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| by Paul Lendvai - 2003 - p. 14</ref>. An early version of this story was found in a document taken from the Hungarian Royal Library when it was captured by the ] and re-published under the title ''"Tarihi Üngürüs"'' (History of the Hungarians), now in the ] of ]. | by Paul Lendvai - 2003 - p. 14</ref>. An early version of this story was found in a document taken from the Hungarian Royal Library when it was captured by the ] and re-published under the title ''"Tarihi Üngürüs"'' (History of the Hungarians), now in the ] of ]. | ||
| The second account has been related to Biblical genealogy. The document starts with Tana, perhaps the same as the Sumerian ] of the city of ] son of "Arwium", son of "Mashda", according to a very few authors such as F. Hamori and T. R. Michels. The ] Scythians also had an ancestor called Kush-Tana. In the Sumerian account, Etana of Kish was the first king who 'stabilised all the nations'. Some feel that Etana of Kish corresponds to the Biblical ] |
The second account has been related to Biblical genealogy. The document starts with Tana, perhaps the same as the Sumerian ] of the city of ] son of "Arwium", son of "Mashda", according to a very few authors such as F. Hamori and T. R. Michels. The ] Scythians also had an ancestor called Kush-Tana. In the Sumerian account, Etana of Kish was the first king who 'stabilised all the nations'. Some feel that Etana of Kish corresponds to the Biblical ] or his son, ]<ref>''Nimrod - Darkness in the Cradle of Civilization'' p. 331 | ||
| by Steven Merrill - 2004</ref><ref>''New Evidence for Two Human Origins'' - p. 70 - by Gary T. Mayer - 2007</ref>. In the Hungarian account, Tana's son is called Menrot, whose twin sons, ''Magor'' and ''Hunor'' dwelled by the Sea of Azov in the years following the flood, and took wives from the ]<ref>''Five Eleventh Century Hungarian Kings: Their Policies and Their Relations'' p. ix, x, by Z. J. Kosztolnyik - 1981</ref><ref> | |||
| ''Magyar mythologia'' p. 146, by Arnold Ipolyi - 1854</ref><ref></ref>. | ''Magyar mythologia'' p. 146, by Arnold Ipolyi - 1854</ref><ref></ref>. | ||
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"Hungarian prehistory" (Hungarian: Magyar őstörténet) refers to a specific slice of the history of the Hungarian people. It typically refers to the time starting from when the Magyars were considered a separate and identifiable unit of people up until their occupation and settlement of the Pannonian plain around 890 AD (the Honfoglalás). The events that occurred between the Honfoglalás and the coronation of St. Stephen are also included by some historians as part of Hungarian prehistory. The terms "proto-history", "ancient history", and "early history" are also used to describe this period of Hungarian history.
The formation of the Magyars as a separate people
The Hungarian Urheimat (Hungarian: Magyar Őshaza) is the theoretical original homeland of the Magyars. The term urheimat comes from linguistics and tends to be reserved for language origin, but it is also applied frequently to ethnic origin. Some believe that the Magyar Urheimat is the same as the Uralic language group's urheimat on the western side of the Urals. Others claim that the urheimat is the same area as Yugra to the east of the Urals, where the Khanty and Mansi live today. Another point of view is that the urheimat concept is outdated since the development of a people is continuous. Several urheimats can thus be identified depending upon which point in time is being spoken of.
The view of Magyar prehistory officially propagated in the 19th century by the Austro-Hungarian monarchy derives Hungarian origins as being ultimately from Yugra, although according to Russian documents the Ob-Ugrians fled to the east from the Komi and the Russians in the 12th century. Yugra also tends to be identified as the Ob-Ugric language urheimat. The western side of the Urals in the vicinity of the Kama river is considered to be the Ugric language urheimat. One of the consensus views is that the Magyar urheimat is somewhere in the steppe zone south of the Ural mountains. It would have been in this region that Magyars would have become most known for the stockherding, equestrian type of nomadic existence.
István Kiszely and some other scholars looked for an earlier ethnic urheimat and traced the seed of the Magyars to today's Eastern Turkestan, specifically, the northern and western edges of the Gobi Desert, the Jungar Basin and the confines of the Taklamakan Desert.
In this area, between the 9th and 8th centuries BC, was established the Hun (Xiongnu) empire. Among the members of this Xiongnu tribal confederation were Turkic, Altaic and Iranian groups, as well the ethnic group that later, under the name Onogur, constituted the Hungarians' ancestors. The members of the Xiongnu tribal federation were stockherding equestrian nations. Chinese almanacs mention them as being from whom, in times of need, horses, sheep, and wheat, could be bought for silk, china, gold, silver, black ink and powder, and who engraved the contracts "with their own characters" on wooden plates and dog skins.
The Xiongnu tribal federation split up in 91 AD, when the Western Huns, who had lived along the Chu river, seceded. Later, the Romans invited them in 361 AD into the Pannonian Plain, to keep the Sarmatians and Gepids in check. Their king of a century later, Attila, was one of the most feared rulers in Europe in the first millennium. According to the Hungarian medieval tradition, some Huns fled to Chigle Field (Mezőség) in Transylvania during the struggle against Goths after Attila's death. There they supposedly become the Székely.
The migration of the Hungarians' ancestors from Central Asia started with the later Onogur nation seceding from the second Turkic federation to move west, and it continued until the conquest of Pannonia in 895/96 (890?) AD.
Migrations
The place where the Magyars could first be identified as a distinct people was supposedly Central Asia in the end of the 3rd or beginning of 4th century AD. This area was the crossroads, resting place, and a kind of ethnic melting-pot of different nations. Trade routes of four worlds met here: the legendary Silk Road from the east, the Byzantine Empire in the southwest, and the Iranian routes from the south converged here with those of the Northern equestrian nations.
The ancient Magyars not only sojourned in the Turan Depression, but stayed in its northern part for a while, in the neighborhood of Khwarezm, Kangju, Sogdia and Bactria. Tiny vestiges of the ancient Magyars here include the "tribe" called "Madiar", and the place name Majar Kislak. Much could be learned about the ancient Magyars from the writings of the Arabian geographers Al-Makdisi and Abu Rayhan al-Biruni from this area.
The route of migration the ancient Magyars took towards the Carpathian Basin is much discussed and disputed among experts on the topic with no clear consensus. Different sources claim Magyar habitation in different locations in a mixed chronological order. These locations are discussed below.
Dentumoger
Anonymous' Gesta Hungarorum names a place called Dentumoger where the ancient Magyars lived before migrating to the Carpathian basin. The name is used synonymously with Scythia.
So the Hungarians...traced their origin to the Scythian people, whom in their own language they call Dentumoger. And that land became overcrowded with the multitude of people born there...
— Anonymous
Anonymous was unfamiliar with any migrations towards the south. According to the Gesta Hungarorum, the ancient Magyars migrated directly from Dentumoger to present-day Hungary following a path from the Middle Volga region to Susdal to Kiev, etc. Dentumoger could be synonymous with Magna Hungaria, a term that came to be used later for roughly the same region.
Two Hungarian legends take place here: the dream of Emese (the "legend of turul"), and the legend of the Wondrous Stag (the legend of Hunor and Magor).
Magna Hungaria
Magna Hungaria (literally "Great Hungary") was an area settled by the proto-Magyars. In 1235, Friar Julian located this land directly east of the capital of Volga Bulgaria. One theory states that the Magyars moved to this area from a northerly urheimat before migrating further to the southwest. "The Hungarian tribes joined with by the tribe Megyer – as readable by Istvan Fodor – presumably moved to the south, then west from the Bashkirian Magna Hungaria, crossing the Volga, and dwelled in the area of the river Don." Alternatively, some of the Magyars moved north into Magna Hungaria together with the Volga Bulgarians while the others moved into Etelkoz, which was now vacated by the Bulgars.
In Bashkiria, in the territory of the Kama river, Hungarian gravesites confirm the Hungarians' ancestors' dwelling here. A significant burial place used between 850 and 920 AD is Bolshie Tigani with 150 graves in the Volga-Kama territory.
The Caucasian country
There is no name for this Caucasian area the early Magyars were to have lived in and the evidence for habitation appears tenuous, but most scholars seem to agree that the Magyars lived there prior to Levedia. It is generally referred to as the Don-Kuban area or the Caucasian homeland. Xenophon, Prokopios (490-562 AD), Agathias (536-582 AD), Protector Menandros (6th century), Joshua the Stylite (6th century), the Chronicle of Edessa, Joannes Ephesinus (6th century) and especially the Armenian authors Agathangelos, Phaustos Byzantios and Lazar of Farp, mention the Huns and Hungarians dwelling there. The Armenian ruler St. Gregory "the Illuminator" (Gregor Lusavoritch) mentions the Hungarians' ancestors there in his ecclesiastic works.
Kornél Bakay (1996) finds significance in the fact that "the old name Sabir of the Hungarians leads us into the Caucasus... the ancient Hungarians came into being from two ethnicities; the Hungarian speaking Sabir-Huns, and the Turkish speaking Onogur Turks" (it is now known that the language of the Huns was also Onogur Turkish). The group who broke away in the Caucasus are the Savard Hungarians, to whom the monk Julianus traveled, before nearing Magna Hungaria. (Their location here is Majar, where Samuel Turkoly attracted attention in 1825).
Levedia
Levédia was an area settled by the Magyars in the 9th century. It was located in the territory of present-day eastern Ukraine. They moved to this area from Magna Hungaria situated on the western side of the Urals. Under pressure from the Khazar-driven Pechenegs, the Hungarians abandoned Levedia and moved further to the west, to the area known as Etelköz.
Byzantine emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, writing in De administrando imperio, names a place where the early Magyars lived. He called it "Levedia" after Magyar voivode Lebedias. Constantine reports that this land has a river flowing through it called Chidmas or Chingilous, but scholars have been unsuccessful in identifying which river these names refer to. If the early Hungarians were in Levedia – in the neighborhood of Bulgarians and Khazars – it is possible that they lived there only "three years" altogether, as emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus wrote. The Hungarians at this time "hired" out twenty thousand mounted archers to the Khazar ruler -- indicative of their strong army and organisation. Certified Hungarian burial places from this territory have only now begun turning up.
Kornel Bakay has cast doubt on the Hungarians ever dwelling in Levedia, claiming "a mythic ancestor is seen in Levedias... Levedia cannot be a separate stage of the Hungarians' migration". András Róna-Tas also doesn't believe Levedia was a real place, instead seeing the story as an Árpádian legitimizing explanation for a regime change.
"The appearance of a new dynasty always brought about a crisis of legitimacy. The new ruler ... needed to explain what happened to the previous clan... At that time, the legitimacy of power in the steppes meant being recognised by the Khazars. The part , which relates Levedi facing up to his incompetence, and recommending Álmos or Arpád instead of himself, lacks even the smallest fragment of credibility."
— András Róna-Tas
Constantine is the only known source from which the name of Levedia comes from. Constantine reports that one part of the Magyars (including Lebedias) moved from Levedia into "places called Atelkouzou" after a Pecheneg/Kangar attack.
Etelköz
Etelköz was an area settled by the Magyars from c. 830 to circa 895 CE, when they occupied the Carpathian Basin, maybe driven west by the Pecheneg mercenaries of Simeon I of Bulgaria.
The exact location of Etelköz is disputed. "Etel" could stand for the river Volga (Etil means Volga in Old Turkic). According to Hungarian tradition, Etelköz was located between the river Volga and the lower Danube. Modern historians, however, usually name slightly different locations, such as around the Dneper, etc.
The ancient Magyars' final stop before entering the Carpathian Basin was the Eastern-Northeastern foreground of the Carpathian Basin, Etelköz (Etelkuzu) -- the territory of the rivers Dnieper, Dniester, Bug and Seret. Hungarians ruled the territory between the Khazar Khaganate and the Carpathians at this time. Some believe that Levedia was in reality an eastern region of a larger Etelkoz.
There was nothing changed in the Hungarians' way of living compared with previously; reports Ibn Rusta: "The land of Hungarians is rich in trees and waters, their land is wet. They have much tillages..." Many authors write about the Hungarians in Etelköz (Jayhani tradition, Gardezi, Hudud al-Alam, etc.).
In Etelköz when the chief Álmos died, a Central Asian-style blood covenant was contracted, "that is a definitive event before the settlement, forming the Hungarian tribes to one nation" (Gyula László). Árpád was chosen as leader, then he deliberately reoccupied the ancient empire of Attila. "The nation of Árpád was not a ragged multitude of exiled hordes, but a deliberately and plannedly home changing rank, having great monarch Árpád in the lead, whose stem resulted excellent kings." (Kornél Bakay)
The Conquest or Honfoglalás
Simon Kézai (1283) calls the moving in of Árpád's Magyars to the Carpathian Basin a "remigration" after the Huns. The Hungarians' ancestors stayed some 45 years in Etelköz, and the exact date of the settlement, as calculated from the Byzantine solar eclipse, was 895. (This statement came before the diet in 1892, but as the preparations of the millennial festivals were not ready, the Austro-Hungarian government appointed 1896 as the year of millennial festivals).
The Avar empire in the Carpathian Basin had broken up about a hundred years before the settlement; but some Avars lived strewn about the countryside, calm in their village life. Most of the basin was inhabited by the Slavs. The northern part belonged to Great Moravia, weakened by a civil war. Transylvanian salt mines were guarded by Bulgaria. The Balaton Principality in Transdanubia was occupied first by Great Moravia, then by the Frankish empire.
The beginning of the Hungarian settlement was instigated by other factors: in 894 AD an extreme Muslim attack streamed into Eastern Europe; the Byzantines disappointed the Hungarians living in the Balkans; they were hit by a Pecheneg attack; and finally with Svatopluk I's death that year, Great Moravian power started to decline. The settlement itself supposedly took place in May 895, when the Hungarian tribes from their quarters in Etelköz took the closest routes (Verecke, Tömös, Ojtoz, Gyimes, Békás pass, Lower Duna, etc.) and occupied first the Upper Tisza area; then three groups calling themselves kabar ("rioter") split from the Khazars and invaded the Transylvanian salt mines guarded by Bulgarians, and with the claim of finality pushed into the Carpathian Basin. Transdanubia was entered by the Hungarians only after the death of Arnulf, the Frankish ruler, in 890 AD, completing the occupation; thus this year may be taken as the actual end year of the settlement.
The real significance of the settlement is that a nation originating in Central Asia, evolved on the border of Europe and Asia, calling themselves Magyar; getting the name "Turk" from the Byzantine Greeks, and "Ungar, Hungarus, Hun"" from other European nations, could create a firm state in the Carpathian Basin, one that was able to form a relatively peaceful symbiosis for the nations under the Holy Crown, and that today has a Constitution guaranteeing rights that is equal to any among the nations of Europe.
At the end of May 895 at Ópusztaszer (or from 890 AD, after the Transdanube's occupation), the first Hungarian diet took place -- whence Hungarian prehistory ends, and history begins.
Land conquest in two waves theory
a theory reiterated in recent decades by Hungarian archeologist Gyula László. He has argued that the Magyars arrived in two separate waves, centuries apart, a notion which is still controversial.
Some evidence: The Primary Russian Chronicle, attributed by some to Nestor, recalls that the Magyars undertook two Conquests of Hungary, first under the name of "White Ugrians", during the time when the Avars occupied the country, and then a second during the reign of the Grand Duke Oleg. Archaeologists of the Rippl-Rónai Museum from Kaposvár (Hungary) have made a sensational discovery near Bodrog-Alsóbű - Temető-dűlő, Somogy County, in 1999. The research-workers dug up a pottery piece that was long-ago part of an ancient furnace bellows, having on its edge a Székely-Magyar type runic text of 4 letters in Hungarian language ("funák" = "they would blow", or maybe: "they were blowing"?). As scientist Gábor Vékony said, this writing monument may be dated as being made between 864 and 873 A.D., so less 23 years before the arrival of the Hungarians (Magyars) led by Árpád in the Carpathian basin.
Historiography
The first major scholarly foray into Hungarian prehistory was made by Johann Eberhard Fisher (1697-1771) with his statement (1768), that "the language of Estonians, Finnish, Lapps, Permis, Vots, Cheremis, Mordvins, Chuvash and Hungarians is common". All these nations lived "in born wildness and crassness in the near past", to his mind. August Ludwig Schölzer (1735-1809) brought Fischer's work into notoriety in his work published in 1771 stating, that "only the Hungarians have no history of their own". The Hungarian theologian and astronomer János Sajnovics, after observing the passing of Venus before the sun on the island of Vardö, wrote a linguistic essay about the Hungarian-Lapp relationship. Then the jurist Antal Reguly collected folksongs from the land of Voguls.
On the basis of these early forays, in 1870 in Budapest the Finno-Ugric theory of ethnogenesis was established with the support of the Academy in Vienna and proclaimed as fact with only the barest of linguistic support as evidence. The biggest proponent of this theory in the 19th century was the Saxon from Szepes, Pal Hunfalvy (Hunsdorfer), making common cause with Joseph Budenz.
Opposing Hunfalvy, for the cause of proving Hungarians' "Turkish" roots, stood Ármin Vámbery, among many others. He stressed that "the base, the core of the Hungarian language and nation is Turkish, and where a bit of Finno-ugrian sparses can be found are secondary, sojourner elements".
Gyula Laszlo criticized the "Finno-Ugric" concept of prehistory: "If linguistics wouldn't draw the attention of the explorers to the Ob-Ugrians, they would never search for the Hungarians' ancestors' relatives there by themselves... The language separates our human being, and our beliefs bind us..."
Many other theories have appeared beside "Finno-Ugrianism". Some of them don't even consider how different the Hungarians are compared with all other European nations, but concentrating on the indigenous natives, proclaim that "the Hungarians, getting the start of any others, dwelled in the Carpathian Basin" (Adorján Magyar, Lajos Marjalaki Kiss).
The idea of the Egyptian origin of Hungarians, published in the 3 volume book of Tibor Barath (1973), appears written in newer phrasing: "Most of the Eastern nations, so the Hungarians arrived not from Mesopotamia, but from the closer Egyptian culture era to the lands of Europe". Geza Kun stood for the Etruscan-Hungarian relationship, and to the mind of Ferenc Zajti, "the ancient Scythian-Hun nation gave birth to the Hungarians".
The alleged Sumerian-Hungarian relationship has had numerous representatives and followers (Ida Bobula, Viktor Padányi, Ferenc Badiny Jós, Kalman Gosztonyi, Sandor Csőke, Andras Zakar, Mrs. Hary etc. ). The origin of this assertion was explained by Ida Bobula this way: "When in the middle of the 19th century, under the debris of Mesopotamia the first written memories, the tile-table notched cuneiform and hieroglyphic text began to turn up, professionals recognized that those against the Assyrian-Babylonian texts were written in a non-Semitic structured language." The language proved to be agglutinatively structured. The pioneer orientalists Julius Oppert, Rawlinson, and Archibald Sayce spoke of the ancient Scythian and Turanian languages. The French scientist Lenormant declared that the language of these "artificers of writing" is closest to Hungarian.
Speculations on mythic origins
The Hungarian Chronicles say very little about the early history of the Magyars. The main references to that period are found in two accounts, one of which is the Legend of the White Stag which suggests the unification of the Magyars with certain tribes of Huns and Alans. An early version of this story was found in a document taken from the Hungarian Royal Library when it was captured by the Turks and re-published under the title "Tarihi Üngürüs" (History of the Hungarians), now in the Topkapi Museum of Istanbul.
The second account has been related to Biblical genealogy. The document starts with Tana, perhaps the same as the Sumerian Etana of the city of Kish son of "Arwium", son of "Mashda", according to a very few authors such as F. Hamori and T. R. Michels. The Kushan Scythians also had an ancestor called Kush-Tana. In the Sumerian account, Etana of Kish was the first king who 'stabilised all the nations'. Some feel that Etana of Kish corresponds to the Biblical Cush or his son, Nimrod. In the Hungarian account, Tana's son is called Menrot, whose twin sons, Magor and Hunor dwelled by the Sea of Azov in the years following the flood, and took wives from the Alans.
Another version of this legend found in the Kepes Kronika makes Magor and Hunor the sons of Japheth rather than of Nimrod, equating Magor with Magog.
Nimrod the hunter, founder of Erech, is more plausibly identified by David Rohl with Enmerkar, founder of Uruk (Sum. kar=hunter).
The mother of the twin sons in the Hungarian version is Eneth, Enech or Eneh, who is the wife of either Menrot (Nimrod) or of Japheth. If she is to be equated with the Sumerian goddess Inanna, she may have originally been the wife of both men, and a great many others beside. The Sumerian legends of "Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta" describe vividly how the powerful Inanna, something of a kingmaker in her time, abandoned the king of Aratta, who is called Ensuhkeshdanna, and awarded the kingship of Erech to Enmerkar.
Another argument sometimes used to link the Sumerians (who called their language Emegir) with the Magyars, involves the hereditary caste among the Medes and later Persians known as "Magi".
Following these legendary ancestors, there is a short list of patriarchs who can be associated with early Scythian ones as recorded by Herodotus. This period then is followed by the better documented historic Avar and Hun rulers, concluding with the early Hungarian leaders before and after the settlement in the Danubian basin. They presume the strong dynastic bonds with the Huns.
According to the Hungarian legend of the Turúl Hawk (a mythical bird which corresponds to the Sumerian "Dugud"), Ügyek, the descendant of king Magog and a royal leader of the land of Scythia, married the daughter of Ened-Belia, whose name was Emeshe (a word that means "priestess" in Sumerian language). From her was born their first son Álmos. Álmos, who was Árpád's father, is said to be a descendant of Attila the Hun.
Notes
- "'Urheimats', then, should denote those major stages in the formation of a people which brought about significant change to the life of the members of the group... such changes may include a splinter group peeling off from the main community, the beginning of interaction with another people, the change of community life style, or a major migration." Róna-Tas, András (1999). Hungarians and Europe in the Early Middle Ages. p. 315.
- "de gente scithica, que per ydioma suum proprium dentumoger dicitur (,) duxit originem"
Gesta Hungarorum, retrieved 2007-12-28 - "Anonymus describes the route that lead from Dentumoger to Hungary as follows: the Volga, Susdal, Kiev, Vladimir, Galizia. There is no question here of any migration towards the Kuban-region, or the Black Sea; quite plainly Anonymus makes the Hungarians come direct from the territory which later authors call Magna Hungaria or Bascardia."
Sinor, Denis, The Outlines of Hungarian Prehistory, retrieved 2007-12-28 - "The arguments advanced in favour of this theory are few and not convincing. ... As most of the peoples whose names have been borne by the Hungarians lived ... in the Kuban-region, we are entitled to suppose that the Hungarians themselves lived in the same territory. ... The names in question are ... Ungroi, Sabartoi and Turkoi. Evidence is available that each of these three peoples occupied the Kuban-region. In the case of none of them it is necessary to suppose that contact with Hungarians took place in the Caucasian country."
Sinor, Denis, The Outlines of Hungarian Prehistory, retrieved 2007-12-29 - "The question now arises, from where did the Hungarians migrate to Levedia? The answer given to this question is practically unanimous: the Hungarians migrated to Levedia from a country centred around the river Kuban, and bordered by the Caucasus, the Azov and Black seas and the Don."
Sinor, Denis, The Outlines of Hungarian Prehistory, retrieved 2007-12-29 - Róna-Tas, András, Hungarians and Europe in the Early Middle Ages, pp. 417–418
- The Hungarians: A Thousand Years of Victory in Defeat by Paul Lendvai - 2003 - p. 14
- Nimrod - Darkness in the Cradle of Civilization p. 331 by Steven Merrill - 2004
- New Evidence for Two Human Origins - p. 70 - by Gary T. Mayer - 2007
- Five Eleventh Century Hungarian Kings: Their Policies and Their Relations p. ix, x, by Z. J. Kosztolnyik - 1981
- Magyar mythologia p. 146, by Arnold Ipolyi - 1854
- Gesta Hungarorum
- Hargita
- e.g. "The Ancient Identity of Hungarians", a typical synopsis of such speculations.
References
- Bakay Kornél (1997, 1998): Őstörténetünk régészeti forrásai. I. P. 302; II. P. 336. Miskolci Bölcsész Egyesület. Miskolc.
- Bakay Kornél (2000): Az Árpádok országa. Kőszeg. P. 512.
- Encyclopaedia Hungarica (1992, 1994, 1996) I-III. Főszerkesztő: Bagossy László. Hungarian Ethnic Lexicon Foundation. Calgary. P. 778, 786, 888.
- Kiszely István (1979): Rassengeschichte von Ungarn. In: Schwidetzky, Ilse ed.: Rassengeschichte der Menschheit. R. Oldenburg Verlag. München-Wien. Pp. 1-50.
- Kiszely István (1992): Honnan jöttünk? Elméletek a magyarság őshazájáról. Új Mandátum Könyvkiadó. Budapest. P. 460.
- Kiszely István (1996): A magyarság őstörténete. Mit adott a magyarság a világnak. Püski Kiadó, Budapest. I-II. P. 860.
- Kiszely István (2000, 2002, 2004): A magyarok eredete és ősi kultúrája. Püski Kiadó. Budapest. I-II. P. 1500.
- Kiszely István (2004): A magyar ember. Püski Kiadó. Budapest. I-II. P. 980.
- László Gyula (1999): Múltunkról utódainknak. I. A magyar föld és a magyar nép őstörténete. P. 573; II. Magyarok honfoglalása – Árpád népe Pp. 574-1036. Püski Kiadó. Budapest.
- Róna-Tas, Ándras (1996). Hungarians and Europe in the Early Middle Ages: An Introduction to Early Hungarian History. CEU Press. ISBN 9639116483.
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