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{{short description|Timeline of universe events since the Big Bang 13.8 billion years ago}} |
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<noinclude>{{Requested move notice|1=Timeline of the universe|2=Talk:Timeline of the early universe#Requested move 7 January 2025}} |
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</noinclude> <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see ] --> |
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{{for|timeline as chronology|chronology of the universe}} |
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{{for|timeline as chronology|chronology of the universe}} |
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{{for|a graphical timeline|Graphical timeline from Big Bang to Heat Death}} |
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{{for|a more comprehensive graphical timeline|Graphical timeline from Big Bang to Heat Death}} |
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{{see also|Epoch (disambiguation)}} |
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{{see also|Epoch (disambiguation)}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}} |
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{{More citations needed|date=October 2016}} |
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{{More citations needed|date=October 2016}} |
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] |
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] |
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The '''timeline of the early universe''' outlines the formation and subsequent evolution of the ] from the ] (13.799 ± 0.021 billion years ago) to the present day. An ] is a moment in time from which nature or situations change to such a degree that it marks the beginning of a new '']'' or '']''. |
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The '''timeline of the early universe''' outlines the formation and subsequent evolution of the ] from the ] (13.799 ± 0.021 billion years ago)<ref name="esa">{{cite web |date=March 21, 2013 |title=Planck reveals an almost perfect universe |url=https://www.mpg.de/7044245/Planck_cmb_universe |access-date=2020-11-17 |publisher=Max-Planck-Gesellschaft}}</ref> to the present day. An ] is a moment in time from which nature or situations change to such a degree that it marks the beginning of a new '']'' or '']''. |
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Times on this list are measured from the moment of the Big Bang. |
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Times on this list are relative to the moment of the Big Bang. |
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==The first 20 minutes== |
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==The first 20 minutes== |
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===Planck epoch=== |
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===Planck epoch=== |
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* c. 0 seconds (13.799 ± 0.021 ]): ] begins: earliest meaningful time. The Big Bang occurs in which ordinary space and time develop out of a primeval state (possibly a ] or ]) described by a ] or "]". All matter and energy of the entire visible universe is contained in a hot, dense point (]), a billionth the size of a nuclear particle. This state has been described as a particle ]. Other than a few scant details, conjecture dominates discussion about the earliest moments of the universe's history since no effective means of testing this far back in space-time is presently available. ] (weakly interacting massive particles) or ] and ] may have appeared and been the catalyst for the expansion of the singularity. The infant universe cools as it begins expanding outward. It is almost completely smooth, with quantum variations beginning to cause slight variations in density. |
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* c. 0 seconds (13.799 ± 0.021 ]): ] begins: earliest meaningful time. Conjecture dominates discussion about the earliest moments of the universe's history. The Big Bang occurs in which ordinary space and time develop out of a primeval state (possibly a ] or ]) described by a ] or "]". All matter and energy of the entire visible universe is contained in a hot, dense point (]), a billionth the size of a nuclear particle. This state has been described as a particle ].{{whom|date=January 2025}} ]s (WIMPs) or ] and ] may have appeared and been the catalyst for the expansion of the singularity. The infant universe cools as it begins expanding. It is almost completely smooth, with quantum variations beginning to cause slight variations in density.{{cn|date=January 2025}} |
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===Grand unification epoch=== |
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===Grand unification epoch=== |
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===Electroweak epoch=== |
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===Electroweak epoch=== |
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*c. 10<sup>−36</sup> seconds: ] begins: The Universe cools down to 10<sup>28</sup> kelvin. As a result, the ] becomes distinct from the ] perhaps fuelling the ] of the universe. A wide array of exotic elementary particles result from decay of X and Y bosons which include ] and ]. |
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*c. 10<sup>−36</sup> seconds: ] begins: The Universe cools down to 10<sup>28</sup> kelvin. As a result, the ] becomes distinct from the ]. A wide array of exotic elementary particles result from the decay of X and Y bosons, which include ] and ].{{cn|date=January 2025}} |
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*c. 10<sup>−33</sup> seconds: ] is subjected to ], expanding by a factor of the order of 10<sup>26</sup> over a time of the order of 10<sup>−33</sup> to 10<sup>−32</sup> seconds. The universe is ] from about 10<sup>27</sup> down to 10<sup>22</sup> kelvin.<ref>Guth, "Phase transitions in the very early universe", in: Hawking, Gibbon, Siklos (eds.), ''The Very Early Universe'' (1985).</ref> |
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*c. 10<sup>−33</sup> seconds: ] is subjected to ], expanding by a factor of the order of 10<sup>26</sup> over a time of the order of 10<sup>−33</sup> to 10<sup>−32</sup> seconds. The universe is ] from about 10<sup>27</sup> down to 10<sup>22</sup> kelvin.<ref>Guth, "Phase transitions in the very early universe", in: Hawking, Gibbon, Siklos (eds.), ''The Very Early Universe'' (1985).</ref> |
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*c. 10<sup>−32</sup> seconds: Cosmic inflation ends. The familiar ]s now form as a soup of hot ionized gas called ]; hypothetical components of ] (such as ]s) would also have formed at this ]. |
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*c. 10<sup>−32</sup> seconds: Cosmic inflation ends. The familiar ]s now form as a soup of hot ionized gas called ]; hypothetical components of ] (such as ]s) would also have formed at this ]. |
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===Quark epoch=== |
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===Quark epoch=== |
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*c. 10<sup>−12</sup> seconds: ]: the four ]s familiar from the modern universe now operate as distinct forces. The ] is now a short-range force as it separates from ], so matter particles can ] and interact with the ]. The temperature is still too high for quarks to coalesce into ]s, and the ] persists (]). The universe cools to 10<sup>15</sup> kelvin. |
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*c. 10<sup>−12</sup> seconds: ]: the four ]s familiar from the modern universe now operate as distinct forces. The ] is now a short-range force as it separates from ], so matter particles can ] and interact with the ]. The temperature is still too high for quarks to coalesce into ]s, and the ] persists (]). The universe cools to 10<sup>15</sup> kelvin.{{cn|date=January 2025}} |
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*c. 10<sup>−11</sup> seconds: ] may have taken place with matter gaining the upper hand over anti-matter as ] to ] constituencies are established. |
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*c. 10<sup>−11</sup> seconds: ] may have taken place with matter gaining the upper hand over anti-matter as ] to ] constituencies are established.{{cn|date=January 2025}} |
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===Hadron epoch=== |
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===Hadron epoch=== |
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*c. 10<sup>−6</sup> seconds: ] begins: As the universe cools to about 10<sup>10</sup> kelvin, a quark-hadron transition takes place in which quarks bind to form more complex particles—]. This quark confinement includes the formation of ]s and ]s (]s), the building blocks of ]. |
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*c. 10<sup>−6</sup> seconds: ] begins: As the universe cools to about 10<sup>10</sup> kelvin, a quark-hadron transition takes place in which quarks bind to form more complex particles—]. This quark confinement includes the formation of ]s and ]s (]s), the building blocks of ].{{cn|date=January 2025}} |
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===Lepton epoch=== |
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===Lepton epoch=== |
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*c. 1 second: ] begins: The universe cools to 10<sup>9</sup> kelvin. At this temperature, the hadrons and antihadrons annihilate each other, leaving behind ] and ] – possible disappearance of ]. Gravity governs the expansion of the universe: neutrinos ] from matter creating a ]. |
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*c. 1 second: ] begins: The universe cools to 10<sup>9</sup> kelvin. At this temperature, the hadrons and antihadrons annihilate each other, leaving behind ] and ] – possible disappearance of ]. Gravity governs the expansion of the universe: neutrinos ] from matter creating a ].{{cn|date=January 2025}} |
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===Photon epoch=== |
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===Photon epoch=== |
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* c. 10 seconds: ] begins: Most of the leptons and antileptons annihilate each other. As ] and ] annihilate, a small number of unmatched electrons are left over – disappearance of the positrons. |
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* c. 10 seconds: ] begins: Most leptons and antileptons annihilate each other. As ] and ] annihilate, a small number of unmatched electrons are left over – disappearance of the positrons.{{cn|date=January 2025}} |
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* c. 10 seconds: Universe dominated by photons of radiation – ordinary matter particles are coupled to ] and radiation while dark matter particles start building non-linear structures as ]s. Because charged electrons and protons hinder the emission of light, the universe becomes a super-hot glowing fog. |
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* c. 10 seconds: Universe dominated by photons of radiation – ordinary matter particles are coupled to ] and radiation. In contrast, dark matter particles build non-linear structures as ]s.{{dubious|reason=halos around what?|date=January 2025}} The universe becomes a super-hot glowing fog because charged electrons and protons hinder light emission. |
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* c. 3 minutes: Primordial ]: ] begins as ] and heavy hydrogen (]) and ] ] form from protons and neutrons. |
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* c. 3 minutes: Primordial ]: ] begins as ] and heavy hydrogen (]) and ] form from protons and neutrons. |
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* c. 20 minutes: Nuclear fusion ceases: normal matter consists of 75% hydrogen nuclei and 25% helium nuclei – free electrons begin scattering light. |
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* c. 20 minutes: Primordial nucleosynthesis ceases: normal matter consists of a mass of 75% hydrogen nuclei and 25% helium nuclei or one helium nucleus per twelve hydrogen nuclei– free electrons begin scattering light.{{cn|date=January 2025}} |
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== Matter era == |
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== Matter era == |
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*c. 47,000 years (z=3600): ] and radiation equivalence: at the beginning of this era, the expansion of the universe was decelerating at a faster rate. |
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*c. 47,000 years (z=3600): ] and radiation equivalence: at the beginning of this era, the expansion of the universe was decelerating at a faster rate. |
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*c. 70,000 years: Matter domination in Universe: onset of gravitational collapse as the Jeans length at which the smallest structure can form begins to fall. |
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*c. 70,000 years: As the temperature falls, ] allowing the first aggregates of matter to form. |
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===Cosmic Dark Age=== |
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===Cosmic Dark Age=== |
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], created from nine years of ] data]] |
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], created from nine years of ] data]] |
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* c. 370,000 years (z=1,100): The "]" is the period between ], when the universe first becomes transparent, until the formation of the first ]s. ]: electrons combine with nuclei to form ], mostly ] and ]. Distributions of hydrogen and helium at this time remains constant as the electron-baryon plasma thins. The temperature falls to 3000 kelvin. Ordinary matter particles decouple from radiation. The photons present at the time of decoupling are the same photons that we see in the ] (CMB) radiation. |
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* c. 370,000 years (z=1,100): The "]" is the period between ], when the universe first becomes transparent, until the formation of the first ]s. ]: electrons combine with nuclei to form ], mostly ] and ]. At this time, hydrogen and helium transport remains constant as the electron-baryon plasma thins. The temperature falls to {{cvt|3000|K|C F}}. Ordinary matter particles decouple from radiation. The photons present during the decoupling are the same photons seen in the ] (CMB) radiation. |
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* c. 400,000 years: Density waves begin imprinting characteristic ] signals. |
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* c. 400,000 years: Density waves begin imprinting characteristic ] signals. |
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* c. 10-17 million years: The "Dark Ages" span a period during which the temperature of ] cooled from some 4000 K down to about 60 K. The background temperature was between 373 K and 273 K, allowing the possibility of ], during a period of about 7 million years, from about 10 to 17 million after the Big Bang (redshift 137–100). ] (2014) speculated that ] might in principle have appeared during this window, which he called "the Habitable Epoch of the Early Universe".<ref name="IJA-2014October">{{cite journal |last=Loeb |first=Abraham |author-link=Abraham Loeb |title=The Habitable Epoch of the Early Universe |url=https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/~loeb/habitable.pdf |date=October 2014 |journal=] |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=337–339 |doi=10.1017/S1473550414000196 |access-date=15 December 2014 |bibcode=2014IJAsB..13..337L |arxiv = 1312.0613 |s2cid=2777386 }}</ref><ref name="ARXIV-20131202">{{Cite journal|last=Loeb |first=Abraham |author-link=Abraham Loeb |title=The Habitable Epoch of the Early Universe |journal=International Journal of Astrobiology |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=337–339 |arxiv=1312.0613 |date=2 December 2013|doi=10.1017/S1473550414000196 |bibcode=2014IJAsB..13..337L |s2cid=2777386 }}</ref><ref name="NYT-20141202">{{cite news |last=Dreifus |first=Claudia |author-link=Claudia Dreifus |title=Much-Discussed Views That Go Way Back – Avi Loeb Ponders the Early Universe, Nature and Life |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/02/science/avi-loeb-ponders-the-early-universe-nature-and-life.html |date=2 December 2014 |work=] |access-date=3 December 2014 }}</ref> |
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* c. 10-17 million years: The "Dark Ages" span a period during which the temperature of ] cooled from some {{cvt|4000|K|C F}} down to about {{cvt|60|K|C F}}. The background temperature was between {{cvt|373 and 273|K|C F}}, allowing the possibility of ], during a period of about 7 million years, from about 10 to 17 million after the Big Bang (redshift 137–100). ] (2014) speculated that ] might in principle have appeared during this window, which he called "the Habitable Epoch of the Early Universe".<ref name="IJA-2014October">{{cite journal |last=Loeb |first=Abraham |author-link=Abraham Loeb |title=The Habitable Epoch of the Early Universe |url=https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/~loeb/habitable.pdf |date=October 2014 |journal=] |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=337–339 |doi=10.1017/S1473550414000196 |access-date=15 December 2014 |bibcode=2014IJAsB..13..337L |arxiv = 1312.0613 |s2cid=2777386 }}</ref><ref name="ARXIV-20131202">{{Cite journal|last=Loeb |first=Abraham |author-link=Abraham Loeb |title=The Habitable Epoch of the Early Universe |journal=International Journal of Astrobiology |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=337–339 |arxiv=1312.0613 |date=2 December 2013|doi=10.1017/S1473550414000196 |bibcode=2014IJAsB..13..337L |s2cid=2777386 }}</ref><ref name="NYT-20141202">{{cite news |last=Dreifus |first=Claudia |author-link=Claudia Dreifus |title=Much-Discussed Views That Go Way Back – Avi Loeb Ponders the Early Universe, Nature and Life |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/02/science/avi-loeb-ponders-the-early-universe-nature-and-life.html |date=2 December 2014 |work=] |access-date=3 December 2014 }}</ref> |
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===Reionization=== |
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* c. 100 million years: Gravitational collapse: ordinary matter particles fall into the structures created by dark matter. ] begins: smaller (]) and larger non-linear structures (]) begin to take shape – their ] light ionizes remaining neutral gas. |
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* c. 100 million years: Gravitational collapse: ordinary matter particles fall into the structures created by dark matter. ] begins: smaller (]) and larger non-linear structures (]) begin to take shape – their ] light ionizes remaining neutral gas. |
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* 200–300 million years: First stars begin to shine: Because many are ] (some ] are accounted for at this time) they are much bigger and hotter and their life cycle is fairly short. Unlike later generations of stars, these stars are metal free. ] begins, with the absorption of certain wavelengths of light by neutral hydrogen creating ]s. The resulting ionized gas (especially free electrons) in the ] causes some ] of light, but with much lower opacity than before recombination due the expansion of the universe and clumping of gas into galaxies. |
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* 200–300 million years: First stars begin to shine: Because many are ] (some ] are accounted for at this time) they are much bigger and hotter and their life cycle is fairly short. Unlike later generations of stars, these stars are metal free. ] begins, with the absorption of certain wavelengths of light by neutral hydrogen creating ]s. The resulting ionized gas (especially free electrons) in the ] causes some ] of light, but with much lower opacity than before recombination due the expansion of the universe and clumping of gas into galaxies. |
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}}</ref> ] (confirmed) – SMSS J031300.36-670839.3, forms. |
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}}</ref> The oldest-known star (confirmed) – ], forms. |
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* 300 million years: First large-scale astronomical objects, ] and ] may have begun forming. As Population III stars continue to burn, ] operates – stars burn mainly by fusing hydrogen to produce more helium in what is referred to as the ]. Over time these stars are forced to fuse helium to produce ], ], ] and other heavy elements up to ] on the periodic table. These elements, when seeded into neighbouring gas clouds by ], will lead to the formation of more ] stars (metal poor) and ]. |
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* 300 million years: First large-scale astronomical objects, ] and ] may have begun forming. As Population III stars continue to burn, ] operates – stars burn mainly by fusing hydrogen to produce more helium in what is referred to as the ]. Over time these stars are forced to fuse helium to produce ], ], ] and other heavy elements up to ] on the periodic table. These elements, when seeded into neighbouring gas clouds by ], will lead to the formation of more ] stars (metal poor) and ]. |
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* 320 million years (z=13.3): ], the oldest-known spectroscopically-confirmed ], forms.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Simion @Yonescat |first=Florin |title=Scientists have spotted the farthest galaxy ever |url=https://ras.ac.uk/news-and-press/news/scientists-have-spotted-farthest-galaxy-ever |access-date=2023-07-13 |website=The Royal Astronomical Society |language=en}}</ref> |
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* 320 million years (z=13.3): ], the oldest-known spectroscopically-confirmed ], forms.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Simion @Yonescat |first=Florin |title=Scientists have spotted the farthest galaxy ever |url=https://ras.ac.uk/news-and-press/news/scientists-have-spotted-farthest-galaxy-ever |access-date=2023-07-13 |website=The Royal Astronomical Society |date=6 April 2022 |language=en}}</ref> |
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* 380 million years: ] forms, current record holder for unconfirmed oldest-known ].<ref name="Space-20121212">{{cite web |last=Wall |first=Mike |title=Ancient Galaxy May Be Most Distant Ever Seen|url=http://www.space.com/18879-hubble-most-distant-galaxy.html |date=12 December 2012|publisher=] |access-date=12 December 2012 }}</ref> |
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* 380 million years: ] forms, current record holder for unconfirmed oldest-known ].<ref name="Space-20121212">{{cite web |last=Wall |first=Mike |title=Ancient Galaxy May Be Most Distant Ever Seen|url=http://www.space.com/18879-hubble-most-distant-galaxy.html |date=12 December 2012|publisher=] |access-date=12 December 2012 }}</ref> |
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* 420 million years: The quasar ], the, or one of the, furthest known quasars, forms. |
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* 420 million years: The quasar ], the, or one of the, furthest known quasars, forms. |
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* 600 million years ], the oldest star found producing ] elements forms, marking a new point in ability to detect stars with a telescope.<ref name="h152309">{{cite journal|url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/16647/ |author=Collaborative |title=Discovery of HE 1523–0901 |journal=Astrophysical Journal Letters |volume=660 |pages=L117–L120 |publisher=CaltechAUTHORS |date=11 April 2007 |access-date=19 February 2019 }}</ref> |
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* 600 million years: ], the oldest star found producing ] elements forms, marking a new point in ability to detect stars with a telescope.<ref name="h152309">{{cite journal|url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/16647/ |author=Collaborative |title=Discovery of HE 1523–0901 |journal=Astrophysical Journal Letters |volume=660 |pages=L117–L120 |publisher=CaltechAUTHORS |date=11 April 2007 |access-date=19 February 2019 }}</ref> |
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* 630 million years (z=8.2): ], the oldest ] recorded suggests that supernovas may have happened very early on in the evolution of the Universe<ref>{{cite web|title=GRB 090423 goes Supernova in a galaxy, far, far away|url=http://www.zimbio.com/member/paulano123/articles/6044508/GRB+090423+goes+Supernova+galaxy+far+far+away|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130105130128/http://www.zimbio.com/member/paulano123/articles/6044508/GRB+090423+goes+Supernova+galaxy+far+far+away|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 January 2013|work= Zimbio|access-date=23 February 2010}}</ref> |
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* 630 million years (z=8.2): ], the oldest ] recorded suggests that supernovas may have happened very early on in the evolution of the Universe<ref>{{cite web|title=GRB 090423 goes Supernova in a galaxy, far, far away|url=http://www.zimbio.com/member/paulano123/articles/6044508/GRB+090423+goes+Supernova+galaxy+far+far+away|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130105130128/http://www.zimbio.com/member/paulano123/articles/6044508/GRB+090423+goes+Supernova+galaxy+far+far+away|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 January 2013|work= Zimbio|access-date=23 February 2010}}</ref> |
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* 670 million years: ], the most distant starburst or ] observed, forms. This suggests that ] is taking place very early on in the history of the Universe as ] are often associated with collisions and galaxy mergers. |
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* 670 million years: ], the most distant starburst or ] observed, forms. This suggests that ] is taking place very early on in the history of the Universe as ] are often associated with collisions and galaxy mergers. |
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* 700 million years: Galaxies form. Smaller galaxies begin merging to form larger ones. Galaxy classes may have also begun forming at this time including ], ], ], and ] as well as regular ] (], ], and ]). ], the first distant quasar to be observed from the reionization phase, forms. Dwarf galaxy ] forms. Galaxy or possible proto-galaxy ] forms. |
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* 700 million years: Galaxies form. Smaller galaxies begin merging to form larger ones. Galaxy classes may have also begun forming at this time including ], ], ], and ] as well as regular ] (], ], and ]). ], the first distant quasar to be observed from the reionization phase, forms. Dwarf galaxy ] forms. Galaxy or possible proto-galaxy ] forms. |
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* 720 million years: Possible formation of ] in Milky Way's ]. Formation of globular cluster, ], in the Milky Way's galactic halo |
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* 720 million years: Possible formation of ] in Milky Way's ]. Formation of globular cluster, ], in the Milky Way's galactic halo |
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* 740 million years: ], second-brightest globular cluster in the Milky Way, forms |
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* 740 million years: ], second-brightest globular cluster in the Milky Way, forms |
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* 750 million years: Galaxy ] a Lyman alpha emitter galaxy, forms. ] forms—galaxy is 5 times larger and 100 times more massive than the present day Milky Way illustrating the size attained by some galaxies very early on. |
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* 750 million years: Galaxy ] a Lyman alpha emitter galaxy, forms. ] forms—galaxy is 5 times larger and 100 times more massive than the present day Milky Way illustrating the size attained by some galaxies very early on. |
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* 770 million years: Quasar ], one of the most distant, forms. One of the earliest galaxies to feature a ] suggesting that such large objects existed quite soon after the Big Bang. The large fraction of neutral hydrogen in its spectrum suggests it may also have just formed or is in the process of star formation. |
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* 770 million years: Quasar ], one of the most distant, forms. One of the earliest galaxies to feature a ] suggesting that such large objects existed quite soon after the Big Bang. The large fraction of neutral hydrogen in its spectrum suggests it may also have just formed or is in the process of star formation. |
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* 800 million years: Farthest extent of ]. Formation of ]: unusual population II star that is extremely metal poor consisting of mainly hydrogen and helium. ], one of the oldest Population II stars, forms as part of a ]. ], one of the most remote ] galaxies, forms. Lyman alpha emitters are considered to be the progenitors of spiral galaxies like the Milky Way. ], globular cluster, forms. |
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* 800 million years: Farthest extent of ]. Formation of ]: unusual population II star that is extremely metal poor consisting of mainly hydrogen and helium. ], one of the oldest Population II stars, forms as part of a ]. ], one of the most remote ] galaxies, forms. Lyman alpha emitters are considered to be the progenitors of spiral galaxies like the Milky Way. ], globular cluster, forms. |
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* 870 million years: ] forms in the Milky Way. Having experienced a ], the cluster has one of the highest densities among globular clusters. |
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* 870 million years: ] forms in the Milky Way. Having experienced a ], the cluster has one of the highest densities among globular clusters. |
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* 890 million years: Galaxy ] forms |
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* 890 million years: Galaxy ] forms |
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{{further|List of the most distant astronomical objects}} |
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{{further|List of the most distant astronomical objects}} |
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* 1 billion years (12.8 ], z=6.56): Galaxy ], the most distant normal galaxy observed, forms. Formation of hyper-luminous quasar ], which harbors a black hole with mass of 12 billion solar masses, one of the most massive black holes discovered so early in the universe. ], a population II star, is speculated to have formed from remnants of earlier ] stars. Visual limit of the ]. Reionization is complete, with intergalactic space no longer showing any absorption lines from neutral hydrogen in the form of Gunn–Peterson troughs. Photon scattering by free electrons continues to decrease as the universe expands and gas falls into galaxies, and intergalactic space is now highly transparent, though remaining clouds of neutral hydrogen cause ]s. Galaxy evolution continues as more modern looking galaxies form and develop, although barred spiral and elliptical galaxies are more rare than today. Because the Universe is still small in size, galaxy interactions become common place with larger and larger galaxies forming out of the ] process. Galaxies may have begun clustering creating the largest structures in the Universe so far – the first ] and ] appear. |
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* 1 billion years (12.8 ], z=6.56): Galaxy ], the most distant normal galaxy observed, forms. Formation of hyper-luminous quasar ], which harbors a black hole with mass of 12 billion solar masses, one of the most massive black holes discovered so early in the universe. ], a population II star, is speculated to have formed from remnants of earlier ] stars. Visual limit of the ]. Reionization is complete, with intergalactic space no longer showing any absorption lines from neutral hydrogen in the form of Gunn–Peterson troughs. Photon scattering by free electrons continues to decrease as the universe expands and gas falls into galaxies, and intergalactic space is now highly transparent, though remaining clouds of neutral hydrogen cause ]s. Galaxy evolution continues as more modern looking galaxies form and develop, although barred spiral and elliptical galaxies are more rare than today. Because the Universe is still small in size, galaxy interactions become common place with larger and larger galaxies forming out of the ] process. Galaxies may have begun clustering creating the largest structures in the Universe so far – the first ] and ] appear. |
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* 1.1 billion years (12.7 Gya): Age of the ] CFHQS 1641+3755. ] Globular Cluster, first to have its individual stars resolved, forms in the halo of the Milky Way Galaxy. Among the clusters' many stars, ] forms. It is a ] known as the "Genesis Planet" or "Methusaleh." The oldest observed ] in the Universe, it orbits a ] and a ]. |
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* 1.1 billion years (12.7 Gya): Age of the ] CFHQS 1641+3755. ] Globular Cluster, first to have its individual stars resolved, forms in the halo of the Milky Way Galaxy. Among the clusters' many stars, ] forms. It is a ] known as the "Genesis Planet" or "Methusaleh." The oldest observed ] in the Universe, it orbits a ] and a ]. |
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* 1.13 billion years (12.67 Gya): ], globular cluster, forms |
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* 1.13 billion years (12.67 Gya): ], globular cluster, forms |
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* 1.3 billion years (12.5 Gya): ], a luminous infrared galaxy, forms. ], known as the Diamond Planet, forms around a pulsar. |
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* 1.3 billion years (12.5 Gya): ], a luminous infrared galaxy, forms. ], known as the Diamond Planet, forms around a pulsar. |
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* 1.31 billion years (12.49 Gya): Globular Cluster ] forms 60,000 light-years from the ] of the Milky Way |
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* 1.31 billion years (12.49 Gya): Globular Cluster ] forms 60,000 light-years from the ] of the Milky Way |
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* 1.39 billion years (12.41 Gya): ], a hyper-luminous quasar, forms |
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* 1.39 billion years (12.41 Gya): ], a hyper-luminous quasar, forms |
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* 3.5 billion years (10.3 Gya): Supernova ] recorded |
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* 3.5 billion years (10.3 Gya): Supernova ] recorded |
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* 3.8 billion years (10 Gya): ] globular cluster forms: 3 generations of stars form within the first 200 million years. |
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* 3.8 billion years (10 Gya): ] globular cluster forms: 3 generations of stars form within the first 200 million years. |
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* 4.0 billion years (9.8 Gya): Quasar ] forms. The ] forms from a galactic merger – begins a collision course with the Milky Way. ], ], may have formed. Beethoven Burst ] recorded. Gliese 677 C], a planet in the habitable zone of its parent star, ], forms |
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* 4.0 billion years (9.8 Gya): Quasar ] forms. The ] forms from a galactic merger – begins a collision course with the Milky Way. ], ], may have formed. Beethoven Burst ] recorded. ], a planet in the habitable zone of its parent star, ], forms |
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* 4.5 billion years (9.3 Gya): Fierce star formation in Andromeda making it into a luminous ] galaxy |
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* 4.5 billion years (9.3 Gya): Fierce star formation in Andromeda making it into a luminous ] galaxy |
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* 5.0 billion years (8.8 Gya): Earliest ], or Sunlike stars: with heavy element saturation so high, ] appear in which rocky substances are solidified – these nurseries lead to the formation of rocky ], ], ], and icy ]s |
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* 5.0 billion years (8.8 Gya): Earliest ], or Sunlike stars: with heavy element saturation so high, ] appear in which rocky substances are solidified – these nurseries lead to the formation of rocky ], ], ], and icy ]s |
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* 5.1 billion years (8.7 Gya): Galaxy collision: spiral arms of the Milky Way form leading to major period of star formation. |
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* 5.1 billion years (8.7 Gya): Galaxy collision: spiral arms of the Milky Way form leading to major period of star formation. |
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* 5.3 billion years (8.5 Gya): ] B, a "]", first planet to be observed orbiting as part of a star system, forms. ] planetary system, the flattest and most compact system yet discovered, forms – Kepler 11 ] considered to be a giant ocean planet with hydrogen-helium atmosphere. |
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* 5.3 billion years (8.5 Gya): ] B, a "]", first planet to be observed orbiting as part of a star system, forms. ] planetary system, the flattest and most compact system yet discovered, forms – ] considered to be a giant ocean planet with hydrogen-helium atmosphere. |
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* 5.8 billion years (8 Gya): ] also known as Bellerophon, forms – first planet discovered orbiting a main sequence star |
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* 5.8 billion years (8 Gya): ] also known as Dimidium, forms – first planet discovered orbiting a main sequence star |
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* 5.9 billion years (7.9 Gya): ] planetary system, known as the first observed through ], forms |
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* 5.9 billion years (7.9 Gya): ] planetary system, known as the first observed through ], forms |
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* 6.0 billion years (7.8 Gya): Many galaxies like ] become relatively stable – ellipticals result from collisions of spirals with some like ] being extremely massive. |
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* 6.0 billion years (7.8 Gya): Many galaxies like ] become relatively stable – ellipticals result from collisions of spirals with some like ] being extremely massive. |
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* 6.0 billion years (7.8 Gya): The Universe continues to organize into larger wider structures. The great walls, sheets and filaments consisting of galaxy clusters and superclusters and voids crystallize. How this crystallization takes place is still conjecture. Certainly, it is possible the formation of super-structures like the ] may have happened much earlier, perhaps around the same time galaxies first started appearing. Either way the ] becomes more modern looking. |
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* 6.0 billion years (7.8 Gya): The Universe continues to organize into larger wider structures. The great walls, sheets and filaments consisting of galaxy clusters and superclusters and voids crystallize. How this crystallization takes place is still conjecture. It is possible the formation of super-structures like the ] may have happened much earlier, possibly around the same time galaxies first started appearing. Regardless, the ] looks more like its current form. |
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* 6.2 billion years (7.7 Gya): ], the first gas giant observed in a single star orbit in a ], forms – orbiting moons considered to have habitable properties or at the least capable of supporting water |
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* 6.2 billion years (7.7 Gya): ], the first gas giant observed in a single star orbit in a ], forms – orbiting moons considered to have habitable properties or at the least capable of supporting water |
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* 6.3 billion years (7.5 Gya, z=0.94): ], farthest gamma ray burst seen with the naked eye, recorded. ], metal-rich globular cluster, forms in the ] |
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* 6.3 billion years (7.5 Gya, z=0.94): ], farthest recorded gamma ray burst visible with the naked eye. ], metal-rich globular cluster, forms in the ] |
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* 6.5 billion years (7.3 Gya): ] planetary system forms (larger than both 55 Cancri and Kepler 11 systems) |
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* 6.5 billion years (7.3 Gya): ] planetary system forms (larger than both 55 Cancri and Kepler 11 systems) |
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* 6.9 billion years (6.9 Gya): Orange Giant, ], forms |
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* 6.9 billion years (6.9 Gya): Orange Giant, ], forms |
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* 7.64 billion years (6.16 Gya): ] ] forms: of four planets orbiting a yellow star, ] is among the first terrestrial planets to be observed from Earth |
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* 7.64 billion years (6.16 Gya): ] ] forms: of four planets orbiting a yellow star, ] is among the first terrestrial planets to be observed from Earth |
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* 7.8 billion years (6.0 Gya): Formation of Earth's near twin, ] orbiting its parent star ] |
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* 7.8 billion years (6.0 Gya): Formation of Earth's near twin, ] orbiting its parent star ] |
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* 7.98 billion years (5.82 Gya): Formation of ] or Omicron ceti, binary star system. Formation of ] Star System, closest star to the Sun. ], or Gliese 1214 b, potential Earth-like planet, forms |
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* 7.98 billion years (5.82 Gya): Formation of ] or Omicron ceti, binary star system. Formation of ] Star System, closest star to the Sun. ], or Gliese 1214 b, potential Earth-like planet, forms |
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* 8.2 billion years (5.6 Gya): ], nearby yellow star forms: five planets eventually evolve from its planetary nebula, orbiting the star – ] considered planet to have potential life since it orbits the hot inner edge of the star's habitable zone |
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* 8.2 billion years (5.6 Gya): ], nearby yellow star forms: five planets eventually evolve from its planetary nebula, orbiting the star – ] considered planet to have potential life since it orbits the hot inner edge of the star's habitable zone |
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===Acceleration=== |
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===Acceleration=== |
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* 8.8 billion years (5 Gya, z=0.5): ]: ] begins, following the ] during which cosmic expansion was slowing down.<ref name="Frieman">{{Cite journal |last1=Frieman |first1=Joshua A. |last2=Turner |first2=Michael S. |last3=Huterer |first3=Dragan |year=2008 |title=Dark Energy and the Accelerating Universe |journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=385–432 |arxiv=0803.0982 |bibcode=2008ARA&A..46..385F |doi=10.1146/annurev.astro.46.060407.145243|s2cid=15117520 }}</ref> |
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* 8.8 billion years (5 Gya, z=0.5): ]: ] begins, following the ] during which cosmic expansion was slowing down.<ref name="Frieman">{{Cite journal |last1=Frieman |first1=Joshua A. |last2=Turner |first2=Michael S. |last3=Huterer |first3=Dragan |year=2008 |title=Dark Energy and the Accelerating Universe |journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=385–432 |arxiv=0803.0982 |bibcode=2008ARA&A..46..385F |doi=10.1146/annurev.astro.46.060407.145243|s2cid=15117520 }}</ref> |
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* 8.8 billion years (5 Gya): ] open star cluster forms: Three exoplanets confirmed orbiting stars in the cluster including a twin of the Sun |
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* 8.8 billion years (5 Gya): ] open star cluster forms: Three exoplanets confirmed orbiting stars in the cluster including a twin of the Sun |
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* 9.0 billion years (4.8 Gya): ], red dwarf in ], forms |
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* 9.0 billion years (4.8 Gya): ], red dwarf in ], forms |
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== Epochs of the formation of the Solar System == |
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== Epochs of the formation of the Solar System == |
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{{Main article|Formation and evolution of the Solar System}} |
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{{Main article|Formation and evolution of the Solar System}} |
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* 9.2 billion years (4.6–4.57 Gya): Primal supernova, possibly triggers the formation of the ]. |
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* 9.2 billion years (4.6–4.57 Gya): Primal supernova, possibly triggers the ]. |
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* 9.2318 billion years (4.5682 Gya): ] forms – Planetary nebula begins accretion of planets. |
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* 9.2318 billion years (4.5682 Gya): ] forms – Planetary nebula begins accretion of planets. |
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* 9.23283 billion years (4.56717–4.55717 Gya): Four ] (], ], ], ] <!--(and may be ] a.k.a Phattie -->) evolve around the Sun. |
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* 9.23283 billion years (4.56717–4.55717 Gya): Four ] (], ], ], ]<!--(and may be ] a.k.a Phattie -->) evolve around the Sun. |
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* 9.257 billion years (4.543–4.5 Gya): Solar System of Eight planets, four terrestrial (], ], ], ]<!--(and maybe ] a.k.a ] and ])-->) evolve around the Sun. Because of accretion many smaller planets form orbits around the proto-Sun some with conflicting orbits – ] begins. ] Supereon and ] eon begin on Earth. ] Era begins on Mars. ] Period begins on Mercury – a large planetoid strikes Mercury stripping it of outer envelope of original crust and mantle, leaving the planet's core exposed – Mercury's iron content is notably high. Many of the ] may have formed at this time including ] and ] which may presently be hospitable to some form of living organism. |
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* 9.257 billion years (4.543–4.5 Gya): Solar System of Eight planets, four terrestrial (], ], ], ]<!--(and maybe ] a.k.a ] and ])-->) evolve around the Sun. Because of accretion many smaller planets form orbits around the proto-Sun some with conflicting orbits – ] begins. ] Supereon and ] eon begin on Earth. ] Era begins on Mars. ] Period begins on Mercury – a large planetoid strikes Mercury stripping it of outer envelope of original crust and mantle, leaving the planet's core exposed – Mercury's iron content is notably high. Many of the ] may have formed at this time including ] and ] which may presently be hospitable to some form of living organism. |
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* 9.266 billion years (4.533 Gya): Formation of Earth-] system following ] by hypothetical planetoid ]. Moon's gravitational pull helps stabilize Earth's fluctuating ]. ] Period begins on Moon |
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* 9.266 billion years (4.533 Gya): Formation of Earth-] system following ] by hypothetical planetoid ]. Moon's gravitational pull helps stabilize Earth's fluctuating ]. ] Period begins on Moon |
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* 9.271 billion years (4.529 Gya): Major collision with a pluto-sized planetoid establishes the ] on Mars – formation of ] of Mars |
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* 9.271 billion years (4.529 Gya): Major collision with a pluto-sized planetoid establishes the ] on Mars – formation of ] of Mars |
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* 9.3 billion years (4.5 Gya): Sun becomes a main sequence yellow star: formation of the ] and ] from which a stream of ]s like ] and ] begins passing through the Solar System, sometimes colliding with planets and the Sun |
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* 9.3 billion years (4.5 Gya): Sun becomes a main sequence yellow star: formation of the ] and ] from which a stream of ]s like ] and ] begins passing through the Solar System, sometimes colliding with planets and the Sun |
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* 9.396 billion years (4.404 Gya): Liquid water may have existed on the surface of the Earth, probably due to the greenhouse warming of high levels of methane and carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere. |
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* 9.396 billion years (4.404 Gya): ] may have existed on the surface of the ], probably due to the greenhouse warming of high levels of ] and ] present in the atmosphere. |
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* 9.4 billion years (4.4 Gya): Formation of ], one of the most Earth-like planets, from a protoplanetary nebula surrounding its parent star |
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* 9.4 billion years (4.4 Gya): Formation of ], one of the most Earth-like planets, from a protoplanetary nebula surrounding its parent star |
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* 9.5 billion years (4.3 Gya): Massive meteorite impact creates South Pole ] on the Moon – a huge chain of mountains located on the lunar southern limb, sometimes called "Leibnitz mountains", form |
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* 9.5 billion years (4.3 Gya): Massive meteorite impact creates ] on the Moon – a huge chain of mountains located on the lunar southern limb, sometimes called "Leibnitz mountains", form |
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* 9.6 billion years (4.2 Gya): ] widespread area of vulcanism, becomes active on Mars – based on the intensity of volcanic activity on Earth, Tharsis magmas may have produced a 1.5-bar {{CO2}} atmosphere and a global layer of water 120 m deep increasing greenhouse gas effect in climate and adding to Martian water table. Age of the oldest samples from the ] |
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* 9.6 billion years (4.2 Gya): ] widespread area of vulcanism, becomes active on Mars – based on the intensity of volcanic activity on Earth, Tharsis magmas may have produced a 1.5-bar {{CO2}} atmosphere and a global layer of water 120 m deep increasing greenhouse gas effect in climate and adding to Martian water table. Age of the oldest samples from the ] |
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* 9.7 billion years (4.1 Gya): Resonance in Jupiter and Saturn's orbits moves Neptune out into the Kuiper belt causing a disruption among asteroids and comets there. As a result, ] batters the inner Solar System. ] Crater formed on ], a moon of Saturn. Meteorite impact creates the ] on Mars, the largest unambiguous structure on the planet. ] an isolated ] (]) in the southern highlands of Mars, located at the northeastern edge of Hellas Planitia is uplifted in the wake of the meteorite impact |
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* 9.7 billion years (4.1 Gya): Resonance in Jupiter and Saturn's orbits moves Neptune out into the Kuiper belt causing a disruption among asteroids and comets there. As a result, ] batters the inner Solar System. ] Crater formed on ], a moon of Saturn. Meteorite impact creates the ] on Mars, the largest unambiguous structure on the planet. ] an isolated ] (]) in the southern highlands of Mars, located at the northeastern edge of Hellas Planitia is uplifted in the wake of the meteorite impact |
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* 9.8 billion years (4 Gya): ], first planet detected through its transit, forms. ], lenticular galaxy, disrupted by galaxy interaction: complex outer structure of shells and ripples results. Andromeda and Triangulum galaxies experience close encounter – high levels of star formation in Andromeda while Triangulum's outer disc is distorted |
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* 9.8 billion years (4 Gya): ], first planet detected through its transit, forms. ], lenticular galaxy, disrupted by galaxy interaction: complex outer structure of shells and ripples results. Andromeda and Triangulum galaxies experience close encounter – high levels of star formation in Andromeda while Triangulum's outer disc is distorted |
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* 9.861 billion years (3.938 Gya): Major period of impacts on the Moon: ] forms |
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* 9.861 billion years (3.938 Gya): Major period of impacts on the Moon: ] forms |
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* 9.88 billion years (3.92 Gya): ] forms from large impact event: ejecta from Nectaris forms upper part of densely cratered Lunar Highlands – ] Era begins on the Moon. |
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* 9.88 billion years (3.92 Gya): ] forms from large impact event: ejecta from Nectaris forms upper part of densely cratered Lunar Highlands – ] Era begins on the Moon. |
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* 9.9 billion years (3.9 Gya): ] forms on Mercury. ] forms on Mercury leading to creation of "Weird Terraine" – seismic activity triggers volcanic activity globally on Mercury. ] formed on Mercury. Caloris Period begins on Mercury. ] forms from asteroid impact on Mars: surrounded by rugged massifs which form concentric and radial patterns around basin – several mountain ranges including ] and ] are uplifted in its wake |
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* 9.9 billion years (3.9 Gya): ] forms on Mercury. ] forms on Mercury leading to creation of "Weird Terraine" – seismic activity triggers volcanic activity globally on Mercury. ] formed on Mercury. Caloris Period begins on Mercury. ] forms from asteroid impact on Mars: surrounded by rugged massifs which form concentric and radial patterns around basin – several mountain ranges including ] and ] are uplifted in its wake |
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* 9.95 billion years (3.85 Gya): Beginning of ] Imbrium Period on Moon. Earliest appearance of Procellarum KREEP Mg suite materials |
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* 9.95 billion years (3.85 Gya): Beginning of ] Period on Moon. Earliest appearance of Procellarum KREEP Mg suite materials |
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* 9.96 billion years (3.84 Gya): Formation of ] from asteroid impact on Lunar surface – collision causes ripples in crust, resulting in three concentric circular features known as ] and ] |
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* 9.96 billion years (3.84 Gya): Formation of ] from asteroid impact on Lunar surface – collision causes ripples in crust, resulting in three concentric circular features known as ] and ] |
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* 10 billion years (3.8 Gya): In the wake of Late Heavy Bombardment impacts on the Moon, large molten ] depressions dominate lunar surface – major period of Lunar vulcanism begins (to 3 Gyr). ] eon begins on the Earth. |
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* 10 billion years (3.8 Gya): In the wake of Late Heavy Bombardment impacts on the Moon, large molten ] depressions dominate lunar surface – major period of Lunar vulcanism begins (to 3 Gyr). ] eon begins on the Earth. |
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==Recent history== |
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==Recent history== |
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* 11.8 billion years (2 Gya): Star formation in ] slows. Formation of ] from a galaxy collision. ], the largest volcano in the Solar System, is formed |
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* 11.8 billion years (2 Gya): Star formation in ] slows. Formation of ] from a galaxy collision. ], the largest volcano in the Solar System, is formed |
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* 12.1 billion years (1.7 Gya): ] captured into an orbit around Milky Way Galaxy |
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* 12.1 billion years (1.7 Gya): ] captured into an orbit around Milky Way Galaxy |
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* 12.7 billion years (1.1 Gya): ] begins on Moon: defined by impact craters that possess bright optically immature ray systems |
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* 12.7 billion years (1.1 Gya): ] begins on Moon: defined by impact craters that possess bright optically immature ray systems |
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* 12.8 billion years (1 Gya): The Kuiperian Era (1 Gyr – present) begins on Mercury: modern Mercury, a desolate cold planet that is influenced by space erosion and solar wind extremes. Interactions between Andromeda and its companion galaxies Messier 32 and Messier 110. Galaxy collision with Messier 82 forms its patterned spiral disc: galaxy interactions between NGC 3077 and Messier 81; Saturn's moon ] begins evolving the recognisable surface features that include rivers, lakes, and deltas |
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* 12.8 billion years (1 Gya): The Kuiperian Era (1 Gyr – present) begins on Mercury: modern Mercury, a desolate cold planet that is influenced by space erosion and solar wind extremes. Interactions between Andromeda and its companion galaxies Messier 32 and Messier 110. Galaxy collision with Messier 82 forms its patterned spiral disc: galaxy interactions between NGC 3077 and Messier 81; Saturn's moon ] begins evolving the recognisable surface features that include rivers, lakes, and deltas |
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* 13 billion years (800 ]): ] forms from the impact on the Lunar surface in the area of Oceanus Procellarum – has terrace inner wall and 30 km wide, sloping rampart that descends nearly a kilometre to the surrounding mare |
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* 13 billion years (800 ]): ] forms from the impact on the Lunar surface in the area of Oceanus Procellarum – has terrace inner wall and 30 km wide, sloping rampart that descends nearly a kilometre to the surrounding mare |
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* 13.175 billion years (625 Mya): formation of ] star cluster: consists of a roughly spherical group of hundreds of stars sharing the same age, place of origin, chemical content and motion through space |
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* 13.175 billion years (625 Mya): formation of ] star cluster: consists of a roughly spherical group of hundreds of stars sharing the same age, place of origin, chemical content and motion through space |
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* 13.15-21 billion years (590–650 Mya): ] star system forms |
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* 13.15-21 billion years (590–650 Mya): ] star system forms |
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* 13.2 billion years (600 Mya): Collision of spiral galaxies leads to the creation of ]. Whirlpool Galaxy collides with ] forming a present connected galaxy system. ] forms around parent star ]: the first planet to reveal the climate, organic constituencies, even colour (blue) of its atmosphere |
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* 13.2 billion years (600 Mya): Collision of spiral galaxies leads to the creation of ]. Whirlpool Galaxy collides with ] forming a present connected galaxy system. ] forms around parent star ]: the first planet to reveal the climate, organic constituencies, even colour (blue) of its atmosphere |
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* 13.345 billion years (455 Mya): ], the fifth-brightest star in Earth's galactic neighbourhood, forms. |
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* 13.345 billion years (455 Mya): ], the fifth-brightest star in Earth's galactic neighbourhood, forms. |
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* 13.6–13.5 billion years (300-200 Mya): ], the brightest star in the Earth's night sky, forms. |
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* 13.6–13.5 billion years (300-200 Mya): ], the brightest star in the Earth's sky, forms. |
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* 13.7 billion years (100 Mya): Formation of the ] Star Cluster |
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* 13.7 billion years (100 Mya): Formation of ] Star Cluster |
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* 13.73 billion years (70 Mya): The North Star, ], one of the most significant navigable stars, forms. |
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* 13.73 billion years (70 Mya): North Star, ], one of the significant navigable stars, forms |
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* 13.78 billion years (20 Mya): Possible date of formation for the ] |
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* 13.780 billion years (20 Mya): Possible formation of ] |
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* 13.786 billion years (14 Mya): Formation of the open clusters ] and ], also known as the ], they are located at around 7,500 light-years away from Earth. |
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* 13.788 billion years (12 Mya): ] forms. |
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* 13.788 billion years (12 Mya): ] forms. |
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* 13.79 billion years (10 Mya): ] forms. |
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* 13.792 billion years (7.6 Mya): ] forms. |
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* 13.8 billion years (Without uncertainties): Present day.<ref name="spacepd">{{cite web|url=https://www.space.com/24054-how-old-is-the-universe.html |author=Nola Taylor Redd |title=How Old is the Universe? |publisher=Space |date=8 June 2017 |access-date=19 February 2019 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20190217200401/https://www.space.com/24054-how-old-is-the-universe.html |archive-date =17 February 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> |
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* 13.8 billion years (Without uncertainties): Present day.<ref name="spacepd">{{cite web|url=https://www.space.com/24054-how-old-is-the-universe.html |author=Nola Taylor Redd |title=How Old is the Universe? |publisher=Space |date=8 June 2017 |access-date=19 February 2019 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20190217200401/https://www.space.com/24054-how-old-is-the-universe.html |archive-date =17 February 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> |
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==See also== |
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==See also== |
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* ] |
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* ] |
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* ] |
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* ] (formation of the Earth to evolution of modern humans) |
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* ] (formation of the Earth to evolution of modern humans) |
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* ] |
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* ] |
