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| {{Anarchism}} | |||
| '''Anarchism''' is a name taken by various ] theories which advocate the abolition of some or all forms of ]. The word anarchism derives from Greek roots <i>an</i> (no) and <i>archos</i> (ruler). | |||
| These theories have radically different visions of what anarchism means: ] intend anarchism to mean the replacement of all forms of hierarchy (political, economic, and otherwise) by democratically-controled and collectively-owned organizations; ] envision a capitalist society with governments replaced by capitalist institutions; ] insist above all on individual freedom from state. | |||
| ''This article covers the commonly understood usage of '''anarchism''': to denote a ] and ] that is opposed to all forms and causes of social, economic, and political ], including the ] and ]. For other uses of "anarchism" and "anarchy", see ]''. | |||
| Although in different places, "anarchism" is variously understood as being either socialist or capitalist, when unadorned, however, anarchism popularly denotes ]. | |||
| The terms "anarchy" and "anarchism" are derived from the ] '']'' ("without ]s (rulers)"). Thus "anarchism," in its most general meaning, is the belief that the rulership is unnecessary and should be abolished. The word "anarchy", as most anarchists use it, does not imply ] or ], but rather a stateless society with voluntary social harmony. All proponents of anarchism argue that relations based upon voluntary cooperation (as opposed to ]) will lead to a society of ] individuals. | |||
| While it might seem that "anarchism" implies a total lack of ], many "anarchists" believe that there ''should'' exist organised structures in society, but that these should be created by contract rather than state monopoly. | |||
| '''Anarchism''' is a term which encompasses a variety of ], ], and ] that advocate the abolition of all forms of coercion (including any ] of a dominating nature). Proponents of anarchism argue that relations based upon voluntary cooperation and mutual aid will lead to a society characterized by the ability of each actor to have a say in outcomes proportionate to the degree they are affected by them, a society consisting of ] individuals. | |||
| This is reflected in the phrase: ''Anarchy means no rulers, not no rules.'' | |||
| This is why ] exist de facto in anarchies functioning today. | |||
| === ] === | |||
| Individual freedom and opposition to the State are the unvarying principles of anarchism; less agreed upon are such matters as the role of ] in changing society, the preferred type of economic system, whether private property is allowable, whether hierarchy and unequal social status are natural voluntary social forms or ], the interpretation of ] ideals, and the degree of organization desirable to effect social change. | |||
| This theory of anarchism calls for a system of socialism, with collective ownership of means of production and democratic control of all organizations, without the need for any government authority or ]. | |||
| Adherents of this view sometimes call themselves <b>libertarian socialists</b>, <b>libertarian communists</b>, <b>left-anarchists</b>, or <b>anarcho-communists</b>. | |||
| ==History of anarchism== | |||
| While some historians trace the roots of European anarchism to movements such as the ] in the middle ages, there was no cohesive ideology until the nineteenth century. Major advocates of anarchism in that era included ], ], ], and ]. Their writings revolved around ] (with a few exceptions), and cooperative economics based on ]. Anarchist labor unions were a significant element in the social struggles of that era, and many experiments in cooperative living, education, and other institutions were made. Bakunin was thrown out of the International by ], which began a long-lasting split between left-anarchists and communists. | |||
| === Precursors of anarchism === | |||
| Late in the 19th century, anarchist labor unions began to use the tactic of ]. This was often met with violence and some of the strikes even resulted in massacres. | |||
| ] assert that, for the longest period before recorded ], human society was organized on anarchist principles. They point to the egalitarian structure of hunter-gatherer bands, to the lack of division of labour and accumulated wealth as indicators of such primitive anarchy. There is debate over the ] evidence on this issue. | |||
| In this climate, a minority of anarchists began to advocate ], which they referred to as "propaganda of the deed." United States President ], among others, was assassinated by an anarchist. | |||
| Some anarchists have embraced ], which developed in ], as a source of anarchistic attitudes . Similarly, anarchistic tendencies can be traced to the philosophers of ], such as ], the founder of the ], and ], who said that the wise should not give up their ] to the state . | |||
| Later movements – such as ] in the 1300's, the ] in the ], | |||
| the ]s, and ] | |||
| – have also expounded ideas that have been interpreted as anarchist. | |||
| This has left a lasting public impression that libertarian socialists are violent terrorists, a prejudice not aided by events such as the ], where anarchists were (probably wrongly) blamed for throwing a bomb at police who came to break up a public meeting in ]. Nowadays the illegitimate use terrorism is condemned by all libertarian socialists, but there is still no consensus on the legitimacy or utility of violence. The Tolstoian tradition of ] is prevalent among most anarchists; the rest believe that violence (especially ] and ]) is justified as the way to provoke social upheaval which could lead to a social revolution. | |||
| The first known usage of the word ''anarchy'' appears in the play '']'' by ], dated ]. There, ] openly refuses to abide by the rulers' decree to leave her brother Polyneices' body unburied, as punishment for his participation in the attack on ], saying that "even if no one else is willing to share in burying him I will bury him alone and risk the peril of burying my own brother. Nor am I ashamed to act in defiant opposition to the rulers of the city (''ekhous apiston tênd anarkhian polei'')". | |||
| The idea that anarchists are particularly violent takes another blow when one looks further into anarchist theory: notably, ] included in her definition of Anarchism the observation that all governments rest on violence, and this is one of the many reasons they should be opposed. | |||
| Ancient Greece also saw the first western instance of anarchism as a philosophical ideal, in the form of the ] philosopher ], who was, according to ], "he best exponent of Anarchist philosophy in ancient Greece". As summarized by Kropotkin, Zeno "repudiated the omnipotence of the state, its intervention and regimentation, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the moral law of the individual". Within ], Zeno's vision of a free community without government is opposed to the state-] of ]. Zeno argued that although the necessary instinct of self-preservation leads humans to ], nature has supplied a corrective to it by providing man with another instinct — ]. Like many modern anarchists, he believed that if people follow their instincts, they will have no need of law ] or ], no ]s and no public ], and use no ] (a ] taking the place of the exchanges). Zeno's beliefs have only reached us as fragmentary quotations. | |||
| Similarly, there is no consensus on what type of socialism libertarian socialists advocate. Many libertarian socialists employ criticisms of capitalism which are similar to those advocated by Marxists. Others focus on ] from an anthropoligical perspective. ] see labor unions as the critical organizing structures of an anarchist economy. | |||
| In ], the year ] was commonly referred to as "the year of anarchy". According to the historian ], this happened even though Athens was at the time under the rule of the oligarchy of "The Thirty," installed by the Spartans following their victory in the second ], and despite the presence of an ], nominated by the oligarchs, in the person of Pythodorus. However, Athenians refused to apply here their custom of calling the year by that archon's name, since he was elected during the oligarchy, and "preferred to speak of it as the 'year of anarchy'". | |||
| === ] === | |||
| The Greek ]s ] and ] used the term anarchy negatively, in association with ] which they mistrusted as inherently vulnerable and prone to deteriorate into tyranny. Plato believed that the corruption created by democracy loosens the "natural" hierarchy between social classes, genders and age groups, to the extent that "anarchy finds a way into the private houses, and ends by getting among the animals and infecting them". ('Republic', book 8). Aristotle spoke of it in book 6 of the 'Politics' when discussing revolutions, saying that the upper classes may be motivated to stage a coup by their contempt for the prevailing "disorder and anarchy (''ataxias kai anarkhias'')" in the affairs of the state. He also claimed it would give, "license among slaves (''anarkhia te doulôn'')" as well as among women and children. "A constitution of this sort", he concludes, "will have a large number of supporters, as disorderly living (''zên ataktôs'') is pleasanter to the masses than sober living". | |||
| The theory of anarchism, based on individualism and natural law, calls for the abolition of any government control or regulation, and promotes ] private businesses to replace all of current government's activities. | |||
| Adherents of this theory of anarchism call themselves <b>anarcho-capitalists</b>. | |||
| The ]s of ] Europe are sometimes considered to be religious forerunners of modern anarchism. ], in his '']'', writes that the Anabaptists "repudiated all law, since they held that the good man will be guided at every moment by ]...rom this premise they arrive at communism...." The novel ] provides a fictional depiction of this movement and its revolutionary ideology. ] of the ], who published a pamphlet calling for communal ownership and social and economic organization in small agrarian communities in the ], is considered another of the forerunners of modern anarchism. | |||
| Anarcho-capitalism has existed in its modern form at least since Gustave de Molinari in the 1840s, but has mostly been flourishing since it organized in the 1950s in the USA. Anarcho-capitalists consider themselves as radical members of the ] tradition (']' as it is now called in the USA), and trace their explicit roots back to ] and the seventeenth century english Whigs. All classical liberals believe in 'as little government as possible'; ] among them believe governments can and must be done without completely, whereas ] believe or accept that some government be necessary for e.g. enforcing law and order. | |||
| The first modern author to have published a treatise explicitly advocating the absence of government was Edmund Burke in "]" (1756). Later ] advocated anarchism in '']'' (]); though he did not use the word ''anarchism'', some today regard him as the "founder of philosophical anarchism". The term "anarchist" was used during the ] as an ] against ], but ], adopted the term to describe his political philosophy in the ]. | |||
| Anarcho-capitalists, like classical liberals in general, tend to loathe violent action and revolutions as a "normal" way to promote or impose their views, even in presence of governments they hate. However, they do support, e.g. the american revolution, that precisely consisted in individuals sharing common views fighting together, against people trying to impose their views on them. | |||
| ] were often labeled "anarchists" by ], even though they did not call for the abolition of the State. Still, they did promote the idea of a minimal State, ], and the responsibility of the people to judge their governments, which provided a groundwork for the development of anarchist thought. "]" (1850) by ] is a good example of a classical liberal document bordering on anarchism. As ] political society developed along the liberal model, anarchist thoughts were expressed in the writings of ] (]), Josiah Warren, and Benjamin Tucker. | |||
| === |
=== ] === | ||
| There are several anarchist thinkers, such as ], ] and ] who are known as individualist anarchists. Beyond economic issues of collectivism vs capitalism, they insist on individual liberty and absence of coercion from state. | |||
| Like libertarian socialists, they loathe government-supported capitalism, and reject several essential principles of capitalism in general. Like anarcho-capitalists, they put an emphasis on individual rights and liberty, and on market-based approaches. They are thus acknowledged both by libertarian socialists and anarcho-capitalists, although each side accepts or criticizes differently the works of these thinkers. See ] for a discussion of this issue. | |||
| In ] ] published '']'', in which he presents his vision of a free society alongside a critique of government. Some consider this the first anarchist ], crediting Godwin with founding modern ]. He is also considered a forebear of ]. It wasn't until ] published '']'' in ] that the term "anarchist" was adopted as a self-description. It is for this reason that some claim Proudhon as the founder of modern anarchist theory. | |||
| On the debate of capitalism vs socialism, the reply of modern individualist anarchism is to let each individual choose the system he is willing to adhere to, and, with experience, each will choose what suits him best; to them, it doesn't matter which system will majoritarily prevail (which doesn't prevent each of them from making one's own educated guess), as long as individual freedom is respected. | |||
| Individualists, taking much from the writings of ], among others, demanded the utmost respect for the ] of the individual. | |||
| === Anarchy as ] === | |||
| Later in the ], ] theorists like ] and ] paralleled the ] critique of capitalism and synthesized it with their own critique of the state, emphasizing the importance of a communal perspective to maintain individual liberty in a social context, and the critical role of workers self-managed organs of production and creation. | |||
| The popular meaning of anarchy as absolute chaos and disorder, what some scholars call by Durkheim's sociological term "anomie" (absence of standards, values or order), is rejected by all the above anarchist traditions - they think that government is actually a source of disorder, and that society would be more orderly without any. Anarchy and anomie in this context are most often ''not'' intended situations, and are more an extension of what the opponents of anarchy imagine would result from if anarchists of any kind were to take power. | |||
| This usage has strong negative connotations, and has historically been used as a slur by political groups against their opponents, most notably by monarchists against republicans in past centuries. However, anomie has also been embraced by countercultural elements such as ]. | |||
| The ], at its founding, was an alliance of socialist groups, including both anarchists and Marxists. Both sides had a common aim (stateless communism) and common political opponents (conservatives and other right-wing elements). But each was critical of the other, and the inherent conflict between the two groups soon embodied itself in an ongoing argument between ], representative of anarchist ideas, and ] himself. Generally Marx wanted to work within the system, use hierarchical organizational structures, and run people in elections. Bakunin hated these ideas, and predicted that if a revolution was won under a Marxist revolutionary party, they would end up being as bad as the ] that they fought against. In ], the conflict in the First International climaxed with the expulsion of Bakunin and those who had become known as the "Bakuninists" when they were outvoted by the Marx party at the ]. This is often cited as the origins of the ]. | |||
| === Libertarian socialism vs. Anarcho-capitalism === | |||
| ] saw a need to defend the ] against oppression and overthrow the ruling class as a means to dissolve the state. ]'s ] developed from his ] theory based on ] in which co-operation equaled or surpassed competition in importance, as illustrated in '']'' (]). | |||
| Both libertarian socialists and anarcho-capitalists share an opposition to states and governments; but beyond that they disagree vehemently. Libertarian socialists consider that an employer-employee relationship is based on coercion by the employer, and that all coercion should be prevented, even if oppressed employees are passively consenting out of weakness and ignorance. Anarcho-capitalists consider an employer-employee relationship to be an elaborate and mutually profitable form of voluntary association, and that any external power capable of preventing it is itself oppression. | |||
| Some commentators frame this debate as follows: | |||
| Some ]aries of this time encouraged acts of ] such as ]ings and the ]s of ] to further anarchism. However, these actions were regarded by many anarchists as counter-productive or ineffective (see "]", below). | |||
| * Anarcho-socialists (Libertarian Socialists) believe that all forms of hierarchy must be eliminated. Anarcho-capitalists believe that all coercive forms of hierarchy must be eliminated, thus employer / employee relationships may be preserved, as they are freely entered into contracts. | |||
| In the late 19th century ] developed as the industrialized form of ''libertarian communism'', emphasizing ]s, especially the ], as the primary strategy to achieve anarchist revolution, and "build the new society in the shell of the old". | |||
| * Anarcho-socialists counter that as no ordinary (as opposed to someone who is independently wealthy) person can refuse to work, there is no freedom involved in the negotiation of a contract with an employer (the "weakness and ignorance" refered to above, or the ] concept referred to in socialist literature). | |||
| Anarchists played a role in many of the ]s, uprisings, and ]s of the late ] and early ], including the ] (1917). In the ], many new ]s were anarchists; an especially notable group was the large number of ]ish immigrants who had left ] and ] during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. These groups were disrupted by the ]. | |||
| * Anarcho-capitalists in return argue that, no matter what social organization may or may not exist, social organizations will never eliminate the basic human requirement to work in order to support themselves. Therefore an objection based on a constraint that cannot be overcome is useless to argue about, and not a rational objection at all. | |||
| ] was a very influential anarchist and feminist during this period. She traveled the country and the world spreading anarchist ideas and attempting to live an anarchist life. | |||
| === Anarchies functioning today === | |||
| The anarcho-syndicalist orientation of many early American labor unions played a large part in the formation of the American ]. The United States is the only industrialized former British colony to not have a labor-based political party. In Mexico, anarcho-syndicalists like ] led various revolts and uprisings, that would help overthrow the dictator Diaz, and lead the way for the growth of anarchism in ], (and also go on to influence the modern day ] rebellion). | |||
| Anarchies functioning during the first decade of the 21st century include the ], ], the ]/] community, the ] community itself, and other sub-societies which are generally networked using the internet. | |||
| In ], in the first quarter of the 20th century, anarchist movements achieved relative, if short-lived, successes and were violently repressed by states. However, in the 1920s and 1930s the conflict between anarchism and the state was eclipsed by the one among ], ] and ], which ended with the defeat of fascism in ]. During the ] (1936-1939), a widely popular anarchist movement supported by militias loyal to the republic took control of rural areas of north-east Spain in ]-] and ] the land, being crushed in short order by the Communist-controlled republican army. | |||
| They operate using de facto ] which does not use prison systems, does not use violence, and in which enforcement generally happens by polite and rational discussion on publicly archived mailing lists, so that even emotional coercion and manipulation are discouraged because they require secrecy in order to function. | |||
| A surge of popular interest in socialist anarchism occurred during the ] and ]. In the ] this was associated with the ] movement; the band ] is celebrated for its anarchist and ] ideas. In ], the ] was created in downtown ]. The housing and employment crisis in most of ] led to the formation of ] and squatter movements like the one still thriving in ], ]. Militant resistance to neo-Nazi groups in places like Germany, and the uprisings of ], ], and ] groups in France and Italy also helped to give popularity to anti-authoritarian, non-capitalist ideas. | |||
| Beginning in the later part of the 20th century anarchist ] like ] began to proclaim that ] — not just the state — would need to fall for anarchy to be achieved. A rejection of industrial ] is also prominent in the views of many ]. This worldview was associated with the growth of the anti-roads movement in the UK, ] and the ] in the US, and the actions of ] (aka the "Unabomber"). | |||
| Through the 20th century anarchists were actively involved in the labour, animal-rights, radical ecological, feminist movements, and later in the fight against fascism. The influence of this on anarchist thought is apparent, as most of the traditional anarchist philosophies emphasize the economic implications of anarchism, or arrive at anarchism from economic arguments. Since the mid-1960s, anarchists have been involved in student protest movements, ], squatter movements, and the ] movement, among others. | |||
| === A Few Famous Anarchists === | |||
| There has long been an association between ]. Like ], ] and even ], anarchism has a plethora of imagery and has developed an ] which has become associated with a variety of groups and movements, and co-opted (or ]) by ] industry. The influence of anarchism is not always directly a matter of specific imagery or public figures, but may be seen in a certain stance towards the liberation of the total human being and the imagination. In visual art, strains of anarchism have been noted in ], ], the ] of American ], and the ] movement. ] in particular was actually equated with anarchism by its founder ]. In music, anarchism has been associated with ], the more explicitly political ], and the ] scene. | |||
| Here is a small selection of some well known figures in anarchist history and thought. For others, see in various categories. | |||
| In the latter part of the 20th century, and the start of the 21st century, anarchism has been seen to have the same influence as ] did during the protest movements of the 1960's. With the uprising of anti-authoritarian movements in the Zapatista communities in Mexico, and the people's uprising starting in 2001 in Argentina, and the global growth and interest in non-statist, anti-capitalist beliefs and organizing have given anarchism a new life within various movements. Anarchists, although generally against violence against people except in self-defense, have also been at the forefront of militant resistance against capital and the state, engaging in property destruction against various corporations, street battles with police, confronting neo-Nazi and far-right groups, and also having a strong militant presence at anti-globalization protests. | |||
| * ] (1814 - 1876), well-known early ] | |||
| * ] (1842-1921), credited as first theorist of anarcho-communism (an advance on Bakunin's anarchist-collectivism) | |||
| * ] (1819 - 1912), first theorist of ] | |||
| * ] (1854 - 1939), great defender of ] | |||
| * ] (1828 - 1910), Novelist and "Christian anarchist" thinker | |||
| * ] (1866 - 1912) | |||
| * ] (1873 - 1958), important figure in anarchist-syndicalist movement | |||
| * ] (1928 - present) | |||
| * ] (Anarchocapitalist economist and author) | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] (]) | |||
| * ] (]) | |||
| * ](] philosopher/theoretician) | |||
| * ] (Co- founder of ] anarchist newspaper (UK)) | |||
| * ] (Co- founder of ] anarchist newspaper (UK), and ] anarchist publishing house) | |||
| * ] (]) | |||
| * ] (leading ] thinker and writer) | |||
| * ] | |||
| * | |||
| == |
==Anarchist musicians== | ||
| In the past few decades, anarchism has been associated with the punk rock movement, and has grown because of that association (whatever other effects that has had on the movement and the prejudiced pictures of it). Following is some of the more famous anarchist musicians; that is, musicians who happen to be vocally anarchist. | |||
| Today, anarchism is a growing tendency around the ]. | |||
| ] arose early in the history of anarchism in the form of ]. North American anarchism also takes strong influences from the ] and the movement against the ]. European anarchism has developed out of the labour movement, and both have incorporated ] and environmental ] from a ] approach which gave growth the anti-roads movement, and ]. Globally, anarchism has also grown in popularity and influence as part of the ], ], and ] movements. Since the late 1990s, anarchists have been known for their involvement in ]s against ] and ] meetings, and the ]; protests which are generally portrayed in mainstream media coverage as violent riots. Many anarchists form '']s'' at protests, in which members of the bloc wear black and cover their faces to avoid police identification and to create one large solid mass. Bloc members confront and defend other protesters from the ], set up barricades, and sometimes engage in ] of corporate property. Many anarchists are critical of the black bloc because some blocs have engaged in property destruction against multi-national corporations and have thus gotten a label as "violent" and "adventurists" from media and large-scale ] organizations. Although black bloc anarchists are often the only visible anarchists at large protests, large scale protests are often constructed and organized through anarchist structures. Affinity groupings, spokescouncils, and networking all have led to the success of various large scale anti-war and anti-globalization mobilizations, most notably at the protests against the ] in ]. Anarchists have also been involved heavily with underground direct action movements such as the Animal Liberation Front, and the Earth Liberation Front, which are considered "]" by federal authorities and some liberal organizations. | |||
| Anarchism is not constrained to political protest, however. Anarchists also engage in building ] and organizations, such as ], radical labor unions, infoshop and radical social centers, new sets of schooling systems, media in various forms, organizing around housing and land issues, and work toward accountability with police and other institutions through such tools as ] decision-making. This is in line with the general anarchist concept of creating "]", which is the idea of creating the structures for a new anti-authoritarian society in the shell of the old, hierarchal one. | |||
| Some have said that recent technological developments have made the anarchist cause both easier to advance and more conceivable to people. Many people use ]s or the Internet to form loose communities which could be said to be organized along anarchist lines. Some of these communities have as their purpose the production of information in a non-commodified or ] format, a goal made attainable by the availability of ], ], and ]. These things have made it possible for individuals to ] over the Internet, without economic incentive, and even with a certain amount of risk. There are also ] programming communities, who donate their time, and offer their product freely as well. Examples include ], the ] (including the ]/] community and the ] paradigm), and ]. A book analyzing how this new "anarchic" ] is possible is ]'s ''The Cathedral and the Bazaar''. Traditional ] analysis, used by many ], is one means of interpreting the above, and would describe it as a "political economy of non-commodity information production". There also exists, however, recognition that such technologies, as society currently exists, are dependent on a centralized and hierarchical industrial system, with laborers and non-human life at the bottom. | |||
| Here are some examples of major groupings of anarchist collectives and groups throughout the world: | |||
| *Africa: Anarchist organizing is mostly being done through the ]. Which is a ] ] group. | |||
| *Eur-Asia: Various European anarchist groups exist. Networks of collectives like ], ], ], ], ], and many more. Large scale anarchist federation like the ], ], and ] unions do exist. In Spain, large scale anarcho-syndicalist unions like the CNT and CGT have millions of members. ] and ] are also gaining ground, working in a large amounts of radical environmental campaigns. ] played a huge role in the anti-roads movement in the 1990's. Radical animal liberation groups are also very strong, with many campaigns against vivisection and hunting gaining large scale public support. Squatting is also a large scale movement connected with anarchism. Large scale social and political centers have evolved out of squats, which are a major part of the anarchist movement. Greece has perhaps one of the most militant anarchist movements, with groups engaging in street battles and bombing attacks on police stations, corporations, and state institutions. | |||
| *Asia: While anarchism once had a large influence in China in the 1900's, and Korea in the 1920's, anarchism today in Asia is only being followed by small amounts of collectives. However, in the Philippines, many new and organized anarchist groups are starting to form. New ], collectives, Food Not Bombs collectives, Indymedia Centers, publications, and other projects are forming. ] and youth make up a large part of this movement. | |||
| *New Zealand/Australia: New Zealand has a wide range of anarchist collectives, working on various projects. Infoshops, Food Not Bombs collectives, publications, and other groups can be found. Australia has small groups of various collectives, and radical infoshops and spaces. | |||
| *Latin America: South America has some large anarchist federations, mostly ]. There are also hosts of Indymedia centers, infoshops and radical spaces, and various autonomous groups working within an anarchist framework. Mexico has various radical infoshops and anarchist establishments, and many anarchist collectives work to support the ] movement. | |||
| *North America: Many collectives and anarchist groups exist within the United States. Food Not Bombs, Indymedia Centers, ARA Chapters, etc exist in large amounts. Large scale American anarchist groups include ], ], ], and others. Canada also has members of ], and has its own host of anarchist groups and collectives. | |||
| *Middle East: Anarchist groups in this area continue to grow. One of the largest is ], a largely Jewish group opposed to the Israeli occupation of Palestine. Turkey also has a very large anarchist movement, with groups taking to the streets often and in large numbers. | |||
| ===Historical examples=== | |||
| Various examples of societies which have been organized by anarchist principles, examples of societies which have been created in the event of anarchist revolution, and also uprisings, revolts and attempted revolutions that have involved anarchist and anti-authoritarians which have proved successful. | |||
| : See ] | |||
| ==Schools of anarchist thought== | |||
| From ]'s utilitarian anarchism to ]'s ], to ]'s ], to ]'s ], to ]'s ], the roots of anarchist thought in modern political philosophy are varied, with many different views of what a society without government should be like. ], advocating the dissolution of ], is reminiscent of, if not inspired by, the early 19th century ] movement. There are also a number of feminist anarchist theories, including ], ], and ]. Another tradition in anarchism follows from individuals like ] and ] in claiming no adjective. These "anarchists without adjectives" seek to unify all anarchists around the basic shared principles of being anti-state, arguing that the diverse forms of anarchism can work together in relative harmony. | |||
| Contemporary anarchists often will not accept the label of one school or another. Rather than disparate sects, these "schools" should be thought of as specific applications of anarchist theory to certain topics. Anarcha-feminism, for example, is the application of anarchist theory to feminist issues. | |||
| The following schools of thought are shown in alphabetical order. | |||
| ===Anarcha-feminism=== | |||
| ''Main article:'' ] | |||
| Anarcha-feminism is a kind of ] that espouses the belief that ] is a fundamental problem in some societies. Feminist anarchism, or anarcha-feminism (a term allegedly created during the 1960s' ]), views ] as the first manifestation of hierarchy in human history; thus, the first form of oppression occurred in the dominance of male over female. Anarcha-feminists then conclude that if feminists are against patriarchy, they must also be against all forms of ], and therefore must reject the authoritarian nature of the state and capitalism. | |||
| Anarcho-primitivists see the creation of gender roles and patriarchy a creation of the start of ], and therefore consider primitivism to also be a anarchist school of thought which addresses feminist concerns. ] is often considered a feminist variant of green anarchist feminist thought. | |||
| Anarcha-feminism is most often associated with early 20th-century authors and theorists such as ] and ], although even early first-wave feminist ] held proto-anarchist views. In the ], an anarcha-feminist group, "Free Women", organized to defend both anarchist and feminist ideas. | |||
| In the modern day anarchist movement, most anarchists, male or female, consider themselves feminists, and anarcha-feminist ideas are growing. The publishing of ], an anarcha-feminist reader has helped to spread various kinds of anti-authoritarian and anarchist feminist ideas to the broader movement. | |||
| ===Anarcho-communism=== | |||
| ''Main article:'' ] | |||
| Anarcho-communism shares many things in common with anarcho-syndicalism, but generally strives for a society without markets, an elimination of all private property, (as in the ]), any kind of money system or wages, and proposes instead societies based on direct workers control, ], self-management over community institutions, and mutual aid based upon the idea of "from each according to their ability, to each according to need". Anarcho-communists also propose large and small scale connections of communities, groups, and workplaces through ]s and ]s created by ] and popular affinity. Anarcho-communists want direct worker control over production, and have decisions made through ] and assemblies. Communities would be organized through systems of direct democracy, and through various organizations and collectives to carry out various tasks. | |||
| ], ], ], and most recently, groups like ] (North Eastern Federation of Anarcho-Communists), have advocated various forms of anarcho-communism. Historically, anarcho-communism has been said to have been put into practice by millions of people in the anarchist collectives and communes of the anarchist-controlled region of ] during the Russian Revolution, and during the ] in the ] and ] regions of Spain. | |||
| Anarcho-communists are split generally on the ], or the "Organizational Platform of Libertarian Communists", written by ] anarchist militant, ]. The platform calls for various forms of structures within the anarchist movement, and has been accepted by some anarchists and scorned by others. | |||
| Anarcho-communists today are involved in various broad labor and community issues; generally revolving around housing, labor struggles/strikes, anti-racism, and building the anarchist movement. Anarcho-communists have generally called for more cohesive groups and structures of anarchist groups and thereby garnered criticism from other anarchist sects. Various large scale groups of anarcho-communists exist today with the larger groups existing throughout various countries. | |||
| ===Anarcho-syndicalism=== | |||
| ''Main article:'' ] | |||
| ] | |||
| Anarcho-syndicalism is the anarchist wing of the ] movement. Its primary aim is the end of the wage system. It functions on principles of workers solidarity, ], and self-management. | |||
| Workers' solidarity means that anarcho-syndicalists believe all workers, no matter what their ], ], or ] are in a similar situation vis-a-vis their bosses. Furthermore, it means that, within capitalism, any gains or losses made by some workers in their relation to bosses will eventually impact all workers. Therefore, it says that in order to gain liberation, all workers must support one another in their ]. | |||
| Anarcho-syndicalists only believe in direct action — that is, action directly designed to confront a problem. Direct action can range from traditional ] to active ]. | |||
| Furthermore, anarcho-syndicalists believe that workers' organizations — the organizations which struggle against the wage system and which, in anarcho-syndicalist theory, will eventually form the basis of a new society – should be self-managing. They should not have bosses or "business agents"; rather, the workers should be able to make decisions that affect them amongst themselves. | |||
| The ] is an international anarcho-syndicalist federation of various labor unions from different countries. The ], a once-powerful, still active, and again growing labor union, is considered a leading organ of the anarcho-syndicalist philosophy in the United States. The Spanish ] played a major role in the ] and today, the ] is the third biggest union in Spain. Other major anarcho-syndicalist organizations include the ], and the ] in the UK. | |||
| Some critics of anarcho-syndicalism contend that its focus on proletarian ] overlooks the needs of segments of society such as parents or others occupied with child-rearing or domestic labor, although some anarcho-syndicalist thought attempts to address other sectors of economic life. Some primitivist authors, notably ], contend that an anarcho-syndicalist revolution would leave in place social systems they find oppressive (] and workplaces, for example), although anarcho-syndicalists contend that worker self-management would render those systems fundamentally more humane. | |||
| ===Ecological anarchism=== | |||
| Eco-anarchism generally is a belief in ], ] against earth destroying institutions and systems, and generally a critique of industrial capitalism, although generally not against ] per se. | |||
| There is a significant ] element to the ], including those that are known as ] and ]. Eco-anarchism is generally a broad term that broadly refers to anarchists engaged in the earth liberation movement. The largest segment of 'eco-anarchists' are those involved in the ] movement, which is a network of various collectives formed along anarchist principles. Earth First! generally engages in ] and eco-defense, such as tree sitting and 'locking down'. In the modern anarchist movement, eco-anarchists generally adhere to ], which is a world view that embraces biodiversity and sustainability. ] is also sometimes considered the form of eco-anarchist feminism. | |||
| === Individualist anarchism === | |||
| {{main|Individualist anarchism}} | |||
| Individualist anarchism, having as its precursors the European individualists ], ], and ] became relatively formalized in 19th century America. America's ] is commonly regarded to be the first individualist anarchist. Some other notable figures include ] and ]. These 19th century individualists espoused the ideas of "]", a right to retain as private property the product of one's labor, a market economy unfettered by coercion (free market) where individuals may trade their private property and labor, private ownership of land (with the caveat that the land must be put into use by the owner), and a right to labor for wages as long wages adhered to their ]. However, these individualists opposed ] as being exploitative and this is their basis for opposing capitalism. Though they saw profit as unjust they opposed coercively interfering in the contractual relationships of others, prefering instead to compete with alternative business models (see ]) as well as educate through philosophy. These individuals tended to reject the notion that the collectivist schools such as anarcho-communism and anarcho-syndicalism were in fact anarchism. Contemporary individuals who claim the the individualist anarchist title include ], ], and ]. Contemporary individualist anarchist of the anticapitalism tradition, Joe Peacott, regards anarcho-capitalism to be a form of individualist anarchistm . Wendy Mcelroy, an anarcho-capitalist, also considers herself to be an individualist anarchist. | |||
| ] (1808-1887)]] | |||
| The individualists were particularly adamant about a right of private property. Spooner supported a "right to acquire property...as one of the natural, inherent, inalienable rights of men one which government has no power to infringe " He also supported the freedom of individuals to charge interest for loans free of government regulation: "All legislative restraints upon the rate of interest, are arbitrary and tyrannical restraints upon a man's natural capacity amid natural right to hire capital, upon which to bestow his labor." Spooner was staunchly against government interference in private economic matters, and he was particularly vocal in opposing collusion between banks and government. Spooner's ideas were widely reprinted in early libertarian journals, particularly his individualist critique of the state, arguing for the right to ignore or withdraw from it. Benjamin Tucker supported private ownership of all wealth produced by an individual, and as a staunch advocate of private property, a ], and anarchism in the American tradition, he says in an essay in ''The New Freewoman'': "Anarchism is a word without meaning, unless it includes the liberty of the individual to control his product or whatever his product has brought him through exchange in a free market—that is, private property." These individualists also advocated "free banking" where any individual or group of individuals would be allowed to lend private currency for interest and enter into competition with each other. With mutual banks, they hoped increased competition would eventually drive interest rates on loans down to a negligible level. | |||
| T19th century individualist anarchists described their economic and political positions as a ''radicalization'' of the classical liberal defense of free markets and civil society — Tucker, for example, described his individualist conception of anarchism as "consistent Manchesterism" and anarchists as "unterrified Jeffersonian Democrats" . | |||
| ===Insurrectionary anarchism=== | |||
| Insurrectionary anarchism is critical of formal anarchist labor unions and federations. Instead, insurrectionary anarchists advocate informal organization, including small affinity groups, carrying out acts of resistance in various struggles, and mass organizations called base structures, which can include exploited individuals who are not anarchists. Here, ] writes some of the basis points of its praxis. | |||
| <blockquote> | |||
| Insurrectionary anarchism is not an ideological solution to all social problems, a commodity on the capitalist market of ideologies and opinions, but an on-going praxis aimed at putting an end to the domination of the state and the continuance of capitalism, which requires analysis and discussion to advance. We don’t look to some ideal society or offer an image of utopia for public consumption. Throughout history, most anarchists, except those who believed that society would evolve to the point that it would leave the state behind, have been insurrectionary anarchists. Most simply, this means that the state will not merely wither away, thus anarchists must attack, for waiting is defeat; what is needed is open mutiny and the spreading of subversion among the exploited and excluded. Here we spell out some implications that we and some other insurrectionary anarchists draw from this general problem: if the state will not disappear on its own, how then do we end its existence? It is, therefore, primarily a practice, and focuses on the organization of attack...The State of capital will not “wither away,” attack is the refusal of mediation, pacification, sacrifice, accommodation, and compromise. | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| ], an Italian insurrectionary anarchist also had a great impact on this specific tendency, writing such works as "Armed Joy," "The Anarchist Tension," and others. In the US, ], ], and other magazines caused interest in insurrectionary anarchism to grow. Although insurrectionary anarchists are generally interested in class struggle anarchism, in the US, many insurrectionary anarchists consider themselves to be primitivists, or green anarchists, as well. | |||
| ===Post-Anarchism=== | |||
| The term post-anarchism was originated by Saul Newman in his book "From Bakunin to Lacan: Antiauthoritarianism and the Dislocation of Power" to refer to a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and ] thought. In this sense it has similarities with post-Marxism associated with ] and Chantal Mouffee. Subsequent to Newman's use of the term, however, it has taken on a life of its own and a wide range of ideas including ], ], ], ] and Zapatismo have been suggested for inclusion under the rubric. Others have argued that the term "poststructuralist anarchism" is preferable in order to maintain an unbroken link with the anarchist heritage. | |||
| By its very nature post-anarchism rejects the idea that it should be a coherent set of doctrines and beliefs. As such it is difficult, if not impossible to state with any degree of certainty who should or shouldn't be grouped under the rubric. Nonetheless key thinkers associated with post-anarchism include Saul Newman, Todd May, ] and ]. | |||
| The is probably the best place to start for anyone wanting to find out more. | |||
| ===Post-left anarchy=== | |||
| ''Main article:'' ] | |||
| Post-left anarchy (anarchy often used instead of "anarchism" to avoid the connotations of doctrine that the ''-ism'' suffix brings) is a more recent current in anarchist thought that seeks to distance itself from the traditional "left" - communists, liberals, social democrats, etc. - and to escape the confines of ] in general. It has rapidly developed since the fall of the ], which many view as the death of authoritarian leftism; however, its roots are clearly visible in the ideas of the 1960s ]. It is not an independent "movement" as such but rather a critical way of thinking about anarchist ideas. | |||
| Post-leftists argue that anarchism has been weakened by its long attachment to contrary "leftist" movements and single issue causes (], ], etc.). It calls for a synthesis of anarchist thought and a specifically anti-authoritarian revolutionary movement outside of the leftist milieu. It often focuses on the individual rather than speaking in terms of class or other broad generalizations and shuns organizational tendencies in favor of the complete absence of hierarchy. Total individual liberation is a key focus, rather than merely economic liberation. | |||
| The Left, even the revolutionary left, post-leftists argue, is anachronistic and incapable of creating change. It offers critiques of radical strategies and tactics which it considers antiquated; the demonstration, class-oriented struggle, focus on tradition and the inability to escape the confines of history. The book ''Anarchy in the Age of Dinosaurs'', for example, critiques traditional leftist ideas and classical anarchism while calling for a rejuvenated anarchist movement. The widely read CrimethInc essay is another critique of "leftist" movements: "Why has the oppressed proletariat not come to its senses and joined you in your fight for world liberation? ... they know that your antiquated styles of protest—your marches, hand held signs, and gatherings—are now powerless to effect real change because they have become such a predictable part of the status quo. They know that your post-Marxist jargon is off-putting because it really is a language of mere academic dispute, not a weapon capable of undermining systems of control..." | |||
| The ideas associated with Post-left anarchy have been criticized by other anarchists, notably ]. Bookchin's polemic, ''Social Anarchism or Lifestyle Anarchism'', attacks these recent trends in anarchist thinking, and advocates a traditional focus on class struggle. ] wrote a book in response to Bookchin's arguments called ''Anarchy After Leftism'', an important post-leftist work. Anarcho-communists have also criticized post-leftist thinking. Many primitivists, including John Zerzan, can be said to be post-leftists (Zerzan himself has claimed to be 'anti-leftist'); however, most proponents of Post-left anarchy are not necessarily primitivists. | |||
| Important groups and individuals associated with Post-left anarchy include: ], the magazine ] and its editor ], ], and others. For more information, see Infoshop.org's section, and the on | |||
| ===Primitivism=== | |||
| ''Main article:'' ] | |||
| Primitivism is a philosophy advocating a return to a pre-industrial and usually pre-agricultural society, and a critique of industrial civilization, and the alienation that technology, progress, etc, have created between people and the natural world. Primitivism believes that industrial society inevitably produces oppressive structures through specialization of tasks or ], and that ] has similar negative implications. Most forms of primitivism question ] itself. Primitivism generally sees that by the birth of agriculture, and the birth of cities and the creating of production surplus, gave rise to structures of hierarchy, and later statism. Anarcho-primitivists point to the anti-authoritarian nature of many 'primitive' or hunter gather societies throughout the world's history, as examples of anarchist societies. | |||
| The primitivist movement has connections to radical environmentalism movements such as the ] and ]. Primitivism has been notably advocated by ], and to some extent by ] (the ]) and ]. | |||
| ===Small 'a' anarchism=== | |||
| The term "small 'a' anarchism" has been used in two different, but not unconnected contexts. | |||
| Dave Neal posited the term in opposition to big 'A' Anarchism in the article . While big 'A' Anarchism refered to ideological Anarchists, small 'a' anarchism was applied to their methodological counterparts; those who viewed anarchism as "a way of acting, or a historical tendency against illegitimate authority." As an anti-ideological position, small 'a' anarchism shares some similarities with ], while Neal's insistence that it entails a rejection of the idea that there can be an "ultimate Truth" recalls the poststructuralist turns of post-anarchism (see above). | |||
| David Graeber and Andrej Grubacic offer an alternative use of the term, applying it to groups and movements organising according to or acting in a manner consistent with anarchist principles of decentralisation, voluntary association, mutual aid, the network model, and crucially, "the rejection of any idea that the end justifies the means, let alone that the business of a revolutionary is to seize state power and then begin imposing one's vision at the point of a gun." Graeber and Grubacic do not offer a comprehensive list of groups within this rubric, but suggest that it includes the likes of autonomism, Zapatismo and radical democracy. It should be stressed that many of these groups do not describe themselves as "anarchist", perhaps deliberately, and are grouped instead on the basis of what they do, implying that the criteria for inclusion are similar to those articulated by Neal. | |||
| It is unclear how far the term has been picked up by the wider anarchist movement, but it does help to clarify and begin to explain some of the conflicts and disagreements within contemporary anarchism. | |||
| ===Technological anarchism=== | |||
| Some anarchists see ] as the way to replace hierarchy, defeat monopoly, and prevent war, and support ] in particular as a way to do so. Some writers — particularly ], who has written quite extensively in the ] genre about ], a futuristic society which has disposed of government — have theorised that anarchism would be inevitable with the technological advances that would make ] and living in space plausible . The ] Collective poses a similar theory that technological power will naturally overthrow human government (although some question their anarchist credentials, claiming that technological governance is no less oppressive than human governance). | |||
| It has also been argued that the ] is an example of anarchic organization, this being an example not of hierarchical business, but of voluntary association for the production of a good. | |||
| See also ] and ]. | |||
| ===Utopian anarchism=== | |||
| ''Main article:'' ] | |||
| A Utopian anarchist believes, primarily, that nothing is static, everything is relative, and constantly affecting everything else. However, purpose is important, as is progress of purpose, and progress towards fulfillment of purpose. A Utopian anarchist is always thinking of the end desire, and makes decisions through life keeping this context in mind. | |||
| Much stress is put upon developing education and evolution. Through free association, a complex web of desires and goals will be strived for, each influencing and perhaps assisting one another in our paths. | |||
| The system strives for perfection, through unified diversity. Any static system will have flaws, and flaws fester. If one brushes one's teeth the same way every day, what happens to the missed spot? | |||
| Some critics perceive a lack of safety in the absence of enforced moral judgement. One Utopian anarchist response would be to consider this an issue with ego and desire for personal power and appreciation. | |||
| ==Conceptions of an anarchist society== | |||
| ''Main article:'' ] | |||
| Many political philosophers justify support of the state as a means of regulating violence, so that the destruction caused by human conflict is minimized and fair relationships are established. Anarchists argue that pursuit of these ends do not justify the establishment of a state, and in fact many argue that the state is incompatible with those goals. Anarchists argue that the state helps to create a ], and uses force and violence to expand and protects the elite's interests. Much effort has been dedicated to explaining how anarchist societies would handle criminality. | |||
| ==Anarchist economic organization== | |||
| ''Main article:'' ] | |||
| Though anarchists are against a centrally controlled or coordinated economic system, most do believe that some sort of system (or multiple co-existing systems) must replace the current, capitalist system, either with a ], a ], or other, theoretical exchange/production paradigms. ] proposed that anarchy would allow for "the abolition of work". | |||
| ==Conflicts within anarchist thought== | |||
| ===Private property vs. Collective property=== | |||
| The anarcho-communists and anarcho-syndicalists advocate the elimination of private property, while the individualist anarchists support it as being essential to liberty. The 19th century individualists anarchists, such as Benjamin Tucker, believed that the idea of collective ownership of land was incoherent and incompatible with anarchism: "''That there is an entity known as the community which is the rightful owner of all land, Anarchists deny. I . . . maintain that ‘the community’ is a non-entity, that it has no existence, and is simply a combination of individuals having no prerogatives beyond those of the individuals themselves.''” | |||
| ===Individualism vs. Collectivism=== | |||
| ===Tolerance vs. Expansionism=== | |||
| Since any belief consistent with anti-statism is anarchist, there are vastly different and often opposing ideas about: what constitutes aggression, what is valid property, and what forms and conventions societies should adopt. As a result, there is difference of opinion ''within'' each school about how to react to, or interact with, those with opposing ideologies. E.g. How should an anarcho-socialist commune react to an anarcho-capitalist firm next door? (And vice-versa.) | |||
| The tolerant attitude is to live with it - let reality be the judge. One should not use force to promote your program. Those who take this ] approach to 'foreign policy' generally predict that, since their system is better, it will attract more people in the long run. ] is a good example of this tolerant approach. | |||
| The intolerant (evangelical or expansionist may be more descriptive) attitude considers the other system aggressive and/or authoritarian by its very nature. Thus it is permissable, perhaps even a moral imperitive, to use force against the perceived criminals. This attitude occurs among anarcho-capitalists, particularly those who cannot conceive of an anti-statist form of socialism. Indeed, "socialism" in colloquial speech is generally understood as "statist socialism." This attitude also occurs among anarcho-socialists, particularly those who cannot conceive of an anti-statist form of ]. Indeed, conventional socialist theory deems capitalism as necessarily authoritarian and exploitative. | |||
| ===Violence and non-violence=== | |||
| Anarchists have often been portrayed as dangerous and violent, due mainly to a number of high-profile violent acts including ]s, ]s, and ]s involving anarchists. The use of ] and ], however, is condemned by most anarchist ideology, though there remains no ] on the legitimacy or utility of violence. | |||
| Some anarchists share Leo Tolstoy's ] belief in ]. These ] advocate ] as the only method of achieving a truly anarchist revolution. They often see violence as the basis of government and coercion and argue that, as such, violence is illegitimate, no matter who is the target. Some of Proudhon's ] followers even saw ] as coercive and refused to take part in such traditional socialist tactics. | |||
| ] and ] saw violence as a necessary and sometimes desirable force. Malatesta took the view that it is "necessary to destroy with violence, since one cannot do otherwise, the violence which denies to the workers" ('']'', number 125, September 6, 1921). | |||
| Between 1894 and 1901, individual anarchists assassinated numerous heads of state. Such "]" was not popular among anarchists, and many in the movement condemned the tactic. For example, McKinley's assassin, ], claimed to be a disciple of ], but she disavowed any association with him. | |||
| Depictions in the press and popular fiction helped create a lasting public impression that anarchists are violent terrorists. This perception was enhanced by events such as the ], where anarchists were blamed for throwing a bomb at police who came to break up a public meeting in ]. | |||
| Some anarcho-socialists distinguish between "violence" and "property destruction": they claim that violence is when a person inflicts harm to another person, while property destruction or property damage is not violence, although it can have indirect harm such as financial harm. | |||
| ===Pacifism=== | |||
| Some anarchists consider ] (opposition to ]) to be inherent in their philosophy. Some anarchists take it further and follow ]'s belief in ] (note, however, that these ] are not necessarily ] as Tolstoy was), advocating ] as the only method of achieving a truly anarchist ]. | |||
| Anarchist literature often portrays war as an activity in which the state seeks to gain and consolidate power, both domestically and in foreign lands. Many anarchists subscribe to ]'s view that "war is the health of the state". Anarchists believe that if they were to support a war they would be strengthening the state — indeed, ] was alienated from other anarchists when he expressed support for the British in ]. | |||
| Just as they are critical and distrustful of most government endeavours, anarchists often view the stated reasons for war with a ] eye. Since the ] protests in ] and, most recently, the protests against the ], much anarchist activity has been ] based. | |||
| Many anarchists in the current movement however, reject complete pacifism, (although groups like Earth First!, and ] are based on principles of non-violence), and instead are in favor of self-defense, and sometimes violence against oppressive and authoritarian forces which they in fact also consider as defensive violence. Anarchists are skeptical however of winning a direct armed conflict with the state, and instead concern themselves mostly with organizing. Most anarchists however, do not consider the destruction of property to be violent, as do most activists who believe in non-violence. | |||
| ===Parliamentarianism=== | |||
| While most anarchists firmly oppose voting, or otherwise participating in the State institution, there are a few that disagree. Even hard-core anarchists (e.g. Proudhon) have succumbed to the temptation of electoral politics - and inevitably regretted it. ] is a anarchist school of thought which emphasizes "tending your own garden" and "neither ballets nor bullets." The anarchist case against voting is explained in by George H. Smith. | |||
| == Critique == | |||
| See ] for a general critique of socialism, some of which may apply. There are also some specific criticisms of anarchism. | |||
| === Violence === | |||
| Some critics claim that lack of police and military would leave the anarchist communities defenseless against organized internal and external aggressors like ], ], or military ]. The criticism about lack of police only applies to those schools of 'anarchism' that would deny people's freedom to organize voluntarily for defense. | |||
| ] theory allows PDAs (private defense agencies), i.e. private arbitration and police associations, which it is argued would be more moral and efficient than monopoly statist police. In other words, anarchists are not against police, courts, and laws ''per se'', simply the monopoly provision of such by a coercive organization - the State. Advantages over statist legal systems are: 1) less likelihood of victimless crime laws, 2) people may choose what rules to live by, and 3) competition for customers favors liberty compared to monopoly statist police. Since people can choose their preferred security product, this allows for e.g. the Happy Hippie Defense Association which allows ganja and public nudity, and the God's Own Security, Inc. that stones adulterers and has mandatory church attendence. Such different legal products may exist peacefully side-by-side, since they are voluntary and people can opt out or switch at any time. (Presumably not to avoid prosecution.) Cf: "The Market for Liberty" by Morris and Linda Tannahill, "The Ethics of Liberty" by Murray Rothbard, and articles on "]." | |||
| Similarly, ] would allow private defense associations to organize against foreign invasion. Local private militias are seen as likely, while interventionist military actions would become more difficult compared to statist military policy. Since they depend on voluntary funding, private militaries would not have taxpayers to plunder or subjects to conscript. Thus interventionism becomes an expense to bear that more peaceful competitors don't have. Peaceful defense firms therefore have a competitive advantage over warmonger firms. Furthermore, unlike States, PDAs are not necessarily territorially based. Thus the use of weapons of mass destruction is less likely for private militaries than statist militaries. E.g. Coke doesn't bomb Pepsi because they have bottling plant and customers in the same cities and towns, whereas statist militaries and ideology allows mass-murder of everyone on the enemy State's 'turf.' | |||
| Some express doubts concerning the effectiveness of a voluntary militia against a ruthless modern military using ] and hierarchical structure. Critics also argue that historical examples, like the ], do not support the theory that anarchist communities can defend themselves. Also, critics see violence among ] as evidence that anarchist societies will be violent. Yet examples like Hong Kong, a near free market virtually defenseless from Mao's China not only wasn't attacked, but thrived. Anarchists argue that free trade makes attack unlikely. E.g. Since China owned the biggest bank in Hong Kong, and Hong Kong provided much needed trade and financial services to China, it would have been irrational for China to attack. Similar experience in other merchant cities supports this view. As Fredric Bastiat wrote, "When goods don't cross borders, soldiers will." Anarcho-capitalists believe that converse is also true: when goods ''do'' cross borders, war is less likely. As for hunter gatherers, many such societies did get along peacefully. Again, it depended largely on whether freedom of trade was allowed and property rights were respected. A study of the Yurok Indians of northern California showed that they got along peacibly with neighboring tribes, and even allowed people from other tribes to own property in their jurisdiction. Cf: Also, the Xeer of Somaliland has a peaceful record, especially compared to the chaos of the statist system (and its breakdown) in neighboring Somalia. | |||
| === Production === | |||
| Some critics of Anarchism claim that production in an unorganized society will suffer and dwindle to a primitive state. This critique assumes that order can only result from central planning, as opposed to decentralized/pluralistic decision-making or some other form of emergent order. | |||
| In a stateless society where one community has no formal relationship with another, as some ] envision, production would be localized, eliminating the benefits of ] and ]. Even if it is cheaper to produce goods in one geographic location over another, anarchism could mean that people farther away cannot benefit from this efficient production because safe, organized production and transportation is prevented. Of course, this objection doesn't apply at all to the ] vision of free trade and open markets. On the contrary, without government regulation, barriers to trade, and plunder, production would be expected to compare favorably to statist ]. | |||
| Another critique of the ] position is that business relationships between organizations/firms/individuals will be limited to inefficient contracts. Without a government and judicial system to enforce a contract, organizations will be forced to use ] schemes and other paralegal methods to enforce contract negotiations. In particular, firms may feel safer doing businesses with other groups that they have a long-term relationship with. A newer organization will be viewed with distrust because it could renege on its contract obligations and forgo payment or delivery. This creates a formidable ] for new organizations and limits the profitable relationships organized producers can engage in. Again, this critique does not apply to ], which allows private polycentric law protecting contracts - law which is likely to be more efficient (and more moral) than the monopoly law of the State. The fact that new businesses have to build up a reputation for honesty and quality is seen as a good consequence from the consumers' point of view, and a natural (as opposed to coercive) barrier to entry. | |||
| == Critique == | |||
| See ] for general critique of socialism, some of which may apply. There is also some specific criticism of anarchism. | |||
| === Violence === | |||
| Some critics claim that lack of police and military would leave the anarchist communities defenseless against organized internal and external aggressors like ], ], or military ]. The criticism about lack of police only applies to those schools of 'anarchism' that would deny people's freedom to organize voluntarily for defense. | |||
| Some express doubts concerning the effectiveness of a voluntary militia against a ruthless modern military using ] and hierarchical structure. Critics also argue that historical examples, like the ], do not support the theory that anarchist communities can defend themselves. Also, critics see violence among ] as evidence that anarchist societies will be violent. Yet examples like Hong Kong, a near free market virtually defenseless from Mao's China not only wasn't attacked, but thrived. Anarchists argue that free trade makes attack unlikely. E.g. Since China owned the biggest bank in Hong Kong, and Hong Kong provided much needed trade and financial services to China, it would have been irrational for China to attack. Similar experience in other merchant cities supports this view. As Fredric Bastiat wrote, "When goods don't cross borders, soldiers will." Anarcho-capitalists believe that converse is also true: when goods ''do'' cross borders, war is less likely. As for hunter gatherers, many such societies did get along peacefully. Again, it depended largely on whether freedom of trade was allowed and property rights were respected. A study of the Yurok Indians of northern California showed that they got along peacibly with neighboring tribes, and even allowed people from other tribes to own property in their jurisdiction. Cf: Also, the Xeer of Somaliland has a peaceful record, especially compared to the chaos of the statist system (and its breakdown) in neighboring Somalia. | |||
| === Production === | |||
| Other critics of Anarchism claim that production in an unorganized society will suffer and dwindle to a primitive state. This critique assumes that order can only result from central planning, as opposed to decentralized/pluralistic decision-making or some other form of emergent order. | |||
| In a stateless society where one community has no formal relationship with another, as some anarchists envision, production would be localized, eliminating the benefits of ] and ]. Even if it is cheaper to produce goods in one geographic location over another, anarchism could mean that people farther away cannot benefit from this efficient production because safe, organized production and transportation is prevented. | |||
| Another critique of the anarchist position is that business relationships between organizations/firms/individuals will be limited to inefficient contracts. Without a government and judicial system to enforce a contract, organizations will be forced to use ] schemes and other paralegal methods to enforce contract negotiations. In particular, firms may feel safer doing businesses with other groups that they have a long-term relationship with. A newer organization will be viewed with distrust because it could renege on its contract obligations and forgo payment or delivery. This creates a formidable ] for new organizations and limits the profitable relationships organized producers can engage in. | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | * ] | ||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] (latin folk singer) | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | * ] | ||
| * ] (Anarchist/pacifist 'punk' band) | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] (metal band) | |||
| * ], for a symbol of anarchism | |||
| * ] | * ] | ||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
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| * ] | |||
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| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ===Historical events=== | |||
| *] (]) | |||
| *] (]) | |||
| *] (]) | |||
| *] (]) (see ]) | |||
| *], France (]) | |||
| *] (]) | |||
| ===Books=== | |||
| *], '''', ''Prison Memoirs of an Anarchist'', others | |||
| *], '''', ''The Paris Commune and the Idea of the State'', others | |||
| *], '''', ''Living My Life'', others | |||
| *], '']'' | |||
| *], '']'', '']'', others | |||
| *], '']'' | |||
| *], ''Anarcho-Syndicalism'' | |||
| *], ''The Unknown Revolution'' | |||
| *], '']'' | |||
| *], '''' | |||
| *], '']'' Contractarian (as opposed to Natural Law or utilitarian) anarchism | |||
| *], ''The Kingdon of God is Within You'' - Christian pacifist anarchism | |||
| *], ''The Society of the Spectacle'' | |||
| *], '']'' Small is beautiful | |||
| *], ''Temporary Autonomous Zones'' Ontological anarchism | |||
| *''Emma: a play in two acts about Emma Goldman, American anarchist'' (2002) ISBN 089608664X | |||
| ===Publications=== | |||
| *'''Journals:''' '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', ''Anarcho-Syndicalist Review'', ''Social Anarchism'', ''Northeastern Anarchist'', ''The Match!'', '']'', '']'' | |||
| *'''News publications:''' ''] (Organ Of The ])'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '''' | |||
| *'''Other magazines and zines:''' Anarchist Panther, Harbinger (CrimethInc), Practical Anarchy, ], ], Alternative Press Review, Communicating Vessels, Killing King Abacus, Willful Disobedience, Do or Die, In Ya Face, Anarchy and Community, Anchorage Anarchy, Black Badger, Slingshot. | |||
| *'''Collections:''' | |||
| *'''Related publications:''' '']'', '']'' | |||
| ===Concepts=== | |||
| ''Main article: ]'' | |||
| *] | |||
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| ===Anarchist organizations=== | |||
| ''Main article: ]'' | |||
| *] | |||
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| While all of these ] have anarchists as members, many are inclusive beyond anarchist and include ] and ]. | |||
| ===Anarchism by region/culture=== | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| * | |||
| *An is written from the perspective of the traditional anarchist movement. | |||
| * Peter Kropotkin's for the 11th edition Encylopedia Britannica (1911). | |||
| * | |||
| *Hundreds of anarchists are listed, with short bios, links & dedicated pages | |||
| * | |||
| * Blogs by Anarchists. | |||
| * intends to be an anarchist encyclopedia using the ] engine. | |||
| * extensively archives information relating to famous anarchists. This includes many of their books and other publications. | |||
| * A selection of websites, books, and online articles that explore social anarchism. | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * - an analysis of anarchist use of consensus, by the ]. | |||
| * | |||
| * - (]) | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
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| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * (ELF) | |||
| * (ALF) | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * by Andrej Grubacic at the ] | |||
| * Italian anarchist site | |||
| * Ontario Anarchist Networking | |||
| === Opposing Views === | |||
| * | |||
| See also: ], ], ], ], ] | |||
| ] | |||
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Revision as of 05:50, 7 July 2005
Anarchism is a name taken by various political theories which advocate the abolition of some or all forms of authority. The word anarchism derives from Greek roots an (no) and archos (ruler).
These theories have radically different visions of what anarchism means: libertarian socialists intend anarchism to mean the replacement of all forms of hierarchy (political, economic, and otherwise) by democratically-controled and collectively-owned organizations; anarcho-capitalists envision a capitalist society with governments replaced by capitalist institutions; individualist anarchists insist above all on individual freedom from state.
Although in different places, "anarchism" is variously understood as being either socialist or capitalist, when unadorned, however, anarchism popularly denotes libertarian socialism.
While it might seem that "anarchism" implies a total lack of law, many "anarchists" believe that there should exist organised structures in society, but that these should be created by contract rather than state monopoly. This is reflected in the phrase: Anarchy means no rulers, not no rules. This is why anarchist legal systems exist de facto in anarchies functioning today.
Libertarian socialism
This theory of anarchism calls for a system of socialism, with collective ownership of means of production and democratic control of all organizations, without the need for any government authority or coercion.
Adherents of this view sometimes call themselves libertarian socialists, libertarian communists, left-anarchists, or anarcho-communists.
While some historians trace the roots of European anarchism to movements such as the Free Spirit in the middle ages, there was no cohesive ideology until the nineteenth century. Major advocates of anarchism in that era included Leo Tolstoy, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Peter Kropotkin, and Mikhail Bakunin. Their writings revolved around atheism (with a few exceptions), and cooperative economics based on mutual aid. Anarchist labor unions were a significant element in the social struggles of that era, and many experiments in cooperative living, education, and other institutions were made. Bakunin was thrown out of the International by Karl Marx, which began a long-lasting split between left-anarchists and communists.
Late in the 19th century, anarchist labor unions began to use the tactic of general strike. This was often met with violence and some of the strikes even resulted in massacres.
In this climate, a minority of anarchists began to advocate terrorism, which they referred to as "propaganda of the deed." United States President William McKinley, among others, was assassinated by an anarchist.
This has left a lasting public impression that libertarian socialists are violent terrorists, a prejudice not aided by events such as the Haymarket Riot, where anarchists were (probably wrongly) blamed for throwing a bomb at police who came to break up a public meeting in Chicago. Nowadays the illegitimate use terrorism is condemned by all libertarian socialists, but there is still no consensus on the legitimacy or utility of violence. The Tolstoian tradition of non-violent resistance is prevalent among most anarchists; the rest believe that violence (especially self-defense and property damage) is justified as the way to provoke social upheaval which could lead to a social revolution.
The idea that anarchists are particularly violent takes another blow when one looks further into anarchist theory: notably, Emma Goldman included in her definition of Anarchism the observation that all governments rest on violence, and this is one of the many reasons they should be opposed.
Similarly, there is no consensus on what type of socialism libertarian socialists advocate. Many libertarian socialists employ criticisms of capitalism which are similar to those advocated by Marxists. Others focus on mutual aid from an anthropoligical perspective. Anarcho-syndicalists see labor unions as the critical organizing structures of an anarchist economy.
Anarcho-capitalism
The theory of anarchism, based on individualism and natural law, calls for the abolition of any government control or regulation, and promotes capitalist private businesses to replace all of current government's activities.
Adherents of this theory of anarchism call themselves anarcho-capitalists.
Anarcho-capitalism has existed in its modern form at least since Gustave de Molinari in the 1840s, but has mostly been flourishing since it organized in the 1950s in the USA. Anarcho-capitalists consider themselves as radical members of the classical liberal tradition ('libertarianism' as it is now called in the USA), and trace their explicit roots back to Locke and the seventeenth century english Whigs. All classical liberals believe in 'as little government as possible'; anarchists among them believe governments can and must be done without completely, whereas minarchists believe or accept that some government be necessary for e.g. enforcing law and order.
Anarcho-capitalists, like classical liberals in general, tend to loathe violent action and revolutions as a "normal" way to promote or impose their views, even in presence of governments they hate. However, they do support, e.g. the american revolution, that precisely consisted in individuals sharing common views fighting together, against people trying to impose their views on them.
Individualist anarchism
There are several anarchist thinkers, such as Benjamin Tucker, Lysander Spooner and Max Stirner who are known as individualist anarchists. Beyond economic issues of collectivism vs capitalism, they insist on individual liberty and absence of coercion from state.
Like libertarian socialists, they loathe government-supported capitalism, and reject several essential principles of capitalism in general. Like anarcho-capitalists, they put an emphasis on individual rights and liberty, and on market-based approaches. They are thus acknowledged both by libertarian socialists and anarcho-capitalists, although each side accepts or criticizes differently the works of these thinkers. See individualist anarchism for a discussion of this issue.
On the debate of capitalism vs socialism, the reply of modern individualist anarchism is to let each individual choose the system he is willing to adhere to, and, with experience, each will choose what suits him best; to them, it doesn't matter which system will majoritarily prevail (which doesn't prevent each of them from making one's own educated guess), as long as individual freedom is respected.
Anarchy as Anomie
The popular meaning of anarchy as absolute chaos and disorder, what some scholars call by Durkheim's sociological term "anomie" (absence of standards, values or order), is rejected by all the above anarchist traditions - they think that government is actually a source of disorder, and that society would be more orderly without any. Anarchy and anomie in this context are most often not intended situations, and are more an extension of what the opponents of anarchy imagine would result from if anarchists of any kind were to take power.
This usage has strong negative connotations, and has historically been used as a slur by political groups against their opponents, most notably by monarchists against republicans in past centuries. However, anomie has also been embraced by countercultural elements such as punk rock.
Libertarian socialism vs. Anarcho-capitalism
Both libertarian socialists and anarcho-capitalists share an opposition to states and governments; but beyond that they disagree vehemently. Libertarian socialists consider that an employer-employee relationship is based on coercion by the employer, and that all coercion should be prevented, even if oppressed employees are passively consenting out of weakness and ignorance. Anarcho-capitalists consider an employer-employee relationship to be an elaborate and mutually profitable form of voluntary association, and that any external power capable of preventing it is itself oppression.
Some commentators frame this debate as follows:
- Anarcho-socialists (Libertarian Socialists) believe that all forms of hierarchy must be eliminated. Anarcho-capitalists believe that all coercive forms of hierarchy must be eliminated, thus employer / employee relationships may be preserved, as they are freely entered into contracts.
- Anarcho-socialists counter that as no ordinary (as opposed to someone who is independently wealthy) person can refuse to work, there is no freedom involved in the negotiation of a contract with an employer (the "weakness and ignorance" refered to above, or the wage slave concept referred to in socialist literature).
- Anarcho-capitalists in return argue that, no matter what social organization may or may not exist, social organizations will never eliminate the basic human requirement to work in order to support themselves. Therefore an objection based on a constraint that cannot be overcome is useless to argue about, and not a rational objection at all.
Anarchies functioning today
Anarchies functioning during the first decade of the 21st century include the usenet, indymedia, the GNU/Linux community, the Misplaced Pages community itself, and other sub-societies which are generally networked using the internet.
They operate using de facto anarchist law which does not use prison systems, does not use violence, and in which enforcement generally happens by polite and rational discussion on publicly archived mailing lists, so that even emotional coercion and manipulation are discouraged because they require secrecy in order to function.
A Few Famous Anarchists
Here is a small selection of some well known figures in anarchist history and thought. For others, see in various categories.
- Michael Bakunin (1814 - 1876), well-known early socialist anarchist
- Peter Kropotkin (1842-1921), credited as first theorist of anarcho-communism (an advance on Bakunin's anarchist-collectivism)
- Gustave de Molinari (1819 - 1912), first theorist of anarcho-capitalism
- Benjamin Tucker (1854 - 1939), great defender of individualist anarchism
- Leo Tolstoy (1828 - 1910), Novelist and "Christian anarchist" thinker
- Voltairine de Cleyre (1866 - 1912)
- Rudolph Rocker (1873 - 1958), important figure in anarchist-syndicalist movement
- Noam Chomsky (1928 - present)
- David Friedman (Anarchocapitalist economist and author)
- Errico Malatesta
- Emma Goldman
- Pierre-Joseph Proudhon
- Nestor Makhno
- Miguel Garcia
- Vernon Richards (Freedom anarchist fortnightly)
- Colin Ward (Freedom anarchist fortnightly)
- John Zerzan(Primitivist philosopher/theoretician)
- Albert Meltzer (Co- founder of Black Flag anarchist newspaper (UK))
- Stuart Christie (Co- founder of Black Flag anarchist newspaper (UK), and Cienfuegos Press anarchist publishing house)
- Alan Albon (Freedom anarchist fortnightly)
- Murray Bookchin (leading social ecology thinker and writer)
- Lysander Spooner
Anarchist musicians
In the past few decades, anarchism has been associated with the punk rock movement, and has grown because of that association (whatever other effects that has had on the movement and the prejudiced pictures of it). Following is some of the more famous anarchist musicians; that is, musicians who happen to be vocally anarchist.
- Anarcho-punk
- John Cage
- Manu Chao (latin folk singer)
- Chumbawamba
- Crass (Anarchist/pacifist 'punk' band)
- One Minute Silence (metal band)
- The Ex
See also: nihilism, syndicalism, libertarianism, situationism, primitivism