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| {{Infobox military conflict | {{Infobox military conflict | ||
| | conflict = Battle of Zawichost | | conflict = Battle of Zawichost | ||
| | partof = | |||
| | partof = the ]{{sfn|Perfecky|1973|pp=127–128}} | |||
| | date = 19 June<ref name = "p153">The Annals of Jan Długosz p. 153</ref> or 14 October 1205 | | date = 19 June<ref name = "p153">The Annals of Jan Długosz p. 153</ref> or 14 October 1205 | ||
| | place = ], ], ], ] | | place = ], ], ], ] | ||
| | result = Polish victory{{sfn|Perfecky|1973|p=128}} | | result = Polish victory{{sfn|Perfecky|1973|p=128}} | ||
| | combatant1 = ] <br /> ] |
| combatant1 = ] <br /> ] | ||
| | combatant2 = ] |
| combatant2 = ] | ||
| | commander1 = ] <br /> ] | | commander1 = Krystyn (voivode) <br /> ] <br /> ] | ||
| | commander2 = ]{{KIA}} {{sfn|Perfecky|1973|pp=127–128}} | | commander2 = ]{{KIA}} {{sfn|Perfecky|1973|pp=127–128}} | ||
| | strength1 = 2,000—2,500{{sfn|Foryt|2021|p=121}} | | strength1 = 2,000—2,500{{sfn|Foryt|2021|p=121}} | ||
| | strength2 = 5,000—7,500{{efn|According to Polish historian Artur Foryt, who wrote a work on the battle, the 13,000-strong Ruthenian army is incorrect, claiming that this is due to a misreading of the local chronicle by most Polish historians. He believes that the Ruthenian forces could have numbered between 5,000 and 7,500 men. |
| strength2 = 5,000—7,500{{efn|According to Polish historian Artur Foryt, who wrote a work on the battle, the 13,000-strong Ruthenian army is incorrect, claiming that this is due to a misreading of the local chronicle by most Polish historians. He believes that the Ruthenian forces could have numbered between 5,000 and 7,500 men. (see Ruthenian forces)}} | ||
| | casualties1 = Light |
| casualties1 = Light{{sfn|Długosz|1480|p=154}} | ||
| | casualties2 = Almost all killed{{efn|The crossing detachment was decimated, it was not the whole army, but in the pursuit of the remaining army many were killed. Also not many survived this Carnage}}{{sfn|Długosz|1480|p=153}} | |||
| | casualties2 = Almost all killed<ref name = "p154"/> | |||
| | campaignbox = {{Campaignbox |
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Feudal fragmentation of Poland (1138–1320)}} | ||
| }} | }} | ||
| The '''Battle of Zawichost''' |
The '''Battle of Zawichost''' also called '''Zawichost campaign'''{{Sfn|Foryt|2021}} fought on 19 June or 14 October 1205, was a key clash between the troops of Duke ] of Galician-Volhynian and the Polish forces led by ], Duke of Sandomierz, and his brother ]. After Roman invaded Lesser Poland, his army was surprised and defeated by the Poles near ] on the ]. Roman was killed as a result of the battle, which led to the strengthening of Leszek's and Conrad's positions and triggered a war of succession in the ]. The battle is considered one of the greatest victories of medieval Poland. | ||
| Prior to the battle, in the 11th century, there had been border disputes between the Polish principalities and the Ruthenian principalities, and the territories of ] and Galician-Volhynian Rus had changed affiliation several times. The early Middle Ages were characterised by a sparse population of these areas, which were settled by both Rus peoples from the east and Poles from the west. In 1199, Leszek the White supported Roman the Great militarily, helping him to take the throne in ].{{Efn|Poland fought many wars with ], among others over the ] (see ] and ])}} However, in 1205 Roman invaded Lesser Poland, leading to a confrontation with Polish forces. After the victory at Zawichost, Leszek the White's reputation grew considerably, enabling him to take power in ]. His brother, Conrad, having come of age, demanded a share in power, which led to the division of the country between them. | |||
| == Background == | == Background == | ||
| The motives behind ]'s campaign remain unclear to this day and are the subject of much debate among historians. Historical sources do not provide a clear cause, which has led to many different hypotheses based on the analysis of available chronicles and political events from the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries.{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=108—110}} | |||
| ]'', painting by ] (1875)]] | |||
| === Hypotheses === | |||
| In the 11th century, there were some border disputes between Polish duchies and ], with the lands of Lesser Poland and Galicia-Volhynia (called ''Ruthenia'' in Latin) changing hands several times. In the early ], the area of what later would become ] was scarcely populated, as the region was settled by Rus' peoples from the east and by Poles from the west. Border clashes took place in the lands of ], ], ] and ]. In 1199, an armed campaign led by ] helped to install Roman the Great on the throne in Volodimer' in Volhynia. In 1205, however, Roman marched into Lesser Poland. Polish chronicler ] (1480) tried to give reasons for Roman's incursion:{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}} | |||
| {{Multiple image | |||
| | image1 = Pieczęć Leszka I Białego.jpg | |||
| | caption1 = Seal of Leszek Biały (Leszek I, "the White"), Front side. | |||
| | image2 = Печать Романа II Великого.png | |||
| | caption2 = Seal of Roman II the Great | |||
| | width1 = 300px | |||
| | direction = vertical | |||
| }} | |||
| One of the more popular interpretations is the so-called ''Saxon hypothesis'', based on the Chronicle of the Cistercian monk '']''.{{sfn|Perfecky|1973|pp=127–128, 130}}{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=110}} According to this source, Roman's campaign was linked to internal power struggles in Germany. It is assumed that the expedition may have been part of a wider political game in which Roman was involved by rival parties in the Empire.{{sfn|Perfecky|1973|pp=127–128}}<ref name="Yanin">{{in lang|ru}} ]; L. M. Popova, N. I. Shchaveleva, ''""'' o Polshe, Rusi i i Moscow University, </ref>{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=111}} Although this hypothesis is supported by some ] sources, there is no direct evidence of Roman's active involvement in German conflicts.{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=111, 112}} A second interpretation is the so-called ''Greater Poland hypothesis'', which indicates that Roman's actions were the result of internal conflicts between the ]. Particular attention is paid to the tensions between ] and ], which may have prompted Roman to intervene. The ''] ({{circa}} 1290)'' indicates that Leszek the White was in conflict with Władysław Laskonogi, and that Roman was supposed to act in favour of one of these rulers. This interpretation has gained popularity in Polish historiography, but later analyses point to its doubts. Historian Artur Foryt suggests that although Roman may have acted in the context of Polish conflicts, it is likely that his actions were motivated by personal goals rather.{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=112—114}} | |||
| According to ''Ruthenian Hypothesis'', the cause of the conflict may have been Roman Mstislavovich's refusal to recognise the supremacy of Leszek the White. This attitude may have provoked the ] to start hostilities. It is possible that earlier Leszek concluded an agreement with Roman, under which Roman pledged certain obligations to the Polish ruler. These obligations may have formed the basis of Leszek's claims against Roman. The '']'', on the other hand, indicates that the main point of contention was Roman's refusal to pay tribute to Leszek. The conflict over tribute was crucial in escalating tensions between the two sides and may have been the direct cause of the outbreak of war.{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=114—117}} | |||
| {{quote|There are several reasons for his action: the huge wealth taken from Ruthenia in the years when almost the whole of the country was conquered; the disbandment and dispersion of his forces, cavalry and infantry, among many of the Polish duchies; the quarrels of the magnates; and, finally, the immaturity of Leszek and Konrad. Also the harsh reply they gave his emmissaries when he asked for all the land of ] and compensation for the losses and costs he had incurred at the ] and was told that, having quit the field of battle, he was not entitled to anything.<ref name = "p153"/>}} | |||
| === Hypothesis according to Jan Długosz === | |||
| Długosz further explains that before crossing the Polish frontier, Roman sent emissaries to the Bishop of Volodimer' and asked for his blessing, as he intended to campaign in Poland for three years.<ref name = "p153"/> The Bishop declined Roman's gifts and denied him any blessing, explaining that "he cannot bless Roman or his enterprise, since he has previously started unjust and wicked wars and is again embarking on one that is quite unjustified, considering that the Poles have so often exposed their bodies to danger and death to defend the Ruthenians against the barbarians." Roman responded by telling the bishop that he will cut his head off when he returns from his victory.<ref name = "p153"/> | |||
| ] effigy on a seal]] | |||
| According to ], there are several reasons attributed to Roman Mstislavovich's actions. Among them are the enormous wealth gained in ] at a time when almost the entire country was under his control, the dispersion and dissolution of his forces - both cavalry and infantry - among the numerous Polish principalities, and conflicts between Polish ]. Another factor was the young age and inexperience of Leszek the White and ], which may have weakened their ability to manage the situation effectively. Roman's actions may also have been motivated by the failure of negotiations with Leszek and Konrad. According to accounts, the Prince of Galicia-Volhynia demanded the handover of the land of ] and compensation for the losses suffered during the ]. However, the response of the Polish rulers was decidedly negative - they refused to meet these demands, arguing that Roman, by leaving the battlefield, forfeited his right to any claims.{{Sfn|Długosz|1480|p=153}} | |||
| Długosz further explains that before crossing the Polish frontier, Roman sent emissaries to the Bishop of Volodimer' and asked for his blessing, as he intended to campaign in Poland for three years. The Bishop declined Roman's gifts and denied him any blessing, explaining that "he cannot bless Roman or his enterprise, since he has previously started unjust and wicked wars and is again embarking on one that is quite unjustified, considering that the Poles have so often exposed their bodies to danger and death to defend the Ruthenians against the barbarians." Roman responded by telling the bishop that he will cut his head off when he returns from his victory.{{Sfn|Długosz|1480|p=153}} | |||
| Modern scholar George Perfecky (1973) provided a very different context for the conflict, linking it primarily to the ] (1198–1215): ' tried to colonize the Lithuanian and Jatvingian lands and participated in the struggle between two German princely houses, ], who were the dukes of Saxony and Bavaria, and the ]s, then the ruling house of the ]. In this struggle Roman sided with the Hohenstaufens and undertook a campaign against the Little Polish Prince Leszek of Cracow (in GVC Lestko), an ally of the Welfs. Roman planned to crush him and then to strike deep into Saxony against the Welfs. However, Roman was defeated by the Poles and died at Zavixvost on the Vistula in 1205.'{{sfn|Perfecky|1973|pp=127–128}} | |||
| == Strengths of the parties == | |||
| === Ruthenian forces === | |||
| ], Rurik Rostislavich, Yaroslav Pereyaslavsky against the ] ]] | |||
| To this day, it is not precisely established how numerous a force Roman the Great amassed during his expedition against the Poles. However, in the light of the available historical sources and analyses, several conclusions can be drawn on this subject. The nature of the expedition, which aimed to intervene militarily in Polish lands, indicates that Roman led a relatively large army, capable of carrying out an offensive deep into the enemy's territory.{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=117—120}} The ''Rocznik Krakowski'', one of the key sources describing the events of the period, states that the size of the ] was around 13,000 men. This figure was for some time accepted by historians as reliable. On the basis of this figure, attempts were made to estimate the mobilisation capacity of the Galician-Volyhnian principality during Roman rule.{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=119}} Modern historical research, however, casts doubt on this figure.<ref name=":0">Mariusz Samp (2024) '''' (In Polish)</ref> Historian Arthur Foryt and Mariusz Samp points out that these figures may be exaggerated and suggests that the size of Roman's army was between 5,000 and 7,500 men.<ref name=":0" />{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=119}} According to Foryt, the size of this force was more in line with the logistical capacity of the principality and the nature of the conflict.{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=119}} | |||
| An equally important factor to take into account is the power of the ] in the time of Roman Mstislavovich. This principality was one of the richest and best developed politically and militarily regions of Rus.{{Efn|See ]}} Roman, as the ruler of this territory, had the resources to maintain a large and well-equipped army, which gave him a significant advantage in clashes with neighbouring states.{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=118}} However, the exact date of the completion of the mobilisation of the army before the expedition against the Poles is not known.{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=120}} The process may have depended on a number of factors, such as the political situation in the region, the availability of resources, and the time it took to gather troops from different parts of the principality. Discussions on the size of Roman forces and the date of mobilisation remain open in ]. Differences in estimates are due to the lack of clear evidence in the sources and discrepancies in their interpretation by researchers.{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=118}} | |||
| === Polish forces === | |||
| Meanwhile, the Polish forces were much less numerous compared to the army of Roman the Great. The mobilisation capacity of the ] and the ] was limited due to the small human and economic resources of both regions.{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=120—122}} It is estimated that the army organised by Leszek the White and ] numbered between 2,000<ref name=":0" /> and 2,500 soldiers. Command of the Polish forces was entrusted to the Mazovian ] Krystyn, who played a key role in organising the defence and in directing the troops in the decisive battle. Despite the crushing numerical superiority of the Ruthenian army, the outcome of the campaign was not determined solely by the strength of the army. Knowledge of the terrain, effective tactics and probable errors in command on the Roman side played a significant role in the Polish victory.{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=120—122}} | |||
| == Before battle == | |||
| === The siege of Łuków and Lublin and the activities of Ruthenian army === | |||
| ] | |||
| The course of Roman Mstislavovich's campaign against the Polish lands remains unclear and difficult to fully reconstruct, mainly due to contradictions in historical sources.{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=122}} Jan Długosz gives a detailed description of the actions in his chronicles, but much important information has been omitted or is not confirmed in other accounts. According to Długosz, Roman held negotiations with two Polish bishops, indicating attempts to resolve the conflict diplomatically, but these talks were unsuccessful. The chronicler also mentions the siege of ] by the Ruthenians, but the city was ultimately not captured. Długosz's concise description of the siege remains unconfirmed in other sources.{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=122—124}} The reasons for the campaign are also controversial. There are two main hypotheses. The first assumes that Roman's actions were a response to provocation by the Poles.<ref name=":0" /> The second suggests that Roman acted on his own initiative, driven by an ambition to subjugate Polish lands, in particular the Duchy of Sandomierz.{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=127}} | |||
| Historian Artur Foryt provides a detailed breakdown of Roman's campaign into several key stages. The first of these was the strike against the Polish lands, concentrated towards ]. This was followed by clashes with a small Polish force of only a few hundred warriors, fielded by Leszek the White and Konrad I of Masovia. The next stage was the siege of several Polish strongholds - according to Foryt, most probably ] and Lublin, both of which were to be captured by the Ruthenians. The Polish troops were forced to retreat beyond the ], and the Ruthenian army followed their lead, reaching the ] area in the second half of June.{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=128}} | |||
| === Prelude === | |||
| However, the exact location of Roman's crossing of the Vistula is not known. Some sources suggest that it may have taken place south of Zawichost, which raises discrepancies in determining the location of the key battle. The initial phase of the campaign brought success to the army of the Ruthenian prince. Roman managed to capture several strongholds and forced the Polish forces to withdraw. On 18 June, the Ruthenian army established a camp, which marked an important point in the further course of the campaign. Despite the initial successes, the final fate of the expedition depended on further developments, which required Roman to face logistical difficulties and possible resistance from the Poles.{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=128—133}} | |||
| ==Battle== | ==Battle== | ||
| === Earliest accounts === | |||
| ] 1893).]] | |||
| French chronicler ] (1251) wrote that Roman moved through Poland to Saxony in order to assist ], the son of ], in the ].<ref name="Yanin"/> This explanation was later accepted by ] (1968),{{sfn|Perfecky|1973|pp=127–128, 130}}<ref name="Yanin"/> Perfecky (1973),{{sfn|Perfecky|1973|pp=127–128, 130}} and ], Popova and Shchaveleva (1987).<ref name="Yanin"/> | |||
| === Phase I: Vistula crossing and preparations === | |||
| The '']'' of the '']'' (compiled in 1377) mentions that "Roman of Halych took on Poles and conquered cities. And stopped at the Vistula River with his small druzhina. Poles then attacked and killed him with the druzhina. And people from Halych came, took their dead prince and carried him to Halych and buried him in a church."{{efn|Original text: "Тогож̑ лѣт̑ . ходиша кнѧзи Рѧзаньскъıӕ В на Половци и взѧша вежѣ ихъ ❙ Тогож̑ . лѣт̑ . Иде Романъ Галичьскъıи на Лѧхъı и взѧ . в҃ . города Лѧдьскаӕ . и ставшю же ѥму над Вислою рѣкою . и ѿѣха сам̑ в малѣ дружинѣ ѿ полку своѥго . Лѧхове же наѣхавше оубиша и . и дружину ѡколо ѥго избиша . приѣхавше же Галичане взѧша кнѧзѧ своѥго мр҃тва . и несоша и в Галичь . и положиша и въ цр҃кви ст҃ъıӕ Бц҃а".<ref name="Suzd">*</ref>)}} Perfecky (1973) interpreted the ''Suzdalian'' account as saying that 'Roman died while out on patrol and not in battle.'{{sfn|Perfecky|1973|p=128}} | |||
| ] | |||
| On 19 June 1205, Roman Mstislavovich began the crossing of his troops across the Vistula.{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=133}} The exact number of soldiers involved in the crossing remains unknown, but it took place without resistance from the Polish forces.{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=134}} Roman, relying on information provided by his agents, believed that the Polish troops were far from the crossing point.{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=134, 137}} This overconfidence in intelligence proved to be a strategic error. The decision to cross at this point, according to historian Artur Foryt, was due to the difficult terrain conditions in other areas.{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=134}} At the same time, a combined Masovian-Sandomierian force led by Conrad I of Masovia and Leszek the White reached Zawichost. According to Jan Długosz, the Polish forces were to be commanded by the Mazovian Voivode ].{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=135—138}} By this time Roman was constantly underestimating the Polish forces.{{Sfn|Samp|2024}} | |||
| === Phase II: Sudden attack by Polish forces === | |||
| According to the later '']'' ({{circa}} 1290), Roman "refuses to pay the tribute to Leszek, bravely challenges him and with amassing the large force unexpectedly invades into the Polish lands. As Leszek found that out, he assembled a small troop rushed to meet him in Zawichost, fiercely attacks him, captures and defeats. Of the Ruthenians, that initially came arrogantly, many were wounded, very many killed with prince Roman, and the others, seeing tried to find the rescue escaping, and many pathetically ended their lives in the Vistula And so happened in 1205 AD."<ref name="Yanin">{{in lang|ru}} ]; L. M. Popova, N. I. Shchaveleva, ''""'' o Polshe, Rusi i i Moscow University, </ref> Yanin et al. (1987) found it improbable 'that one of the powerful princes of Rus', Roman, was in vassal dependence on the prince of Lesser Poland, and paid him tribute.'<ref name="Yanin"/> | |||
| ] | |||
| After the Ruthenian army had crossed the Vistula, the Polish command decided on a night march of the Mazovian-Sandomierian forces towards Zawichost.{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=138}} The aim was to prevent the enemy from forcing the river further and to surprise them when they crossed. There is a possibility that the Polish scouts recognised Prince Roman by his distinctive armour and princely markings, which may have influenced the decision to attack quickly. The Polish troops carefully prepared their positions - the archers occupied the dominant hill from where they could fire, and the cavalry hid behind a bend in the Vistula, waiting for the moment to charge. The plan was to break through the Halician (Ruthenian) forces crowded in the trough near Zawichost using surprise, momentum and archer support.{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=138}} | |||
| At the agreed signal, the Polish knights moved in a compact column, accelerating as they approached the enemy's position. The unexpected attack hit Roman's troops with full force, who, surprised and crowded, were unable to organise an effective defence. As a result of the charge by the Polish forces, the Ruthenians suffered heavy losses and their array was completely broken.{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=139}} | |||
| The '']'' ({{circa}} 1292) does not provide a coherent narrative of how Roman died, instead repeatedly recording several events "after Roman's death" (opening sentence, ''sub anno'' 6709, 6710, 6711).{{sfn|Perfecky|1973|pp=17–19}} The closet it gets is mentioning in passing that after Roman's death, the Galician boyars invited the Igorevichi princes to the throne; in the confusing attack that followed, Roman's wife ] and sons first fled to Volodimer and then to Poland: 'They did not know where to turn: Prince Roman had been killed in Poland and Lestko had not yet concluded peace. But the Lord interceded in their behalf: Lestko made no mention of the hostilities and received his sister-in-law and her children with great honor. He took pity on them and remarked that the devil had caused this enmity to come between them. And indeed Volodislav had plotted discord between , for he was envious of the amicable relations that existed .'{{sfn|Perfecky|1973|pp=18–19}} The chronicler thus blamed ] (''Volodislav Tonkonogij'') for the conflict.{{sfn|Perfecky|1973|p=130}} ] suggested that, if true, Władysław's attempts to undermine the Leszek–Roman alliance probably began in 1202, when Władysław was driven out of ] by Leszek, although Hrushevsky could not say whether this was the real reason behind the clash.{{sfn|Perfecky|1973|p=130}} | |||
| === Phase III: Defeat of the Ruthenian army and death of Roman === | |||
| === Długosz version (1480) === | |||
| {{Quote box | |||
| ] 1893).]] | |||
| | quote = Prince Roman with a powerful army of the whole of Rus' reaches Zawichost, where he is completely crushed by the princes Leszek and Konrad and dies, and the Poles gain a great victory. The death of Duke Roman and the slaughter of his army so depressed and humiliated the Ruthenian lords and people that they no longer dared to invade Polish lands | |||
| Writing almost three centuries after the events, Polish chronicler ] (1480) published a lengthy and detailed story about what supposedly happened. In the early spring, Roman invaded the land of ] and laid siege to the city. The Polish garrison was successful in defending the city, but the Rus'ian caused great destruction to the local population, as they captured and raped the wives of the knights of Lublin.<ref name = "p153"/> Leszek then started recruiting a force of knights and peasants from ], ], and ], which was reinforced with a force of volunteers from ].<ref name = "p153"/> When Roman learned of the Polish force that was advancing towards him, he raised the siege and advanced deep into Poland by pillaging and threatening with devastation and eradication of the ].<ref name = "p153"/> Several bishops and nobles approached Roman and asked for peace, promising to pay compensation; Roman accepted, but continued with the war.<ref name = "p153"/> He captured some priests and had them shot at with arrows, hoping to have the location of Leszek disclosed.<ref name = "p154"/> Długosz gives a detailed description of the battle.{{efn|'Leszek reaches the ] and gets his army across, partly in boats, partly by fording, for, thanks to a drought, there are a number of places where the river is so shallow as to allow this, and pitches camp outside Zawichost. When his scouts report the approach of the Poles, Roman laughs at them. Then some soldiers confirm what the scouts have said, but Roman still does not believe them, saying that the Poles will never engage him in battle. Then, at dawn, on June 19, the Feast of the martyrs SS Gervase and Protase, Leszek and Konrad arrive on the scene. Their army, commanded by the Voivode of Mazovia, is already in battle array and ready to fight. The shooting of the Polish archers and the pressure of the Polish attack is such that, in so narrow an area Roman is scarcely able to array his first line. The two armies raise a clamour and engage with spears and lances poised. Although Leszek and Konrad are present, they are not allowed to take part in the fighting but have to remain at a distance, where they await the result, torn between fear and hope. The Poles rout the Ruthenian first line, and it seems that Fortune is favouring them; however, having so many knights, Roman is able to replace those who fall or are wounded. The Poles are not angry with the Ruthenians but with their duke, who to them is a traitor, a breaker of faith and a deserter, and they are after his blood. They surround him, where he is fighting in the front rank, identifiable by his ducal emblems. Roman, seeing those with him hewn down before his eyes and realizing that escape is made difficult by the heaps of bodies on either side, digs his spurs into his horse, which tries to throw him, but he manages to get through the press and reach the river and there his horse falls. Now, how is he to get across and escape? A soldier brings him an old jage{{clarify|date=October 2014}}, which with great difficulty does get him to the far bank, where he mingles with the throng of fleeing soldiery, only to be rounded up by the Poles and, being taken for a common soldier, cut down. A number of Roman's knights and soldiers are standing on the bank of the river they have just managed to cross, watching the flight of their fellows, when the bank, ripped by the hooves of the struggling horses, is no longer able to bear their weight and collapses. The Ruthenians are now all seeking safety in flight, which means flinging themselves into the river.'<ref name = "p154"/>}} | |||
| | source = — ] | |||
| | align = right | |||
| | width = 25em | |||
| | quoted = true | |||
| }}Roman, realising that his troops had fallen into a trap, tried to quickly organise a defence. However, the congestion of troops and lack of manoeuvring space prevented an effective response. The Ruthenians, pinned down by the river, tried to retreat to the right bank of the Vistula, which ended in disaster.{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=138—139}} During the retreat, the Polish forces began a pursuit during which the number of dead was enormous. Many Polish chronicles emphasise the scale of losses suffered by the Ruthenian army, which almost completely ceased to exist.{{Sfn|Foryt|2021|p=140}} According Długosz many of the Rus' drowned and many more died at the hands of the local population, as Polish troops chased them all the way to ]. Few survived the massacre and at the order of Leszek and Konrad, Roman's body was buried in ]. The two factions came to an agreement and the Ruthenians released all their prisoners and paid 1,000 silver marks to recover the body of Roman, which was then buried in Volodimer.{{sfn|Długosz|1480|p=154}} Długosz also told of an incredible massacre he supposedly stated that the Vistula River near Zawichost had the colour of blood for a moment.{{Sfn|Samp|2024}} | |||
| However, the exact circumstances of Roman Mstislavovich's death remain unknown. According to the '']'', Roman was killed in battle, which is also supported by contemporary historians such as Artur Foryt and Perfecky.{{efn|Original text: "Тогож̑ лѣт̑ . ходиша кнѧзи Рѧзаньскъıӕ В на Половци и взѧша вежѣ ихъ ❙ Тогож̑ . лѣт̑ . Иде Романъ Галичьскъıи на Лѧхъı и взѧ . в҃ . города Лѧдьскаӕ . и ставшю же ѥму над Вислою рѣкою . и ѿѣха сам̑ в малѣ дружинѣ ѿ полку своѥго . Лѧхове же наѣхавше оубиша и . и дружину ѡколо ѥго избиша . приѣхавше же Галичане взѧша кнѧзѧ своѥго мр҃тва . и несоша и в Галичь . и положиша и въ цр҃кви ст҃ъıӕ Бц҃а".<ref name="Suzd">*</ref>)}} The ''Galician-Volyn Chronicle'', on the other hand, does not specify how his death occurred, limiting itself to only mentioning the prince's demise. Roman's death determined the defeat of the Ruthenian army and ended the Battle of Zawichost, leaving a lasting mark on the politics of the region.{{sfn|Perfecky|1973|pp=17–19}} | |||
| Many of the Rus' drowned and many more died at the hands of the local population, as Polish troops chased them all the way to ].<ref name = "p154"/> Few survived the massacre and at the order of Leszek and Konrad, Roman's body was buried in ].<ref name = "p154"/> The two factions came to an agreement and the Ruthenians released all their prisoners and paid 1,000 silver marks to recover the body of Roman, which was then buried in Volodimer'.<ref name = "p154"/> | |||
| ==Aftermath== | ==Aftermath== | ||
| After his triumph, Leszek's reputation took a positive turn, earning him credibility and the trust of Kraków, |
After his triumph, Leszek's reputation took a positive turn, earning him credibility and the trust of Kraków, The Annals of Jan Długosz which would give him temporary power over the city.{{sfn|Długosz|1480|p=155}} Konrad, coming of age, asked for his share of power and at the meditation of their mother and a selected group of aristocrats, the two brothers divide the country under their authority.{{sfn|Długosz|1480|p=154}} turned unstable from its internal conflicts and the country is invaded by ], this being the first time the Poles hear of that name. The Ruthenians suffered great casualties, but managed to defeat the invaders.{{sfn|Długosz|1480|p=155}} In 1208, the country fell into civil war.{{sfn|Długosz|1480|p=156}} | ||
| == See also == | |||
| * ] | |||
| == Notes == | == Notes == | ||
| Line 55: | Line 100: | ||
| == References == | == References == | ||
| {{Refbegin|35m}} | |||
| {{reflist}} | {{reflist}} | ||
| {{Refend}} | |||
| == Bibliography == | == Bibliography == | ||
| === Primary sources === | === Primary sources === | ||
| ; Primary sources in Latin | |||
| * ]. ''Annales seu cronicae incliti Regni Poloniae'' (Annals or Chronicles of the Famous Kingdom of Poland). (1480). | |||
| ** {{in lang|en}} ''The Annals of Jan Długosz'' (English translation of key sections of the work) {{ISBN|1-901019-00-4}} | |||
| * ''Chronica Poloniae Maioris'' or '']'' ("Chronicle of Greater Poland") ({{circa}} 1290). | |||
| ** {{in lang|ru}} Chapter 31 () | |||
| * ], '']'' (1208). | |||
| * ], ''Chronica Albrici Monachi Trium Fontium'' (1251). | |||
| ; Primary sources in Church Slavonic and Ruthenian | |||
| * '']'' ({{circa}} 1292). Preserved in the '']'' ({{circa}} 1425) and '']'' ({{circa}} 1560s). | |||
| ** (in Ruthenian) (according to the '']'') – Litopys.org.ua | |||
| ** (in Ruthenian) (according to the '']'') – Litopys.org.ua | |||
| ** {{in lang|uk}} (in modern Ukrainian by L. Makhnovtsya) – Litopys.org.ua | |||
| ** {{in lang|en}} {{cite book| first=George A. |last=Perfecky |title=The Hypatian Codex Part Two: The Galician–Volynian Chronicle. An annotated translation by George A. Perfecky |url=https://diasporiana.org.ua/wp-content/uploads/books/13503/file.pdf |location=Munich |publisher=Wilhelm Fink Verlag |year=1973 |oclc=902306}} | |||
| * (in Church Slavonic) '']'' of the ] (1377). | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Długosz |first=Jan |authorlink= |title=Annales seu cronicae incliti Regni Poloniae (Annals or Chronicles of the Famous Kingdom of Poland) |year=1480 |isbn=1-901019-00-4}} | |||
| === Literature === | |||
| * {{cite book| first=George A. |last=Perfecky |title=The Hypatian Codex Part Two: The Galician–Volynian Chronicle. An annotated translation by George A. Perfecky |url=https://diasporiana.org.ua/wp-content/uploads/books/13503/file.pdf |location=Munich |publisher=Wilhelm Fink Verlag |year=1973 |oclc=902306}} | |||
| === Secondary sources === | |||
| * {{Cite book |last=Foryt |first=Artur |title=Zawichost 1205 |date=2021 |publisher=Wydawnictwo Bellona |isbn=978-83-11-16068-2 |location=Warszawa |language=pl}} | * {{Cite book |last=Foryt |first=Artur |title=Zawichost 1205 |date=2021 |publisher=Wydawnictwo Bellona |isbn=978-83-11-16068-2 |location=Warszawa |language=pl}} | ||
| * {{Cite book |last=Samp |first=Mariusz |title=Bitwa pod Zawichostem (1205): krwawa łaźnia nad Wisłą |date=2024 |publisher= |isbn= |location= |language=pl |trans-title=The Battle of Zawichost (1205): a bloodbath on the Vistula River |url=https://www.przezwieki.pl/bitwa-pod-zawichostem-1205-krwawa-laznia-nad-wisla/}} | |||
| * {{in lang|uk}} Dovidnyk z istoriï Ukraïny, 3-Volumes, Article "" (T.3), Kyiv, 1993–1999, {{ISBN|5-7707-5190-8}} (t. 1), {{ISBN|5-7707-8552-7}} (t. 2), {{ISBN|966-504-237-8}} (t. 3). | |||
| * {{in lang|uk}} Ivan Kryp'yakevych, '''' (Kiev 1984). | |||
| * {{in lang|uk}} Roman Mstyslavych in ''Енциклопедія українознавства (Encyclopedia of Ukrainian studies)''. 3 volumes. (Kyiv 1994). {{ISBN|5-7702-0554-7}}. | |||
| ** {{in lang|en}} {{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CR%5CO%5CRomanMstyslavych.htm |title=Roman Mstyslavych |encyclopedia=] |date=2001 |publisher=Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies |language=en}} | |||
| {{coord|50.805980|21.858755|format=dms|display=title|type:event}} | {{coord|50.805980|21.858755|format=dms|display=title|type:event}} | ||
Latest revision as of 19:51, 9 January 2025
Battle in Poland in 1205| Battle of Zawichost | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| |||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||
|
Duchy of Sandomierz Duchy of Masovia | Principality of Galicia–Volhynia | ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
|
Krystyn (voivode) Leszek I the White Konrad I of Masovia | Roman the Great † | ||||||
| Strength | |||||||
| 2,000—2,500 | 5,000—7,500 | ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
| Light | Almost all killed | ||||||
| Feudal fragmentation of Poland (1138–1320) | |
|---|---|
The Battle of Zawichost also called Zawichost campaign fought on 19 June or 14 October 1205, was a key clash between the troops of Duke Roman the Great of Galician-Volhynian and the Polish forces led by Leszek the White, Duke of Sandomierz, and his brother Konrad I of Masovia. After Roman invaded Lesser Poland, his army was surprised and defeated by the Poles near Zawichost on the Vistula River. Roman was killed as a result of the battle, which led to the strengthening of Leszek's and Conrad's positions and triggered a war of succession in the Duchy of Galicia-Volhynia. The battle is considered one of the greatest victories of medieval Poland.
Prior to the battle, in the 11th century, there had been border disputes between the Polish principalities and the Ruthenian principalities, and the territories of Lesser Poland and Galician-Volhynian Rus had changed affiliation several times. The early Middle Ages were characterised by a sparse population of these areas, which were settled by both Rus peoples from the east and Poles from the west. In 1199, Leszek the White supported Roman the Great militarily, helping him to take the throne in Volodymyr. However, in 1205 Roman invaded Lesser Poland, leading to a confrontation with Polish forces. After the victory at Zawichost, Leszek the White's reputation grew considerably, enabling him to take power in Kraków. His brother, Conrad, having come of age, demanded a share in power, which led to the division of the country between them.
Background
The motives behind Roman Mstislavovich's campaign remain unclear to this day and are the subject of much debate among historians. Historical sources do not provide a clear cause, which has led to many different hypotheses based on the analysis of available chronicles and political events from the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries.
Hypotheses
Seal of Leszek Biały (Leszek I, "the White"), Front side.
Seal of Roman II the Great
One of the more popular interpretations is the so-called Saxon hypothesis, based on the Chronicle of the Cistercian monk Alberic of Trois-Fontaines. According to this source, Roman's campaign was linked to internal power struggles in Germany. It is assumed that the expedition may have been part of a wider political game in which Roman was involved by rival parties in the Empire. Although this hypothesis is supported by some Eastern European sources, there is no direct evidence of Roman's active involvement in German conflicts. A second interpretation is the so-called Greater Poland hypothesis, which indicates that Roman's actions were the result of internal conflicts between the Polish Piasts. Particular attention is paid to the tensions between Władysław Laskonogi and Leszek the White, which may have prompted Roman to intervene. The Galician–Volhynian Chronicle (c. 1290) indicates that Leszek the White was in conflict with Władysław Laskonogi, and that Roman was supposed to act in favour of one of these rulers. This interpretation has gained popularity in Polish historiography, but later analyses point to its doubts. Historian Artur Foryt suggests that although Roman may have acted in the context of Polish conflicts, it is likely that his actions were motivated by personal goals rather.
According to Ruthenian Hypothesis, the cause of the conflict may have been Roman Mstislavovich's refusal to recognise the supremacy of Leszek the White. This attitude may have provoked the Prince of Galicia-Volhynia to start hostilities. It is possible that earlier Leszek concluded an agreement with Roman, under which Roman pledged certain obligations to the Polish ruler. These obligations may have formed the basis of Leszek's claims against Roman. The Wielkopolska Chronicle, on the other hand, indicates that the main point of contention was Roman's refusal to pay tribute to Leszek. The conflict over tribute was crucial in escalating tensions between the two sides and may have been the direct cause of the outbreak of war.
Hypothesis according to Jan Długosz
According to Jan Długosz, there are several reasons attributed to Roman Mstislavovich's actions. Among them are the enormous wealth gained in Rus at a time when almost the entire country was under his control, the dispersion and dissolution of his forces - both cavalry and infantry - among the numerous Polish principalities, and conflicts between Polish magnates. Another factor was the young age and inexperience of Leszek the White and Konrad I of Masovia, which may have weakened their ability to manage the situation effectively. Roman's actions may also have been motivated by the failure of negotiations with Leszek and Konrad. According to accounts, the Prince of Galicia-Volhynia demanded the handover of the land of Lublin and compensation for the losses suffered during the Battle of the Mozgawa. However, the response of the Polish rulers was decidedly negative - they refused to meet these demands, arguing that Roman, by leaving the battlefield, forfeited his right to any claims.
Długosz further explains that before crossing the Polish frontier, Roman sent emissaries to the Bishop of Volodimer' and asked for his blessing, as he intended to campaign in Poland for three years. The Bishop declined Roman's gifts and denied him any blessing, explaining that "he cannot bless Roman or his enterprise, since he has previously started unjust and wicked wars and is again embarking on one that is quite unjustified, considering that the Poles have so often exposed their bodies to danger and death to defend the Ruthenians against the barbarians." Roman responded by telling the bishop that he will cut his head off when he returns from his victory.
Strengths of the parties
Ruthenian forces
To this day, it is not precisely established how numerous a force Roman the Great amassed during his expedition against the Poles. However, in the light of the available historical sources and analyses, several conclusions can be drawn on this subject. The nature of the expedition, which aimed to intervene militarily in Polish lands, indicates that Roman led a relatively large army, capable of carrying out an offensive deep into the enemy's territory. The Rocznik Krakowski, one of the key sources describing the events of the period, states that the size of the Ruthenian army was around 13,000 men. This figure was for some time accepted by historians as reliable. On the basis of this figure, attempts were made to estimate the mobilisation capacity of the Galician-Volyhnian principality during Roman rule. Modern historical research, however, casts doubt on this figure. Historian Arthur Foryt and Mariusz Samp points out that these figures may be exaggerated and suggests that the size of Roman's army was between 5,000 and 7,500 men. According to Foryt, the size of this force was more in line with the logistical capacity of the principality and the nature of the conflict.
An equally important factor to take into account is the power of the Duchy of Galician-Volhynian in the time of Roman Mstislavovich. This principality was one of the richest and best developed politically and militarily regions of Rus. Roman, as the ruler of this territory, had the resources to maintain a large and well-equipped army, which gave him a significant advantage in clashes with neighbouring states. However, the exact date of the completion of the mobilisation of the army before the expedition against the Poles is not known. The process may have depended on a number of factors, such as the political situation in the region, the availability of resources, and the time it took to gather troops from different parts of the principality. Discussions on the size of Roman forces and the date of mobilisation remain open in historiography. Differences in estimates are due to the lack of clear evidence in the sources and discrepancies in their interpretation by researchers.
Polish forces
Meanwhile, the Polish forces were much less numerous compared to the army of Roman the Great. The mobilisation capacity of the Duchy of Mazovia and the Duchy of Sandomierz was limited due to the small human and economic resources of both regions. It is estimated that the army organised by Leszek the White and Konrad I of Masovia numbered between 2,000 and 2,500 soldiers. Command of the Polish forces was entrusted to the Mazovian Voivode Krystyn, who played a key role in organising the defence and in directing the troops in the decisive battle. Despite the crushing numerical superiority of the Ruthenian army, the outcome of the campaign was not determined solely by the strength of the army. Knowledge of the terrain, effective tactics and probable errors in command on the Roman side played a significant role in the Polish victory.
Before battle
The siege of Łuków and Lublin and the activities of Ruthenian army
The course of Roman Mstislavovich's campaign against the Polish lands remains unclear and difficult to fully reconstruct, mainly due to contradictions in historical sources. Jan Długosz gives a detailed description of the actions in his chronicles, but much important information has been omitted or is not confirmed in other accounts. According to Długosz, Roman held negotiations with two Polish bishops, indicating attempts to resolve the conflict diplomatically, but these talks were unsuccessful. The chronicler also mentions the siege of Lublin by the Ruthenians, but the city was ultimately not captured. Długosz's concise description of the siege remains unconfirmed in other sources. The reasons for the campaign are also controversial. There are two main hypotheses. The first assumes that Roman's actions were a response to provocation by the Poles. The second suggests that Roman acted on his own initiative, driven by an ambition to subjugate Polish lands, in particular the Duchy of Sandomierz.
Historian Artur Foryt provides a detailed breakdown of Roman's campaign into several key stages. The first of these was the strike against the Polish lands, concentrated towards Drohiczyn. This was followed by clashes with a small Polish force of only a few hundred warriors, fielded by Leszek the White and Konrad I of Masovia. The next stage was the siege of several Polish strongholds - according to Foryt, most probably Łuków and Lublin, both of which were to be captured by the Ruthenians. The Polish troops were forced to retreat beyond the Vistula, and the Ruthenian army followed their lead, reaching the Zawichost area in the second half of June.
Prelude
However, the exact location of Roman's crossing of the Vistula is not known. Some sources suggest that it may have taken place south of Zawichost, which raises discrepancies in determining the location of the key battle. The initial phase of the campaign brought success to the army of the Ruthenian prince. Roman managed to capture several strongholds and forced the Polish forces to withdraw. On 18 June, the Ruthenian army established a camp, which marked an important point in the further course of the campaign. Despite the initial successes, the final fate of the expedition depended on further developments, which required Roman to face logistical difficulties and possible resistance from the Poles.
Battle
Phase I: Vistula crossing and preparations
On 19 June 1205, Roman Mstislavovich began the crossing of his troops across the Vistula. The exact number of soldiers involved in the crossing remains unknown, but it took place without resistance from the Polish forces. Roman, relying on information provided by his agents, believed that the Polish troops were far from the crossing point. This overconfidence in intelligence proved to be a strategic error. The decision to cross at this point, according to historian Artur Foryt, was due to the difficult terrain conditions in other areas. At the same time, a combined Masovian-Sandomierian force led by Conrad I of Masovia and Leszek the White reached Zawichost. According to Jan Długosz, the Polish forces were to be commanded by the Mazovian Voivode Krystyn. By this time Roman was constantly underestimating the Polish forces.
Phase II: Sudden attack by Polish forces
After the Ruthenian army had crossed the Vistula, the Polish command decided on a night march of the Mazovian-Sandomierian forces towards Zawichost. The aim was to prevent the enemy from forcing the river further and to surprise them when they crossed. There is a possibility that the Polish scouts recognised Prince Roman by his distinctive armour and princely markings, which may have influenced the decision to attack quickly. The Polish troops carefully prepared their positions - the archers occupied the dominant hill from where they could fire, and the cavalry hid behind a bend in the Vistula, waiting for the moment to charge. The plan was to break through the Halician (Ruthenian) forces crowded in the trough near Zawichost using surprise, momentum and archer support.
At the agreed signal, the Polish knights moved in a compact column, accelerating as they approached the enemy's position. The unexpected attack hit Roman's troops with full force, who, surprised and crowded, were unable to organise an effective defence. As a result of the charge by the Polish forces, the Ruthenians suffered heavy losses and their array was completely broken.
Phase III: Defeat of the Ruthenian army and death of Roman
— Jan DługoszPrince Roman with a powerful army of the whole of Rus' reaches Zawichost, where he is completely crushed by the princes Leszek and Konrad and dies, and the Poles gain a great victory. The death of Duke Roman and the slaughter of his army so depressed and humiliated the Ruthenian lords and people that they no longer dared to invade Polish lands
Roman, realising that his troops had fallen into a trap, tried to quickly organise a defence. However, the congestion of troops and lack of manoeuvring space prevented an effective response. The Ruthenians, pinned down by the river, tried to retreat to the right bank of the Vistula, which ended in disaster. During the retreat, the Polish forces began a pursuit during which the number of dead was enormous. Many Polish chronicles emphasise the scale of losses suffered by the Ruthenian army, which almost completely ceased to exist. According Długosz many of the Rus' drowned and many more died at the hands of the local population, as Polish troops chased them all the way to Volodimer'. Few survived the massacre and at the order of Leszek and Konrad, Roman's body was buried in Sandomierz. The two factions came to an agreement and the Ruthenians released all their prisoners and paid 1,000 silver marks to recover the body of Roman, which was then buried in Volodimer. Długosz also told of an incredible massacre he supposedly stated that the Vistula River near Zawichost had the colour of blood for a moment.
However, the exact circumstances of Roman Mstislavovich's death remain unknown. According to the Suzdalian Chronicle, Roman was killed in battle, which is also supported by contemporary historians such as Artur Foryt and Perfecky. The Galician-Volyn Chronicle, on the other hand, does not specify how his death occurred, limiting itself to only mentioning the prince's demise. Roman's death determined the defeat of the Ruthenian army and ended the Battle of Zawichost, leaving a lasting mark on the politics of the region.
Aftermath
After his triumph, Leszek's reputation took a positive turn, earning him credibility and the trust of Kraków, The Annals of Jan Długosz which would give him temporary power over the city. Konrad, coming of age, asked for his share of power and at the meditation of their mother and a selected group of aristocrats, the two brothers divide the country under their authority. turned unstable from its internal conflicts and the country is invaded by Lithuanians, this being the first time the Poles hear of that name. The Ruthenians suffered great casualties, but managed to defeat the invaders. In 1208, the country fell into civil war.
See also
Notes
- According to Polish historian Artur Foryt, who wrote a work on the battle, the 13,000-strong Ruthenian army is incorrect, claiming that this is due to a misreading of the local chronicle by most Polish historians. He believes that the Ruthenian forces could have numbered between 5,000 and 7,500 men. (see Ruthenian forces)
- The crossing detachment was decimated, it was not the whole army, but in the pursuit of the remaining army many were killed. Also not many survived this Carnage
- Poland fought many wars with Kievan Rus', among others over the Cherven cities (see List of wars between Piast Poland and Kievan Rus' and List of wars and battles involving Galicia–Volhynia)
- See Reign of Roman the Great (1199–1205)
- Original text: "Тогож̑ лѣт̑ . ходиша кнѧзи Рѧзаньскъıӕ В на Половци и взѧша вежѣ ихъ ❙ Тогож̑ . лѣт̑ . Иде Романъ Галичьскъıи на Лѧхъı и взѧ . в҃ . города Лѧдьскаӕ . и ставшю же ѥму над Вислою рѣкою . и ѿѣха сам̑ в малѣ дружинѣ ѿ полку своѥго . Лѧхове же наѣхавше оубиша и . и дружину ѡколо ѥго избиша . приѣхавше же Галичане взѧша кнѧзѧ своѥго мр҃тва . и несоша и в Галичь . и положиша и въ цр҃кви ст҃ъıӕ Бц҃а".)
References
- The Annals of Jan Długosz p. 153
- Perfecky 1973, p. 128.
- ^ Perfecky 1973, pp. 127–128.
- Foryt 2021, p. 121.
- ^ Długosz 1480, p. 154.
- ^ Długosz 1480, p. 153.
- Foryt 2021.
- Foryt 2021, p. 108—110.
- Perfecky 1973, pp. 127–128, 130.
- Foryt 2021, p. 110.
- (in Russian) Valentin Yanin; L. M. Popova, N. I. Shchaveleva, "Velikaia khronika" o Polshe, Rusi i i Moscow University, OCLC 22324865
- Foryt 2021, p. 111.
- Foryt 2021, p. 111, 112.
- Foryt 2021, p. 112—114.
- Foryt 2021, p. 114—117.
- Foryt 2021, p. 117—120.
- ^ Foryt 2021, p. 119.
- ^ Mariusz Samp (2024) Starcie odwiecznych wrogów. Kulisy największego starcia między Polską a Rusią (In Polish)
- ^ Foryt 2021, p. 118.
- Foryt 2021, p. 120.
- ^ Foryt 2021, p. 120—122.
- Foryt 2021, p. 122.
- Foryt 2021, p. 122—124.
- Foryt 2021, p. 127.
- Foryt 2021, p. 128.
- Foryt 2021, p. 128—133.
- Foryt 2021, p. 133.
- ^ Foryt 2021, p. 134.
- Foryt 2021, p. 134, 137.
- Foryt 2021, p. 135—138.
- ^ Samp 2024.
- ^ Foryt 2021, p. 138.
- Foryt 2021, p. 139.
- Foryt 2021, p. 138—139.
- Foryt 2021, p. 140.
- *Suzdal Chronicle Laurentian Codex
- Perfecky 1973, pp. 17–19.
- ^ Długosz 1480, p. 155.
- Długosz 1480, p. 156.
Bibliography
Primary sources
- Długosz, Jan (1480). Annales seu cronicae incliti Regni Poloniae (Annals or Chronicles of the Famous Kingdom of Poland). ISBN 1-901019-00-4.
- Perfecky, George A. (1973). The Hypatian Codex Part Two: The Galician–Volynian Chronicle. An annotated translation by George A. Perfecky (PDF). Munich: Wilhelm Fink Verlag. OCLC 902306.
Secondary sources
- Foryt, Artur (2021). Zawichost 1205 (in Polish). Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Bellona. ISBN 978-83-11-16068-2.
- Samp, Mariusz (2024). Bitwa pod Zawichostem (1205): krwawa łaźnia nad Wisłą [The Battle of Zawichost (1205): a bloodbath on the Vistula River] (in Polish).
50°48′22″N 21°51′32″E / 50.805980°N 21.858755°E / 50.805980; 21.858755