2013 World Airport Traffic and Rankings|date=17 March 2014|access-date=25 March 2014|archive-date=13 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180813170044/http://www.aci.aero/Data-Centre/Monthly-Traffic-Data/Passenger-Summary/Year-to-date|url-status=dead}}</ref>
			<gallery widths="200px" heights="150px">
			File:İstanbul Yeni Havalimanı airport Dec 2019.jpg|]
			File:Sabiha Gökçen Airport.JPG|]
			</gallery>
			==International relations==
			* ]
			==See also==
			{{Portal bar|Turkey|Cities|Europe|Asia}}
			* ]
			* ]
			* ]
	* ]		* ]
			* ]
	* ]
	== Notes ==		==Notes==
	{{notes}}		{{notelist}}
	== References ==		==References==
	{{reflist|colwidth=27em}}		{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
	=== Bibliography ===		===Bibliography===
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	* {{cite book|last=Isaac|first=Benjamin H.|title=The Greek Settlements in Thrace Until the Macedonian Conquest|year=1986|publisher=BRILL|location=Leiden, the Neth.|isbn=978-90-04-06921-3|edition=illustrated|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|last=Gül|first=Murat|title=The Emergence of Modern Istanbul: Transformation and Modernisation of a City|year=2012|publisher=IB.Tauris|location=London|edition=Revised Paperback|isbn=978-1-78076-374-3}}
	* {{cite book|last1=Kapucu|first1=Naim|last2=Palabiyik|first2=Hamit|title=Turkish Public Administration: From Tradition to the Modern Age|series=USAK Publications|volume=17|publisher=USAK|location=Ankara|year=2008|isbn=978-605-4030-01-9|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|last=Harter|first=Jim|title=World Railways of the Nineteenth Century: A Pictorial History in Victorian Engravings|year=2005|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore, MD |edition=illustrated |isbn=978-0-8018-8089-6}}
	* {{cite book|last=Karpat|first=Kemal H.|title=The Gecekondu: Rural Migration and Urbanization|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, Eng.|isbn=978-0-521-20954-0|edition=illustrated|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|editor-last=Holt|editor-first=Peter M.|editor2-last=Lambton|editor2-first=Ann K.S.|editor3-last=Lewis|editor3-first=Bernard|title=The Cambridge History of Islam|volume=1A|publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge|year=1977|isbn=978-0-521-29135-4|edition=illustrated, reprint}}
	* {{cite book|editor-last=Keyder|editor-first=Çağlar|year=1999|title=Istanbul: Between the Global and the Local|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|location=Lanham, Md.|isbn=978-0-8476-9495-2|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|last=Isaac|first=Benjamin H.|title=The Greek Settlements in Thrace Until the Macedonian Conquest|year=1986|publisher=BRILL|location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-06921-3|edition=illustrated}}
	* {{cite book|last1=Klimczuk|first1=Stephen|last2=Warner|first2=Gerald|year=2009|title=Secret Places, Hidden Sanctuaries: Uncovering Mysterious Sights, Symbols, and Societies|publisher=Sterling Publishing Company, Inc|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4027-6207-9|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|last1=Kapucu|first1=Naim|last2=Palabiyik|first2=Hamit|title=Turkish Public Administration: From Tradition to the Modern Age|series=USAK Publications|volume=17|publisher=USAK|location=Ankara|year=2008 |isbn=978-605-4030-01-9}}
	* {{cite book|last1=Knieling|first1=Jörg|last2=Othengrafen|first2=Frank|title=Planning Cultures in Europe: Decoding Cultural Phenomena in Urban and Regional Planning|series=Urban and Regional Planning and Development|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd|location=Surrey, Eng.|isbn=978-0-7546-7565-5|year=2009|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|last=Karpat|first=Kemal H.|title=The Gecekondu: Rural Migration and Urbanization|year=1976 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, Eng.|isbn=978-0-521-20954-0|edition=illustrated |url=https://archive.org/details/gecekondururalmi0000karp}}
	* {{cite book|editor-last=Köksal|editor-first=Özlem|title=World Film Locations: Istanbul|publisher=Intellect Books|location=Bristol, Eng.|year=2012|isbn=978-1-84150-567-1|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|editor-last=Keyder|editor-first=Çağlar|year=1999|title=Istanbul: Between the Global and the Local|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|location=Lanham, MD|isbn=978-0-8476-9495-2}}
			* {{cite book|last=King|first=Charles|year=2014|title=Midnight at the Pera Palace, The birth of modern Istanbul|publisher=Norton & Cy|isbn=978-0-393-08914-1}}
	* {{cite book|last=Köse|first=Yavuz|editor-last=Atabaki|editor-first=Touraj|editor2-last=Brockett|editor2-first=Gavin|chapter=Vertical Bazaars of Modernity: Western Department Stores and Their Staff in Istanbul (1889–1921)|title=Ottoman and Republican Turkish Labour History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, Eng.|year=2009|isbn=978-0-521-12805-6|pages=91–114|ref=harv}}
	* {{cite book|last=Landau|first=Jacob M.|year=1984|title=Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey|publisher=E.J. Brill|location=Leiden, the Neth.|isbn=978-90-04-07070-7|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|last1=Klimczuk|first1=Stephen|last2=Warner|first2=Gerald|year=2009|title=Secret Places, Hidden Sanctuaries: Uncovering Mysterious Sights, Symbols, and Societies|publisher=Sterling Publishing Company |location=New York|isbn=978-1-4027-6207-9|url=https://archive.org/details/secretplaceshidd0000klim}}
	* {{cite book|last=Limberis|first=Vasiliki|title=Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople|year=1994|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-0-415-09677-5|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|last1=Knieling|first1=Jörg|last2=Othengrafen|first2=Frank|title=Planning Cultures in Europe: Decoding Cultural Phenomena in Urban and Regional Planning|series=Urban and Regional Planning and Development |publisher=Ashgate Publishing|location=Surrey, Eng.|isbn=978-0-7546-7565-5|year=2009}}
	* {{cite book|last=Lister|first=Richard P.|title=The Travels of Herodotus|year=1979|publisher=Gordon & Cremonesi|location=London|isbn=978-0-86033-081-3|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|editor-last=Köksal|editor-first=Özlem|title=World Film Locations: Istanbul|publisher=Intellect Books|location=Bristol, Eng.|year=2012|isbn=978-1-84150-567-1}}
			* {{cite book|last=Köse|first=Yavuz|editor-last=Atabaki|editor-first=Touraj|editor2-last=Brockett|editor2-first=Gavin|chapter=Vertical Bazaars of Modernity: Western Department Stores and Their Staff in Istanbul (1889–1921) |title=Ottoman and Republican Turkish Labour History|publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge|year=2009|isbn=978-0-521-12805-6|pages=91–114}}
	* {{cite book|last1=Masters|first1=Bruce Alan|last2=Ágoston|first2=Gábor|year=2009|title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire|publisher=Infobase Publishing|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7|ref=harv}}
	* {{cite book|last=Morris|first=Ian|title=Social Development|year=2010|date=October 2010|publisher=Stanford University|location=Stanford, Calif.|url=http://ianmorris.org/docs/social-development.pdf|accessdate=5 July 2012|format=pdf|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|last=Landau|first=Jacob M.|year=1984|title=Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey|publisher=E.J. Brill|location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-07070-7}}
	* {{cite book|last1=Mossberger|first1=Karen|last2=Clarke|first2=Susan E.|last3=John|first3=Peter|title=The Oxford Handbook of Urban Politics|series=Oxford Handbooks in Politics and International Relations|year=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, Eng.|isbn=978-0-19-536786-7|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|last=Limberis|first=Vasiliki|title=Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople|year=1994|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-0-415-09677-5}}
	* {{cite book|last=Necipoğlu|first=Gülru|title=Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power: The Topkapi Palace in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries|year=1991|publisher=The MIT Press|location=Cambridge, Mass.|isbn=978-0-262-14050-8|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|last=Lister|first=Richard P.|title=The Travels of Herodotus|year=1979|publisher=Gordon & Cremonesi|location=London|isbn=978-0-86033-081-3}}
			* ]. '']'' (2011)
	* {{cite book|last=Norris|first=Pippa|year=2010|title=Public Sentinel: News Media & Governance Reform|publisher=World Bank Publications|location=Washington, D.C.|isbn=978-0-8213-8200-4|ref=harv}}
	* {{cite book|author=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|title=Istanbul, Turkey|series=OECD Territorial Reviews|year=2008|publisher=OECD Publishing|location=Paris|isbn=978-92-64-04371-8|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|last1=Masters|first1=Bruce Alan|last2=Ágoston|first2=Gábor|year=2009|title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire|publisher=Infobase Publishing|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7}}
			* {{cite book|last=Morris|first=Ian|title=Social Development|date=October 2010|publisher=Stanford University|location=Stanford, CA |url=http://ianmorris.org/docs/social-development.pdf|access-date=5 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915115325/http://ianmorris.org/docs/social-development.pdf|archive-date=15 September 2012|url-status=dead}}
	* {{cite book|author=Oxford Business Group|year=2009|title=The Report: Turkey 2009|publisher=Oxford Business Group|location=Oxford, Eng.|isbn=978-1-902339-13-9|ref=harv}}
	* {{cite book|last=Papathanassis|first=Alexis|year=2011|title=The Long Tail of Tourism: Holiday Niches and Their Impact on Mainstream Tourism|publisher=Springer|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-8349-3062-0|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|last=Necipoğlu|first=Gülru|title=Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power: The Topkapi Palace in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries|year=1991|publisher=The MIT Press|location=Cambridge, MA|isbn=978-0-262-14050-8|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/architecturecere0000neci}}
	* {{cite book|last=Quantic|first=Roy|year=2008|title=Climatology for Airline Pilots|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|location=Oxford, Eng.|isbn=978-0-470-69847-1|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|last=Necipoğlu|first=Gülru|contribution= From Byzantine Constantinople to Ottoman Kostantiniyye|editor-last=ölcer|editor-first=Nazan|year=2010|title=From Byzantion to Istanbul|publisher=SSM |location=Istanbul |isbn=978-605-4348-04-6}}
	* {{cite book|last=Reinert|first=Stephen W.|editor-last=Mango|editor-first=Cyril|title=The Oxford History of Byzantium|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, Eng.|isbn=978-0-19-814098-6|chapter=Fragmentation (1204–1453)|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|last=Norris|first=Pippa|year=2010|title=Public Sentinel: News Media & Governance Reform |publisher=World Bank Publications|location=Washington, DC|isbn=978-0-8213-8200-4}}
	* {{cite book|last=Reisman|first=Arnold|title=Turkey's Modernization: Refugees from Nazism and Atatürk's Vision|year=2006|publisher=New Academia Publishing, LLC|location=Washington, D.C.|isbn=978-0-9777908-8-3|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|author=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|title=Istanbul, Turkey |series=OECD Territorial Reviews|year=2008|publisher=OECD Publishing|location=Paris|isbn=978-92-64-04371-8}}
	* {{cite book|last=Roebuck|first=Carl|title=Ionian Trade and Colonization|year=1959|series=Monographs on Archaeology and Fine Arts|publisher=Archaeological Institute of America|location=New York|isbn=978-0-89005-528-1|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|year=2009|title=The Report: Turkey 2009|publisher=Oxford Business Group|location=Oxford|isbn=978-1-902339-13-9|ref={{SfnRef|Oxford Business Group|2009}}}}
	* {{cite book|last=Room|first=Adrian|title=Placenames of the World: Origins and Meanings of the Names for 6,600 Countries, Cities, Territories, Natural Features, and Historic Sites|year=2006|publisher=McFarland & Company|location=Jefferson, N.C.|edition=2nd|isbn=978-0-7864-2248-7|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|last=Papathanassis|first=Alexis|year=2011|title=The Long Tail of Tourism: Holiday Niches and Their Impact on Mainstream Tourism|publisher=Springer|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-8349-3062-0}}
	* {{cite book|last=Rôzen|first=Mînnā|title=A History of the Jewish Community in Istanbul: The Formative Years, 1453–1566|year=2002|publisher=BRILL|location=Leiden, the Neth.|edition=illustrated|isbn=978-90-04-12530-8|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|last=Quantic|first=Roy|year=2008|title=Climatology for Airline Pilots|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-470-69847-1}}
	* {{cite book|last=Sanal|first=Aslihan|editor-last=Fischer|editor-first=Michael M. J.|editor2-last=Dumit|editor2-first=Joseph|year=2011|title=New Organs Within Us: Transplants and the Moral Economy|series=Experimental Futures|edition=illustrated|publisher=Duke University Press|location=Chapel Hill, N.C.|isbn=978-0-8223-4912-9|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|last=Reinert|first=Stephen W.|editor-last=Mango|editor-first=Cyril|title=The Oxford History of Byzantium|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-814098-6|chapter=Fragmentation (1204–1453)}}
	* {{cite book|last=Schmitt|first=Oliver Jens|title=Levantiner: Lebenswelten und Identitäten einer ethnokonfessionellen Gruppe im osmanischen Reich im "langen 19. Jahrhundert" |year=2005|publisher=Oldenbourg|location=München|language=German|isbn=978-3-486-57713-6|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|last=Reisman|first=Arnold|title=Turkey's Modernization: Refugees from Nazism and Atatürk's Vision|year=2006|publisher=New Academia Publishing, LLC|location=Washington, DC|isbn=978-0-9777908-8-3}}
	* {{cite book|last1=Shaw|first1=Stanford J.|last2=Shaw|first2=Ezel K.|title=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey|volume=2|year=1977|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, Eng.|isbn=978-0-521-29166-8|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|last=Roebuck|first=Carl|title=Ionian Trade and Colonization|year=1959|series=Monographs on Archaeology and Fine Arts|publisher=Archaeological Institute of America|location=New York|isbn=978-0-89005-528-1}}
	* {{cite book|last=Taşan-Kok|first=Tuna|title=Budapest, Istanbul, and Warsaw: Institutional and Spatial Change|publisher=Eburon Uitgeverij B.V|location=Delft, the Neth.|year=2004|isbn=978-90-5972-041-1|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|last=Room|first=Adrian|title=Placenames of the World: Origins and Meanings of the Names for 6,600 Countries, Cities, Territories, Natural Features, and Historic Sites|year=2006|publisher=McFarland & Company |location=Jefferson, NC|edition=2nd|isbn=978-0-7864-2248-7}}
	* {{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Jane|title=Imperial Istanbul: A Traveller's Guide: Includes Iznik, Bursa and Edirne|publisher=Tauris Parke Paperbacks|location=New York|year=2007|isbn=978-1-84511-334-6|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|last=Rôzen|first=Mînnā|title=A History of the Jewish Community in Istanbul: The Formative Years, 1453–1566|year=2002|publisher=BRILL|location=Leiden |edition=illustrated|isbn=978-90-04-12530-8}}
	* {{cite book|last1=Tigrek|first1=Sahnaz|last2=Kibaroğlu|first2=Ayșegül|year=2011|editor-last=Kibaroğlu|editor-first=Ayșegül|editor2-last=Scheumann|editor2-first=Waltina|editor3-last=Kramer|editor3-first=Annika|title=Turkey's Water Policy: National Frameworks and International Cooperation|chapter=Strategic Role of Water Resources for Turkey|publisher=Springer|location=London & New York|isbn=978-3-642-19635-5|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|last=Sanal|first=Aslihan|editor-last=Fischer|editor-first=Michael M.J.|editor2-last=Dumit |editor2-first=Joseph|year=2011|title=New Organs Within Us: Transplants and the Moral Economy |series=Experimental Futures |edition=illustrated|publisher=Duke University Press|location=Chapel Hill, NC |isbn=978-0-8223-4912-9}}
	* {{cite book|editor=Time Out Guides|title=Time Out Istanbul|publisher=Time Out Guides|location=London|year=2010|isbn=978-1-84670-115-3|ref={{sfnRef|Time Out Guides|2010}} }}		* {{cite book|last=Schmitt|first=Oliver Jens|title=Levantiner: Lebenswelten und Identitäten einer ethnokonfessionellen Gruppe im osmanischen Reich im "langen 19. Jahrhundert" |year=2005|publisher=Oldenbourg |location=Munich |language=de|isbn=978-3-486-57713-6}}
			* {{cite book|last1=Shaw|first1=Stanford J.|last2=Shaw|first2=Ezel K.|title=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey|volume=2|year=1977|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-29166-8|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan}}
	* {{cite book|last=Turan|first=Neyran|editor1-last=Sorensen|editor1-first=André|editor2-last=Okata|editor2-first=Junichiro|title=Megacities: Urban Form, Governance, and Sustainability|series=Library for Sustainable Urban Regeneration|publisher=Springer|location=London & New York|year=2010|pages=223–42|chapter=Towards an Ecological Urbanism for Istanbul|isbn=978-4-431-99266-0|ref=harv}}
	* {{cite book|author=WCTR Society; Unʼyu Seisaku Kenkyū Kikō|title=Urban Transport and the Environment: An International Perspective|year=2004|publisher=Elsevier|location=Amsterdam|isbn=978-0-08-044512-0|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|last1=Tarasov|first1=Oleg|last2=Milner-Gulland|first2=R.R.|title=Icon and Devotion: Sacred Spaces in Imperial Russia|location=London|publisher=Reaktion|year=2004|isbn=978-1-86189-118-1}}
	* {{cite book|last=Wedel|first=Heidi|year=2000|editor1-last=Ibrahim|editor1-first=Ferhad|editor2-last=Gürbey|editor2-first=Gülistan|title=The Kurdish Conflict in Turkey|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-8258-4744-9|pages=181–93|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|last=Taşan-Kok|first=Tuna|title=Budapest, Istanbul, and Warsaw: Institutional and Spatial Change|publisher=Eburon Uitgeverij B.V.|location=Delft, the Neth.|year=2004|isbn=978-90-5972-041-1}}
	* {{cite book|last=Wynn|first=Martin|title=Planning and Urban Growth in Southern Europe|series=Studies in History, Planning, and the Environment|publisher=Mansell|location=Los Altos, Calif.|year=1984|isbn=978-0-7201-1608-3|ref=harv}}		* {{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Jane|title=Imperial Istanbul: A Traveller's Guide: Includes Iznik, Bursa and Edirne|publisher=Tauris Parke Paperbacks|location=New York|year=2007|isbn=978-1-84511-334-6}}
			* {{cite book|last1=Tigrek|first1=Sahnaz|last2=Kibaroğlu|first2=Ayșegül|year=2011|editor-last=Kibaroğlu |editor-first=Ayșegül|editor2-last=Scheumann|editor2-first=Waltina|editor3-last=Kramer|editor3-first=Annika |title=Turkey's Water Policy: National Frameworks and International Cooperation|chapter=Strategic Role of Water Resources for Turkey|publisher=Springer|location=London & New York|isbn=978-3-642-19635-5}}
			* {{cite book|editor=Time Out Guides|title=Time Out Istanbul|publisher=Time Out Guides|location=London |year=2010|isbn=978-1-84670-115-3}}
			* {{cite book|last=Turan|first=Neyran|editor1-last=Sorensen|editor1-first=André|editor2-last=Okata|editor2-first=Junichiro|title=Megacities: Urban Form, Governance, and Sustainability |url=https://archive.org/details/megacitiesurbanf00sore|url-access=limited|series=Library for Sustainable Urban Regeneration|publisher=Springer|location=London & New York|year=2010|pages=–42|chapter=Towards an Ecological Urbanism for Istanbul|isbn=978-4-431-99266-0}}
			* {{cite book|author1=WCTR Society |author2=Unʼyu Seisaku Kenkyū Kikō |title=Urban Transport and the Environment: An International Perspective|year=2004|publisher=Elsevier|location=Amsterdam|isbn=978-0-08-044512-0}}
			* {{cite book|last=Wedel|first=Heidi|year=2000|editor1-last=Ibrahim|editor1-first=Ferhad|editor2-last=Gürbey|editor2-first=Gülistan|title=The Kurdish Conflict in Turkey|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|location=Berlin |isbn=978-3-8258-4744-9|pages=181–93}}
			* {{cite book|last=Wynn|first=Martin|title=Planning and Urban Growth in Southern Europe|series=Studies in History, Planning, and the Environment|publisher=Mansell|location=Los Altos, CA|year=1984|isbn=978-0-7201-1608-3}}
	{{refend}}		{{refend}}
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	|PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. Misplaced Pages |		|PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. Misplaced Pages |
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	|If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or |		|If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or |
	|replacements on this article's discussion page, or submit your link |		|replacements on this article's discussion page, or submit your link |
	|to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) |		|to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) |
	|and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template. |		|and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template. |
	======================={{No more links}}=============================-->		==={{No more links}}=========-->
	{{Sister project links|Istanbul}}		{{Sister project links|auto=yes|d=yes}}
			* ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906202031/https://www.ibb.istanbul/ |date=6 September 2019 }})
	* {{Wikitravel}}
	*		*
			*
	*
			* ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211018220434/http://historic-cities.huji.ac.il/turkey/istanbul/istanbul.html |date=18 October 2021 }}); Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The ] – ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220325051637/http://historic-cities.huji.ac.il/historic_cities.html |date=25 March 2022 }})
	*
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	{{coord|41|00|49|N|28|57|18|E|type:city|display=title}}
			{{Istanbul}}
	{{navboxes		{{navboxes
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	{{Districts of Turkey | provname = Istanbul }}		{{Districts of Turkey | provname = Istanbul}}
			{{Provinces of Turkey}}
	{{Mayors of İstanbul}}		{{Mayors of İstanbul}}
	{{World Heritage Sites in Turkey}}		{{World Heritage Sites in Turkey}}
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	{{European Capital of Culture}}		{{European Capital of Culture}}
	{{European Capital of Sport}}		{{European Capital of Sport}}
			{{50th Anniversary Sculptures}}
	{{Eurovision Song Contest}}
	{{World's most populous urban areas}}		{{World's most populous urban areas}}
	{{Metropolitan centers in Turkey}}		{{Metropolitan centers in Turkey}}
			{{Largest cities in Turkey}}
			{{Megacities}}
	}}		}}
			{{Authority control}}
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	{{featured article}}
	{{Link FA|ar}}
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Latest revision as of 16:39, 7 January 2025

Largest city in Turkey For other uses, see Istanbul (disambiguation).

Metropolitan municipality and province in Marmara, Turkey

Istanbul İstanbul
Metropolitan municipality and province
Historical peninsula, including the Blue Mosque and Hagia SophiaMaiden's TowerGalata Towerİstiklal Avenue and its tramTopkapı PalaceLevent business districtBosporus, 15 July Martyrs Bridge and Ortaköy Mosque
OpenStreetMap
IstanbulLocation within TurkeyShow map of TurkeyIstanbulLocation within EuropeShow map of EuropeIstanbulLocation within AsiaShow map of Asia
Coordinates: 41°00′49″N 28°57′18″E / 41.01361°N 28.95500°E / 41.01361; 28.95500
Country	Turkey
Region	Marmara
Province	Istanbul
Provincial seat	Cağaloğlu, Fatih
Districts	39
Government
• Type	Mayor–council government
• Body	Municipal Council of Istanbul
• Mayor	Ekrem İmamoğlu (CHP)
Area
• Urban	2,576.85 km (994.93 sq mi)
• Metro	5,343.22 km (2,063.03 sq mi)
Highest elevation	537 m (1,762 ft)
Population
• Metropolitan municipality and province	15,655,924
• Rank	1st
• Urban	15,305,657
• Urban density	5,939/km (15,380/sq mi)
• Metro density	2,930/km (7,600/sq mi)
Demonym	Istanbulite (Turkish: İstanbullu)
GDP Nominal (2023)
• Metropolitan municipality and province	₺ 8,060 billion US$ 340.4 billion
• Per capita	₺ 510,733 US$ 21,741
Time zone	UTC+3 (TRT)
Postal code	34000 to 34990
Area codes	+90 212 (European side) +90 216 (Asian side)
ISO 3166 code	TR-34
Vehicle registration	34
HDI (2021)	0.867 (very high) · 1st
GeoTLD	.ist, .istanbul
Website	ibb.istanbul istanbul.gov.tr
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Official name	Historic Areas of Istanbul
Criteria	Cultural: (i)(ii)(iii)(iv)
Reference	356bis
Inscription	1985 (9th Session)
Extensions	2017
Area	765.5 ha (1,892 acres)

Istanbul is the largest city in Turkey, straddling the Bosporus Strait, the boundary between Europe and Asia. It is considered the country's economic, cultural and historic capital. The city has a population of over 15 million residents, comprising 19% of the population of Turkey, and is the most populous city in Europe and the world's sixteenth-largest city.

The city was founded as Byzantium in the 7th century BCE by Greek settlers from Megara. In 330 CE, the Roman emperor Constantine the Great made it his imperial capital, renaming it first as New Rome (Ancient Greek: Νέα Ῥώμη Nea Rhomē; Latin: Nova Roma) and then finally as Constantinople (Constantinopolis) after himself. In 1930, the city's name was officially changed to Istanbul, the Turkish rendering of εἰς τὴν Πόλιν eis tḕn Pólin 'to the City', the appellation Greek speakers used since the 11th century to colloquially refer to the city.

The city served as an imperial capital for almost 1600 years: during the Byzantine (330–1204), Latin (1204–1261), late Byzantine (1261–1453), and Ottoman (1453–1922) empires. The city grew in size and influence, eventually becoming a beacon of the Silk Road and one of the most important cities in history. The city played a key role in the advancement of Christianity during Roman/Byzantine times, hosting four of the first seven ecumenical councils before its transformation to an Islamic stronghold following the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 CE—especially after becoming the seat of the Ottoman Caliphate in 1517. In 1923, after the Turkish War of Independence, Ankara replaced the city as the capital of the newly formed Republic of Turkey.

Istanbul was the 2010 European Capital of Culture. The city has surpassed London and Dubai to become the most visited city in the world, with more than 20 million foreign visitors in 2023. In 2024, Euromonitor International ranks Istanbul as the second most visited cities in the world, welcoming 23 million visitors. The historic centre of Istanbul is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and the city hosts the headquarters of numerous Turkish companies, accounting for more than thirty percent of the country's economy.

Names

Main article: Names of Istanbul

The first known name of the city is Byzantium (Ancient Greek: Βυζάντιον, Byzántion), the name given to it at its foundation by Megarian colonists around 657 BCE. Megarian colonists claimed a direct line back to the founders of the city, Byzas, the son of the god Poseidon and the nymph Ceroëssa. Modern excavations have raised the possibility that the name Byzantium might reflect the sites of native Thracian settlements that preceded the fully-fledged town. Constantinople comes from the Latin name Constantinus, after Constantine the Great, the Roman emperor who refounded the city in 324 CE. Constantinople remained the most common name for the city in the West until the 1930s, when Turkish authorities began to press for the use of Istanbul in foreign languages. Ḳosṭanṭīnīye (Ottoman Turkish: قسطنطينيه) and İstanbul were the names used alternatively by the Ottomans during their rule.

The name İstanbul (Ottoman Turkish: استانبول; pronounced [isˈtanbuɫ] , colloquially [ɯsˈtambuɫ]) is commonly held to derive from the Medieval Greek phrase eis tḕn Pólin (εἰς τὴν Πόλιν, pronounced [is tim ˈbolin]), literally 'to the city' and is how Constantinople was referred to by the local Greeks. This reflected its status as the only major city in the vicinity. The importance of Constantinople in the Ottoman world was also reflected by its nickname Dersaadet (Ottoman Turkish: درساعدت) meaning the 'Gate to Prosperity' in Ottoman Turkish. An alternative view is that the name evolved directly from "Constantinople", with the first and third syllables dropped. Some Ottoman sources of the 17th century, such as Evliya Çelebi, describe it as the common Turkish name of the time; between the late 17th and late 18th centuries, it was also in official use. The first use of the word Islambol (Ottoman Turkish: اسلامبول) on coinage was in 1730 during the reign of Sultan Mahmud I. In modern Turkish, the name is written as İstanbul, with a dotted İ, as the Turkish alphabet distinguishes between a dotted and dotless I. In English, the stress is on the first or last syllable, but in Turkish it is on the second syllable. A person from the city is an İstanbullu (plural İstanbullular); Istanbulite is used in English.

History

Main article: History of Istanbul For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Istanbul history.

Neolithic artifacts, uncovered by archeologists at the beginning of the 21st century, indicate that Istanbul's historic peninsula was settled as far back as the 6th millennium BCE. That early settlement, important in the spread of the Neolithic Revolution from the Near East to Europe, lasted for almost a millennium before being inundated by rising water levels. The first human settlement on the Asian side, the Fikirtepe mound, is from the Copper Age period, with artifacts dating from 5500 to 3500 BCE, On the European side, near the point of the peninsula (Sarayburnu), there was a Thracian settlement during the early 1st millennium BCE. Modern authors have linked it to the Thracian toponym Lygos, mentioned by Pliny the Elder as an earlier name for the site of Byzantium.

The history of the city proper begins around 660 BCE, when Greek settlers from Megara established Byzantium on the European side of the Bosporus. The settlers built an acropolis adjacent to the Golden Horn on the site of the early Thracian settlements, fueling the nascent city's economy. The city experienced a brief period of Persian rule at the turn of the 5th century BCE, but the Greeks recaptured it during the Greco-Persian Wars. Byzantium then continued as part of the Athenian League and its successor, the Second Athenian League, before gaining independence in 355 BCE. Long allied with the Romans, Byzantium officially became a part of the Roman Empire in 73 CE. Byzantium's decision to side with the Roman usurper Pescennius Niger against Emperor Septimius Severus cost it dearly; by the time it surrendered at the end of 195 CE, two years of siege had left the city devastated. Five years later, Severus began to rebuild Byzantium, and the city regained—and, by some accounts, surpassed—its previous prosperity.

Byzantine era

Originally built by Constantine the Great in the 4th century and later rebuilt by Justinian I after the Nika riots in 532, the Hagia Irene is an Eastern Orthodox Church located in the outer courtyard of Topkapı Palace in Istanbul. It is one of the few Byzantine era churches that were never converted into mosques; during the Ottoman period it served as Topkapı's principal armoury.Originally a church, later a mosque, the 6th-century Hagia Sophia (532–537) by Byzantine emperor Justinian I was the largest cathedral in the world for nearly a thousand years, until the completion of the Seville Cathedral (1507) in Spain.

Constantine the Great effectively became the emperor of the whole of the Roman Empire in September 324. Two months later, he laid out the plans for a new, Christian city to replace Byzantium. As the eastern capital of the empire, the city was named Nova Roma; most called it Constantinople, a name that persisted into the 20th century. On 11 May 330, Constantinople was proclaimed the capital of the Roman Empire, which was later permanently divided between the two sons of Theodosius I upon his death on 17 January 395, when the city became the capital of the empire; during the following millennium of Roman history the state is commonly referred to as the "Byzantine Empire".

The establishment of Constantinople was one of Constantine's most lasting accomplishments, shifting Roman power eastward as the city became a center of Greek culture and Christianity. Numerous churches were built across the city, including Hagia Sophia which was built during the reign of Justinian I and remained the world's largest cathedral for a thousand years. Constantine also undertook a major renovation and expansion of the Hippodrome of Constantinople; accommodating tens of thousands of spectators, the hippodrome became central to civic life and, in the 5th and 6th centuries, the center of episodes of unrest, including the Nika riots. Constantinople's location also ensured its existence would stand the test of time; for many centuries, its walls and seafront protected Europe against invaders from the east and the advance of Islam. During most of the Middle Ages, the latter part of the Byzantine era, Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city on the European continent and at times the largest in the world. Constantinople is generally considered to be the center and the "cradle of Orthodox Christian civilization".

Constantinople began to decline continuously after the end of the reign of Basil II in 1025. The Fourth Crusade was diverted from its purpose in 1204, and the city was sacked and pillaged by the crusaders. They established the Latin Empire in place of the Orthodox Byzantine Empire. Hagia Sophia was converted to a Catholic church in 1204. The Byzantine Empire was restored, albeit weakened, in 1261. Constantinople's churches, defenses, and basic services were in disrepair, and its population had dwindled to a hundred thousand from half a million during the 8th century. After the reconquest of 1261, however, some of the city's monuments were restored, and some, like the two Deesis mosaics in Hagia Sophia and Kariye, were created.

Various economic and military policies instituted by Andronikos II Palaiologos, such as the reduction of military forces, weakened the empire and left it vulnerable to attack. In the mid-14th-century, the Ottoman Turks began a strategy of gradually taking smaller towns and cities, cutting off Constantinople's supply routes and strangling it slowly. On 29 May 1453, after an eight-week siege during which the last Roman emperor, Constantine XI, was killed, Sultan Mehmed II "the Conqueror" captured Constantinople.

Ottoman Empire

Sultan Mehmed declared Constantinople the new capital of the Ottoman Empire. Hours after the fall of the city, the sultan rode to the Hagia Sophia and summoned an imam to proclaim the shahada, converting the grand cathedral into an imperial mosque due to the city's refusal to surrender peacefully. Mehmed declared himself as the new Kayser-i Rûm, the Ottoman Turkish equivalent of the Caesar of Rome, and the Ottoman state was reorganized into an empire.

Following the capture of Constantinople, Mehmed II immediately set out to revitalize the city. Cognizant that revitalization would fail without the repopulation of the city, Mehmed II welcomed everyone–foreigners, criminals, and runaways– showing extraordinary openness and willingness to incorporate outsiders that came to define Ottoman political culture. He also invited people from all over Europe to his capital, creating a cosmopolitan society that persisted through much of the Ottoman period. Revitalizing Istanbul also required a massive program of restorations, of everything from roads to aqueducts. Like many monarchs before and since, Mehmed II transformed Istanbul's urban landscape with wholesale redevelopment of the city center. There was a huge new palace to rival, if not overshadow, the old one, a new covered market (still standing as the Grand Bazaar), porticoes, pavilions, walkways, as well as more than a dozen new mosques. Mehmed II turned the ramshackle old town into something that looked like an imperial capital.

Social hierarchy was ignored by the rampant plague, which killed the rich and the poor alike in the 16th century. Money could not protect the rich from all the discomforts and harsher sides of Istanbul. Although the Sultan lived at a safe remove from the masses, and the wealthy and poor tended to live side by side, for the most part Istanbul was not zoned as modern cities are. Opulent houses shared the same streets and districts with tiny hovels. Those rich enough to have secluded country properties had a chance of escaping the periodic epidemics of sickness that blighted Istanbul.

The Ottoman dynasty claimed the status of caliphate in 1517, with Constantinople remaining the capital of this last caliphate for four centuries. Suleiman the Magnificent's reign from 1520 to 1566 was a period of especially great artistic and architectural achievement; chief architect Mimar Sinan designed several iconic buildings in the city, while Ottoman arts of ceramics, stained glass, calligraphy, and miniature flourished. The population of Constantinople was 570,000 by the end of the 18th century.

A period of rebellion at the start of the 19th century led to the rise of the progressive Sultan Mahmud II and eventually to the Tanzimat period, which produced political reforms and allowed new technology to be introduced to the city. Bridges across the Golden Horn were constructed during this period, and Constantinople was connected to the rest of the European railway network in the 1880s. Modern facilities, such as a water supply network, electricity, telephones, and trams, were gradually introduced to Constantinople over the following decades, although later than to other European cities. The modernization efforts were not enough to forestall the decline of the Ottoman Empire.

With the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, the Ottoman Parliament, closed since 14 February 1878, was reopened 30 years later on 23 July 1908, which marked the beginning of the Second Constitutional Era. The civil strife and political uncertainties in the Ottoman Empire during the months after the revolution encouraged Austria-Hungary to annex Bosnia and Bulgaria to declare its independence in a jointly coordinated move on 5 October 1908. Sultan Abdul Hamid II was deposed in 1909, following the counter-revolution attempt known as the 31 March incident. A series of wars in the early 20th century, such as the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912) and the Balkan Wars (1912–1913), plagued the ailing empire's capital and resulted in the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état, which brought the regime of the Three Pashas.

The Ottoman Empire joined World War I (1914–1918) on the side of the Central Powers and was ultimately defeated. The deportation of Armenian intellectuals on 24 April 1915 was among the major events which marked the start of the Armenian genocide during WWI. Due to Ottoman and Turkish policies of Turkification and ethnic cleansing, the city's Christian population declined from 450,000 to 240,000 between 1914 and 1927. The Armistice of Mudros was signed on 30 October 1918 and the Allies occupied Constantinople on 13 November 1918. The Ottoman Parliament was dissolved by the Allies on 11 April 1920 and the Ottoman delegation led by Damat Ferid Pasha was forced to sign the Treaty of Sèvres on 10 August 1920.

Following the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1922), the Grand National Assembly of Turkey in Ankara abolished the Sultanate on 1 November 1922, and the last Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed VI, was declared persona non grata. Leaving aboard the British warship HMS Malaya on 17 November 1922, he went into exile and died in Sanremo, Italy, on 16 May 1926.

The Treaty of Lausanne was signed on 24 July 1923, and the occupation of Constantinople ended with the departure of the last forces of the Allies from the city on 4 October 1923. Turkish forces of the Ankara government, commanded by Şükrü Naili Pasha (3rd Corps), entered the city with a ceremony on 6 October 1923, which has been marked as the "Liberation Day of Istanbul" (İstanbul'un Kurtuluşu), and has been commemorated annually since.

Turkish Republic

On 29 October 1923 the Grand National Assembly of Turkey declared the establishment of the Turkish Republic, with Ankara as its capital. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk became the Republic's first President.

A 1942 wealth tax assessed mainly on non-Muslims led to the transfer or liquidation of many businesses owned by religious minorities. The state-sanctioned 1955 Istanbul pogrom, in which hundreds of Greek men, women and children were attacked and raped and dozens murdered, led to the emigration of most of the remaining Greeks in Istanbul. Government persecution of Greeks and religious minorities, especially Christians, intensified through the 1960s as part of the process of Turkification. Further mass expulsions of Greeks took place in 1964–1965. As a result of these policies, the Greek population of Istanbul decreased from 110,000 in 1919 to 2,500 today.

From the late 1940s and early 1950s, Istanbul underwent great structural change, as new public squares, boulevards, and avenues were constructed throughout the city, sometimes at the expense of historical buildings. The overall population of Istanbul began to rapidly increase in the 1970s, as people from Anatolia migrated to the city to find employment in the many new factories that were built on the outskirts of the sprawling metropolis. This sudden, sharp rise in the city's population caused a large demand for housing, and many previously outlying villages and forests became engulfed into the metropolitan area of Istanbul as result of urban sprawl.

Geography and environment

Further information: Geography of Turkey and Geology of Turkey

Istanbul is in north-western Turkey and straddles the Bosporus Strait, which provides the only passage from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean via the Sea of Marmara. Historically, the city has been ideally situated for trade and defense: The confluence of the Sea of Marmara, the Bosporus, and the Golden Horn provide both ideal defense against enemy attack and a natural toll-gate. Several picturesque islands—Büyükada, Heybeliada, Burgazada, Kınalıada, and five smaller islands—are part of the city. Istanbul's shoreline has grown beyond its natural limits. Large sections of Caddebostan sit on areas of landfill, increasing the total area of the city to 5,343 square kilometers (2,063 sq mi).

Despite the myth that seven hills make up the city, there are, in fact, more than 50 hills within the city limits. Istanbul's tallest hill, Aydos, is 537 meters (1,762 ft) high.

Earthquakes

See also: Architecture of Turkey § Earthquakes

The North Anatolian Fault, under the Sea of Marmara, is locked just south of the city. This fault caused the earthquakes in 1766 and 1894, and a quake of at least magnitude 7.0 is very likely in the 21st century, though an earthquake with a magnitude above 7.5 is thought to be impossible. Istanbul Municipality's Directorate of Earthquake and Ground Research is responsible for analysing the methods to reduce the urban seismic risk, whereas the national government-controlled Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency is responsible for earthquake emergency response, and will be helped by NGOs such as İHH.

The threat of major earthquakes plays a large role in the city's infrastructure development, with over 500,000 vulnerable buildings demolished and replaced since 2012. According to ministry statements and geologist comments made in 2023, the city's infrastructure was in reasonably good shape, however, due to very high costs, buildings were not: over half a million flats were still vulnerable to collapse, and casualties largely depend on how many collapse. As of 2024, most buildings in Istanbul were built to a low seismic standard in the 20th century, and residents think the city is not properly prepared for the earthquake.

Climate

Main article: Climate of Istanbul

Istanbul's climate is temperate, and is often described as transitional between the Mediterranean climate typical of the western and southern coasts of Turkey, and the oceanic climate of the northwestern coasts of the country. Much divergence exists in the terminology used to classify the city's climate, however.

The city's summers are warm to hot and moderately dry, with an average daytime temperature of about 28 °C (82 °F), and less than 7 days of precipitation per month. Despite the generally acceptable temperature range, mid-summer in Istanbul is considered moderately uncomfortable, due to high dew points and relative humidity. Winters, meanwhile, are cool, quite rainy, and relatively snow-rich for a city with above-freezing average temperatures.

Istanbul's precipitation is unevenly distributed, with winter months getting at least twice the level of precipitation of their summerly counterparts. The mode of precipitation also varies by season. Winter precipitation is generally light, persistent and often of mixed precipitation such as rain-snow mixes and graupel; while summer precipitation is generally abrupt and sporadic. Cloudiness, as with precipitation, varies greatly by season. Winters are quite cloudy, with around 20 percent of days being sunny or partly cloudy. Meanwhile, summers experience 60-70 percent of possible sunshine.

Snowfall is sporadic, but accumulates virtually every winter; and when it does, it is highly disruptive to city infrastructure. Sea-effect snowstorms with more than 30 centimetres (1 ft) of snowfall happen almost annually, most recently in 2022.

Climate data for Kireçburnu (normals 1991–2020, precipitation days and sunshine 1981–2010; see the main article for more information)
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Mean daily maximum °C (°F)	8.8 (47.8)	9.4 (48.9)	12.0 (53.6)	16.1 (61.0)	21.0 (69.8)	25.7 (78.3)	28.0 (82.4)	28.2 (82.8)	24.6 (76.3)	19.9 (67.8)	15.0 (59.0)	10.7 (51.3)	18.3 (64.9)
Daily mean °C (°F)	5.9 (42.6)	6.1 (43.0)	8.0 (46.4)	11.5 (52.7)	16.3 (61.3)	21.1 (70.0)	23.7 (74.7)	24.2 (75.6)	20.5 (68.9)	16.2 (61.2)	11.7 (53.1)	7.9 (46.2)	14.4 (58.0)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F)	3.6 (38.5)	3.5 (38.3)	4.9 (40.8)	8.1 (46.6)	12.8 (55.0)	17.4 (63.3)	20.3 (68.5)	21.2 (70.2)	17.4 (63.3)	13.6 (56.5)	9.2 (48.6)	5.5 (41.9)	11.5 (52.6)
Average precipitation mm (inches)	96.1 (3.78)	87.7 (3.45)	69.8 (2.75)	45.1 (1.78)	37.1 (1.46)	44.7 (1.76)	36.3 (1.43)	43.5 (1.71)	81.3 (3.20)	98.3 (3.87)	100.5 (3.96)	124.8 (4.91)	865.2 (34.06)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm)	16.9	15.2	13.2	10.0	7.4	7.0	4.7	5.1	8.1	12.3	13.9	17.5	131.3
Average snowy days (≥ 0.1 cm)	4.5	4.7	2.9	0.1	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.3	2.7	15.2
Average relative humidity (%)	79.8	78.6	75.8	75.1	76.5	75.7	75.3	75.9	75.0	78.4	78.9	78.4	76.9
Mean monthly sunshine hours	68.2	89.6	142.6	180.0	248.0	297.6	319.3	288.3	234.0	158.1	93.0	62.0	2,180.7
Percent possible sunshine	22	29	38	46	57	64	69	66	65	46	31	22	46
Source:

Climate change

Further information: Climate change in Turkey

Climate change has caused an increase in Istanbul's heatwaves, droughts, storms, and flooding in Istanbul. Furthermore, as Istanbul is a large and rapidly expanding city, its urban heat island has been intensifying the effects of climate change. If trends continue, sea level rise is likely to affect city infrastructure, for example Kadıkoy metro station is threatened with flooding. Xeriscaping of green spaces has been suggested, and Istanbul has a climate-change action plan.

Flora and fauna

The natural vegetation of the province is made up of mixed broadleaf forest and pseudo-maquis, reflecting the city's transitional, Mediterranean-influenced humid temperate climate. Chestnut, oak, elm, linden, ash and locust comprise the most prominent temperate forest genera, while laurel, terebinth, Cercis siliquastrum, broom, red firethorn, and oak species such as Quercus cerris and Quercus coccifera are the most important species of Mediterranean and Submediterranean distribution. Apart from the natural flora, Platanus orentalis, horse chestnut, cypress and stone pine make up the introduced species that got acclimatized to Istanbul. In a study that examined urban flora in Kartal, a total of 576 plant taxa were recorded; of those 477 were natural and 99 were exotic and cultivated. The most prominent native taxa were in the Asteraceae family (50 species), while the most diverse exotic plant family was Rosaceae (16 species).

Turkish Straits and Sea of Marmara play a vital role for migrating fish and other marine animals between Mediterranean, Marmara and Black Sea. Bosporus hosts pelagic, demersal and semipelagic fish species and more than 130 different taxa have been documented in the strait. Bluefish, bonito, sea bass, horse mackerel and anchovies compose the economically important species. Fish diversity in the waters of Istanbul has dwindled in the recent decades. From around 60 different fish species recorded in the 1970s only 20 of them still survive in the Bosporus. Common bottlenose dolphin (Turkish: afalina), short-beaked common dolphin (Turkish: tırtak) and harbor porpoise (Turkish: mutur) make up the marine mammals presently found in the Bosporus and surrounding waters, though since the 1950s the number of dolphin observations has become increasingly rare. Mediterranean monk seals were present in Bosporus, and Princes' Islands and Tuzla shores were seal breeding areas during summer, but they have not been observed in Istanbul since the 1960s and thought to be extinct in the region. Water pollution, overfishing and destruction of coastal habitats caused by urbanization are main threats to Istanbul's marine ecology.

Apart from the wild land mammals Istanbul hosts a sizeable stray animal population. The presence of feral cats in Istanbul (Turkish: sokak kedisi) is noted to be very prevalent, with estimates ranging from a hundred thousand to over a million stray cats. The feral cats in the city have gained widespread media and public attention and are considered to be symbols of the city. Rose-ringed parakeet colonies are present in urban areas, similar to other European cities as feral parrots, and considered as invasive species.

Pollution

Air pollution in Turkey is acute in İstanbul with cars, buses and taxis causing frequent urban smog, as it is one of the few European cities without a low-emission zone. As of 2019 the city's mean air quality remains at a level so as to affect the heart and lungs of healthy street bystanders during peak traffic hours, and almost 200 days of pollution were measured by the air pollution sensors at Sultangazi, Mecidiyeköy, Alibeyköy and Kağıthane. It is one of the 10 worst cities for NO
₂. However a trial of congestion pricing is planned for the historic peninsula.

Algal blooms and red tides were reported in the Sea of Marmara and Bosporus (especially in Golden Horn), and regularly happen in urban lakes such as Lake Büyükçekmece and Küçükçekmece. In June 2021, a marine mucilage wave allegedly caused by water pollution spread to Sea of Marmara.

Cityscape

Districts and neighborhoods

See also: Historic Areas of Istanbul and List of urban centers in Istanbul

European side

The Fatih district, which was named after Mehmed II (Turkish: Fatih Sultan Mehmed), corresponds to what was the whole of Constantinople until the Ottoman conquest; today it is the capital district and called the historic peninsula of Istanbul on the southern shore of the Golden Horn, across the medieval Genoese citadel of Galata on the northern shore. The Genoese fortifications in Galata were largely demolished in the 19th century, leaving only the Galata Tower, to make way for the northward expansion of the city. Galata (Karaköy) is today a quarter within the Beyoğlu district, which forms Istanbul's commercial and entertainment center and includes İstiklal Avenue and Taksim Square.

Dolmabahçe Palace, the seat of government during the late Ottoman period, is in the Beşiktaş district on the European shore of the Bosporus, to the north of Beyoğlu. The former village of Ortaköy is within Beşiktaş and gives its name to the Ortaköy Mosque on the Bosporus, near the Bosporus Bridge. Lining both the European and Asian shores of the Bosporus are the historic yalıs, luxurious chalet mansions built by Ottoman aristocrats and elites as summer homes. Inland, north of Taksim Square is the Istanbul Central Business District, a set of corridors lined with office buildings, residential towers, shopping centers, and university campuses, and over 2,000,000 m (22,000,000 sq ft) of class-A office space in total. Maslak, Levent, and Bomonti are important nodes within the CBD.

The Atatürk Airport corridor is another such edge city-style business, residential and shopping corridor with over 900,000 m (9,700,000 sq ft) of class-A office space.

Asian side

During the Ottoman period, Üsküdar (then Scutari) and Kadıköy were outside the scope of the urban area, serving as tranquil outposts with seaside yalıs and gardens. But in the second half of the 20th century, the Asian side experienced major urban growth; the late development of this part of the city led to better infrastructure and tidier urban planning when compared with most other residential areas in the city. Much of the Asian side of the Bosporus functions as a suburb of the economic and commercial centers in European Istanbul, accounting for a third of the city's population but only a quarter of its employment. However, Kozyatağı–Ataşehir, Altunizade, Kavacık and Ümraniye, all together having around 1.4 million sqm of class-A office space, are now important "edge cities", i.e. corridors and nodes of business and shopping centers and of tall residential buildings.

Expansion

As a result of Istanbul's exponential growth in the 20th century, a significant portion of the city is composed of gecekondus (literally "built overnight"), referring to illegally constructed squatter buildings. At present, some gecekondu areas are being gradually demolished and replaced by modern mass-housing compounds. Moreover, large scale gentrification and urban renewal projects have been taking place, such as the one in Tarlabaşı; some of these projects, like the one in Sulukule, have faced criticism. The Turkish government also has ambitious plans for an expansion of the city west and northwards on the European side in conjunction with the new Istanbul Airport, opened in 2019; the new parts of the city will include four different settlements with specified urban functions, housing 1.5 million people.

Parks

Istanbul does not have a primary urban park, but it has several green areas. Gülhane Park and Yıldız Park were originally included within the grounds of two of Istanbul's palaces — Topkapı Palace and Yıldız Palace—but they were repurposed as public parks in the early decades of the Turkish Republic. Another park, Fethi Paşa Korusu, is on a hillside adjacent to the Bosphorus Bridge in Anatolia, opposite Yıldız Palace in Europe.

Along the European side, and close to the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge, is Emirgan Park, which was known as the Kyparades ('Cypress Forest') during the Byzantine period. In the Ottoman period, it was first granted to Nişancı Feridun Ahmed Bey in the 16th century, before being granted by Sultan Murad IV to the Safavid emir Gûne Han in the 17th century, hence the name Emirgan. The 47-hectare (120-acre) park was later owned by Khedive Isma'il Pasha of Ottoman Egypt in the 19th century. Emirgan Park is known for its diversity of plants and an annual tulip festival is held there since 2005.

The AKP government's decision to replace Taksim Gezi Park with a replica of the Ottoman era Taksim Military Barracks (which was transformed into the Taksim Stadium in 1921, before being demolished in 1940 for building Gezi Park) sparked a series of nationwide protests in 2013 covering a wide range of issues.

Popular during the summer among Istanbulites is Belgrad Forest, spreading across 5,500 hectares (14,000 acres) at the northern edge of the city. The forest originally supplied water to the city and remnants of reservoirs used during Byzantine and Ottoman times survive.

Panoramic view of Istanbul from the confluence of the Bosporus and Sea of Marmara. Several landmarks—including Sultan Ahmed Mosque, the Hagia Sophia, Topkapı Palace, and Dolmabahçe Palace—can be seen along their shores.

Architecture

See also: Architecture of Istanbul, Ottoman architecture, and Architecture of Turkey

Istanbul is primarily known for its Byzantine and Ottoman architecture. Despite its development as a Turkish city since 1923, it contains many ancient, Roman, Byzantine, Christian, Muslim, and Jewish monuments.

The Neolithic settlement in the Yenikapı quarter on the European side, which dates back to c. 6500 BCE and predates the formation of the Bosporus by approximately a millennium, when the Sea of Marmara was still a lake, was discovered during the construction of the Marmaray railway tunnel. It is the oldest known human settlement on the European side of the city. The oldest known human settlement on the Asian side is the Fikirtepe Mound near Kadıköy, with relics dating to the Chalcolithic period c. 5500 – c. 3500 BCE.

There are numerous ancient monuments in the city. The most ancient is the Obelisk of Thutmose III (Obelisk of Theodosius). Built of red granite, 31 m (100 ft) high, it came from the Temple of Karnak in Luxor, and was erected there by Pharaoh Thutmose III (r. 1479 – 1425 BCE) to the south of the seventh pylon. The Roman emperor Constantius II (r. 337–361 CE– ) had it and another obelisk transported along the Nile to Alexandria for commemorating his ventennalia or 20 years on the throne in 357. The other obelisk was erected on the spina of the Circus Maximus in Rome in the autumn of that year, and is now known as the Lateran Obelisk. The obelisk that would become the Obelisk of Theodosius remained in Alexandria until 390, when Theodosius I (r. 379–395) had it transported to Constantinople and put up on the spina of the Hippodrome there. When re-erected at the Hippodrome of Constantinople, the obelisk was mounted on a decorative base, with reliefs that depict Theodosius I and his courtiers. The lower part of the obelisk was damaged in antiquity, probably during its transport to Alexandria in 357 CE or during its re-erection at the Hippodrome of Constantinople in 390 CE. As a result, the current height of the obelisk is only 18.54 meters, or 25.6 meters if the base is included. Between the four corners of the obelisk and the pedestal are four bronze cubes, used in its transportation and re-erection.

Built by Ottoman sultans Abdülmecid and Abdülaziz, the 19th-century Dolmabahçe, Çırağan, Beylerbeyi and Küçüksu palaces on the Bosporus were designed by members of the Armenian Balyan family of court architects.

Next in age is the Serpent Column, from 479 BCE. It was brought from Delphi in 324 CE, during the reign of Constantine the Great, and also erected at the spina of the Hippodrome. It was originally part of an ancient Greek sacrificial tripod in Delphi that was erected to commemorate the Greeks who fought and defeated the Persian Empire at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BCE. The three serpent heads of the 8-meter (26 ft) high column remained intact until the end of the 17th century (one is on display at the nearby Istanbul Archaeology Museums).

Built in porphyry and erected at the center of the Forum of Constantine in 330 CE to mark the founding of the new Roman capital, the Column of Constantine was originally adorned with a sculpture of the Roman emperor Constantine the Great depicted as the solar god Apollo on its top, which fell in 1106 and was later replaced by a cross during the reign of Byzantine emperor Manuel Komnenos (r. 1143–1180).

There are traces of the Byzantine era throughout the city, from ancient churches that were built over early Christian meeting places like the Hagia Irene, the Chora Church, the Monastery of Stoudios, the Church of Sts. Sergius and Bacchus, the Church of Theotokos Pammakaristos, the Monastery of the Pantocrator, the Monastery of Christ Pantepoptes, the Hagia Theodosia, the Church of Theotokos Kyriotissa, the Monastery of Constantine Lips, the Church of Myrelaion, the Hagios Theodoros, etc.; to palaces like the Great Palace of Constantinople and its Mosaic Museum, the Palace of the Porphyrogenitus, Boukoleon Palace and Palace of Blachernae; and other public places and buildings like the Hippodrome, the Augustaion, the Basilica Cistern, Theodosius Cistern, Cistern of Philoxenos and Cistern of the Hebdomon, the Aqueduct of Valens, the Prison of Anemas, the Walls of Constantinople and the Porta Aurea (Golden Gate), among numerous others. The 4th century Harbor of Theodosius in Yenikapı, once the busiest port in Constantinople, was among the numerous archeological discoveries that took place during the excavations of the Marmaray tunnel.

However, it is the Hagia Sophia that fully conveys the period of Constantinople as a city without parallel in Christendom. The Hagia Sophia, topped by a dome 31 meters (102 ft) in diameter over a square space defined by four arches, is the pinnacle of Byzantine architecture. The Hagia Sophia stood as the world's largest cathedral in the world until it was converted into a mosque in the 15th century. The minarets date from that period. Because of its historical significance, it was reopened as a museum in 1935. However, it was re-converted into a mosque in July 2020.

Over the next four centuries, the Ottomans transformed Istanbul's urban landscape with a vast building scheme that included the construction of towering mosques and ornate palaces. The Sultan Ahmed Mosque (Blue Mosque), another landmark of the city, faces the Hagia Sophia at Sultanahmet Square (Hippodrome of Constantinople). The Süleymaniye Mosque, built by Suleiman the Magnificent, was designed by his chief architect Mimar Sinan, the most illustrious of all Ottoman architects, who designed many of the city's renowned mosques and other types of public buildings and monuments.

Among the oldest surviving examples of Ottoman architecture in Istanbul are the Anadoluhisarı and Rumelihisarı fortresses, which assisted the Ottomans during their siege of the city. Over the next four centuries, the Ottomans made an indelible impression on the skyline of Istanbul, building towering mosques and ornate palaces.

Topkapı Palace, dating back to 1465, is the oldest seat of government surviving in Istanbul. Mehmed II built the original palace as his main residence and the seat of government. The present palace grew over the centuries as a series of additions enfolding four courtyards and blending neoclassical, rococo, and baroque architectural forms. In 1639, Murad IV made some of the most lavish additions, including the Baghdad Kiosk, to commemorate his conquest of Baghdad the previous year. Government meetings took place here until 1786, when the seat of government was moved to the Sublime Porte. After several hundred years of royal residence, it was abandoned in 1853 in favor of the baroque Dolmabahçe Palace. Topkapı Palace became public property following the abolition of monarchy in 1922. After extensive renovation, it became one of Turkey's first national museums in 1924.

The imperial mosques include Fatih Mosque, Bayezid Mosque, Yavuz Selim Mosque, Süleymaniye Mosque, Sultan Ahmed Mosque (the Blue Mosque), and Yeni Mosque, all of which were built at the peak of the Ottoman Empire, in the 16th and 17th centuries. In the following centuries, and especially after the Tanzimat reforms, Ottoman architecture was supplanted by European styles. An example of which is the imperial Nuruosmaniye Mosque. Areas around İstiklal Avenue were filled with grand European embassies and rows of buildings in Neoclassical, Renaissance Revival and Art Nouveau styles, which went on to influence the architecture of a variety of structures in Beyoğlu—including churches, stores, and theaters—and official buildings such as Dolmabahçe Palace.

Administration

Main articles: List of districts of Istanbul and List of neighbourhoods of Istanbul

Since 2004, the municipal boundaries of Istanbul have been coincident with the boundaries of its province. The city, considered capital of the larger Istanbul Province, is administered by the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (IMM, Turkish: İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyesi, IBB), which oversees the 39 districts of the city-province.

The current city structure can be traced back to the Tanzimat period of reform in the 19th century, before which Islamic judges and imams led the city under the auspices of the Grand Vizier. Following the model of French cities, this religious system was replaced by a mayor and a citywide council composed of representatives of the confessional groups (millet) across the city. Pera (now Beyoğlu) was the first area of the city to have its own director and council, with members instead being longtime residents of the neighborhood. Laws enacted after the Ottoman constitution of 1876 aimed to expand this structure across the city, imitating the twenty arrondissements of Paris, but they were not fully implemented until 1908 when the city was declared a province with nine constituent districts. This system continued beyond the founding of the Turkish Republic, with the province renamed a belediye (municipality), but the municipality was disbanded in 1957.

Small settlements adjacent to major population centers in Turkey, including Istanbul, were merged into their respective primary cities during the early 1980s, resulting in metropolitan municipalities. The main decision-making body of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality is the Municipal Council, with members drawn from district councils.

The Municipal Council of Istanbul is responsible for citywide issues, including managing the budget, maintaining civic infrastructure, and overseeing museums and major cultural centers. Since the government operates under a "powerful mayor, weak council" approach, the council's leader—the metropolitan mayor—has the authority to make swift decisions, often at the expense of transparency. The Municipal Council is advised by the Metropolitan Executive Committee, although the committee also has limited power to make decisions of its own. All representatives on the committee are appointed by the metropolitan mayor and the council, with the mayor—or someone of his or her choosing—serving as head.

District councils are chiefly responsible for waste management and construction projects within their respective districts. They each maintain their own budgets, although the metropolitan mayor reserves the right to review district decisions. One-fifth of all district council members, including the district mayors, also represent their districts in the Municipal Council. All members of the district councils and the Municipal Council, including the metropolitan mayor, are elected to five-year terms. Representing the Republican People's Party, Ekrem İmamoğlu has been the Mayor of Istanbul since 27 June 2019.

With the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality and Istanbul Province having equivalent jurisdictions, few responsibilities remain for the provincial government. Like the MMI, the Istanbul Special Provincial Administration has a governor, a democratically elected decision-making body—the Provincial Parliament—and an appointed Executive Committee. Mirroring the executive committee at the municipal level, the Provincial Executive Committee includes a secretary-general and leaders of departments that advise the Provincial Parliament. The Provincial Administration's duties are largely limited to the building and maintenance of schools, residences, government buildings, and roads, and the promotion of arts, culture, and nature conservation. Davut Gül has been the Governor of Istanbul Province since 5 June 2023.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Istanbul See also: Demographics of Turkey

Historical populations

Pre-Republic Year Pop. 100 36,000 361 300,000 500 400,000 7th c. 150–350,000 8th c. 125–500,000 9th c. 50–250,000 1000 150–300,000 1100 200,000 1200 150,000 1261 100,000 1350 80,000 1453 45,000 1500 200,000 1550 660,000 1700 700,000 1815 500,000 1860 715,000 1890 874,000 1900 942,900

Republic Year Pop. ±% p.a. 1925 881,000 —     1927 691,000 −11.44% 1935 740,800 +0.87% 1940 793,900 +1.39% 1945 845,300 +1.26% 1950 983,000 +3.06% 1960 1,459,500 +4.03% 1965 1,743,000 +3.61% 1970 2,132,400 +4.12% 1975 2,547,400 +3.62% 1980 2,853,500 +2.30% 1985 5,494,900 +14.00% 1990 6,620,200 +3.80% 1994 7,615,500 +3.56% 1997 8,260,400 +2.75% 2000 8,831,800 +2.25% 2007 11,174,200 +3.42% 2015 14,657,434 +3.45% 2016 14,804,116 +1.00% 2017 15,029,231 +1.52% 2018 15,067,724 +0.26% 2019 15,519,267 +3.00%

Sources: Jan Lahmeyer 2004, Chandler 1987, Morris 2010,Turan 2010 Pre-Republic figures estimated

Throughout most of its history, Istanbul has ranked among the largest cities in the world. By 500 CE, Constantinople had somewhere between 400,000 and 500,000 people, edging out its predecessor, Rome, for the world's largest city. Constantinople jostled with other major historical cities, such as Baghdad, Chang'an, Kaifeng and Merv for the position of the world's largest city until the 12th century. It never returned to being the world's largest, but remained the largest city in Europe from 1500 to 1750, when it was surpassed by London.

The Turkish Statistical Institute estimates that the population of Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality was 15,519,267 at the end of 2019, hosting 19 percent of the country's population. 64.4% of the residents live on the European side and 35.6% on the Asian side.

Istanbul ranks as the seventh-largest city proper in the world, and the second-largest urban agglomeration in Europe, after Moscow. The city's annual population growth of 1.5 percent ranks as one of the highest among the seventy-eight largest metropolises in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. The high population growth mirrors an urbanization trend across the country, as the second and third fastest-growing OECD metropolises are the Turkish cities of İzmir and Ankara.

Istanbul experienced especially rapid growth during the second half of the 20th century, with its population increasing tenfold between 1950 and 2000. This growth was fueled by internal and international migration. Istanbul's foreign population with a residence permit increased dramatically, from 43,000 in 2007 to 856,377 in 2019.

According to 2020 TÜİK data around 2.1 million people in a population of over 15.4 million have been registered in Istanbul, meanwhile the vast majority of the residents ultimately originate from Anatolian provinces, especially those in the Black Sea, Central and Eastern Anatolia regions due to internal migration since the 1950s. People registered in Kastamonu, Ordu, Giresun, Erzurum, Samsun, Malatya, Trabzon, Sinop and Rize provinces represent the biggest population groups in Istanbul, meanwhile people registered in Sivas has the highest percentage with more than 760 thousand residents in the city. A 2019 survey found that only 36% of the Istanbul's population was born in the province.

Ethnic and religious groups

Main article: Religion in Istanbul See also: Assyrians in Turkey, Kurds in Istanbul, Bosniaks in Turkey, Greeks in Turkey, Armenians in Turkey, Jews in Turkey, and Albanians in Turkey

Ethnic groups among Turkish citizens in Istanbul (2019 KONDA survey)
Turks			78%
Kurds			17%
Zazas			1%
Arabs			1%
Others			3%

Istanbul has been a cosmopolitan city throughout much of its history, but it has become more homogenized since the end of the Ottoman era. The dominant ethnic group in the city is Turkish people, which also forms the majority group in Turkey. According to survey data 78% of the voting-age Turkish citizens in Istanbul state "Turkish" as their ethnic identity.

With estimates ranging from 2 to 4 million, Kurds form one of the largest ethnic minorities in Istanbul and are the biggest group after Turks among Turkish citizens. According to a 2019 KONDA study, Kurds constituted around 17% of Istanbul's adult total population who were Turkish citizens. Although the initial Kurdish presence in the city dates back to the early Ottoman period, the majority of Kurds in the city originate from villages in eastern and southeastern Turkey. Zazas are also present in the city and constitute around 1% of the total voting-age population.

Arabs form the city's other largest ethnic minority, with an estimated population of more than 2 million. Following Turkey's support for the Arab Spring, Istanbul emerged as a hub for dissidents from across the Arab world, including former presidential candidates from Egypt, Kuwaiti MPs, and former ministers from Jordan, Saudi Arabia (including Jamal Khashoggi), Syria, and Yemen. As of August 2019, the number of refugees of the Syrian Civil War in Turkey residing in Istanbul was estimated to be around 1 million. Native Arab population in Turkey who are Turkish citizens are found to be making up less than 1% of city's total adult population. As of August 2023, there were more than 530,000 refugees of the Syrian civil war in Istanbul, the highest number in any Turkish city.

A 2019 survey study by KONDA that examined the religiosity of the voting-age adults in Istanbul showed that 57% of the surveyed had a religion and were trying to practise its requirements. This was followed by nonobservant people with 26% who identified with a religion but generally did not practise its requirements. 11% stated they were fully devoted to their religion, meanwhile 6% were non-believers who did not believe the rules and requirements of a religion. 24% of the surveyed also identified themselves as "religious conservatives". Around 90% of Istanbul's population are Sunni Muslims and Alevism forms the second biggest religious group.

Into the 19th century, the Christians of Istanbul tended to be either Greek Orthodox, members of the Armenian Apostolic Church or Catholic Levantines. Greeks and Armenians form the largest Christian population in the city. While Istanbul's Greek population was exempted from the 1923 population exchange with Greece, changes in tax status and the 1955 anti-Greek pogrom prompted thousands to leave. Following Greek migration to the city for work in the 2010s, the Greek population rose to nearly 3,000 in 2019, still greatly diminished since 1919, when it stood at 350,000. There are today 50,000 to 70,000 Armenians in Istanbul down from a peak of 164,000 in 1913. As of 2019, an estimated 18,000 of the country's 25,000 Christian Assyrians live in Istanbul.

The majority of the Catholic Levantines (Turkish: Levanten) in Istanbul and İzmir are the descendants of traders/colonists from the Italian maritime republics of the Mediterranean (especially Genoa and Venice) and France, who obtained special rights and privileges called the Capitulations from the Ottoman sultans in the 16th century. The community had more than 15,000 members during Atatürk's presidency in the 1920s and 1930s, but today is reduced to only a few hundreds, according to Italo-Levantine writer Giovanni Scognamillo. They continue to live in Istanbul (mostly in Karaköy, Beyoğlu and Nişantaşı), and İzmir (mostly in Karşıyaka, Bornova and Buca).

Istanbul became one of the world's most important Jewish centers in the 16th and 17th century. Romaniote and Ashkenazi communities existed in Istanbul before the conquest of Istanbul, but it was the arrival of Sephardic Jews that ushered a period of cultural flourishing. Sephardic Jews settled in the city after their expulsion from Spain and Portugal in 1492 and 1497. Sympathetic to the plight of Sephardic Jews, Bayezid II sent out the Ottoman Navy under the command of admiral Kemal Reis to Spain in 1492 in order to evacuate them safely to Ottoman lands. In marked contrast to Jews in Europe, Ottoman Jews were allowed to work in any profession. Ottoman Jews in Istanbul excelled in commerce and came to particularly dominate the medical profession. By 1711, using the printing press, books came to be published in Spanish and Ladino, Yiddish, and Hebrew. In large part due to emigration to Israel, the Jewish population in the city dropped from 100,000 in 1950 to 15,000 in 2021.

Politics

Politically, Istanbul is seen as the most important administrative region in Turkey. In the run-up to local elections in 2019, Erdoğan claimed 'if we fail in Istanbul, we will fail in Turkey'. The contest in Istanbul carried deep political, economic and symbolic significance for Erdoğan, whose election of mayor of Istanbul in 1994 had served as his launchpad. For Ekrem İmamoğlu, winning the mayoralty of Istanbul was a huge moral victory, but for Erdoğan it had practical ramifications: His party, AKP, lost control of the $4.8 billion municipal budget, which had sustained patronage at the point of delivery of many public services for 25 years.

More recently, Istanbul and many of Turkey's metropolitan cities are following a trend away from the government and their right-wing ideology. In 2013 and 2014, large scale anti-AKP government protests began in İstanbul and spread throughout the nation. This trend first became evident electorally in the 2014 mayoral election where the center-left opposition candidate won an impressive 40% of the vote, despite not winning. The first government defeat in Istanbul occurred in the 2017 constitutional referendum, where Istanbul voted 'No' by 51.4% to 48.6%. The AKP government had supported a 'Yes' vote and won the vote nationally due to high support in rural parts of the country. A major turning point for the government came in the 2019 local elections, where their candidate for Mayor, former Prime Minister Binali Yıldırım, was defeated by a very narrow margin by the Republican People's Party candidate Ekrem İmamoğlu. İmamoğlu won the vote with 48.77% of the vote, against Yıldırım's 48.61%, but the elections were controversially annulled by the Supreme Electoral Council due to AKP's claim of electoral fraud. In the re-run İmamoğlu gathered 54.22% of the total vote and widened his margin of victory.

Following the 2019 election, a trend towards the CHP has persisted across the city. In the 2023 presidential election the CHP candidate, Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu, received 48.56% of the city's vote, while the incumbent president and AKP candidate, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, received 46.68%.

In the 2024 local elections, Ekrem İmamoğlu was re-elected by a 12-point margin. İmamoğlu won 51.15% of the vote, while the AKP's candidate Murat Kurum received 39.59%. Additionally, the CHP won the mayoralties in 26 of İstanbul's 39 districts.

Administratively, Istanbul is divided into 39 districts, more than any other province in Turkey. Istanbul Province sends 98 Members of Parliament to the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, which has a total of 600 seats. For the purpose of parliamentary elections, Istanbul is divided into three electoral districts; two on the European side and one on the Asian side, electing 28, 35 and 35 MPs respectively.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Istanbul

Istanbul had the eleventh-largest economy among the world's urban areas in 2018, and is responsible for 30 percent of Turkey's industrial output, 31 percent of GDP, and 47 percent of tax revenues. The city's gross domestic product adjusted by PPP stood at US$537.507 billion in 2018, with manufacturing and services accounting for 36 percent and 60 percent of the economic output respectively. Istanbul's productivity is 110 percent higher than the national average. Trade is economically important, accounting for 30 percent of the economic output in the city. In 2019, companies based in Istanbul produced exports worth $83.66 billion and received imports totaling $128.34 billion; these figures were equivalent to 47 percent and 61 percent, respectively, of the national totals.

Istanbul, which straddles the Bosporus strait, houses international ports that link Europe and Asia. The Bosporus, providing the only passage from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, is the world's busiest and narrowest strait used for international navigation, with more than 200 million tons of oil passing through it each year. International conventions guarantee passage between the Black and the Mediterranean seas, even when tankers carry oil, natural gas, chemicals, and other flammable or explosive materials as cargo. In 2011, as a workaround solution, the then Prime Minister Erdoğan presented Canal Istanbul, a project to open a new strait between the Black and Marmara seas. While the project was still on Turkey's agenda in 2020, there has not been a clear date set for it.

Shipping is a significant part of the city's economy, with 73.9 percent of exports and 92.7 percent of imports in 2018 executed by sea. Istanbul has three major shipping ports – the Port of Haydarpaşa, the Port of Ambarlı, and the Port of Zeytinburnu – as well as several smaller ports and oil terminals along the Bosporus and the Sea of Marmara.

Haydarpaşa, at the southeastern end of the Bosporus, was Istanbul's largest port until the early 2000s. Since then operations were shifted to Ambarlı, with plans to convert Haydarpaşa into a tourism complex. In 2019, Ambarlı, on the western edge of the urban center, had an annual capacity of 3,104,882 TEUs, making it the third-largest cargo terminal in the Mediterranean basin.

Istanbul has been an international banking hub since the 1980s, and is home to the only active stock exchange in Turkey, Borsa Istanbul, which was originally established as the Ottoman Stock Exchange in 1866.

In 1995, keeping up with the financial trends, Borsa Istanbul moved its headquarters (which was originally located on Bankalar Caddesi, the financial center of the Ottoman Empire, and later at the 4th Vakıf Han building in Sirkeci) to İstinye, in the vicinity of Maslak, which hosts the headquarters of numerous Turkish banks.

Since 2023, the Ataşehir district on the Asian side of the city is home to the Istanbul Financial Center (IFC), where the new headquarters of the state-owned Turkish banks, including the Turkish Central Bank, are located. As of 2023, the five tallest skyscrapers in Istanbul and Turkey are the 352 m (1,154 ft 10 in) tall Turkish Central Bank Tower in the Ataşehir district on the Asian side of the city; Metropol Istanbul Tower A (70 floors / 301 metres including its twin spires) also in the Ataşehir district; Skyland Istanbul Towers 1 and 2 (2 x 284 metres) located adjacent to Nef Stadium in the Huzur neighbourhood of the Sarıyer district on the European side, and Istanbul Sapphire (54 floors / 238 metres; 261 metres including its spire) in Levent on the European side.

13.4 million foreign tourists visited the city in 2018, making Istanbul the world's fifth most-visited city in that year. Istanbul and Antalya are Turkey's two largest international gateways, receiving a quarter of the nation's foreign tourists. Istanbul has more than fifty museums, with the Topkapı Palace, the most visited museum in the city, bringing in more than $30 million in revenue each year.

Istanbul expects 1 million tourists from cruise companies after the renovation of its cruise port, also known as Galataport in Karaköy district.

A view of Dolmabahçe Palace and the skyscrapers of Levent financial district in the background. Providing the only sea route to the Black Sea, the Bosporus is the world's busiest waterway that is used for international navigation.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Istanbul

Istanbul was historically known as a cultural hub, but its cultural scene stagnated after the Turkish Republic shifted its focus toward Ankara. The new national government established programs that served to orient Turks toward musical traditions, especially those originating in Europe, but musical institutions and visits by foreign classical artists were primarily centered in the new capital.

Much of Turkey's cultural scene had its roots in Istanbul, and by the 1980s and 1990s Istanbul reemerged globally as a city whose cultural significance is not solely based on its past glory.

By the end of the 19th century, Istanbul had established itself as a regional artistic center, with Turkish, European, and Middle Eastern artists flocking to the city. Despite efforts to make Ankara Turkey's cultural heart, Istanbul had the country's primary institution of art until the 1970s. When additional universities and art journals were founded in Istanbul during the 1980s, artists formerly based in Ankara moved in.

Beyoğlu has been transformed into the artistic center of the city, with young artists and older Turkish artists formerly residing abroad finding footing there. Modern art museums, including İstanbul State Art and Sculpture Museum, National Palaces Painting Museum, İstanbul Modern, the Pera Museum, Sakıp Sabancı Museum, Arter and SantralIstanbul, opened in the 2000s to complement the exhibition spaces and auction houses that have already contributed to the cosmopolitan nature of the city. These museums have yet to attain the popularity of older museums on the historic peninsula, including the Istanbul Archaeology Museums, which ushered in the era of modern museums in Turkey, and the Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum.

The first film screening in Turkey was at Yıldız Palace in 1896, a year after the technology publicly debuted in Paris. Movie theaters rapidly cropped up in Beyoğlu, with the greatest concentration of theaters being along the street now known as İstiklal Avenue. Istanbul also became the heart of Turkey's nascent film industry, although Turkish films were not consistently developed until the 1950s. Since then, Istanbul has been the most popular location to film Turkish dramas and comedies. The Turkish film industry ramped up in the second half of the century, and with Uzak (2002) and My Father and My Son (2005), both filmed in Istanbul, the nation's movies began to see substantial international success. Istanbul and its picturesque skyline have also served as a backdrop for several foreign films, including From Russia with Love (1963), Topkapi (1964), The World Is Not Enough (1999), and Mission Istaanbul (2008).

Coinciding with this cultural reemergence was the establishment of the Istanbul Festival, which began showcasing a variety of art from Turkey and around the world in 1973. From this flagship festival came the International Istanbul Film Festival and the Istanbul Jazz Festival in the early 1980s. With its focus now solely on music and dance, the Istanbul Festival has been known as the Istanbul International Music Festival since 1994. The most prominent of the festivals that evolved from the original Istanbul Festival is the Istanbul Biennial, held every two years since 1987. Its early incarnations were aimed at showcasing Turkish visual art, and it has since opened to international artists and risen in prestige to join the elite biennales, alongside the Venice Biennale and the São Paulo Art Biennial.

Leisure and entertainment

Abdi İpekçi Street in Nişantaşı, Galataport Shopping Area in Karaköy and Bağdat Avenue on the Anatolian side of the city have evolved into high-end shopping districts. Other focal points for shopping, leisure and entertainment include Nişantaşı, Ortaköy, Bebek and Kadıköy. The city has numerous shopping centers, from the historic to the modern. Istanbul also has an active nightlife and historic taverns, a signature characteristic of the city for centuries, if not millennia.

The Grand Bazaar, in operation since 1461, is among the world's oldest and largest covered markets. Mahmutpasha Bazaar is an open-air market extending between the Grand Bazaar and the Spice Bazaar, which has been Istanbul's major spice market since 1660.

Galleria Ataköy ushered in the age of modern shopping malls in Turkey when it opened in 1987. Since then, malls have become major shopping centers outside the historic peninsula. Akmerkez was awarded the titles of "Europe's best" and "World's best" shopping mall by the International Council of Shopping Centers in 1995 and 1996; Istanbul Cevahir has been one of the continent's largest since opening in 2005; and Kanyon won the Cityscape Architectural Review Award in the Commercial Built category in 2006. Zorlu Center and İstinye Park are among the other upscale malls in Istanbul which include the stores of the world's top fashion brands.

Along İstiklal Avenue is the Çiçek Pasajı ('Flower Passage'), a 19th-century shopping gallery which is today home to winehouses (known as meyhanes), pubs and restaurants. İstiklal Avenue, originally known for its taverns, has shifted toward shopping, but the nearby Nevizade Street is still lined with winehouses and pubs. Some other neighborhoods around İstiklal Avenue have been revamped to cater to Beyoğlu's nightlife, with formerly commercial streets now lined with pubs, cafes, and restaurants playing live music.

Istanbul is known for its historic seafood restaurants. Many of the city's most popular and upscale seafood restaurants line the shores of the Bosporus (particularly in neighborhoods like Ortaköy, Bebek, Arnavutköy, Yeniköy, Beylerbeyi and Çengelköy). Kumkapı along the Sea of Marmara has a pedestrian zone that hosts around fifty fish restaurants.

The Princes' Islands, 15 kilometers (9 mi) from the city center, are also popular for their seafood restaurants. Because of their restaurants, historic summer mansions, and tranquil, car-free streets, the Princes' Islands are a popular vacation destination among Istanbulites and foreign tourists.

Istanbul is also famous for its sophisticated and elaborately-cooked dishes of the Ottoman cuisine. Following the influx of immigrants from southeastern and eastern Turkey, which began in the 1960s, the city's foodscape has drastically changed by the end of the century; with influences of Middle Eastern cuisine such as kebab taking an important place in the food scene.

Restaurants featuring foreign cuisines are mainly concentrated in the Beyoğlu, Beşiktaş, Şişli and Kadıköy districts.

Apart from the city's numerous stadiums, sports halls and concert halls, there are several open-air venues for concerts and festivals, such as the Cemil Topuzlu Open-Air Theatre in Harbiye, Paraf Kuruçeşme Open-Air on the Bosphorus shore in Kuruçeşme, and Parkorman in the forest of Maslak. The annual Istanbul Jazz Festival has been held every year since 1994. Organized between 2003 and 2013, Rock'n Coke was the biggest open-air rock festival in Turkey, sponsored by Coca-Cola. It was traditionally held at the Hezarfen Airfield in Istanbul.

The Istanbul International Music Festival has been held annually since 1973, and the International Istanbul Film Festival has been held annually since 1982. The Istanbul Biennial is a contemporary art exhibition that has been held biennially since 1987. The Istanbul Shopping Fest is an annual shopping festival held since 2011, and Teknofest is an annual festival of aviation, aerospace and technology, held since 2018.

When it was held for the first time in 2003, the annual Istanbul Pride became the first gay pride event in a Muslim-majority country. Since 2015, all types of parades at Taksim Square and İstiklal Avenue (where, in 2013, the Gezi Park protests took place) have been denied permission by the AKP government, citing security concerns, but hundreds of people have defied the ban each year. Critics have claimed that the bans were in fact due to ideological reasons.

Sports

See also: List of sport facilities in Istanbul

1. Atatürk Olympic Stadium
2. Nef Stadium
3. Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium
4. Vodafone Park

Istanbul is home to some of Turkey's oldest sports clubs. Beşiktaş J.K., established in 1903, is considered the oldest of these sports clubs. Due to its initial status as Turkey's only club, Beşiktaş occasionally represented the Ottoman Empire and Turkish Republic in international sports competitions, earning the right to place the Turkish flag inside its team logo. Galatasaray S.K. and Fenerbahçe S.K. have fared better in international competitions and have won more Süper Lig titles, at 24 and 19 times, respectively. Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe have a long-standing rivalry, with Galatasaray based in the European part and Fenerbahçe based in the Anatolian part of the city. Istanbul has seven basketball teams—Anadolu Efes, Beşiktaş, Darüşşafaka, Fenerbahçe, Galatasaray, İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyespor and Büyükçekmece—that play in the premier-level Basketbol Süper Ligi.

Many of Istanbul's sports facilities have been built or upgraded since 2000 to bolster the city's bids for the Summer Olympic Games. Atatürk Olympic Stadium, the largest multi-purpose stadium in Turkey, was completed in 2002 as an IAAF first-class venue for track and field. The stadium hosted the 2005 UEFA Champions League Final, and was selected by the UEFA to host the CL Final games of 2020 and 2021, which were relocated to Lisbon (2020) and Porto (2021) due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium, Fenerbahçe's home field, hosted the 2009 UEFA Cup Final three years after its completion. Türk Telekom Arena opened in 2011 to replace Ali Sami Yen Stadium as Galatasaray's home turf, while Vodafone Park, opened in 2016 to replace BJK İnönü Stadium as the home turf of Beşiktaş, hosted the 2019 UEFA Super Cup game. All four stadiums are elite Category 4 (formerly five-star) UEFA stadiums.

The Sinan Erdem Dome, among the largest indoor arenas in Europe, hosted the final of the 2010 FIBA World Championship, the 2012 IAAF World Indoor Championships, as well as the 2011–12 Euroleague and 2016–17 EuroLeague Final Fours. Prior to the completion of the Sinan Erdem Dome in 2010, Abdi İpekçi Arena was Istanbul's primary indoor arena, having hosted the finals of EuroBasket 2001. Several other indoor arenas, including the Beşiktaş Akatlar Arena, have also been inaugurated since 2000, serving as the home courts of Istanbul's sports clubs. The most recent of these is the 13,800-seat Ülker Sports Arena, which opened in 2012 as the home court of Fenerbahçe's basketball teams. Despite the construction boom, five bids for the Summer Olympics—in 2000, 2004, 2008, 2012, and 2020—and national bids for UEFA Euro 2012 and UEFA Euro 2016 have ended unsuccessfully. The city will host the 2027 edition of the European Games.

The TVF Burhan Felek Sport Hall is one of the major volleyball arenas in the city and hosts clubs such as Eczacıbaşı VitrA, Vakıfbank SK, and Fenerbahçe who have won numerous European and World Championship titles.

Between the 2005–2011 seasons, and in the 2020 season, Istanbul Park racing circuit hosted the Formula One Turkish Grand Prix. The 2021 F1 Turkish Grand Prix was initially cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, but on 25 June 2021, it was announced that the 2021 F1 Turkish Grand Prix will take place on 3 October 2021. Istanbul Park was also a venue of the World Touring Car Championship and the European Le Mans Series in 2005 and 2006, but the track has not seen either of these competitions since then. It also hosted the Turkish Motorcycle Grand Prix between 2005 and 2007. Istanbul was occasionally a venue of the F1 Powerboat World Championship, with the last race on the Bosporus strait on 12–13 August 2000. The last race of the Powerboat P1 World Championship on the Bosporus took place on 19–21 June 2009. Istanbul Sailing Club, established in 1952, hosts races and other sailing events on the waterways in and around Istanbul each year.

Media

Most state-run radio and television stations are based in Ankara, but Istanbul is the primary hub of Turkish media. The industry has its roots in the former Ottoman capital, where the first Turkish newspaper, Takvim-i Vekayi (Calendar of Affairs), was published in 1831. The Cağaloğlu street on which the newspaper was printed, Bâb-ı Âli Street, rapidly became the center of Turkish print media, alongside Beyoğlu across the Golden Horn.

Istanbul now has a wide variety of periodicals. Most nationwide newspapers are based in Istanbul, with simultaneous Ankara and İzmir editions. Hürriyet, Sabah, Posta and Sözcü, the country's top four papers, are all headquartered in Istanbul, boasting more than 275,000 weekly sales each. Hürriyet's English-language edition, Hürriyet Daily News, has been printed since 1961, but the English-language Daily Sabah, first published by Sabah in 2014, has overtaken it in circulation. Several smaller newspapers, including popular publications like Cumhuriyet, Milliyet and Habertürk are also based in Istanbul. Istanbul also has long-running Armenian language newspapers, notably the dailies Marmara and Jamanak and the bilingual weekly Agos in Armenian and Turkish.

Radio broadcasts in Istanbul date back to 1927, when Turkey's first radio transmission came from atop the Central Post Office in Eminönü. Control of this transmission, and other radio stations established in the following decades, ultimately came under the state-run Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (TRT), which held a monopoly on radio and television broadcasts between its founding in 1964 and 1990. Today, TRT runs four national radio stations; these stations have transmitters across the country so each can reach over 90 percent of the country's population, but only Radio 2 is based in Istanbul. Offering a range of content from educational programming to coverage of sporting events, Radio 2 is the most popular radio station in Turkey. Istanbul's airwaves are the busiest in Turkey, primarily featuring either Turkish-language or English-language content. One of the exceptions, offering both, is Açık Radyo (94.9 FM). Among Turkey's first private stations, and the first featuring foreign popular music, was Istanbul's Metro FM (97.2 FM). The state-run Radio 3, although based in Ankara, also features English-language popular music, and English-language news programming is provided on NTV Radyo (102.8 FM).

TRT-Children is the only TRT television station based in Istanbul. Istanbul is home to the headquarters of several Turkish stations and regional headquarters of international media outlets. Istanbul-based Star TV was the first private television network to be established following the end of the TRT monopoly; Star TV and Show TV (also based in Istanbul) remain highly popular throughout the country, airing Turkish and American series. Kanal D and ATV are other stations in Istanbul that offer a mix of news and series; NTV (partnered with American media outlet MSNBC) and Sky Turk—both based in the city—are mainly just known for their news coverage in Turkish. The BBC has a regional office in Istanbul, assisting its Turkish-language news operations, and the American news channel CNN established the Turkish-language CNN Türk there in 1999.

Further information on the monthly publication: Mostar (magazine)

Education

Further information: Education in Turkey

As of 2019, excluding universities more than 3.1 million students attended 7,437 schools in Istanbul, about half of the schools being private schools. The average class size was 30 for primary education institutes, 27 for vocational schools and 23 for general high schools. Of the 842 public high schools, 263 are vocational schools, another 263 are Anatolian high schools, 207 are religiously oriented İmam Hatip schools, and 14 are STEM-oriented science high schools. Galatasaray High School was established in 1481 and is the oldest public high school in Turkey. Kabataş Erkek Lisesi, Istanbul Lisesi and Cağaloğlu Anatolian High School are among other public high schools in the city. Istanbul also contains high schools established by the European and American expatriates and missionaries in the 19th century that currently offer secular, foreign-language education such as Robert College, Deutsche Schule Istanbul, Sankt Georgs-Kolleg, Lycée Saint-Joseph and Liceo Italiano di Istanbul. Furthermore Turkish citizens of Jewish, Armenian, Greek and Assyrian descent are allowed to establish and attend their respective schools as granted in the Treaty of Lausanne, Phanar Greek Orthodox College being an example. Most high schools are highly selective and demand high scores from the national standardized LGS exam for admission, with Galatasaray and Robert College only accepting the top 0.1% to 0.01% of the exam takers.

Istanbul contains almost a third of all universities in Turkey. As of 2019 Istanbul has 61 colleges and universities, with more than 1.8 million students enrolled according to official figures. Of those, fourteen are state-owned, 44 are "foundation-owned" private universities and three are foundation-owned vocational universities of higher education. There are also military academies, including the Turkish Air Force Academy and Turkish Naval Academy as well as four foundation-owned vocational universities of higher education which are not affiliated with any university.

Maçka (left) and Taşkışla (right) campuses of Istanbul Technical University

Some of the most renowned and highly ranked universities in Turkey are in Istanbul. Istanbul University, the nation's oldest institute of higher education, dates back to 1453 and its dental, law, medical schools were founded in the 19th century.The city's largest private universities include Sabancı University, with its main campus in Tuzla, Koç University in Sarıyer, Özyeğin Üniversitesi near Altunizade. Istanbul's first private university, Koç University, was founded as late as 1992, because private universities were not allowed in Turkey before the 1982 amendment to the constitution. Istanbul is also home to several conservatories and art schools, including Mimar Sinan Academy of Fine Arts, founded in 1882.

Public universities with a major presence in the city, such as Istanbul University, Istanbul Technical University (the world's third-oldest university dedicated entirely to engineering, established in 1773), and Boğaziçi University (formerly the higher education section of Robert College until 1971) provide education in English as the primary foreign language, while the primary foreign language of education at Galatasaray University is French.

Public services

Main article: Utilities in Istanbul Further information: Telecommunications in Turkey and Health care in Turkey

Istanbul's first water supply systems date back to the city's early history, when aqueducts (such as the Valens Aqueduct) deposited the water in the city's numerous cisterns. At the behest of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Kırkçeşme water supply network was constructed; by 1563, the network provided 4,200 cubic meters (150,000 cu ft) of water to 158 sites each day. In later years, in response to increasing public demand, water from various springs was channeled to public fountains, like the Fountain of Ahmed III, by means of supply lines. Today, Istanbul has a chlorinated and filtered water supply and a sewage treatment system managed by the Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration (İstanbul Su ve Kanalizasyon İdaresi, İSKİ).

The Silahtarağa Power Station, a coal-fired power station along the Golden Horn, was the sole source of Istanbul's electricity between 1914, when its first engine room was completed, and 1952. Following the founding of the Turkish Republic, the plant underwent renovations to accommodate the city's increasing demand; its capacity grew from 23 megawatts in 1923 to a peak of 120 megawatts in 1956. Capacity declined until the power station reached the end of its economic life and shut down in 1983. The state-run Turkish Electrical Authority (TEK) briefly—between its founding in 1970 and 1984—held a monopoly on the generation and distribution of electricity, but now the authority—since split between the Turkish Electricity Generation Transmission Company (TEAŞ) and the Turkish Electricity Distribution Company (TEDAŞ)—competes with private electric utilities.

The Ottoman Ministry of Post and Telegraph was established in 1840 and the first post office, the Imperial Post Office, opened near the courtyard of Yeni Mosque. By 1876, the first international mailing network between Istanbul and the lands beyond the Ottoman Empire had been established. Sultan Abdülmecid I issued Samuel Morse his first official honor for the electrical telegraph in 1847, and construction of the first telegraph line—between Istanbul and Edirne—finished in time to announce the end of the Crimean War in 1856.

A nascent telephone system began to emerge in Istanbul in 1881 and after the first manual telephone exchange became operational in Istanbul in 1909, the Ministry of Post and Telegraph became the Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone. GSM cellular networks arrived in Turkey in 1994, with Istanbul among the first cities to receive the service. Today, mobile and landline service is provided by private companies, after Türk Telekom, which split from the Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone in 1995, was privatized in 2005. Postal services remain under the purview of what is now the Post and Telegraph Organization (retaining the acronym PTT).

In 2000, Istanbul had 137 hospitals, of which 100 were private. Turkish citizens are entitled to subsidized healthcare in the nation's state-run hospitals. As public hospitals tend to be overcrowded or otherwise slow, private hospitals are preferable for those who can afford them. Their prevalence has increased significantly over the last decade, as the percentage of outpatients using private hospitals increased from 6 percent to 23 percent between 2005 and 2009. Many of these private hospitals, as well as some of the public hospitals, are equipped with high-tech equipment, including MRI machines, or associated with medical research centers. Turkey has more hospitals accredited by the United States–based Joint Commission than any other country in the world, with most concentrated in its big cities. The high quality of healthcare, especially in private hospitals, has contributed to a recent upsurge in medical tourism to Turkey (with a 40 percent increase between 2007 and 2008). Laser eye surgery and hair transplant surgery is particularly common among medical tourists, as Turkey is known for specializing in the procedure.

Transportation

The suspension bridges at the Bosporus15 July Martyrs BridgeFatih Sultan Mehmet BridgeYavuz Sultan Selim BridgeMain articles: Public transport in Istanbul, Istanbul Metro, and Ferries in Istanbul Further information: Roads in Turkey, Rail transport in Turkey, and Aviation in Turkey

Roads

Istanbul's motorways network are the O-1, O-2, O-3, O-4 and O-7. The total length of Istanbul Province's network of toll roads is 543 km (337 mi) (2023) and the state highways network (devlet yollari) is 353 km (219 mi) (2021), totaling 896 km (557 mi) of expressway roads (minimum 2x2 lanes), excluding secondary roads and urban streets. The density of expressway network is 16.8 km/100 km. The O-1 forms the city's inner ring road, traversing the Bosphorus Bridge, and the O-2 is the city's outer ring road, crossing the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge. The O-2 continues west to Edirne and the O-4 continues east to Ankara. The O-2, O-3, and O-4 are part of European route E80 (the Trans-European Motorway) between Portugal and the Iran–Turkey border. In 2011, the first and second bridges on the Bosphorus carried 400,000 vehicles each day. The O-7 or Kuzey Marmara Otoyolu, is a motorway that bypass Istanbul to the north. The O-7 motorway from Kinali Gişeleri to Istanbul Park Service has 139.2 km (86.5 mi), with 8 lanes (4x4), and from Odayeri-K10 to Istanbul Atatürk Airport has 30.4 km (18.9 mi). The completed section of highway crosses the Bosporus via the Yavuz Sultan Selim (Third Bosphorus) Bridge, entered service on 26 August 2016. The O-7(Northen Beltway) 3.Beltway connects Istanbul Atatürk Airport with Istanbul Airport and Sabiha Gökçen Airport. Environmentalist groups worry that the third bridge will endanger the remaining green areas to the north of Istanbul. Apart from the three Bosphorus Bridges, the dual-deck, 14.6-kilometer (9.1 mi) Eurasia Tunnel (which entered service on 20 December 2016) under the Bosphorus strait also provides road crossings for motor vehicles between the Asian and European sides of Turkey. Road transport emits significant carbon dioxide, estimated at 7 million tons in 2021.

Public transportation

Istanbul's local public transportation system is a network of commuter rail, trams, funiculars, metro lines, buses, bus rapid transit, and ferries. Fares across modes are integrated, using the contactless Istanbulkart, introduced in 2009, or the older Akbil electronic ticketing device. Trams in Istanbul date back to 1872, when they were horse-drawn, but even the first electrified trams were decommissioned in the 1960s. Operated by Istanbul Electricity, Tramway and Tunnels General Management (İETT), trams slowly returned to the city in the 1990s with the introduction of the Istanbul nostalgic tram and a faster modern tram line, which now carries 265,000 passengers each day. The Tünel opened in 1875 as the world's second-oldest subterranean rail line, after the Metropolitan Railway in London. It still carries passengers between Karaköy and İstiklal Avenue along a steep 573-meter (1,880 ft) track; a more modern funicular between Taksim Square and Kabataş began running in 2006.

The Istanbul Metro comprises ten lines (the M1, M2, M3, M6, M7, M9 and M11 on the European side, and the M4, M5 and M8 on the Asian side) with several other lines (M12 and M14) and extensions under construction. The two sides of Istanbul's metro are connected under the Bosphorus by the Marmaray Tunnel, inaugurated in 2013 as the first rail connection between Thrace and Anatolia, having 13.5 km (8.4 mi) length. The Marmaray tunnel together with the suburban railways lines along the Sea of Marmara, form the intercontinental commuter rail line in Istanbul, named officially B1, from Halkalı on the European side to Gebze on the Asian side. This rail line has 76.6 km (47.6 mi), and the full line opened on 12 March 2019. Until then, buses provide transportation within and between the two-halves of the city, accommodating 2.2 million passenger trips each day. The Metrobus, a form of bus rapid transit, crosses the Bosphorus Bridge, with dedicated lanes leading to its termini.

• Istanbul nostalgic tram
• Istanbul modern tram
• Boğaziçi University station of the Istanbul Metro
• Marmaray commuter rail at Ayrılıkçeşmesi station

Ferries

M/V Emin Kul, a vapur operated by Şehir Hatları, crossing the BosphorusAn İDO deniz otobüsü (seabus) high-speed ferry departs Istanbul

There are three main ferry operators in Istanbul. The municipally-owned Şehir Hatları operates the traditional vapur ferries on 891 daily trips between 53 piers across the Bosporus and the Princes' Islands

The privately owned İDO (Istanbul Sea Buses) runs a combination of high-speed passenger ferries and vehicle ferries within Istanbul and to destinations across the Sea of Marmara. A smaller private company, Turyol also operates services across the Bosphorus. The city's main cruise ship terminal is the Port of Istanbul in Karaköy, with a capacity of 10,000 passengers per hour.

Railroads

International rail service from Istanbul launched in 1889, with a line between Bucharest and Istanbul's Sirkeci Terminal, which ultimately became famous as the eastern terminus of the Orient Express from Paris. Regular service to Bucharest and Thessaloniki continued until the early 2010s, when the former was interrupted for Marmaray construction but started running again in 2019 and the latter was halted due to economic problems in Greece. After Istanbul's Haydarpaşa Terminal opened in 1908, it served as the western terminus of the Baghdad Railway and an extension of the Hejaz Railway; today, neither service is offered directly from Istanbul. Service to Ankara and other points across Turkey is normally offered by Turkish State Railways, but the construction of Marmaray and the Ankara-Istanbul high-speed railway forced the station to close in 2012. New stations to replace both the Haydarpaşa and Sirkeci terminals, and connect the city's disjointed railway networks, now the Marmaray second phase opened to the public. Private bus companies still operation to this day. Istanbul's main bus station is the largest in Europe, with a daily capacity of 15,000 buses and 600,000 passengers, serving destinations as distant as Frankfurt.

Airports

Istanbul has had three large international airports, two of which currently serve commercial passenger flights. The largest is the new Istanbul Airport, opened in 2018 in the Arnavutköy district to the northwest of the city center, on the European side, near the Black Sea coast.

All scheduled commercial passenger flights were transferred from Atatürk Airport to Istanbul Airport on 6 April 2019, following the closure of Istanbul Atatürk Airport for scheduled passenger flights. The IATA code IST was also transferred to the new airport. Once all phases are completed in 2025, the airport will have six sets of runways (eight in total), 16 taxiways, and will be able to accommodate 200 million passengers a year. The transfer from the airport to the city is via the O-7, and it will eventually be linked by two lines of the Istanbul Metro.

Sabiha Gökçen International Airport, 45 kilometers (28 mi) southeast of the city center, on the Asian side, was opened in 2001 to relieve Atatürk. Dominated by low-cost carriers, Istanbul's second airport has rapidly become popular, especially since the opening of a new international terminal in 2009; the airport handled 14.7 million passengers in 2012, a year after Airports Council International named it the world's fastest-growing airport. Atatürk had also experienced rapid growth, as its 20.6 percent rise in passenger traffic between 2011 and 2012 was the highest among the world's top 30 airports.

Istanbul Atatürk Airport, located 24 kilometers (15 mi) west of the city center, on the European side, near the Marmara Sea coast, was formerly the city's largest airport. After its closure to commercial flights in 2019, it was briefly used by cargo aircraft and the official state aircraft owned by the Turkish government, until the demolition of its runway began in 2020. It handled 61.3 million passengers in 2015, which made it the third-busiest airport in Europe and the 18th-busiest in the world in that year.

• Istanbul Airport
• Sabiha Gökçen Airport

International relations

• List of twin towns and sister cities of Istanbul

See also

Portals:

• Turkey
• Cities
• Europe
• Asia

• 1766 Istanbul earthquake
• Caput Mundi
• List of cities with the most skyscrapers
• List of people from Istanbul
• Outline of Istanbul

Notes

1. İstanbul Province = 5,460.85 km
   • Land area = 5,343.22 km
   • Lake/Dam = 117.63 km
   • Europe (25 districts) = 3,474.35 km
   • Asia (14 districts) = 1,868.87 km
   • Urban (36 districts) = 2,576.85 km

   *According to the size of the population and the status of megacity, the limits of the Istanbul city correspond to the limits of the province, and the province is treated like as the metropolitan-city of Istanbul.

2. English pronunciation: /ˌɪstænˈbʊl/ IST-an-BUUL, US also /ˈɪstænbʊl/ IST-an-buul; Turkish: İstanbul (Turkish pronunciation: [isˈtanbuɫ] , colloquial Turkish pronunciation: [ɯsˈtambuɫ])
3. Istanbul straddles both Europe and Asia, with its commercial and historical centre and two-thirds of the population in Europe, the rest in Asia. Since Istanbul is a transcontinental city, Moscow is the largest city entirely within Europe.
4. The foundation of Byzantion (Byzantium) is sometimes, especially in encyclopedic or other tertiary sources, placed firmly in 667 BCE. Historians have disputed the precise year the city was founded. Commonly cited is the work of 5th-century-BCE historian Herodotus, which says the city was founded seventeen years after Chalcedon, which came into existence around 685 BCE. Eusebius concurs with 685 BCE as the year Chalcedon was founded, but places Byzantion's establishment in 659 BCE. Among more modern historians, Carl Roebuck proposed the 640s BCE and others have suggested even later. The foundation date of Chalcedon is itself subject to some debate; while many sources place it in 685 BC, others put it in 675 BCE or even 639 BCE (with Byzantion's establishment placed in 619 BCE). Some sources refer to Byzantium's foundation as the 7th century BCE.
5. ^ Historians disagree—sometimes substantially—on population figures of Istanbul (Constantinople), and other world cities, prior to the 20th century. A follow-up to Chandler & Fox 1974,Chandler 1987, pp. 463–505 examines different sources' estimates and chooses the most likely based on historical conditions; it is the source of most population figures between 100 and 1914. The ranges of values between 500 and 1000 are due to Morris 2010, which also does a comprehensive analysis of sources, including Chandler (1987); Morris notes that many of Chandler's estimates during that time seem too large for the city's size, and presents smaller estimates. Chandler disagrees with Turan 2010 on the population of the city in the mid-1920s (with the former suggesting 817,000 in 1925), but Turan, p. 224, is used as the source of population figures between 1924 and 2005. Turan's figures, as well as the 2010 figure, come from the Turkish Statistical Institute. The drastic increase in population between 1980 and 1985 is largely due to an enlargement of the city's limits (see the Administration section). Explanations for population changes in pre-Republic times can be inferred from the History section.
6. Based on state register data, which is unchangeable and inherited from the family. A married women is also registered to her husband's province.
7. UEFA does not apparently keep a list of Category 4 stadiums, but regulations stipulate that only these elite stadiums are eligible to host UEFA Champions League Finals, which Atatürk Olympic Stadium did in 2005, and UEFA Europa League (formerly UEFA Cup) Finals, which Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium did in 2009. Türk Telekom Arena is noted as an elite UEFA stadium by its architects.

References

1. "YETKİ ALANI". Istanbul Buyuksehir Belediyesi. Archived from the original on 6 April 2020. Retrieved 4 February 2020.
2. "İstanbul'un En Yüksek Tepeleri". Hava Forumu. Hava Durumu Forumu. 15 April 2020.
3. ^ "The Results of Address Based Population Registration System, 2023". www.tuik.gov.tr. Turkish Statistical Institute. 6 February 2024. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
4. "GDP by Provinces, 2023 - İstanbul had the highest share of GDP with 30.4% (Tables 1 and 3)". www.tuik.gov.tr. Turkish Statistical Institute. 12 December 2024. Retrieved 12 December 2024.
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External links

• Website of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (Archived 6 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine)
• Website of the Istanbul Governorship
• Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality: Interactive aerial photos from 1946, 1966, 1970, 1982, 2006, 2011 and 2013
• Old maps of Istanbul (Archived 18 October 2021 at the Wayback Machine); Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The National Library of Israel – Historic Cities Research Project (Archived 25 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine)

v t e Istanbul
Churches	Armenian Armenian Patriarchate Beyoğlu Fatih Galata Kartal Kuzguncuk Samatya Taksim Greeks Chora Church Church of Saint Mary of the Mongols Hagia Irene Hagia Sophia Hagia Triada Little Hagia Sophia Pammakaristos Church St. George’s Cathedral Zoodochus Pege Others Bulgarian St. Stephen Church Church of St. Padua Church of Saint Benoit Church of St. Mary Draperis
Monuments	Caravanserais Büyük Valide Han Büyük Yeni Han Kürkçü Han Cisterns Basilica Cistern Şerefiye Cistern Cistern of 1001 Columns Cistern of the Hebdomon Columns Column of Arcadius Column of Constantine Column of Leo Column of Marcian Column of the Goths Forum of Theodosius Milion Obelisk of Theodosius Serpent Column Walled Obelisk Fountains Fountain of Ahmed III Fountain of Ahmed III (Üsküdar) German Fountain Sultan Mahmut Fountain Tophane Fountain Madrasas Caferağa Medrese Rüstem Pasha Medrese Towers Beyazıt Tower Dolmabahçe Clock Tower Etfal Clock Tower Galata Tower Maiden's Tower Nusretiye Clock Tower Yıldız Clock Tower Miscellany Aqueduct of Valens Çukurcuma Divanyolu Caddesi Galata Bridge Hippodrome Mısır Apartment Pera Palace Hotel Phanar Greek Orthodox College Prison of Anemas Soğukçeşme Sokağı Tayyare Apartments
Mosques	Art Nouveau Ertuğrul Tekke Mosque Baroque Altunizade Mosque Dolmabahçe Mosque Nusretiye Mosque Laleli Mosque Ortaköy Mosque Teşvikiye Mosque Classical Atik Valide Mosque Bayezid Mosque Selimiye Mosque Eyüp Sultan Blue Mosque Çamlıca Mosque New Mosque Süleymaniye Mosque Gothic Arap Mosque Pertevniyal Valide Sultan Mosque Yıldız Hamidiye Mosque Modernist Sancaklar Mosque Şakirin Mosque
Museums	Art Art and Sculpture Museum Doğançay Museum Elgiz Fenerbahçe Museum Galatasaray Museum Istanbul Archaeology Museums Istanbul Contemporary İstanbul Modern İstanbul Toy Museum İşbank Museum Miniatürk Mosaic Museum Museum of the Ancient Orient Museum of the Princes' Islands Ottoman Bank Museum Pera Museum Rezan Has Museum Sadberk Hanım Museum Sakıp Sabancı Museum SantralIstanbul Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum Turkish Calligraphy Museum Women's Museum İstanbul Castles Anadoluhisarı Edirnekapı Riva Castle Rumelihisarı Walls of Constantinople Yedikule Fortress Yoros Castle History Adam Mickiewicz Museum Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar Museum Aşiyan Museum Atatürk Museum Florya Atatürk Mansion Hüseyin Rahmi Gürpınar Museum İsmet İnönü House Museum of Innocence Museum of Whirling Dervishes Orhan Kemal Museum Pierre Loti Museum Sait Faik Abasıyanık Museum Military Aviation Museum Military Museum Naval Museum Science Florence Nightingale Museum ITU Science Center Kandilli Earthquake Museum Museum of Culinary Arts Museum of Heating Appliances Museum of Media Museum of Science and Technology in Islam Natural History Museum Postal Museum Museum of Psychiatry Rahmi M. Koç Museum Railway Museum Zoology Museum
Palaces and pavilions	Palaces Beylerbeyi Palace Çırağan Palace Dolmabahçe Palace Topkapı Palace Yıldız Palace Pavilions Yalı (Ottoman-era waterfront mansions) Aynalıkavak Pavilion Adile Sultan Palace Cantemir Pavilion Esma Sultan Mansion Feriye Palace Hatice Sultan Mansion Ibrahim Pasha Pavilion Ihlamur Pavilion Khedive's Palace Küçüksu Pavilion Malta Kiosk Maslak Pavilion Sadberk Hanım Museum Tiled Kiosk Vahdettin Pavilion
Parks	Belgrad Forest Büyükada Nature Park Emirgan Park Gülhane Park Maçka Park Polonezköy Nature Park Taksim Gezi Park Yıldız Park
Shopping	Bazaars Arasta Bazaar Grand Bazaar Karaköy Fish Market Spice Bazaar Malls Akasya Akmerkez Carousel Galleria Ataköy Cevahir İstinye Park Kanyon Zorlu Center Districts Nişantaşı Abdi İpekçi Street Bağdat Avenue İstiklal Avenue Çiçek Pasajı Taksim Square Kanyon
Synagogues	Ahrida Ashkenazi Bakırköy Bet Avraam Bet Israel Bet Nissim Bet Yaakov (Heybeliada) Bet Yaakov (Kuzguncuk) Burgazada Caddebostan Haydarpaşa Hesed Le Avraam Istipol Italian Jewish Museum Kal Kados Karaite Kemerburgaz Maalem Mayor Neve Shalom Ohel Ya'akov Ortaköy Yanbol Yeniköy
Hammams (baths)	Bayezid II Hamam Cağaloğlu Hamam Çemberlitaş Hamamı Hagia Sophia Hurrem Sultan Bathhouse Mahmut Pasha Hamam Süleymaniye Hamam Tahtakale Hamam Vezneciler Hamamı
Festivals and venues	Festivals Feast of Sacrifice Istanbul Biennial Istanbul Film Festival Istanbul International Puppet Festival Istanbul Jazz Festival Istanbul Marathon Istanbul Music Festival Istanbul Shopping Fest Istanbul Tulip Festival Sugar Festival Venues AKM Babylon BJK Akatlar Arena Bostancı Show Center Cemil Topuzlu Open-Air Theatre Cemal Reşit Rey Hagia Irene Lütfi Kırdar Exhibition Center Naum Theatre Ora Arena Süreyya Opera House Kuruçeşme Arena Ülker Sports and Event Hall Zorlu PSM
Minorities	Armenians Cemeteries Pangaltı Catholic Cemetery Pangaltı Armenian Cemetery Şişli Armenian Cemetery Hospitals Surp Agop Hospital Surp Pırgiç Armenian Hospital Language Western Armenian Newspapers Agos Jamanak Marmara Schools Getronagan Armenian High School Pangaltı Mkhitaryan School Greeks Cemeteries Şişli Greek Orthodox Cemetery Hospitals Balıklı Greek Hospital Language Istanbul Greek dialect Newspapers Apoyevmatini Schools Halki seminary Phanar College Zografeion Lyceum Jews Cemeteries Ulus Sephardi Jewish Cemetery Ulus Ashkenazi Jewish Cemetery Hospitals Balat Or-Ahayim Hastanesi Languages Ladino Newspapers Şalom Schools Ulus Jewish school
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v t e Istanbul in Istanbul Province of Turkey Districts Adalar Arnavutköy Ataşehir Avcılar Bağcılar Bahçelievler Bakırköy Başakşehir Bayrampaşa Beşiktaş Beykoz Beylikdüzü Beyoğlu Büyükçekmece Çatalca Çekmeköy Esenler Esenyurt Eyüpsultan Fatih Gaziosmanpaşa Güngören Kadıköy Kağıthane Kartal Küçükçekmece Maltepe Pendik Sancaktepe Sarıyer Şile Silivri Şişli Sultanbeyli Sultangazi Tuzla Ümraniye Üsküdar Zeytinburnu List of provinces by region Istanbul Istanbul West Marmara Balıkesir Çanakkale Edirne Kırklareli Tekirdağ Aegean Afyonkarahisar Aydın Denizli İzmir Kütahya Manisa Muğla Uşak East Marmara Bilecik Bolu Bursa Düzce Eskişehir Kocaeli Sakarya Yalova West Anatolia Ankara Karaman Konya Mediterranean Adana Antalya Burdur Hatay Isparta Kahramanmaraş Mersin Osmaniye Central Anatolia Aksaray Kayseri Kırıkkale Kırşehir Nevşehir Niğde Sivas Yozgat West Black Sea Amasya Bartın Çankırı Çorum Karabük Kastamonu Samsun Sinop Tokat Zonguldak East Black Sea Artvin Giresun Gümüşhane Ordu Rize Trabzon Northeast Anatolia Ağrı Ardahan Bayburt Erzincan Erzurum Iğdır Kars Central East Anatolia Bingöl Bitlis Elazığ Hakkâri Malatya Muş Tunceli Van Southeast Anatolia Adıyaman Batman Diyarbakır Gaziantep Kilis Mardin Siirt Şanlıurfa Şırnak Metropolitan municipalities are bolded. v t e Provinces of Turkey Adana Adıyaman Afyonkarahisar Ağrı Aksaray Amasya Ankara Antalya Ardahan Artvin Aydın Balıkesir Bartın Batman Bayburt Bilecik Bingöl Bitlis Bolu Burdur Bursa Çanakkale Çankırı Çorum Denizli Diyarbakır Düzce Edirne Elazığ Erzincan Erzurum Eskişehir Gaziantep Giresun Gümüşhane Hakkâri Hatay Iğdır Isparta İstanbul İzmir Kahramanmaraş Karabük Karaman Kars Kastamonu Kayseri Kilis Kırıkkale Kırklareli Kırşehir Kocaeli Konya Kütahya Malatya Manisa Mardin Mersin Muğla Muş Nevşehir Niğde Ordu Osmaniye Rize Sakarya Samsun Siirt Sinop Sivas Şanlıurfa Şırnak Tekirdağ Tokat Trabzon Tunceli Uşak Van Yalova Yozgat Zonguldak Metropolitan municipalities are bolded. v t e Mayors of Istanbul Province Governors (1924–1960) Haydar Yuluğ Emin Erkul Muhittin Üstündağ Lütfi Kırdar Fahrettin Kerim Gökay Kemal Hadımlı Mümtaz Tarhan Ethem Yetkiner Kemal Aygün Military-appointed (1960–1963) Refik Tulga Şefik Erensu Turan Ertuğ Kadri İlkay Kamuran Görgün Niyazi Akı Necdet Uğur Elected (1963–1980) Haşim İşcan Faruk Ilgaz Fahri Atabey Ahmet İsvan Aytekin Kotil Military-appointed (1980–1984) Hakkı Akansel Ecmel Kutay Abdullah Tırtıl Greater Istanbul (1984 to date) Bedrettin Dalan Nurettin Sözen Recep Tayyip Erdoğan Ali Müfit Gürtuna Kadir Topbaş Mevlüt Uysal Ekrem İmamoğlu v t e World Heritage sites in Turkey Aegean Aphrodisias Ephesus Hierapolis / Pamukkale Pergamon Black Sea Hattusa Safranbolu Central Anatolia Çatalhöyük Divriği Great Mosque and Hospital Gordion Göreme National Park and Cappadocia East Anatolia Ani Arslantepe Mound Marmara Bursa and Cumalıkızık Historic Areas of Istanbul Selimiye Mosque and its Social Complex Troy Mediterranean Xanthos / Letoon Southeastern Anatolia 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Rotterdam Porto 2002 Bruges Salamanca 2003 Graz Plovdiv 2004 Genoa Lille 2005 Cork 2006 Patras 2007 Luxembourg City Sibiu 2008 Liverpool Stavanger 2009 Linz Vilnius 2010 Essen Istanbul Pécs 2011 Turku Tallinn 2012 Maribor Guimarães 2013 Košice Marseille 2014 Umeå Riga 2015 Mons Plzeň 2016 San Sebastián Wrocław 2017 Aarhus Paphos 2018 Valletta Leeuwarden 2019 Plovdiv Matera 2020-April 2021 Rijeka Galway 2022 Kaunas Esch-sur-Alzette Novi Sad 2023 Veszprém Timișoara Elefsina 2024 Tartu Bad Ischl Bodø 2025 Nova Gorica / Gorizia Chemnitz 2026 Oulu Trenčín 2027 Liepāja v t e European Capitals of Sport 2001 Madrid 2002 Stockholm 2003 Glasgow 2004 Alicante 2005 Rotterdam 2006 Copenhagen 2007 Stuttgart 2008 Warsaw 2009 Milan 2010 Dublin 2011 Valencia 2012 Istanbul 2013 Antwerp 2014 Cardiff 2015 Turin 2016 Prague 2017 Marseille 2018 Sofia 2019 Budapest 2020 Málaga 2021 Lisbon 2022 The Hague 2023 Glasgow 2024 Genoa 2025 Tallinn v t e 50th Anniversary Sculptures Organisation Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality Istanbul Fine Arts Academy State College of Fine and Applied Arts Committee Şadi Çalık Mustafa Aslıer Hüseyin Gezer Sculptors Muzaffer Ertoran Gürdal Duyar Ferit Özşen Metin Haseki Bihrat Mavitan Namık Denizhan Haluk Tezonar Ali Teoman Germaner Hakkı Karayiğitoğlu Zühtü Müridoğlu Hüseyin Anka Özhan Füsun Onur Yavuz Görey Mehmet Uyanık Nusret Suman Seyhun Topuz Zerrin Bölükbaşı Tamer Başoğlu Kuzgun Acar Kamil Sonad Sculptures İşçi Heykeli Güzel İstanbul Yağmur Negative Form Yükseliş İkimiz Abstract by Haluk Tezonar Abstract by Ali Teoman Germaner Bahar Dayanışma Yankı Abstract by Füsun Onur Abstract by Yavuz Görey Birlik Mimar Sinan Abstract by Seyhun Topuz Abstract by Zerrin Bölükbaşı In Honor of Bediha Muvahhit Abstract by Kuzgun Acar Kadın figürü v t e World's 50 most-populous urban areas     Tokyo Jakarta Delhi Guangzhou–Foshan Mumbai Manila Shanghai Seoul Cairo Mexico City Kolkata São Paulo New York Karachi Dhaka Bangkok Beijing Moscow Shenzhen Buenos Aires Los Angeles Johannesburg-Pretoria Bengaluru Chengdu Ho Chi Minh City Osaka–Kobe–Kyoto Lagos Istanbul Lahore Kinshasa–Brazzaville Tehran Chongqing Rio de Janeiro Xi'an Chennai Paris Zhengzhou Luanda London Dongguan Lima Wuhan Bogotá Tianjin Hyderabad Taipei Hangzhou Nagoya Surabaya Bandung v t e Metropolitan municipalities in Turkey Adana Ankara Antalya Aydın Balıkesir Bursa Denizli Diyarbakır Erzurum Eskişehir Gaziantep Hatay İstanbul İzmir Kayseri Kocaeli Konya Kahramanmaraş Malatya Manisa Mardin Mersin Muğla Ordu Sakarya Samsun Şanlıurfa Tekirdağ Trabzon Van v t e Largest cities or towns in Turkey TÜİK's address-based calculation from 31 December 2023 published at 7th of February 2024. Rank Name Pop. Rank Name Pop. Istanbul Ankara 1 Istanbul 15,655,924 11 Mersin 1,938,389 İzmir Bursa 2 Ankara 5,803,482 12 Diyarbakır 1,818,133 3 İzmir 4,479,525 13 Hatay 1,544,640 4 Bursa 3,214,571 14 Manisa 1,475,716 5 Antalya 2,696,249 15 Kayseri 1,445,683 6 Konya 2,320,241 16 Samsun 1,377,546 7 Adana 2,270,298 17 Balıkesir 1,273,519 8 Şanlıurfa 2,213,964 18 Tekirdağ 1,167,059 9 Gaziantep 2,164,134 19 Aydın 1,161,702 10 Kocaeli 2,102,907 20 Van 1,127,612 v t e Megacities Africa (4) Cairo Johannesburg Kinshasa Lagos Asia (35) China (14) Beijing Changsha Chengdu Chongqing Dongguan Guangzhou Hangzhou Shanghai Shenzhen Tianjin Wuhan Xiamen Xi'an Zhengzhou India (6) Bengaluru Chennai Delhi Hyderabad Kolkata Mumbai Indonesia (3) Bandung Jakarta Surabaya Japan (3) Kyoto–Osaka–Kobe (Keihanshin) Nagoya Tokyo Pakistan (2) Karachi Lahore Other (7) Bangkok Dhaka Ho Chi Minh City Istanbul Metro Manila Seoul Tehran Europe (4) Istanbul London Moscow Paris America (8) Brazil (2) Rio de Janeiro São Paulo United States (2) Los Angeles New York City Other (4) Bogotá Buenos Aires Lima Mexico City Cities portal

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