Misplaced Pages

Caligula: Difference between revisions

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
Browse history interactively← Previous editNext edit →Content deleted Content addedVisualWikitext
Revision as of 02:18, 25 July 2005 edit151.197.40.157 (talk)No edit summary← Previous edit Revision as of 07:08, 29 July 2005 edit undo68.12.208.244 (talk) added to entire pageNext edit →
Line 1: Line 1:
] ]
{{otheruses}} {{otheruses}}
'''Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus''' (], ] – ], ]), also known as '''Gaius Caesar''' or '''Caligula''', was the third ] of the ], ruling from ] to ]. Known for his extremely extravagant, ] and sometimes cruel ], he was ] in AD 41 by several of his own guards. '''Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus''' (], ] – ], ]), most commonly known '''Caligula''', was the third ] and third member of the ], ruling from ] to ]. Caligula represents a turning point in the early history of the Principate. Known for his extremely extravagant, ] and sometimes cruel ], he was ] in AD 41 by several of his own guards.


Unfortunately, his is the most poorly documented reign of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. The literary sources for these four years are meager, frequently anecdotal, and universally hostile. As a result, not only are many of the events of the reign unclear, but Caligula himself appears more as a caricature than a real person, a crazed megalomaniac given to capricious cruelty and harebrained schemes.
==Family and childhood==

⚫ Born in ] (modern day ]), he was the third child of ] and ]. Germanicus was son to ] and ], and older brother to ]. Agrippina was daughter to ] and ]. They had four other sons (Tiberius and Gaius Julius, who died young; ], ]), and three daughters (], ] and ]). See ].
==Early Life==
⚫ Caligula was born as Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus on ], ], at the resort of ] (modern ]), the third of six children born to ]’s adopted grandson, ], and Augustus’s granddaughter, ]. Germanicus was son to ] and ], and older brother to ]. Agrippina was daughter to ] and ]. They had four other sons (Tiberius and Gaius Julius, who died young; ], ]), and three daughters (], ] and ]). See ].


Gaius' life started out promisingly, as he was the son of extremely famous parents. Germanicus was a grandson to ] of the ] and ] as well as an adoptive grandson of ] ] of the ]. He was thus a prominent member of the ] and was revered as the most beloved general of the ]. Agrippina was herself a granddaughter of Caesar Augustus and ]. She was considered a model of the perfect Roman woman. Gaius' life started out promisingly, as he was the son of extremely famous parents. Germanicus was a grandson to ] of the ] and ] as well as an adoptive grandson of ] ] of the ]. He was thus a prominent member of the ] and was revered as the most beloved general of the ]. Agrippina was herself a granddaughter of Caesar Augustus and ]. She was considered a model of the perfect Roman woman.

] ]
When he was two or three years of age, Gaius became the mascot of his father's army. The soldiers were amused whenever Agrippina would put a miniature soldier costume on young Gaius, and he was soon given his nickname "'''Caligula'''" (or ''Caligulae''), meaning "Little boots" in ], after the small boots he wore as part of his costume. He would end up hating this name, but he also hated the name "Gaius". ("Caligula" is formed from the Latin word ''caliga'', meaning soldier's boot, and the ] ] ''-ul''.) As a baby of just two or three, he accompanied his parents on military campaigns in the north of ] and became the mascot of his father's army. The soldiers were amused whenever Agrippina would put a miniature soldier costume on young Caligula, and he was soon given his nickname "'''Caligula'''" (or ''Caligulae''), meaning "Little boots" in ], after the small boots he wore as part of his costume. He would end up hating this name, but he also hated the name "Gaius". ("Caligula" is formed from the Latin word ''caliga'', meaning soldier's boot, and the ] ] ''-ul''.)


⚫ Caligula’s childhood was not a happy one, spent amid an atmosphere of paranoia, suspicion, and murder. Instability within the Julio-Claudian dynasty, generated by uncertainty over the succession, led to a series of personal tragedies. When his father died under suspicious circumstances on ], ], relations between his mother and his grand-uncle, the reigning emperor ], deteriorated irretrievably, and the adolescent Caligula was sent to live first with his great-grandmother ] in ] and then, following Livia's death two years later, with his grandmother Antonia. Neither Livia nor Antonia had much time to watch Caligula, so the only comfort he had was with his three sisters. Stories of Caligula engaging in incest with his sisters (], ], and ]) began around this time. ] in particular writes much about these acts.
In ], when news of Augustus' death made its way across the Empire, the soldiers of Germanicus's camp almost started a ] against Tiberius because they wanted Germanicus as Emperor. Germanicus sent Agrippina and Caligula away from the mess that was soon to brew and tried to calm his men down. The ] men became horrified at the prospect of losing their favorite mascot. They promised to amend their ways and so Caligula was returned.


Caligula's life was in constant danger. Tiberius's ], ], was extremely powerful, doing everything he could to gain power over Tiberius. This wasn't too difficult, as Sejanus had control of Rome while Tiberius retired to the island of ]. Treason trials were commonly practiced, as Tiberius in his old age was growing increasingly paranoid and began to rely increasingly upon his friend ], who once saved his life. These trials were the main lever ] used to strengthen his position and dispose of any opposition.
⚫ The new ], ], made Germanicus his adopted son. However, Tiberius did not appear too fond of Germanicus; ] suggests that this was due to jealousy over Germanicus' popularity. Germanicus died on ], ]. The relationship between Tiberius and Agrippina did not improve, especially as foul play was suspected in Germanicus's death and Agrippina accused Tiberius of not doing enough to secure justice. Caligula, along with his sisters, went to live with their great-grandmother, Livia (widow of Augustus and mother of Tiberius) and then with their grandmother ] when Livia died in ]. Neither Livia nor Antonia had much time to watch Caligula, so the only comfort he had was with his three sisters. Stories of Caligula engaging in incest with his sisters (Agrippina the Younger, Drusilla, and Julia Livilla) began around this time. ] in particular writes much about these acts.


Caligula's life was in constant danger. Tiberius's ], ], was extremely powerful, doing everything he could to gain power over Tiberius. This wasn't too hard, as Sejanus had control of Rome while Tiberius retired to the island of ]. Treason trials, known as ] trials, were commonly practiced, as Tiberius in his old age was growing increasingly paranoid and began to rely increasingly upon his friend ], who once saved his life. These trials were the main lever ] used to strengthen his position and dispose of any opposition. From a very early age Gaius learned to tread very carefully. According to both Tacitus and Suetonius he surpassed his brothers in intelligence, and was an excellent natural actor, realizing the danger when other members of his family could not. Gaius survived when most of the other potential candidates to the throne were destroyed. His mother Agrippina was banished to the tiny island Pandataria, where she starved herself to death (although it is suspected she was murdered). His two oldest brothers, Nero and Drusus, also died. Nero was banished to the island of Ponza, while Drusus' body was found locked in a dungeon with stuffing from his mattress in his mouth to keep off the hunger pangs. Before Sejanus could kill Caligula, Sejanus was brought down and killed based on information given to Tiberius by Antonia. From a very early age Caligula learned to tread very carefully. According to both ] and Suetonius, he surpassed his brothers in intelligence, and was an excellent natural actor, realizing the danger when other members of his family could not. Caligula survived when most of the other potential candidates to the throne were destroyed. His mother Agrippina was banished to the tiny island of ], where she starved herself to death. His two oldest brothers, Nero and Drusus, also died. Nero was banished to the island of ], while Drusus' body was found locked in a dungeon with stuffing from his mattress in his mouth to keep off the hunger pangs.


==A Capri education== ==Life on Capri==
By this time, Caligula was already in favor with Tiberius. He was summoned to ] to stay with Tiberius on one of the many villas on the island. ] writes of extreme perversions happening on Capri, as Tiberius was without the people who managed to keep him in line (Augustus, Livia, his brother Drusus and best friend Nerva.) so he felt free to indulge in any perversion he desired. Whether this is true or not is hard to say. Unpopular Emperors such as Tiberius and Caligula rarely had the whole truth written about them, and gossip is common throughout ancient texts. Shortly before the fall of Tiberius’s ], ], in ] he was summoned to join Tiberius at his villa on ], where he remained until his accession in ]. By this time, Caligula was already in favor with Tiberius. He was summoned to ] to stay with Tiberius on one of the many villas on the island. ] writes of extreme perversions happening on Capri, as Tiberius was without the people who managed to keep him in line (Augustus, Livia, his brother Drusus and best friend Nerva.) so he felt free to indulge in any perversion he desired. Whether this is true or not is hard to say. Unpopular Emperors such as Tiberius and Caligula rarely had the whole truth written about them, and gossip is common throughout ancient texts.


Suetonius writes of Caligula's servile nature towards Tiberius, and his indifferent nature towards his dead mother and brothers. By his own account, Caligula mentioned years later that this servility was a sham in order to stay alive, and on more than one occasion he very nearly killed Tiberius when his anger overwhelmed him. An observer said of Caligula "Never was there a better servant or a worse master!" Caligula proved to have a flair for administration and won further favor with the ailing Tiberius by carrying out many of his duties for him. At night, Caligula would inflict torture on slaves and watch bloody gladiatorial games with glee. In ] Tiberius gave Caligula the position of honorary ]. Suetonius writes of Caligula's servile nature towards Tiberius, and his indifferent nature towards his dead mother and brothers. By his own account, Caligula mentioned years later that this servility was a sham in order to stay alive, and on more than one occasion he very nearly killed Tiberius when his anger overwhelmed him. An observer said of Caligula "Never was there a better servant or a worse master!" Caligula proved to have a flair for administration and won further favor with the ailing Tiberius by carrying out many of his duties for him. At night, Caligula would inflict torture on slaves and watch bloody gladiatorial games with glee. In ] Tiberius gave Caligula the position of honorary ]ship, the only form of public service Caligula would hold until his reign.


==Early reign== ==Early Reign==
On ], ] Tiberius died and on ] the ] annulled Tiberius' will and proclaimed Caligula emperor. Suetonius writes how Caligula's guard ] smothered him with a pillow, but in reality, Tiberius probably died a natural death. Caligula was not Tiberius's only successor. The Emperor had made his young grandson, ], joint heir. Because of his young age, Gemellus was hardly an obstacle, and Caligula had him killed soon after becoming Emperor. Caligula's grandmother Antonia committed suicide around this time as well. When Tiberius died on ], ], Caligula was in a perfect position to assume power, despite the obstacle of Tiberius’s will, which named him and his cousin ] joint heirs. (Gemellus's life was shortened considerably by this bequest, since Caligula ordered him killed within a matter of months.) Suetonius writes how Caligula's guard ] smothered him with a pillow, but in reality, Tiberius probably died a natural death. Backed by the Praetorian Prefect ], Caligula asserted his dominance. He had Tiberius’s will declared null and void on grounds of insanity, accepted the powers of the ] as conferred by the ], and entered Rome on ] amid scenes of wild rejoicing.


The first few months of Caligula's reign were good. He gave cash bonuses to the ]s, destroyed Tiberius's treason papers, declared that ] trials were a thing of the past, recalled exiles, and helped those who had been harmed by the Imperial ] system. He was loved by many simply by being the beloved son of Germanicus. Moreover, he was a descendant of Augustus, and therefore related to ]. He was also a great-grandson of ]. His first acts were generous in spirit: he gave cash bonuses to the ]s, destroyed Tiberius's treason papers, declared that ] trials were a thing of the past, recalled exiles, and helped those who had been harmed by the Imperial ] system. He was loved by many simply by being the beloved son of the popular Germanicus. Moreover, he was, unlike Tiberius, a direct blood descendant of Augustus, and therefore related to ]. He was also a great-grandson of ].


On becoming Emperor, Caligula performed a spectacular stunt. He ordered a temporary ] to be built using ships as ]s, stretching for over two miles from the resort of ] to the neighboring port of ]. He then proceeded to ride his horse across, wearing the breastplate of ]. This act was in defiance of an ]'s prediction that he had "no more chance of becoming Emperor than of riding a horse across the Gulf of Baiae". On becoming Emperor, Caligula performed a spectacular stunt. He ordered a temporary ] to be built using ships as ]s, stretching for over two miles from the resort of ] to the neighboring port of ]. He then proceeded to ride his horse across, wearing the breastplate of ]. This act was in defiance of an ]'s prediction that he had "no more chance of becoming Emperor than of riding a horse across the Gulf of Baiae".


However, following this auspicious start to his reign, Gaius fell seriously ill in October of ], and, as ] remarks, "emerged as a monster of lust and diabolical cruelty". However, following this auspicious start to his reign, Caligula fell seriously ill in October of ], and, as Scullard remarks, "emerged as a monster of lust and diabolical cruelty".


==Caligula’s Madness==
⚫ ==Caligula's "insanity"==
The ancient sources are practically unanimous as to the cause of Caligula's downfall: he was insane. The writers differ as to how this condition came about, but all agree that after his good start Caligula began to behave in an openly autocratic manner, even a crazed one. Outlandish stories cluster about the raving emperor, illustrating his excessive cruelty, immoral sexual escapades, or disrespect toward tradition and the Senate. The sources describe his incestuous relations with his sisters, laughable military campaigns in the north, and the plan to make his horse a ]. He comes across as aloof, arrogant, egotistical, and cuttingly witty -- but not insane.

The best explanation both for Caligula's behavior and the subsequent hostility of the sources is that he was an inexperienced young man thrust into a position of unlimited power, the true nature of which had been carefully disguised by its founder, ]. Caligula, however, saw through the disguise and began to act accordingly. This, coupled with his troubled upbringing and almost complete lack of tact led to behavior that struck his contemporaries as extreme, even insane.

⚫ ==Caligula and the Empire==
Gaius's reign is too short, and the surviving ancient accounts too sensationalized, for any serious policies of his to be discerned. During his reign, ] was annexed and reorganized into two provinces, ] was appointed to a kingdom in ], and severe riots took place in ] between ] and ]s. These events are largely overlooked in the sources, since they offer slim pickings for sensational stories of madness. Two other episodes, however, garner greater attention: Caligula's military activities on the northern frontier, and his vehement demand for divine honors. His military activities are portrayed as ludicrous, with ]s dressed up as Germans at his triumph and Roman troops ordered to collect sea-shells as "spoils of the sea."

Modern scholars have attempted to make sense of these events in various ways. The most reasonable suggestion is that Caligula went north to earn military glory and discovered there a nascent conspiracy under the commander of the ] legions, Gnaeus Lentulus Gaetulicus. Caligula's enthusiasm for divine honors for himself and his favorite sister, Drusilla (who died suddenly in ] and was deified), is presented in the sources as another clear sign of his madness, but it may be no more than the young autocrat tactlessly pushing the limits of the imperial cult. Caligula's excess in this regard is best illustrated by his order that a statue of him be erected in the Temple at Jerusalem. Only the delaying tactics of the ]n ], Publius Petronius, and the intervention of ] prevented riots and a potential uprising in Palestine.

⚫ ==Conspiracy and Assassination==
⚫ The conspiracy that ended Caligula's life was hatched among the officers of the ], apparently for purely personal reasons. It appears also to have had the support of some senators and an imperial freedman. As with conspiracies in general, there are suspicions that the plot was more broad-based than the sources intimate, and it may even have enjoyed the support of the next emperor ], but these propositions are not provable on available evidence. On ], ], the praetorian tribune ] and other guardsmen caught Caligula alone in a secluded palace corridor and cut him down. Chaerea had a distinguished record and had known Caligula since infancy and had been one of Germanicus's best officers. Years of abuse from Caligula over his so-called effeminacy finally took their toll. Together with another aggrieved tribune, Cornelius Sabinus, he also killed Caligula's wife ] and their infant daughter, ] by smashing her head against a wall. After much confusion, his old uncle ] was made Emperor by the ]. Caligula was 28 years old and had ruled three years and ten months.

==Legacy==
Whatever damage ]’s later years had done to the carefully crafted political edifice created by ], Caligula multiplied it a hundred-fold. When he came to power in 37 AD, Caligula had no administrative experience beyond his honorary quaestorship, and had spent an unhappy early life far from the public eye. He appears, once in power, to have realized the boundless scope of his authority and acted accordingly. For the elite, this situation proved intolerable and ensured the blackening of Caligula's name in the historical record they would dictate. The sensational and hostile nature of that record, however, should in no way trivialize Caligula's importance. His reign highlighted an inherent weakness in Augustus’s ], now openly revealed for what it was -- a raw ] in which only the self-discipline of the incumbent acted as a restraint on his behavior rather then the "first among equals" Augustus had intended. That the only means of retiring the wayward Princeps was murder marked another important revelation: Roman emperors could not relinquish their powers without simultaneously relinquishing their lives. Caligula would be the first of many subsequent emperor to be brutally executed in the years to come.

==Caligula’s Insanity==
Recent sources say that Caligula probably had ]. Ancient sources, like ] and ], describe Caligula having a "brain fever". ] reports it was nothing more than a nervous breakdown, as Caligula was not used to the pressures of constant attention after being out of the public eye for most of his life. Rome waited in horror, praying that their beloved Emperor would recover. He became better, but his reign took a sharp turn. The death of Gemellus and of Silanus, Caligula's father-in-law, took place right after Caligula recovered. Recent sources say that Caligula probably had ]. Ancient sources, like ] and ], describe Caligula having a "brain fever". ] reports it was nothing more than a nervous breakdown, as Caligula was not used to the pressures of constant attention after being out of the public eye for most of his life. Rome waited in horror, praying that their beloved Emperor would recover. He became better, but his reign took a sharp turn. The death of Gemellus and of Silanus, Caligula's father-in-law, took place right after Caligula recovered.


Line 36: Line 55:


However, given Caligula's unpopularity as emperor, it is difficult to separate fact from fiction. There are many famous stories attesting to his bizarre behavior as emperor: that he tried to make his beloved stallion, ], a consul, though this could have been a political statement indicating that he felt his horse was as well qualified for the position as any of the incumbents. Other stories claim that there existed ]uous relationship between Caligula and his sisters (particularly ]), a brothel he set up at the palace featuring the wives of prominent senators, his campaign in ] ending with his soldiers collecting ]s as "spoils of the sea" in his battle with the sea god ], wanting to erect a statue of himself in ] (his good friend ] stopped it), and labeling himself a "god". He "often sent for men whom he had secretly killed, as though they were still alive, and remark off-handedly a few days later that they must have committed suicide," according to ]. Regardless of the validity of any of these anecdotes, historians tend to agree on one fact: he was extremely unqualified and unprepared to be Emperor. However, given Caligula's unpopularity as emperor, it is difficult to separate fact from fiction. There are many famous stories attesting to his bizarre behavior as emperor: that he tried to make his beloved stallion, ], a consul, though this could have been a political statement indicating that he felt his horse was as well qualified for the position as any of the incumbents. Other stories claim that there existed ]uous relationship between Caligula and his sisters (particularly ]), a brothel he set up at the palace featuring the wives of prominent senators, his campaign in ] ending with his soldiers collecting ]s as "spoils of the sea" in his battle with the sea god ], wanting to erect a statue of himself in ] (his good friend ] stopped it), and labeling himself a "god". He "often sent for men whom he had secretly killed, as though they were still alive, and remark off-handedly a few days later that they must have committed suicide," according to ]. Regardless of the validity of any of these anecdotes, historians tend to agree on one fact: he was extremely unqualified and unprepared to be Emperor.

⚫ ==Assassination==
⚫ Caligula only ruled for three years, ten months, and eight days. On ], ] a conspiracy among the ] ended his life. While Caligula was in a corridor alone, he was struck down at the age of 28, by one ], a colonel of the guard with a distinguished record. He had known Caligula since infancy and had been one of Germanicus's best officers. Years of abuse from Caligula over his so-called effeminacy finally took their toll. Together with another aggrieved colonel, Cornelius Sabinus, he also killed Caligula's wife ] and their infant daughter, ] by smashing her head against a wall. After much confusion, his old uncle ] was made Emperor by the ].


==Bibliography== ==Bibliography==

Revision as of 07:08, 29 July 2005

Gaius Caesar Germanicus
For other uses, see Caligula (disambiguation).

Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus (August 31, 12 – January 24, 41), most commonly known Caligula, was the third Roman Emperor and third member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, ruling from AD 37 to 41. Caligula represents a turning point in the early history of the Principate. Known for his extremely extravagant, eccentric and sometimes cruel despotism, he was assassinated in AD 41 by several of his own guards.

Unfortunately, his is the most poorly documented reign of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. The literary sources for these four years are meager, frequently anecdotal, and universally hostile. As a result, not only are many of the events of the reign unclear, but Caligula himself appears more as a caricature than a real person, a crazed megalomaniac given to capricious cruelty and harebrained schemes.

Early Life

Caligula was born as Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus on August 31, 12 AD, at the resort of Antium (modern Anzio), the third of six children born to Augustus’s adopted grandson, Germanicus, and Augustus’s granddaughter, Agrippina the Elder. Germanicus was son to Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia Minor, and older brother to Claudius. Agrippina was daughter to Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia Caesaris. They had four other sons (Tiberius and Gaius Julius, who died young; Nero, Drusus), and three daughters (Julia Livilla, Drusilla and Agrippina the younger). See Julio-Claudian Family Tree.

Gaius' life started out promisingly, as he was the son of extremely famous parents. Germanicus was a grandson to Tiberius Nero of the gens Claudia and Livia as well as an adoptive grandson of Roman Emperor Caesar Augustus of the gens Julia. He was thus a prominent member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and was revered as the most beloved general of the Roman Empire. Agrippina was herself a granddaughter of Caesar Augustus and Scribonia. She was considered a model of the perfect Roman woman.

caliga

As a baby of just two or three, he accompanied his parents on military campaigns in the north of Germania and became the mascot of his father's army. The soldiers were amused whenever Agrippina would put a miniature soldier costume on young Caligula, and he was soon given his nickname "Caligula" (or Caligulae), meaning "Little boots" in Latin, after the small boots he wore as part of his costume. He would end up hating this name, but he also hated the name "Gaius". ("Caligula" is formed from the Latin word caliga, meaning soldier's boot, and the diminutive infix -ul.)

Caligula’s childhood was not a happy one, spent amid an atmosphere of paranoia, suspicion, and murder. Instability within the Julio-Claudian dynasty, generated by uncertainty over the succession, led to a series of personal tragedies. When his father died under suspicious circumstances on October 10, 19 AD, relations between his mother and his grand-uncle, the reigning emperor Tiberius, deteriorated irretrievably, and the adolescent Caligula was sent to live first with his great-grandmother Livia in 27 AD and then, following Livia's death two years later, with his grandmother Antonia. Neither Livia nor Antonia had much time to watch Caligula, so the only comfort he had was with his three sisters. Stories of Caligula engaging in incest with his sisters (Agrippina the Younger, Drusilla, and Julia Livilla) began around this time. Suetonius in particular writes much about these acts.

Caligula's life was in constant danger. Tiberius's Praetorian Prefect, Sejanus, was extremely powerful, doing everything he could to gain power over Tiberius. This wasn't too difficult, as Sejanus had control of Rome while Tiberius retired to the island of Capri. Treason trials were commonly practiced, as Tiberius in his old age was growing increasingly paranoid and began to rely increasingly upon his friend Sejanus, who once saved his life. These trials were the main lever Sejanus used to strengthen his position and dispose of any opposition.

From a very early age Caligula learned to tread very carefully. According to both Tacitus and Suetonius, he surpassed his brothers in intelligence, and was an excellent natural actor, realizing the danger when other members of his family could not. Caligula survived when most of the other potential candidates to the throne were destroyed. His mother Agrippina was banished to the tiny island of Pandataria, where she starved herself to death. His two oldest brothers, Nero and Drusus, also died. Nero was banished to the island of Ponza, while Drusus' body was found locked in a dungeon with stuffing from his mattress in his mouth to keep off the hunger pangs.

Life on Capri

Shortly before the fall of Tiberius’s Praetorian Prefect, Sejanus, in 31 AD he was summoned to join Tiberius at his villa on Capri, where he remained until his accession in 37 AD. By this time, Caligula was already in favor with Tiberius. He was summoned to Capri to stay with Tiberius on one of the many villas on the island. Suetonius writes of extreme perversions happening on Capri, as Tiberius was without the people who managed to keep him in line (Augustus, Livia, his brother Drusus and best friend Nerva.) so he felt free to indulge in any perversion he desired. Whether this is true or not is hard to say. Unpopular Emperors such as Tiberius and Caligula rarely had the whole truth written about them, and gossip is common throughout ancient texts.

Suetonius writes of Caligula's servile nature towards Tiberius, and his indifferent nature towards his dead mother and brothers. By his own account, Caligula mentioned years later that this servility was a sham in order to stay alive, and on more than one occasion he very nearly killed Tiberius when his anger overwhelmed him. An observer said of Caligula "Never was there a better servant or a worse master!" Caligula proved to have a flair for administration and won further favor with the ailing Tiberius by carrying out many of his duties for him. At night, Caligula would inflict torture on slaves and watch bloody gladiatorial games with glee. In 33 Tiberius gave Caligula the position of honorary quaestorship, the only form of public service Caligula would hold until his reign.

Early Reign

When Tiberius died on March 16, 37 AD, Caligula was in a perfect position to assume power, despite the obstacle of Tiberius’s will, which named him and his cousin Tiberius Gemellus joint heirs. (Gemellus's life was shortened considerably by this bequest, since Caligula ordered him killed within a matter of months.) Suetonius writes how Caligula's guard Naevius Sutorius Macro smothered him with a pillow, but in reality, Tiberius probably died a natural death. Backed by the Praetorian Prefect Quintus Sutorius Macro, Caligula asserted his dominance. He had Tiberius’s will declared null and void on grounds of insanity, accepted the powers of the Principate as conferred by the Senate, and entered Rome on March 28 amid scenes of wild rejoicing.

His first acts were generous in spirit: he gave cash bonuses to the Praetorian Guards, destroyed Tiberius's treason papers, declared that treason trials were a thing of the past, recalled exiles, and helped those who had been harmed by the Imperial tax system. He was loved by many simply by being the beloved son of the popular Germanicus. Moreover, he was, unlike Tiberius, a direct blood descendant of Augustus, and therefore related to Julius Caesar. He was also a great-grandson of Mark Antony.

On becoming Emperor, Caligula performed a spectacular stunt. He ordered a temporary floating bridge to be built using ships as pontoons, stretching for over two miles from the resort of Baiae to the neighboring port of Puteoli. He then proceeded to ride his horse across, wearing the breastplate of Alexander the Great. This act was in defiance of an astrologer's prediction that he had "no more chance of becoming Emperor than of riding a horse across the Gulf of Baiae".

However, following this auspicious start to his reign, Caligula fell seriously ill in October of 37, and, as Scullard remarks, "emerged as a monster of lust and diabolical cruelty".

Caligula’s Madness

The ancient sources are practically unanimous as to the cause of Caligula's downfall: he was insane. The writers differ as to how this condition came about, but all agree that after his good start Caligula began to behave in an openly autocratic manner, even a crazed one. Outlandish stories cluster about the raving emperor, illustrating his excessive cruelty, immoral sexual escapades, or disrespect toward tradition and the Senate. The sources describe his incestuous relations with his sisters, laughable military campaigns in the north, and the plan to make his horse a consul. He comes across as aloof, arrogant, egotistical, and cuttingly witty -- but not insane.

The best explanation both for Caligula's behavior and the subsequent hostility of the sources is that he was an inexperienced young man thrust into a position of unlimited power, the true nature of which had been carefully disguised by its founder, Caesar Augustus. Caligula, however, saw through the disguise and began to act accordingly. This, coupled with his troubled upbringing and almost complete lack of tact led to behavior that struck his contemporaries as extreme, even insane.

Caligula and the Empire

Gaius's reign is too short, and the surviving ancient accounts too sensationalized, for any serious policies of his to be discerned. During his reign, Mauretania was annexed and reorganized into two provinces, Herod Agrippa was appointed to a kingdom in Palestine, and severe riots took place in Alexandria between Jews and Greeks. These events are largely overlooked in the sources, since they offer slim pickings for sensational stories of madness. Two other episodes, however, garner greater attention: Caligula's military activities on the northern frontier, and his vehement demand for divine honors. His military activities are portrayed as ludicrous, with Gauls dressed up as Germans at his triumph and Roman troops ordered to collect sea-shells as "spoils of the sea."

Modern scholars have attempted to make sense of these events in various ways. The most reasonable suggestion is that Caligula went north to earn military glory and discovered there a nascent conspiracy under the commander of the Germania Superior legions, Gnaeus Lentulus Gaetulicus. Caligula's enthusiasm for divine honors for himself and his favorite sister, Drusilla (who died suddenly in 38 AD and was deified), is presented in the sources as another clear sign of his madness, but it may be no more than the young autocrat tactlessly pushing the limits of the imperial cult. Caligula's excess in this regard is best illustrated by his order that a statue of him be erected in the Temple at Jerusalem. Only the delaying tactics of the Syrian governor, Publius Petronius, and the intervention of Herod Agrippa prevented riots and a potential uprising in Palestine.

Conspiracy and Assassination

The conspiracy that ended Caligula's life was hatched among the officers of the Praetorian Guard, apparently for purely personal reasons. It appears also to have had the support of some senators and an imperial freedman. As with conspiracies in general, there are suspicions that the plot was more broad-based than the sources intimate, and it may even have enjoyed the support of the next emperor Claudius, but these propositions are not provable on available evidence. On January 24, 41 AD, the praetorian tribune Cassius Chaerea and other guardsmen caught Caligula alone in a secluded palace corridor and cut him down. Chaerea had a distinguished record and had known Caligula since infancy and had been one of Germanicus's best officers. Years of abuse from Caligula over his so-called effeminacy finally took their toll. Together with another aggrieved tribune, Cornelius Sabinus, he also killed Caligula's wife Caesonia and their infant daughter, Julia Drusilla by smashing her head against a wall. After much confusion, his old uncle Claudius was made Emperor by the Praetorian Guard. Caligula was 28 years old and had ruled three years and ten months.

Legacy

Whatever damage Tiberius’s later years had done to the carefully crafted political edifice created by Augustus, Caligula multiplied it a hundred-fold. When he came to power in 37 AD, Caligula had no administrative experience beyond his honorary quaestorship, and had spent an unhappy early life far from the public eye. He appears, once in power, to have realized the boundless scope of his authority and acted accordingly. For the elite, this situation proved intolerable and ensured the blackening of Caligula's name in the historical record they would dictate. The sensational and hostile nature of that record, however, should in no way trivialize Caligula's importance. His reign highlighted an inherent weakness in Augustus’s Principate, now openly revealed for what it was -- a raw monarchy in which only the self-discipline of the incumbent acted as a restraint on his behavior rather then the "first among equals" Augustus had intended. That the only means of retiring the wayward Princeps was murder marked another important revelation: Roman emperors could not relinquish their powers without simultaneously relinquishing their lives. Caligula would be the first of many subsequent emperor to be brutally executed in the years to come.

Caligula’s Insanity

Recent sources say that Caligula probably had encephalitis. Ancient sources, like Suetonius and Cassius Dio, describe Caligula having a "brain fever". Philo of Alexandria reports it was nothing more than a nervous breakdown, as Caligula was not used to the pressures of constant attention after being out of the public eye for most of his life. Rome waited in horror, praying that their beloved Emperor would recover. He became better, but his reign took a sharp turn. The death of Gemellus and of Silanus, Caligula's father-in-law, took place right after Caligula recovered.

The question of whether or not Caligula was insane remains unanswered. Philo, author of Legatio ad Caium ("embassy to Caius") and leader of a delegation sent to Caligula to seek relief from persecution by Alexandrian Greeks, claimed that the emperor was no more than a vicious jokester. Based on the contemporary reports of his behavior, modern psychology would likely diagnose Caligula as delusional, and possibly suffering from antisocial personality disorder as a result of his traumatic upbringing.

However, given Caligula's unpopularity as emperor, it is difficult to separate fact from fiction. There are many famous stories attesting to his bizarre behavior as emperor: that he tried to make his beloved stallion, Incitatus, a consul, though this could have been a political statement indicating that he felt his horse was as well qualified for the position as any of the incumbents. Other stories claim that there existed incestuous relationship between Caligula and his sisters (particularly Drusilla), a brothel he set up at the palace featuring the wives of prominent senators, his campaign in Britain ending with his soldiers collecting seashells as "spoils of the sea" in his battle with the sea god Neptune, wanting to erect a statue of himself in Jerusalem (his good friend Herod Agrippa stopped it), and labeling himself a "god". He "often sent for men whom he had secretly killed, as though they were still alive, and remark off-handedly a few days later that they must have committed suicide," according to Suetonius. Regardless of the validity of any of these anecdotes, historians tend to agree on one fact: he was extremely unqualified and unprepared to be Emperor.

Bibliography

External links

Primary Sources

Secondary Material

Preceded byTiberius Roman Emperor
37 AD–41 AD 		Succeeded byClaudius
Preceded byTiberius Julio-Claudian Dynasty
12 AD–41 AD 		Succeeded byClaudius
Categories: