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{{Short description|West African sculpturing}}
] bronze head sculpture, Ife, Nigeria c. 12th century A.D.]]
]; {{Circa|1300 CE}}; copper; height: 29.2 cm; discovered at ]; ] (], Nigeria)]]


The ] of South Western Africa (] Republic, ] and ], also including parts of ], ] and ]) are responsible for one of the oldest and finest artistic traditions in Africa, a tradition that remains vital and influential today.<ref name=Drewal>{{cite book|last=Drewal|first=Henry John|title=Yoruba : nine centuries of African art and thought|year=1989|publisher=Center for African Art in Association with H.N. Abrams|location=New York|isbn=0-8109-1794-7|edition=2nd print.|coauthors=Wardwell, John Pemberton, 3rd with Rowland Abiodun ; edited by Allen}}</ref> The ] of ] (], ] and ]) are responsible for a distinct ], a tradition that remains vital and influential today.<ref name=Drewal>{{cite book |last1=Drewal |first1=Henry John |last2=Pemberton III |first2=John |last3=Abiodun |first3=Rowland |editor-last=Wardwell |editor-first=Allen |title=Yoruba : nine centuries of African art and thought|year=1989|publisher=Center for African Art in Association with H.N. Abrams|location=New York|isbn=0-8109-1794-7}}</ref>


{{Yoruba people}}
Much of the art of the Yoruba, including staffs, court dress, and beadwork for crowns, is associated with the royal courts. The courts also commissioned numerous architectural objects such as veranda posts, gates, and doors that are embellished with carvings. Other Yoruba art is related shrines and masking traditions. The Yoruba worship a large pantheon of deities, and shrines dedicated to these gods are adorned with carvings and house and array of altar figures and other ritual paraphernalia. Masking traditions vary regionally, and a wide range of mask types are employed in various festivals and celebrations. <ref name="Brooklyn Museum">{{cite book|last=Adande;|first=William C. Siegmann; with an essay by Joseph|title=African art a century at the Brooklyn Museum|year=2009|publisher=Brooklyn Museum |location=Brooklyn, NY|isbn=978-0-87273-163-9|page=106|coauthors=Dumouchelle, contributions by Kevin D.}}</ref>


Much of the art of the Yoruba, including staffs, court dress, and beadwork for crowns, is associated with the royal courts. The courts also commissioned numerous architectural objects such as veranda posts, gates, and doors that are embellished with carvings. Other '''Yoruba art''' is related shrines and masking traditions. The Yoruba worship a large pantheon of deities, and shrines dedicated to these gods are adorned with carvings and house an array of altar figures and other ritual paraphernalia. Masking traditions vary regionally, and a wide range of mask types are employed in various festivals and celebrations.<ref name="Brooklyn Museum">{{cite book|last1=Adande |first1=Joseph |last2=Siegmann |first2=William C. |last3=Dumouchelle |first3=Kevin D. |title=African art a century at the Brooklyn Museum|year=2009|publisher=Brooklyn Museum |location=Brooklyn, NY|isbn=978-0-87273-163-9|page=106}}</ref>
==Brief History of Yoruba Art==
Abundant natural resources enabled the Yoruba to develop one of the most complex cultures in sub-Saharan Africa. By the beginning of the second millennium CE, ], their most sacred city, had become a major urban center with highly sophisticated religious, social, and political institutions. <ref name=Clarke>{{cite book|last=Clarke|first=essay by Babatunde Lawal ; exhibition co-curated by Carol Thompson, Christa|title=Embodying the sacred in Yoruba art : featuring the Bernard and Patricia Wagner Collection|year=2007|publisher=High Museum of Art|location=Atlanta, Ga.|isbn=1-932543-20-1}}</ref>


==History==
By AD 1100 the artists at ] had developed a refined and naturalistic ] tradition in ] and ] that was soon followed by works in ], ], and ]. The dynasty of kings at ], which regarded the Yoruba as the place of origin of human civilization, remains intact to this day.
In the period around 800CE the artists at ] developed a refined and naturalistic ] tradition in ], ] and copper alloy—], ], and ]— many of which appear to have been created under the patronage of King ], the man who today is identified as the Yoruba patron deity of brass casting, weaving and regalia.<ref name="Blier Art and Risk">{{cite book|last=Blier|first=Suzanne Preston|title=Art and Risk in Ancient Yoruba: Ife History, Politics, and Identity c. 1300|date=2015| publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1107021662}}</ref> Over the previous nine centuries, a number of Yoruba kingdoms have arisen. One of the first of them was ]; ] was also among the first, and the ] in the southwest kept close relations to Oyo. ] began to have an aesthetic and cultural effect on Ife about the fourteenth century or before. Fine ivory carvings were provided by Owa artists to the Benin court, and Owa rulers modified and changed many Benin institutions and leadership insignia.


There have been a series of Yoruba kingdoms over the past nine centuries. The ] was one of the earliest of these; the Owa kingdom in the southwest maintained close ties to Ife and also experienced the artistic and cultural influence of ] between the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries. Owa artists supplied fine ivory work to the court at Benin and Owa royalty adapted and transformed many Benin institutions and the regalia of leadership. There have been a series of Yoruba kingdoms over the past nine centuries. Ife was one of the earliest of these; ] was also early and the Owa kingdom in the southwest maintained close ties to Oyo. Ife also experienced the artistic and cultural influence of ] dating back to the 14th century or earlier. Owa artists supplied fine ivory work to the court at Benin and Owa royalty adapted and transformed many Benin institutions and the regalia of leadership.<ref>{{cite web |title=Origins and Empire: The Benin, Owo, and Ijebu Kingdoms |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/beni_2/hd_beni_2.htm |access-date=8 July 2022 |website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art (Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History)}}</ref>


Yoruba kingdoms prospered until the ] and warfare of the nineteenth century took their toll. One of the effects of this devastation was the dispersal of millions of Yoruba all over the world. This resulted in a strong Yoruba character in the artistic, religious and social lives of Africans in the New World.<ref name=Drewal /> Yoruba kingdoms prospered until the ] and warfare of the nineteenth century took their toll. One of the effects of this devastation was the dispersal of millions of Yoruba all over the world. This resulted in a strong Yoruba character in the artistic, religious and social lives of Africans in the New World.<ref name=Drewal />


=== Timeline ===
==Art and Life in Yoruba culture==
Henry Drewal, John Pemberton and Rowland Abiodun propose the following stages in the development of art in Ife:
The custom of art and artists among the Yoruba is deeply rooted in the ] literary corpus, indicating the ]s Ogun, Obatala, Oshun and Obalufon as central to creation mythology including artistry (i.e. the art of humanity).


* Archaic Era, before 800 CE
In order to fully understand the centrality of art (onà) in Yoruba thought, one must be aware of their cosmology, which traces the origin of existence (ìwà) to a Supreme Divinity called ], the generator of ], the enabling power that sustains and transforms the universe. To the Yoruba, art began when Olódùmarè commissioned the artist deity ] to mold the first human image from clay. Today, it is customary for the Yoruba to wish pregnant women good luck with the greeting: ''May Obatala fashion for us a good work of art''.<ref name=Clarke />
* Pre-Pavement Era, 800–1000
* Early Pavement Era, 1000–1200
* Late Pavement Era, 1200–1400
* Post-Pavement Era, 1400–{{Circa|1600}}
* Stylized Humanism Era, {{Circa|1600}}–the Present.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Drewal |first1=Henry |title=Yoruba: Nine Centuries of African Art and Thought |last2=Pemberton |first2=John |last3=Abiodun |first3=Rowland |publisher=Center for African Art in association with Harry Abrams Publishers |year=1990 |location=New York |pages=46}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Akintoye |first=S. Adebanji |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iZcQEAAAQBAJ |title=A History of the Yoruba People |publisher=Amalion Publishing |year=2014 |location=Dakar |pages=64–65|isbn=9782359260274 }}</ref>


==Art and life in Yoruba culture==
The concept of '']'' influences how many of the Yoruba arts are composed. In the visual arts, a design may be segmented or seriate- a "discontinuous aggregate in which the units of the whole are discrete and share equal value with the other units."<ref name="Drewal 1987">{{cite journal|last=Drewal|first=M. T., and H. J. Drewal|title=Composing Time and Space in Yoruba Art|journal=Word and Image: A Journal of Verbal/Visual Enquiry|year=1987|volume=3|issue=3|pages=225-251}}</ref> Such elements can be seen in Ifa trays and bowls, veranda posts, carved doors, and ancestral masks.
The custom of art and artists among the Yoruba is deeply rooted in the ] literary corpus, indicating the ]s Ogun, Obatala, Oshun and Obalufon as central to creation mythology including artistry (i.e. the art of humanity).{{Citation needed|date=June 2022}}


In order to fully understand the centrality of art (onà) in Yoruba thought, one must be aware of their cosmology, which traces the origin of existence (ìwà) to a Supreme Divinity called ], the generator of ], the enabling power that sustains and transforms the universe. To the Yoruba, art began when Olódùmarè commissioned the artist deity ] to mold the first human image from clay. Today, it is customary for the Yoruba to wish pregnant women good luck with the greeting: ''May Obatala fashion for us a good work of art''.<ref name=Clarke>{{cite book|last=Clarke|first=essay by ] ; exhibition co-curated by Carol Thompson, Christa|title=Embodying the sacred in Yoruba art : featuring the Bernard and Patricia Wagner Collection|year=2007|publisher=High Museum of Art|location=Atlanta, Ga.|isbn=978-1-932543-20-9|url=https://www.kean.edu/media/embodying-scared-exhibitions}}</ref>
==The importance of the head in Yoruba sculpture==
The Yoruba people regard the human head (ori) as the most important part of a person. Likewise, the head is the most prominent part of Yoruba sculpture. An analysis of Yoruba ontology reveals that the Yoruba regard the head as the locus of the ] of ]. Therefore, the head constitutes a person's life-source and controlling personality and destiny. Babatunde Lawal identifies three different modes of representing the head in Yoruba sculpture: "the naturalistic, which refers to the external, or physical head (ori ode); the stylized, which hints at the inner, or spiritual, head (ori inu); and the abstract, which symbolizes the primeval material (oke ipori) of which the inner head was made."<ref name="Lawal Ori">{{cite journal|last=Lawal|first=Babatunde|title=Ori: The Significance of the Head in Yoruba Sculpture|journal=Journal of Anthropological Research|year=1985|month=Spring|volume=41|issue=1|pages=91-103|accessdate=27 March 2013}}</ref>


The concept of '']'' influences how many of the Yoruba arts are composed. In the visual arts, a design may be segmented or seriate—a "discontinuous aggregate in which the units of the whole are discrete and share equal value with the other units."<ref name="Drewal 1987">{{cite journal|last=Drewal|first=M. T., and H. J. Drewal|title=Composing Time and Space in Yoruba Art|journal=Word and Image: A Journal of Verbal/Visual Enquiry|year=1987|volume=3|issue=3|pages=225–251|doi=10.1080/02666286.1987.10435383}}</ref> Such elements can be seen in Ifa trays and bowls, veranda posts, carved doors, and ancestral masks.
==Anonymity and Authorship in African Art==
The issue of anonymity and authorship has long troubled the field of African art history, particularly as it relates to the political disparities between Africa and the West<ref name=Picton>{{cite book|last=Picton|first=John|title=The Yoruba artist : new theoretical perspectives on African arts ; |year=1994|publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press|location=Washington |isbn=1560983396|authorlink=Art, Identity and Identification: A Commentary on Yoruba Art Historical Studies|editor=Rowland Abiọdun, Henry J. Drewal, and John Pemberton III}}</ref>. Such information was, at least initially, rarely sought in the field and deemed unnecessary and even undesirable by many collectors. <ref name="Brooklyn Museum" /> Susan Vogel has identified a further paradox. "n their own societies," Vogel writes, "African artists are known and even famous, but their names are rarely preserved in connection with specific works... More often than not, the African sculptor becomes virtually irrelevant to the life of the art object once his work is complete... Cultures preserve the information they value."<ref name=Vogel>{{cite journal|last=Vogel|first=Susan Mullin|title=Known Artists by Anonymous Works|journal=African Arts|year=1999|month=Spring|volume=32|issue=No. 1|page=40, 42, 50}}</ref>


<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="5">
The problem of anonymity in Yoruba art in particular is troubling in the context of Yoruba culture where "it is absolutely imperative for individuals to acknowledge each other's identity and presence from moment to moment, there is a special greeting for every occasion and each time of day."<ref name=Abiọdun>{{cite book|last=Abiọdun|first=Rowland|title=The Yoruba artist : new theoretical perspectives on African arts ; |year=1994|publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press|location=Washington|isbn=1560983396|authorlink=An African(?) Art History: Promising Theoretical Approaches in Yoruba Art Studies|editor=Rowland Abiọdun, Henry J. Drewal and John Pemberton III}}</ref>
File:Ife sculpture Inv.A96-1-4.jpg|] head, ], probably 12–14th centuries; height: 15.5&nbsp;cm (6 in.)
File:Afrikaabteilung in Ethnological Museum Berlin 02.JPG|Bust of a king or dignitary; 12th-15th century AD; terracotta; ] (Germany); discovered at ] (Nigeria)
File:Brooklyn Museum L54.5 Fragment of a Head (3).jpg|Brooklyn Museum, Fragment of an Ife Head
File:Vessel MET DT6613.jpg|Ceremonial Ivory vessel
File:Flickr - Nic's events - London - 14-15 Dec 2007 - 258.jpg|Decorated Panel Door
File:Female figure from Oke Onigbin, Shango Shrine.jpg|Female figure from ], ] shrine.
File:Africa Ife Head 2 Kimbell.jpg|Head, probably of a king; 12th-14th century; terracotta; 26.7 × 14.5 × 18.7&nbsp;cm (10.5 × 5.7 × 7.3 in.); ] (], ], USA)
File:Yoruba peoples armlet (16th century).jpg|Yoruba peoples armlet (16th century)
</gallery>

==The importance of the Orí in Yoruba art and culture==
]
]
The Orí-Inú, or the inner spiritual head, is very important to the Yoruba people. One's Orí-Inú is very important in terms of existing in the world. The priority goes to the Orí for any household. Thus, shrines are built in the houses. An Orí is visually represented through symbolic items within sacrifice or rituals, or more common in houses, would be terra cotta head figures. The Orí can usually determine the outcome of life for each person. Before being put into earth, each person must select their own Orí. Ajala may sometimes produce bad Orí, which this may affect the lives of those people. Sacrifices and rites happen as well in order to satisfy Orí-Isese, which is the supreme ruler over all Orí. The primary functions for sacrifices are to ward off evil and bring in good fortune and happiness.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Abiodun|first=Rowland|title=Yoruba Art and Language: Seeking the Art in African Art|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|location=New York, NY}}</ref>

==Anonymity and authorship in African art==
The issue of anonymity and authorship has long troubled the field of African art history, particularly as it relates to the political disparities between Africa and the West.<ref name=Picton>{{cite book|last=Picton|first=John|title=The Yoruba artist : new theoretical perspectives on African arts ; |year=1994|publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press|location=Washington |isbn=1560983396|author-link=Art, Identity and Identification: A Commentary on Yoruba Art Historical Studies|editor=Rowland Abiọdun|editor2=Henry J. Drewal|editor3=John Pemberton III|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/yorubaartistnewt0000unse}}</ref> Such information was, at least initially, rarely sought in the field and deemed unnecessary and even undesirable by many collectors.<ref name="Brooklyn Museum" /> ] has identified a further paradox. "n their own societies," she writes, "African artists are known and even famous, but their names are rarely preserved in connection with specific works. ... More often than not, the African sculptor becomes virtually irrelevant to the life of the art object once his work is complete. ... Cultures preserve the information they value."<ref name=Vogel>{{cite journal|last=Vogel|first=Susan Mullin|title=Known Artists by Anonymous Works|journal=African Arts|date=Spring 1999|volume=32|issue= 1|pages=40, 42, 50|doi=10.2307/3337537|jstor=3337537 }}</ref>

The problem of anonymity in Yoruba art in particular is troubling in the context of Yoruba culture where "it is absolutely imperative for individuals to acknowledge each other's identity and presence from moment to moment, there is a special greeting for every occasion and each time of day."<ref name="Abiọdun">{{cite book|last=Abiọdun|first=Rowland|title=The Yoruba artist : new theoretical perspectives on African arts ; |year=1994|publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press|location=Washington|isbn=1560983396|author-link=An African(?) Art History: Promising Theoretical Approaches in Yoruba Art Studies|editor=Rowland Abiọdun|editor2=Henry J. Drewal|editor3=John Pemberton III|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/yorubaartistnewt0000unse}}</ref>


While it is often difficult to attribute works of Yoruba art to specific artists, several Yoruba artists' names are known, including but not limited to: Several Yoruba artists' names are known, including:


*Bangboshe of Osi Ilorin *Bangboshe of Osi Ilorin
*Areogun of Osi *Bandele Areogun of Osi
*Bandele of Osi *Master of Ikare
*Lamidi Fakeye *]
*] *]


==Metal arts== ==Metal arts==
Yoruban blacksmiths create sculpture from iron, through hand-beating, welding, and casting. ] is honored as the god of iron.<ref name=smith> ''Cutting to the Essence – Shaping for the Fire.'' 29 March 1995 (retrieved 15 Nov 2011)</ref> Yoruba blacksmiths create sculpture from iron, through hand-beating, welding, and casting. ] is honored as the god of iron.<ref name=smith> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111110093453/http://www.fa.indiana.edu/~conner/yoruba/blacksmith.html |date=November 10, 2011 }} ''Cutting to the Essence – Shaping for the Fire.'' 29 March 1995 (retrieved 15 Nov 2011)</ref>


Metalworkers also create brass sculptures by ]. Brass is seen as being incorruptible by the ] Society.<ref name=smith/> Metalworkers also create brass sculptures by ]. Brass is seen as being incorruptible by the ] society.<ref name=smith/>


<gallery widths="150px" heights="200px" perrow="5">
File:IMG-20180922-WA0007 cropped.jpg|]; 12th-15th century; ]; ] (London)
File:Nigeria, yoruba, accette cerimoniali, da owo, xix-xx secolo.jpg|Ceremonial axes; 18th century; from ] (], Nigeria); ] (], ], USA)
File:Altar Ring MET vs1976 239.jpg|Ife altar ring,16th century, Brass or Copper alloy
Male onile figure, Yoruba people, Nigeria, Honolulu Museum of Art.JPG|Male figure (Onile); late 19th-early 20th century; cast bronze; ] (Hawaii, USA)
Pair of staffs, male and female couple, Yoruba people, Honolulu Museum of Art, 5969.1.JPG|Pair of staffs (Edan Ogboni), male and female couple; 19th century; cast bronze and iron; Honolulu Museum of Art
File:Nigeria, yoruba, ventaglio cultuale del dio osun, XX sec.JPG|Brass fan (Abebe), one of the ritual objects associated with the Yoruba goddess, Osun
File:Bracelet MET DT6614.jpg|Ijebu brass bracelet depicting a ram head, 18th century
File:Arm band or vessel stand, Ijebu, Yoruba, 19th century AD, brass - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC02384.JPG|Brass arm band or vessel stand, Ijebu, Yoruba, 19th century
File:Beaded Ceremonial Sword and Sheath, Nigeria, Yoruba people, 20th century, beads, metal, fabric, coins, brass, cowery shells, leather - Chazen Museum of Art - DSC01812.JPG|Beaded sword and Sheath, Nigeria, Yoruba people; beads, metal, fabric, coins, brass, cowry shells, leather - ]
File:Brooklyn Museum 76.131.2 Staff Shango.jpg|] ceremonial staff, 19th century, ]
</gallery>


==Ivory and Wood==
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
<gallery widths="150px" heights="200px" perrow="6">
File:Ife sculpture Inv.A96-1-4.jpg|] head, ], probably 12–14th centuries
File:Arm band, Owo, Yoruba, 18th century AD, ivory - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC02382.JPG|Arm band, Owo, Yoruba, 18th century AD, ivory - Ethnological Museum, Berlin
File:Ife Kings Head.jpg|Another head from ] from about the same time, currently in the ].
File:Brooklyn Museum 2011.4.1 Divination Tapper Iroke If.jpg|18th century ivory divination tapper (iroke ifa) from the ]. ]
File:Africa Ife Head 1 Kimbell.jpg
File:Afrikaabteilung in Ethnological Museum Berlin 29.JPG|Sculpure of a 'Queen Mother' from Benin. File:Vessel cover, Owo, Yoruba, 18th century AD, ivory - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC02378.JPG|Ivory vessel cover, ], Yoruba, (1700s)18th Century
]
File:Edo ivory mask 18472.jpg|16th century ivory mask from Benin
File:Armlets, Yoruba peoples, Owo region, Nigeria, 16th to 18th century, Ivory (2922782979).jpg|Ivory armlets, Yoruba peoples, Owo region of ], 16th century. This particular pair may have been part of the Olowo's ceremonial attire
File:Benin kingdom Louvre A97-4-1.jpg|One of the ], 16th-18th century, Nigeria.
File:Arm band, Owo, Yoruba, 18th century AD, ivory - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC02381.JPG|Ceremonial arm band from Owo 18th century AD, ivory - Ethnological Museum, Berlin
File:Ceremonial sword fragment, Yoruba peoples, Owo region, Nigeria, Late 19th century, Ivory (2922783179).jpg|Ceremonial ivory sword fragment, Udamaloore, Owo,19th century
</gallery>


==Terracotta==
<gallery widths="150px" heights="200px" perrow="6">
File:Cabeza Ifé.jpg|Ife terracotta head dating to the 14th century. Heads (Orí) are a very prominent aspect of early Ife artistic forms
File:Afrikaabteilung in Ethnological Museum Berlin 32.JPG|Memorial head with vertical facial striations typical of ife heads, Nigeria, 12th century AD, terracotta - Ethnological Museum, Berlin
File:Nigeria, ife, testa memoriale di un re o un notabile, terracotta, xii-xv secolo.jpg|Ife, memorial head of a king or notable with tribal marking/scarification above eyes, terracotta, 12th-15th century
</gallery> </gallery>


==Yoruba Masquerade== ==Yoruba Masquerade==
The tendency in many African cosmologies to identify the body as a vehicle incarnating the soul on earth has encouraged the metaphoric use of the masquerade for a similar purpose. ], ],and ] are among the many types of Masquerade practiced by the Yoruba. The tendency in many African cosmologies to identify the body as a vehicle incarnating the soul on earth has encouraged the metaphoric use of the masquerade for a similar purpose. ], ], and ] are among the many types of Masquerade practiced by the Yoruba.{{Citation needed|date=June 2022}}


<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
]
Benin, kifouli dossou, maschere gueledé, 01.JPG|Gelede mask; ] (], Brazil)
Nigeria, yoruba, maschera con sette uccelli, xix-xx secolo.jpg|Mask with 7 birds; 19th-20th century; ] (USA)
Nigeria, yoruba, maschera con sovrastruttura e due uccelli, xix-xx secolo ca.jpg|Mask with superstructure and two birds; 19th-20th century; Detroit Institute of Arts
Nigeria, yoruba, corpicapo della società geledè, 1900-15 ca.jpg|Headgear; circa 1900-1915; Detroit Institute of Arts
Nigeria, yoruba, maschera per il carnevale geledè, 1950 ca.jpg|Carnival mask; circa 1950; ] (USA)
Mask, Yoruba peoples, Benin (Dahomey), collected 1966, wood - Hood Museum of Art - DSC09176.JPG|Mask; wood; ] (USA)
Efe-gelede cap mask (apasa), Ketu-Ohori Yoruba people, Republic of Benin, early 20th century AD, wood, indigo, white pigments - Krannert Art Museum, UIUC - DSC06189.jpg|Efe-gelede mask; early 20th century AD; wood, indigo & white pigments; ] (], USA)
Cové2.jpg|The Gelede Masked Festival in Cové, in ]
</gallery>


==Yoruba Crowns== ==Yoruba Crowns==
{{main|Oba's crown}}
The bead-embroidered crown with beaded veil, foremost attribute of the Oba, symbolizes the aspirations of a civilization at the highest level of authority. In his seminal article on the topic, Robert F. Thompson writes, "The crown incarnates the intuition of royal ancestral force, the revelation of great moral insight in the person of the king, and the glitter of aesthetic experience."<ref name=Thompson>{{cite book|last=Thompson|first=Robert F.|title=African art & leadership|year=1972|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|location=Madison|isbn=0299058204|page=227-260|authorlink=The Sign of the Divine King: Yoruba Bead-Embroidered Crowns with Veil and Bird Decorations|editor=Douglas Fraser and Herbert M. Cole}}</ref>


The bead-embroidered crown (''ade'') with beaded veil, foremost attribute of the Oba, symbolizes the aspirations of a civilization at the highest level of authority. In his seminal article on the topic, Robert F. Thompson writes, "The crown incarnates the intuition of royal ancestral force, the revelation of great moral insight in the person of the king, and the glitter of aesthetic experience."<ref name=Thompson>{{cite book|last=Thompson|first=Robert F.|title=African art & leadership|year=1972|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|location=Madison|isbn=0299058204|pages=227–260|author-link=The Sign of the Divine King: Yoruba Bead-Embroidered Crowns with Veil and Bird Decorations|editor=Douglas Fraser |editor2=Herbert M. Cole}}</ref>
''For the full article on Yoruba Crowns see ]''


<gallery class="center" widths="200px" heights="200px">
]
Brooklyn Museum 70.109.2 Beaded Crown Ade of Onijagbo Obasoro Alowolodu Ogoga of Ikere 1890-1928.jpg|Beaded Crown (Ade) of Onijagbo Obasoro Alowolodu; late 19th or early 20th century; basketry frame covered by a stiffened cloth base which is embroidered with glass beads: white, blue, green, pink, red-orange, ochre, and violet; 57.8 x 21.6&nbsp;cm (diameter) (22{{fraction|3|4}} x 8{{1/2}} in.); ] (New York City)
File:Couronne funéraire ade-Musée du Quai Branly (1).jpg|Yoruba royal ceremonial crown. ''Ade Nla'' or ''Ade Isenbaye''. The beaded veil shields the Oba's own face and transforms him into a living embodiment of Odùduwà and the force of the collective ancestors. The birds signify that the Oba is a divine ruler. Half in the physical and half in the spiritual realms just as the birds can traverse both the terrestrial and the celestial. ]
File:Nigeria, yoruba, cappello reale, xx secolo 02.jpg|Beaded Oba's royal coronet (Akoro), Indianapolis Museum of Art. The Akoro was smaller than an Adé and was usually worn by lesser ranking kings under a regional Oba.
YorubaCrown2.jpg|Yoruba 19th century copper alloy (brass) crown from ] following the typical Yoruba stem on cone ancestral crown designs. These crowns are used in the veneration of the paternal ancestors of Iperu (Ijebu) kings. The four staring faces represent the all-seeing gods or ancestors. Their protruding eyes signify when the spiritual eye replaces ordinary vision. The two figures with mudfish legs refer to supernatural powers in two realms, land and water, or reality and spirit.
File:Man's royal headdress, 1. Yoruba people. Musée des Confluences.jpg|Royal headdress called ''Orikogbofo'' were lighter versions of ancestral crowns, which were often heavy and cumbersome. The orikogbofo fulfilled the function of keeping the Oba's head always covered, for it was taboo for an Oba to be seen bare headed. This style is now popular across southern Nigeria worn by various royals in the region. Remnant tassels of a beaded veil that should completely shield the Oba's face has been extensively reduced to a few convenient strings.
File:Nigeria, yoruba, grande corona adenle, xx secolo.jpg|Yoruba ancestral royal crown (Ade Nla)
Brooklyn Museum 70.109.1a-b Beaded Crown Ade of Onijagbo Obasoro Alowolodu Ogoga of Ikere 1890-1928.jpg|Beaded Crown (Ade) of Onijagbo Obasoro Alowolodu, The Ogoga of Ikere Ekiti; late 19th century; basketry frame, covered with beaded cloth; 95.9 x 24.1&nbsp;cm (37{{fraction|3|4}} x 9{{1/2}} in.); Brooklyn Museum
</gallery>


==Alarinjo== ==Alarinjo==
] inside ] holding the ] heirloom in 2017]]
There is also a vibrant form of customary ] known as ''Alarinjo'' that has its roots in the medieval period and that has given much to the contemporary ].
There is also a vibrant form of customary ] known as '']'' that has its roots in the medieval period and that has given much to the contemporary ].{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}


==Esiẹ Museum== ==Esiẹ Museum==
{{main|Esiẹ Museum}}

'''Esiẹ Museum''' is a ] in ], Irepodun, ] state. The museum was the first to be established in ] when it opened in 1945. The museum once housed over one thousand tombstone figures or images representing human beings. It is reputed to have the largest collection of soapstone images in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200905041139.html |title=Esie Museum|publisher=All Africa|accessdate=1 February 2013}}</ref> In modern times the Esie museum has been the center of religious activities and hosts a festival in the month of April every year. The ] in ], Irepodun (] state), was the first to be established in ] when it opened in 1945. The museum once housed over one thousand tombstone figures or images representing human beings. It is reputed to have the largest collection of soapstone images in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200905041139.html |title=Esie Museum|publisher=All Africa|access-date=1 February 2013}}</ref> Its works of art have also been said to bear resemblances to those of the ]. In modern times, the Esie museum has been the center of religious activities and hosts a festival in the month of April every year.
{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}


==References== ==References==
Line 76: Line 139:


==External links== ==External links==
*, Newark Museum *, Newark Museum
* *
*, Lakeview Museum of Arts and Sciences *, Lakeview Museum of Arts and Sciences
*, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Yoruba art
*
*{{cite web|url=http://www.ibejiarchive.com|title=Ibeji Archive}} the web-site containing the largest existing collection of photos of Ibeji.

{{Orisa-Ifá}}


{{Authority control}}


] ]
] ]
]
] ]

Latest revision as of 04:10, 10 January 2025

West African sculpturing
Mask for King Obalufon II; c. 1300 CE; copper; height: 29.2 cm; discovered at Ife; Ife Museum of Antiquities (Ife, Nigeria)

The Yoruba of West Africa (Benin, Nigeria and Togo) are responsible for a distinct artistic tradition in Africa, a tradition that remains vital and influential today.

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Much of the art of the Yoruba, including staffs, court dress, and beadwork for crowns, is associated with the royal courts. The courts also commissioned numerous architectural objects such as veranda posts, gates, and doors that are embellished with carvings. Other Yoruba art is related shrines and masking traditions. The Yoruba worship a large pantheon of deities, and shrines dedicated to these gods are adorned with carvings and house an array of altar figures and other ritual paraphernalia. Masking traditions vary regionally, and a wide range of mask types are employed in various festivals and celebrations.

History

In the period around 800CE the artists at Ife developed a refined and naturalistic sculptural tradition in terracotta, stone and copper alloy—copper, brass, and bronze— many of which appear to have been created under the patronage of King Obalufon II, the man who today is identified as the Yoruba patron deity of brass casting, weaving and regalia. Over the previous nine centuries, a number of Yoruba kingdoms have arisen. One of the first of them was Ife; Oyo was also among the first, and the Owa kingdom in the southwest kept close relations to Oyo. Benin began to have an aesthetic and cultural effect on Ife about the fourteenth century or before. Fine ivory carvings were provided by Owa artists to the Benin court, and Owa rulers modified and changed many Benin institutions and leadership insignia.

There have been a series of Yoruba kingdoms over the past nine centuries. Ife was one of the earliest of these; Oyo was also early and the Owa kingdom in the southwest maintained close ties to Oyo. Ife also experienced the artistic and cultural influence of Benin dating back to the 14th century or earlier. Owa artists supplied fine ivory work to the court at Benin and Owa royalty adapted and transformed many Benin institutions and the regalia of leadership.

Yoruba kingdoms prospered until the slave trade and warfare of the nineteenth century took their toll. One of the effects of this devastation was the dispersal of millions of Yoruba all over the world. This resulted in a strong Yoruba character in the artistic, religious and social lives of Africans in the New World.

Timeline

Henry Drewal, John Pemberton and Rowland Abiodun propose the following stages in the development of art in Ife:

  • Archaic Era, before 800 CE
  • Pre-Pavement Era, 800–1000
  • Early Pavement Era, 1000–1200
  • Late Pavement Era, 1200–1400
  • Post-Pavement Era, 1400–c. 1600
  • Stylized Humanism Era, c. 1600–the Present.

Art and life in Yoruba culture

The custom of art and artists among the Yoruba is deeply rooted in the Ifá literary corpus, indicating the orishas Ogun, Obatala, Oshun and Obalufon as central to creation mythology including artistry (i.e. the art of humanity).

In order to fully understand the centrality of art (onà) in Yoruba thought, one must be aware of their cosmology, which traces the origin of existence (ìwà) to a Supreme Divinity called Olódùmarè, the generator of ase, the enabling power that sustains and transforms the universe. To the Yoruba, art began when Olódùmarè commissioned the artist deity Obatala to mold the first human image from clay. Today, it is customary for the Yoruba to wish pregnant women good luck with the greeting: May Obatala fashion for us a good work of art.

The concept of ase influences how many of the Yoruba arts are composed. In the visual arts, a design may be segmented or seriate—a "discontinuous aggregate in which the units of the whole are discrete and share equal value with the other units." Such elements can be seen in Ifa trays and bowls, veranda posts, carved doors, and ancestral masks.

  • Ife head, terracotta, probably 12–14th centuries; height: 15.5 cm (6 in.) Ife head, terracotta, probably 12–14th centuries; height: 15.5 cm (6 in.)
  • Bust of a king or dignitary; 12th-15th century AD; terracotta; Ethnological Museum of Berlin (Germany); discovered at Ife (Nigeria) Bust of a king or dignitary; 12th-15th century AD; terracotta; Ethnological Museum of Berlin (Germany); discovered at Ife (Nigeria)
  • Brooklyn Museum, Fragment of an Ife Head Brooklyn Museum, Fragment of an Ife Head
  • Ceremonial Ivory vessel Ceremonial Ivory vessel
  • Decorated Panel Door Decorated Panel Door
  • Female figure from Oke-Onigbin, Shango shrine. Female figure from Oke-Onigbin, Shango shrine.
  • Head, probably of a king; 12th-14th century; terracotta; 26.7 × 14.5 × 18.7 cm (10.5 × 5.7 × 7.3 in.); Kimbell Art Museum (Fort Worth, Texas, USA) Head, probably of a king; 12th-14th century; terracotta; 26.7 × 14.5 × 18.7 cm (10.5 × 5.7 × 7.3 in.); Kimbell Art Museum (Fort Worth, Texas, USA)
  • Yoruba peoples armlet (16th century) Yoruba peoples armlet (16th century)

The importance of the Orí in Yoruba art and culture

Wooden Door (Ilekun) with carved motifs
Iron and wood staff (Opa Orisha Oko); 19th century; Brooklyn Museum

The Orí-Inú, or the inner spiritual head, is very important to the Yoruba people. One's Orí-Inú is very important in terms of existing in the world. The priority goes to the Orí for any household. Thus, shrines are built in the houses. An Orí is visually represented through symbolic items within sacrifice or rituals, or more common in houses, would be terra cotta head figures. The Orí can usually determine the outcome of life for each person. Before being put into earth, each person must select their own Orí. Ajala may sometimes produce bad Orí, which this may affect the lives of those people. Sacrifices and rites happen as well in order to satisfy Orí-Isese, which is the supreme ruler over all Orí. The primary functions for sacrifices are to ward off evil and bring in good fortune and happiness.

Anonymity and authorship in African art

The issue of anonymity and authorship has long troubled the field of African art history, particularly as it relates to the political disparities between Africa and the West. Such information was, at least initially, rarely sought in the field and deemed unnecessary and even undesirable by many collectors. Susan Mullin Vogel has identified a further paradox. "n their own societies," she writes, "African artists are known and even famous, but their names are rarely preserved in connection with specific works. ... More often than not, the African sculptor becomes virtually irrelevant to the life of the art object once his work is complete. ... Cultures preserve the information they value."

The problem of anonymity in Yoruba art in particular is troubling in the context of Yoruba culture where "it is absolutely imperative for individuals to acknowledge each other's identity and presence from moment to moment, there is a special greeting for every occasion and each time of day."

Several Yoruba artists' names are known, including:

Metal arts

Yoruba blacksmiths create sculpture from iron, through hand-beating, welding, and casting. Ogun is honored as the god of iron.

Metalworkers also create brass sculptures by lost-wax casting. Brass is seen as being incorruptible by the Ogboni society.

  • Bronze head from Ife; 12th-15th century; brass; British Museum (London) Bronze head from Ife; 12th-15th century; brass; British Museum (London)
  • Ceremonial axes; 18th century; from Owo (Ondo state, Nigeria); Speed Art Museum (Louisville, Kentucky, USA) Ceremonial axes; 18th century; from Owo (Ondo state, Nigeria); Speed Art Museum (Louisville, Kentucky, USA)
  • Ife altar ring,16th century, Brass or Copper alloy Ife altar ring,16th century, Brass or Copper alloy
  • Male figure (Onile); late 19th-early 20th century; cast bronze; Honolulu Museum of Art (Hawaii, USA) Male figure (Onile); late 19th-early 20th century; cast bronze; Honolulu Museum of Art (Hawaii, USA)
  • Pair of staffs (Edan Ogboni), male and female couple; 19th century; cast bronze and iron; Honolulu Museum of Art Pair of staffs (Edan Ogboni), male and female couple; 19th century; cast bronze and iron; Honolulu Museum of Art
  • Brass fan (Abebe), one of the ritual objects associated with the Yoruba goddess, Osun Brass fan (Abebe), one of the ritual objects associated with the Yoruba goddess, Osun
  • Ijebu brass bracelet depicting a ram head, 18th century Ijebu brass bracelet depicting a ram head, 18th century
  • Brass arm band or vessel stand, Ijebu, Yoruba, 19th century Brass arm band or vessel stand, Ijebu, Yoruba, 19th century
  • Beaded sword and Sheath, Nigeria, Yoruba people; beads, metal, fabric, coins, brass, cowry shells, leather - Chazen Museum of Art Beaded sword and Sheath, Nigeria, Yoruba people; beads, metal, fabric, coins, brass, cowry shells, leather - Chazen Museum of Art
  • Shango ceremonial staff, 19th century, Brooklyn Museum Shango ceremonial staff, 19th century, Brooklyn Museum

Ivory and Wood

  • Arm band, Owo, Yoruba, 18th century AD, ivory - Ethnological Museum, Berlin Arm band, Owo, Yoruba, 18th century AD, ivory - Ethnological Museum, Berlin
  • 18th century ivory divination tapper (iroke ifa) from the Owo region. Brooklyn Museum 18th century ivory divination tapper (iroke ifa) from the Owo region. Brooklyn Museum
  • Ivory vessel cover, Owo, Yoruba, (1700s)18th Century Ivory vessel cover, Owo, Yoruba, (1700s)18th Century
  • Ivory armlets, Yoruba peoples, Owo region of Yorubaland, 16th century. This particular pair may have been part of the Olowo's ceremonial attire Ivory armlets, Yoruba peoples, Owo region of Yorubaland, 16th century. This particular pair may have been part of the Olowo's ceremonial attire
  • Ceremonial arm band from Owo 18th century AD, ivory - Ethnological Museum, Berlin Ceremonial arm band from Owo 18th century AD, ivory - Ethnological Museum, Berlin
  • Ceremonial ivory sword fragment, Udamaloore, Owo,19th century Ceremonial ivory sword fragment, Udamaloore, Owo,19th century

Terracotta

  • Ife terracotta head dating to the 14th century. Heads (Orí) are a very prominent aspect of early Ife artistic forms Ife terracotta head dating to the 14th century. Heads (Orí) are a very prominent aspect of early Ife artistic forms
  • Memorial head with vertical facial striations typical of ife heads, Nigeria, 12th century AD, terracotta - Ethnological Museum, Berlin Memorial head with vertical facial striations typical of ife heads, Nigeria, 12th century AD, terracotta - Ethnological Museum, Berlin
  • Ife, memorial head of a king or notable with tribal marking/scarification above eyes, terracotta, 12th-15th century Ife, memorial head of a king or notable with tribal marking/scarification above eyes, terracotta, 12th-15th century

Yoruba Masquerade

The tendency in many African cosmologies to identify the body as a vehicle incarnating the soul on earth has encouraged the metaphoric use of the masquerade for a similar purpose. Egúngún, Gelede, and Epa are among the many types of Masquerade practiced by the Yoruba.

Yoruba Crowns

Main article: Oba's crown

The bead-embroidered crown (ade) with beaded veil, foremost attribute of the Oba, symbolizes the aspirations of a civilization at the highest level of authority. In his seminal article on the topic, Robert F. Thompson writes, "The crown incarnates the intuition of royal ancestral force, the revelation of great moral insight in the person of the king, and the glitter of aesthetic experience."

  • Beaded Crown (Ade) of Onijagbo Obasoro Alowolodu; late 19th or early 20th century; basketry frame covered by a stiffened cloth base which is embroidered with glass beads: white, blue, green, pink, red-orange, ochre, and violet; 57.8 x 21.6 cm (diameter) (223⁄4 x 81⁄2 in.); Brooklyn Museum (New York City) Beaded Crown (Ade) of Onijagbo Obasoro Alowolodu; late 19th or early 20th century; basketry frame covered by a stiffened cloth base which is embroidered with glass beads: white, blue, green, pink, red-orange, ochre, and violet; 57.8 x 21.6 cm (diameter) (223⁄4 x 81⁄2 in.); Brooklyn Museum (New York City)
  • Yoruba royal ceremonial crown. Ade Nla or Ade Isenbaye. The beaded veil shields the Oba's own face and transforms him into a living embodiment of Odùduwà and the force of the collective ancestors. The birds signify that the Oba is a divine ruler. Half in the physical and half in the spiritual realms just as the birds can traverse both the terrestrial and the celestial. Musée du Quai Branly Yoruba royal ceremonial crown. Ade Nla or Ade Isenbaye. The beaded veil shields the Oba's own face and transforms him into a living embodiment of Odùduwà and the force of the collective ancestors. The birds signify that the Oba is a divine ruler. Half in the physical and half in the spiritual realms just as the birds can traverse both the terrestrial and the celestial. Musée du Quai Branly
  • Beaded Oba's royal coronet (Akoro), Indianapolis Museum of Art. The Akoro was smaller than an Adé and was usually worn by lesser ranking kings under a regional Oba. Beaded Oba's royal coronet (Akoro), Indianapolis Museum of Art. The Akoro was smaller than an Adé and was usually worn by lesser ranking kings under a regional Oba.
  • Yoruba 19th century copper alloy (brass) crown from Iperu following the typical Yoruba stem on cone ancestral crown designs. These crowns are used in the veneration of the paternal ancestors of Iperu (Ijebu) kings. The four staring faces represent the all-seeing gods or ancestors. Their protruding eyes signify when the spiritual eye replaces ordinary vision. The two figures with mudfish legs refer to supernatural powers in two realms, land and water, or reality and spirit. Yoruba 19th century copper alloy (brass) crown from Iperu following the typical Yoruba stem on cone ancestral crown designs. These crowns are used in the veneration of the paternal ancestors of Iperu (Ijebu) kings. The four staring faces represent the all-seeing gods or ancestors. Their protruding eyes signify when the spiritual eye replaces ordinary vision. The two figures with mudfish legs refer to supernatural powers in two realms, land and water, or reality and spirit.
  • Royal headdress called Orikogbofo were lighter versions of ancestral crowns, which were often heavy and cumbersome. The orikogbofo fulfilled the function of keeping the Oba's head always covered, for it was taboo for an Oba to be seen bare headed. This style is now popular across southern Nigeria worn by various royals in the region. Remnant tassels of a beaded veil that should completely shield the Oba's face has been extensively reduced to a few convenient strings. Royal headdress called Orikogbofo were lighter versions of ancestral crowns, which were often heavy and cumbersome. The orikogbofo fulfilled the function of keeping the Oba's head always covered, for it was taboo for an Oba to be seen bare headed. This style is now popular across southern Nigeria worn by various royals in the region. Remnant tassels of a beaded veil that should completely shield the Oba's face has been extensively reduced to a few convenient strings.
  • Yoruba ancestral royal crown (Ade Nla) Yoruba ancestral royal crown (Ade Nla)
  • Beaded Crown (Ade) of Onijagbo Obasoro Alowolodu, The Ogoga of Ikere Ekiti; late 19th century; basketry frame, covered with beaded cloth; 95.9 x 24.1 cm (373⁄4 x 91⁄2 in.); Brooklyn Museum Beaded Crown (Ade) of Onijagbo Obasoro Alowolodu, The Ogoga of Ikere Ekiti; late 19th century; basketry frame, covered with beaded cloth; 95.9 x 24.1 cm (373⁄4 x 91⁄2 in.); Brooklyn Museum

Alarinjo

Olufeko inside Sungbo's Eredo holding the Philosophers Legacy heirloom in 2017

There is also a vibrant form of customary theatre known as Alarinjo that has its roots in the medieval period and that has given much to the contemporary Nigerian film industry.

Esiẹ Museum

Main article: Esiẹ Museum

The museum in Esiẹ, Irepodun (Kwara state), was the first to be established in Nigeria when it opened in 1945. The museum once housed over one thousand tombstone figures or images representing human beings. It is reputed to have the largest collection of soapstone images in the world. Its works of art have also been said to bear resemblances to those of the Nok culture. In modern times, the Esie museum has been the center of religious activities and hosts a festival in the month of April every year.

References

  1. ^ Drewal, Henry John; Pemberton III, John; Abiodun, Rowland (1989). Wardwell, Allen (ed.). Yoruba : nine centuries of African art and thought. New York: Center for African Art in Association with H.N. Abrams. ISBN 0-8109-1794-7.
  2. ^ Adande, Joseph; Siegmann, William C.; Dumouchelle, Kevin D. (2009). African art a century at the Brooklyn Museum. Brooklyn, NY: Brooklyn Museum p. 106. ISBN 978-0-87273-163-9.
  3. Blier, Suzanne Preston (2015). Art and Risk in Ancient Yoruba: Ife History, Politics, and Identity c. 1300. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107021662.
  4. "Origins and Empire: The Benin, Owo, and Ijebu Kingdoms". The Metropolitan Museum of Art (Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History). Retrieved 8 July 2022.
  5. Drewal, Henry; Pemberton, John; Abiodun, Rowland (1990). Yoruba: Nine Centuries of African Art and Thought. New York: Center for African Art in association with Harry Abrams Publishers. p. 46.
  6. Akintoye, S. Adebanji (2014). A History of the Yoruba People. Dakar: Amalion Publishing. pp. 64–65. ISBN 9782359260274.
  7. Clarke, essay by Babatunde Lawal ; exhibition co-curated by Carol Thompson, Christa (2007). Embodying the sacred in Yoruba art : featuring the Bernard and Patricia Wagner Collection. Atlanta, Ga.: High Museum of Art. ISBN 978-1-932543-20-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. Drewal, M. T., and H. J. Drewal (1987). "Composing Time and Space in Yoruba Art". Word and Image: A Journal of Verbal/Visual Enquiry. 3 (3): 225–251. doi:10.1080/02666286.1987.10435383.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. Abiodun, Rowland (2014). Yoruba Art and Language: Seeking the Art in African Art. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
  10. Picton, John (1994). Rowland Abiọdun; Henry J. Drewal; John Pemberton III (eds.). The Yoruba artist : new theoretical perspectives on African arts ; [based on a 1992 symposium held at the Museum Rietberg Zürich]. Washington : Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 1560983396.
  11. Vogel, Susan Mullin (Spring 1999). "Known Artists by Anonymous Works". African Arts. 32 (1): 40, 42, 50. doi:10.2307/3337537. JSTOR 3337537.
  12. Abiọdun, Rowland (1994). Rowland Abiọdun; Henry J. Drewal; John Pemberton III (eds.). The Yoruba artist : new theoretical perspectives on African arts ; [based on a 1992 symposium held at the Museum Rietberg Zürich]. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 1560983396.
  13. ^ "Shaping: The Blacksmith." Archived November 10, 2011, at the Wayback Machine Cutting to the Essence – Shaping for the Fire. 29 March 1995 (retrieved 15 Nov 2011)
  14. Thompson, Robert F. (1972). Douglas Fraser; Herbert M. Cole (eds.). African art & leadership. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 227–260. ISBN 0299058204.
  15. "Esie Museum". All Africa. Retrieved 1 February 2013.

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