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*1996: Various scientists, including Duesberg, dismiss the Continuum challenge, asserting that HIV doubtlessly exists.<ref name=isolatedFacts/> *1996: Various scientists, including Duesberg, dismiss the Continuum challenge, asserting that HIV doubtlessly exists.<ref name=isolatedFacts/>

⚫ *1996:The ] publishes as a response to a petition by Peter Duesberg: ''"In 1991 Duesberg challenged researchers...We and Darby et al have provided that evidence"''. The paper argued that Duesberg was wrong regarding the cause of AIDS in haemophiliacs.


*1998: Valerie Emerson, of ], prevails in court in Maine for her right to refuse to give AZT to her 4-year-old son Nikolas Emerson, after she witnessed the death of her daughter Tia, who died at the age of 3 in 1996.<ref></ref> Nikolas Emerson died eight years later. <ref></ref> *1998: Valerie Emerson, of ], prevails in court in Maine for her right to refuse to give AZT to her 4-year-old son Nikolas Emerson, after she witnessed the death of her daughter Tia, who died at the age of 3 in 1996.<ref></ref> Nikolas Emerson died eight years later. <ref></ref>
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Electron micrograph of the human immunodeficiency virus. AIDS reappraisal disputes the existence of HIV or its role in causing AIDS.

The AIDS reappraisal movement or AIDS dissident movement, also referred to as AIDS denialism, is a loosely connected group of individuals who dispute the scientific consensus that the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the cause of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Some dissident groups deny the existence of HIV; others accept that HIV exists, but argue that it is a harmless passenger virus and not the cause of AIDS. Dissidents argue that the consensus that HIV causes AIDS has resulted in inaccurate diagnoses, psychological terror, toxic treatments, and a squandering of public funds, as well as an unprecedented deviation from the scientific method and standards.

The scientific community considers the causative role of HIV to be scientifically proven. Dissident arguments are considered to be the result of cherry-picking and misrepresentation of predominantly outdated scientific data, with the potential to endanger public health by dissuading people from utilizing proven treatments. With the rejection of these arguments by the scientific community, AIDS-dissident material is currently spread largely through the Internet.

Timeline

  • 1983: A group of scientists and doctors at the Pasteur Institute in France, led by Luc Montagnier, discovers a new virus in a patient with signs and symptoms that often precede AIDS. They name their discovery lymphadenopathy-associated virus, or LAV, and send samples to Robert Gallo's team in the United States.
  • 1984: On April 23, at a Washington press conference held two weeks before the relevant papers are published, Margaret Heckler, then Secretary of Health and Human Services, announces that Gallo and his co-workers have discovered a virus that is the "probable" cause of AIDS. This virus is initially named HTLV-III.
  • 1984: Casper Schmidt responds to Gallo's papers by writing "The Group-Fantasy Origins of AIDS", which is published by the Journal of Psychohistory. He posits that AIDS is an example of "epidemic hysteria" in which groups of people are subconsciously acting out social conflicts, and compares it to documented cases of epidemic hysteria in the past which were mistakenly thought to be infectious. Schmidt himself died of AIDS in 1994.
  • 1986: The viruses discovered by Montagnier and Gallo, having been found to be genetically indistinguishable, are renamed HIV.
  • 1987: Peter Duesberg questions the HIV theory of AIDS for the first time in his paper "Retroviruses as Carcinogens and Pathogens: Expectations and Reality", published in the journal Cancer Research. This publication coincides with the start of major public health campaigns and the promotion of AZT as a treatment.
  • 1988: The Perth Group, led by Eleni Papadopulos-Eleopulos, publishes at the non peer-reviewed journal Medical Hypotheses their first article questioning aspects of the mainstream ideas about HIV and AIDS. They conclude that there is "no compelling reason for preferring the viral hypothesis of AIDS to one based on the activity of oxidising agents."
  • 1989. The National Aacademy of Sciences publishes Duesberg's PNAS paper. According to Peter Duesberg the NAS initially refused to publish this paper, and Duesberg had to invoke his rights to automatic publication as a NAS member. After months of negotiations and sixty pages of discussion the article was finally published in February 1989. Robert Gallo was approached for a rebuttal he never wrote .
  • 1990: Robert Root-Bernstein publishes his first peer-reviewed article detailing his objections to the mainstream view of AIDS and HIV, entitled "Do we know the cause(s) of AIDS?" In it, he questions both the mainstream view and the dissident view as potentially inaccurate.


  • 1994, 28 October: Robert Willner, a physician whose medical license was revoked for, among other things, treating an AIDS patient with ozone therapy, publicly jabs his finger with blood he says is from an HIV-infected patient. Willner died the following year of a heart attack.
  • 1995: The dissident group Continuum places an advertisement in The Pink Paper offering a £1,000 reward to "the first person finding one scientific paper establishing actual isolation of HIV" (according to their specific set of rules).
  • 1996: Various scientists, including Duesberg, dismiss the Continuum challenge, asserting that HIV doubtlessly exists.
  • 1998: Valerie Emerson, of Bangor, Maine, prevails in court in Maine for her right to refuse to give AZT to her 4-year-old son Nikolas Emerson, after she witnessed the death of her daughter Tia, who died at the age of 3 in 1996. Nikolas Emerson died eight years later.
  • 2000: South Africa's President, Thabo Mbeki, invites several dissidents to join his Presidential AIDS Advisory Panel. The scientific community responds with the Durban declaration, a document affirming that HIV causes AIDS, signed by over 5,000 scientists and physicians.
  • 2006: Celia Farber, a journalist and prominent AIDS dissident, publishes an essay in the March issue of Harper's entitled Out of Control: AIDS and the Corruption of Medical Science, in which she summarizes a number of arguments for AIDS reappraisal and alleges incompetence, conspiracy, and fraud on the part of the mainstream medical community. The article is extensively criticized as inaccurate, misleading, and poorly fact-checked by the scientific and AIDS-activist communities.
  • 2007: Eleni Papadopulos-Eleopulos and Valendar Francis Turner testified at an appeals hearing for Andre Chad Parenzee, stating that HIV is harmless. The judge concluded: "I reject the evidence of Ms Papadopulos-Eleopulos and Dr Turner. I conclude...that they are not qualified to give expert opinions"

The AIDS dissident community

People critical of the mainstream view of AIDS include HIV-positive persons, government employees, scientists, doctors, and activists in several countries.

Probably the most famous and influential AIDS dissident scientist is Peter Duesberg, professor of molecular and cell biology at the University of California, Berkeley, who has been contesting the mainstream view of AIDS causation since 1987. Other scientists include David Rasnick (who worked with proteases and is co-holder of several patents on protease inhibitors similar to those used in the treatment of AIDS) and Rodney Richards (who worked at Amgen during the development of some of the first commercial HIV antibody tests). Nobel Prize winner Kary Mullis, inventor of PCR, has expressed sympathy for dissident theories.

Other notable AIDS dissidents include Australian academic Hiram Caton, mathematician Serge Lang, Professor Emeritus of Chemistry & Science Studies at Virginia Tech Henry Bauer, journalist Celia Farber and activist Christine Maggiore. Nate Mendel, bassist with the rock band Foo Fighters, has expressed support for AIDS dissident ideas and organized a benefit concert in January 2000 for the AIDS dissident organization Alive & Well AIDS Alternatives.

Organizations of AIDS dissidents include the Perth Group and the Group for the Scientific Reappraisal of the HIV-AIDS Hypothesis.

AIDS reappraisal has received some support from some political conservatives in the United States. Duesberg's work has been published by the conservative Heritage Foundation and Regnery Press, as has Tom Bethell's book The Politically Incorrect Guide to Science, which endorsed AIDS reappraisal. Phillip E. Johnson has accused the Centers for Disease Control of "fraud" in relation to HIV/AIDS. Describing the political aspects of the AIDS-reappraisal movement, Steven Epstein wrote in Impure Science that "...the appeal of Duesberg's views to conservatives—certainly including those with little sympathy for the gay movement—cannot be denied." Libertarian online magazine LewRockwell.com published articles supporting AIDS reappraisers views.

Former dissidents

Several prominent scientists once associated with AIDS reappraisal have since changed their views and accepted the idea that HIV plays a role in causing AIDS, in response to an accumulation of newer studies and data. Robert Root-Bernstein, author of Rethinking AIDS: The Tragic Cost of Premature Consensus and formerly a critic of the causative role HIV in AIDS, has since distanced himself from the AIDS dissident movement, saying, "Both the camp that says HIV is a pussycat and the people who claim AIDS is all HIV are wrong...The denialists make claims that are clearly inconsistent with existing studies. When I check the existing studies, I don’t agree with the interpretation of the data, or, worse, I can’t find the studies ."

Joseph Sonnabend, who until the late 1990s regarded the issue of AIDS causation as unresolved, has reconsidered in light of the success of newer antiretroviral drugs, stating, "The evidence now strongly supports a role for HIV... Drugs that can save your life can also under different circumstances kill you. This is a distinction that denialists do not seem to understand." Sonnabend has also criticized AIDS dissidents for falsely implying that he supports their position, saying:

Some individuals who believe that HIV plays no role at all in AIDS have implied that I support their misguided views on AIDS causation by including inappropriate references to me in their literature and on their web sites. Before HIV was discovered and its association with AIDS established, I held the entirely appropriate view that the cause of AIDS was then unknown. I have successfully treated hundreds of AIDS patients with antiretroviral medications, and have no doubt that HIV plays a necessary role in this disease.

Both Sonnabend and Root-Bernstein now favor a less controversial hypothesis, suggesting that cofactors in addition to HIV are necessary to cause AIDS.

Walter Gilbert, winner of the 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, once expressed skepticism about the role of HIV in AIDS. Like Sonnabend, he has since changed his mind in response to the effectiveness of antiretroviral treatment. Mentioned source also states that AIDS denialists claim that Linus Pauling was an AIDS denialist . Nonetheless, no dissident website makes that claim. A similar claim is made about Wangari Maathai , though Maathai never voiced AIDS Denialist views.

As of May 2008, dissident websites continue to claim that Root-Bernstein, Sonnabend and Gilbert doubt the role of HIV in AIDS.

Death of HIV-positive dissidents

In 2007, aidstruth.org, a website run by HIV researchers to counter dissident claims, published a partial list of AIDS dissidents who had died of apparently AIDS-related causes. For example, the magazine Continuum, run by HIV-positive dissidents, shut down when its editors all died of AIDS-related causes. It was noted that in every case, the AIDS dissident community has attributed the deaths to unknown causes, secret drug use, or stress.

Points of contention

See also: Duesberg hypothesis

Although members of the AIDS dissident community are united by their disagreement with the concept that HIV is the cause of AIDS, the specific positions taken by various groups differ.

Dissident arguments have centered around claims that HIV does not exist or has not been adequately isolated, that the virus does not fulfill Koch's postulates, that HIV testing is inaccurate, or that antibodies to HIV neutralize the virus and render it harmless. Suggested alternative causes of AIDS include recreational drugs, malnutrition and the very antiretroviral drugs used to treat the syndrome.

Such claims have been examined extensively in the peer-reviewed medical and scientific literature; a scientific consensus has arisen that dissident claims have been convincingly disproved, and that HIV does indeed cause AIDS. Accumulating evidence of the significant benefits of modern anti-HIV medication is seen as further confirmation of HIV's role in AIDS.

Impact beyond the scientific community

AIDS dissident claims have failed to attract support in the scientific community, where the evidence for the causative role of HIV in AIDS is considered conclusive. However, the AIDS dissident movement has had a significant impact outside of scientific spheres, making the debate a civil and political as well as a public health issue.

Impact in North America and Europe

Skepticism about HIV as the cause of AIDS began almost immediately after the discovery of HIV was announced. One of the earliest prominent skeptics was the journalist John Lauritsen, who argued in his writings for The New York Native that AIDS was in fact caused by amyl nitrite poppers, and that the government had conspired to hide the truth.

The publication of Peter Duesberg's first AIDS paper in 1987 fueled further support for dissident theories. Shortly afterwards, the journal Science reported that Duesberg's remarks had won him "a large amount of media attention, particularly in the gay press where he is something of a hero." However, Duesberg's support in the gay community dried up as he made a series of statements perceived as homophobic; in an interview with the Village Voice in 1988, Duesberg stated his belief that the AIDS epidemic was "caused by a lifestyle that was criminal twenty years ago."

In the following few years, others became skeptical of the HIV theory as researchers initially failed to produce an effective treatment or vaccine for AIDS. Journalists such as Neville Hodgkinson and Celia Farber regularly promoted dissident ideas in the American and British media; several television documentaries were also produced to increase awareness of the alternative viewpoint. In 1992-1993, The Sunday Times, where Hodgkinson served as scientific editor, ran a series of articles arguing that the AIDS epidemic in Africa was a myth. These articles stressed Duesberg's claims and argued that antiviral therapy was ineffective, that HIV testing was unreliable, and that AIDS was not a threat to heterosexuals. The Sunday Times coverage was heavily criticized as slanted, misleading, and potentially dangerous; the scientific journal Nature took the unusual step of printing a 1993 editorial calling the paper's coverage of HIV/AIDS "seriously mistaken, and probably disastrous."

Finding difficulty in publishing his arguments in the scientific literature, Duesberg exercised his right as a member of the National Academy of Sciences to publish in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) without going through the peer review process. However, Duesberg's paper raised a "red flag" at the journal and was submitted by the editor for non-binding review. All of the reviewers found major flaws in Duesberg's paper; the reviewer specifically chosen by Duesberg noted the presence of "misleading arguments", "nonlogical statements", "misrepresentations", and political overtones. Ultimately, Duesberg's article was published in PNAS; its editor wrote to Duesberg:

If you wish to make these unsupported, vague, and prejudicial statements in print, so be it. But I cannot see how this would be convincing to any scientifically trained reader.

With the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in 1996-1997, the survival and general health of people with HIV improved significantly. The positive response to treatment with anti-HIV medication is regarded as further proof of HIV's causative role in AIDS, and has led several prominent AIDS dissidents to accept the causative role of HIV. Nevertheless, these theories continue to exert a significant influence in some communities; a survey conducted at minority gay pride events in four American cities in 2005 found that 33% of attendees doubted that HIV caused AIDS.

AIDS activists have expressed concern that dissident arguments about HIV's harmlessness may be responsible for an upsurge in HIV infections. According to Stephen Thomas, director of the University of Pittsburgh Center for Minority Health:

People are focusing on the wrong thing. They’re focusing on conspiracies rather than protecting themselves, rather than getting tested and seeking out appropriate care and treatment.

While dissident arguments have been rejected by the scientific community on the basis of overwhelming evidence, AIDS denialist ideas are propagated largely via the Internet. A 2007 article in PLoS Medicine noted:

Because these denialist assertions are made in books and on the Internet rather than in the scientific literature, many scientists are either unaware of the existence of organized denial groups, or believe they can safely ignore them as the discredited fringe. And indeed, most of the HIV deniers' arguments were answered long ago by scientists. However, many members of the general public do not have the scientific background to critique the assertions put forth by these groups, and not only accept them but continue to propagate them.

Impact in South Africa

AIDS dissident claims have had a major political, social, and public health impact in South Africa. The government of President Thabo Mbeki has been sympathetic to the views of AIDS dissidents; critics charge that dissident influence has been responsible for a slow and ineffective governmental response to the country's massive AIDS epidemic.

Durban Declaration

In 2000, when the International AIDS Conference was held in Durban, Mbeki convened a Presidential Advisory Panel containing a number of AIDS dissidents, including Peter Duesberg and David Rasnick. The Advisory Panel meetings were closed to the general press; an invited reporter from the Village Voice wrote that Rasnick advocated that HIV testing be legally banned and denied that he had seen "any evidence" of an AIDS catastrophe in South Africa, while Duesberg "gave a presentation so removed from African medical reality that it left several local doctors shaking their heads."

In his address to the International AIDS Conference, Mbeki reiterated his view that HIV was not wholly responsible for AIDS, leading hundreds of delegates to walk out on his speech. Mbeki also sent a letter to a number of world leaders likening the mainstream AIDS research community to supporters of the apartheid regime. The tone and content of Mbeki's letter led diplomats in the U.S. to initially question whether it was a hoax.

Mainstream AIDS scientists and activists were dismayed at the president's behavior and responded with the Durban declaration, a document affirming that HIV causes AIDS, signed by over 5,000 scientists and physicians.

Criticism of governmental response

South African health minister Manto Tshabalala-Msimang has also attracted heavy criticism, as she has often promoted nutritional remedies such as garlic, lemons and olive oil to people suffering from AIDS, while emphasizing possible toxicities of antiretroviral drugs, which she has referred to as "poison". The South African Medical Association has accused Tshabalala-Msimang of "confusing a vulnerable public". In September 2006, a group of over 80 scientists and academics called for "the immediate removal of Dr. Tshabalala-Msimang as minister of health and for an end to the disastrous, pseudoscientific policies that have characterized the South African government's response to HIV/AIDS." In December 2006, deputy health minister Nozizwe Madlala-Routledge described "denial at the very highest levels" over AIDS. She was subsequently fired by Mbeki.

Mbeki's government has been widely criticized for delaying the rollout of programs to provide antiretroviral drugs to people with advanced HIV disease and to HIV-positive pregnant women. The national treatment program began only after the Treatment Action Campaign (TAC) brought a legal case against Government ministers, claiming they were responsible for the deaths of 600 HIV-positive people a day who could not access medication. South Africa was one of the last countries in the region to begin such a treatment program, and roll-out has been much slower than planned.

At the XVI International AIDS Conference, Stephen Lewis, U.N. special envoy for AIDS in Africa, attacked Mbeki's government for its slow response to the AIDS epidemic and reliance on dissident theories:

It is the only country in Africa ... whose government is still obtuse, dilatory and negligent about rolling out treatment... It is the only country in Africa whose government continues to promote theories more worthy of a lunatic fringe than of a concerned and compassionate state.

In 2002, Mbeki requested that AIDS dissidents no longer use his name in dissident literature, and requested that dissidents stop signing documents with "Member of President Mbeki's AIDS Advisory Panel".

In early 2005, former South African president Nelson Mandela announced that his son had died of complications of AIDS. Mandela's public announcement was seen as both an effort to combat the stigma associated with AIDS, and as a "political statement designed to... force the President out of his denial."

Harm allegedly caused by dissident views

Many AIDS experts and activists have alleged that the AIDS reappraisal movement endangers lives by persuading people to abandon safer sex or forego HIV testing and treatment. In particular, the Durban declaration stated that:

HIV causes AIDS. It is unfortunate that a few vocal people continue to deny the evidence. This position will cost countless lives.

In response to such accusations, the dissident Perth Group has denied encouraging unsafe sex or drug use; indeed, they contend that passive anal sex and drug use increase risk of AIDS and should be avoided. Duesberg argues that although HIV itself is harmless, HIV-infected people are treated with medications which he claims cause AIDS symptoms; therefore, he argues, condom use will "protect people who have an average of 1,000 sexual contacts with HIV-positives from infection, and thus from AIDS caused by anti-HIV medication."

See also

Other reading

See also Pieter Fourie, "The Political Management of HIV and AIDS in South Africa: One burden too many?" Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, ISBN 0230006671

Annotated selected bibliography about AIDS Reappraisal in scientific journals

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Scientific consensus

Dissident

By Peter Duesberg

By the Perth Group

  • Multifactorial etiology for AIDS: In 1994 Montagnier published the book "Virus" (Original title "Des virus et des hommes"), where he argued for the possible existence of mycoplasmas, virus, bacteria (pages 177) and oxidative stress (pages 184-186) as possible AIDS cofactors . The Perth Group asked Montagnier a clarification on this concept.

By others

Note

Almost all the more than 72000 articles listed at PubMed to the search AIDS HIV support or assume the scientific consensus position that AIDS is caused by HIV.

References

  1. ^ Confronting AIDS: Update 1988, a report from the Institute of Medicine of the United States National Academy of Sciences, published in 1988. On page 2 of the Executive Summary, the panel writes that "...the evidence that HIV causes AIDS is scientifically conclusive."
  2. ^ The Evidence that HIV Causes AIDS: a fact sheet from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease. Accessed February 29 2008. Cite error: The named reference "niaid" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  3. "Denying science". Nat. Med. 12 (4): 369. 2006. doi:10.1038/nm0406-369. PMID 16598265. To support their ideas, some AIDS denialists have also misappropriated a scientific review in Nature Medicine which opens with this reasonable statement: "Despite considerable advances in HIV science in the past 20 years, the reason why HIV-1 infection is pathogenic is still debated."
  4. Watson J. (2006). "Scientists, activists sue South Africa's AIDS 'denialists'". Nat Med. 12 (1): 6. PMID 16397537.
  5. "Discredited doctor's 'cure' for Aids ignites life-and-death struggle in South Africa", by Sarah Boseley. Published in The Guardian on May 14 2005. Accessed 9 Feb 2007.
  6. ^ Template:PDFlink, by Jon Cohen. Science (1994) 266:5191, pp. 1642-1644. PMID 7992043.
  7. ^ "The Durban Declaration". Nature. 406 (6791): 15–6. 2000. PMID 10894520. — full text available here.
  8. ^ Smith TC, Novella SP (2007). "HIV denial in the Internet era". PLoS Med. 4 (8): e256. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0040256. PMID 17713982.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  9. Barré-Sinoussi F, Chermann J, Rey F, Nugeyre M, Chamaret S, Gruest J, Dauguet C, Axler-Blin C, Vézinet-Brun F, Rouzioux C, Rozenbaum W, Montagnier L (1983). "Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)". Science. 220 (4599): 868–71. PMID 6189183.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. Sarngadharan MG, DeVico AL, Bruch L, Schüpbach J, Gallo RC (1984). "HTLV-III: the etiologic agent of AIDS". Int. Symp. Princess Takamatsu Cancer Res. Fund. 15: 301–8. PMID 6100648.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. Schmidt C (1984). "The group-fantasy origins of AIDS". J Psychohist. 12 (1): 37–78. PMID 11611586.
  12. AIDS Denialists Who Have Died, from aidstruth.org. Accessed July 14 2007.
  13. Coffin J, Haase A, Levy J, Montagnier L, Oroszlan S, Teich N, Temin H, Toyoshima K, Varmus H, Vogt P. "What to call the AIDS virus?". Nature. 321 (6065): 10. PMID 3010128.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ Duesberg P (1987). "Retroviruses as carcinogens and pathogens: expectations and reality". Cancer Res. 47 (5): 1199–220. PMID 3028606.
  15. Papadopulos-Eleopulos E (1988). "Reappraisal of AIDS--is the oxidation induced by the risk factors the primary cause?". Med Hypotheses. 25 (3): 151–62. PMID 3285143.
  16. Inventing the AIDS virus. Peter Duesberg. ISBN 0895263998, pages 397-398
  17. Root-Bernstein R (1990). "Do we know the cause(s) of AIDS?". Perspect Biol Med. 33 (4): 480–500. PMID 2216658.
  18. Baumann E, Bethell T, Bialy H, Duesberg P, Farber C, Geshekter C, Johnson P, Maver R, Schoch R, Stewart G (1995). "AIDS proposal. Group for the Scientific Reappraisal of the HIV/AIDS Hypothesis". Science. 267 (5200): 945–6. PMID 7863335.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. Bugl, Paul. "The Rise of HIV/AIDS". Department of Mathematics, University of Hartford. Retrieved 2007-01-22. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  21. ^ Isolated facts about HIV A Response to Claims by AIDS Dissidents That HIV Doesn't Exist by Edward King
  22. Boy Is Healthy Without Drug For H.I.V., Mother Says - New York Times
  23. Nikolas Emerson, 11; case led to legal fight over HIV - The Boston Globe
  24. ^ "Debating the Obvious: Inside the South African Government's Controversial AIDS Panel", by Mark Schoofs. Published in the Village Voice, 5-11 July 2000. Accessed 26 Feb 2007.
  25. "Out of Control: AIDS and the Corruption of Medical Science", by Celia Farber. Published in Harper's, March 2006. Accessed 27 Feb 2007.
  26. An Article in Harper's Ignites a Controversy Over H.I.V., by Lia Miller. Published in the New York Times on 2006, accessed April 25 2008.
  27. Brisbane Times "Shadow of doubters"
  28. Search for "Rasnick" and "protease" in the United States Patent and Trademark Office database
  29. Accessed 20 July 2007.
  30. Interview with Rodney Richards on the AIDS dissident site virusmyth.com. Accessed 27 Feb 2007.
  31. "Dancing Naked in the Mind Field" by Kary Mullis. Chapter 18 & 19. Excerpt re-printed in Penthouse Magazine September 1998.
  32. Serge Lang, 78, a Gadfly and Mathematical Theorist, Dies The New York Times
  33. "Foo Fighters, HIV Deniers", Mother Jones magazine, published 25 February 2000. Accessed 21 Oct 2006.
  34. "HIV & AIDS - Statement About CDC Fraud". Retrieved 2008-03-18.
  35. ^ Steven Epstein. Impure Science: AIDS, Activism, and the Politics of Knowledge. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1996. ISBN 0-520-20233-3.
  37. "HIV, AIDS, and the Distortion of Science. By Martin Delaney. Accessed 1 Dec 2006.
  38. ^ "Dead Certain?" by Bob Lederer. Published in POZ magazine April 2006. Accessed 31 Oct 2006.
  39. Statement by Joseph Sonnabend, MD, from aidstruth.org. Accessed July 6 2007.
  40. Nobel Denial?, Ken Witwer, June 2007. Accessed 1 May 2008: "Walter Gilbert has long been named by the denialist community as one of “its” Nobelists. But if Walter Gilbert was ever a denialist, does he remain so today? Apparently not: correspondence between Walter Gilbert and Richard Jefferys was published on the Internet in 2006, demonstrating that, whatever Gilbert once thought about HIV, he now recognizes the virus as the cause of AIDS."
  41. Nobel Denial?"Sadly, even thirteen years after Linus Pauling’s death, several denialist internet petitions still list him as a professed and active denialist."
  42. Nobel Denial? 2004 Nobel Peace Prize winner Wangari Maathai is hardly an expert on the science of HIV and AIDS. Nevertheless, a single careless statement is often enough to earn one the eternal and dubious friendship of the HIV/AIDS denialists.
  43. virusmyth.com WHISTLE BLOWERS, Accessed 1 May 2008
  44. "List of Rethinkers": List of people who are claimed to subscribe to AIDS dissident beliefs; some of the listed individuals did not sign the list or have since changed their minds. Accessed 1 May 2008.
  45. Cohen J (2007). "HIV/AIDS. AIDSTruth.org Web site takes aim at 'denialists'". Science. 316 (5831): 1554. doi:10.1126/science.316.5831.1554. PMID 17569834.
  46. AIDS Denialists Who Have Died, from aidstruth.org. Accessed July 19 2007.
  47. Turner V. (1999) E-Mail Correspondence Between Val Turner and Robin Weiss
  48. Duesberg P (1989). "Human immunodeficiency virus and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: correlation but not causation". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 86 (3): 755–64. PMID 2644642.
  49. Papadopulos-Eleopulos E, Turner V, Papadimitriou J (1993). "Is a positive western blot proof of HIV infection?". Biotechnology (N Y). 11 (6): 696–707. PMID 7763673.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  50. HealToronto.com, dissident website, claiming to provide 10 reasons why HIV cannot cause AIDS. Accessed 28 September 2006.
  51. Duesberg P, Koehnlein C, Rasnick D (2003). "The chemical bases of the various AIDS epidemics: recreational drugs, anti-viral chemotherapy and malnutrition". J Biosci. 28 (4): 383–412. PMID 12799487.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  52. Fact Sheets on HIV/AIDS, from the Centers for Disease Control. Accessed 26 Feb 2007.
  53. World Health Organization HIV and AIDS Programme, from the World Health Organization website. Accessed 26 Feb 2007.
  54. ^ Major studies confirming the benefits and effectiveness of modern anti-HIV therapy include, but are not limited to:
    • Lima V, Hogg R, Harrigan P, Moore D, Yip B, Wood E, Montaner J (2007). "Continued improvement in survival among HIV-infected individuals with newer forms of highly active antiretroviral therapy". AIDS. 21 (6): 685–92. PMID 17413689.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
    • Jordan R, Gold L, Cummins C, Hyde C (2002). "Systematic review and meta-analysis of evidence for increasing numbers of drugs in antiretroviral combination therapy". BMJ. 324 (7340): 757. PMID 11923157.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) — full text
    • Ivers L, Kendrick D, Doucette K (2005). "Efficacy of antiretroviral therapy programs in resource-poor settings: a meta-analysis of the published literature". Clin Infect Dis. 41 (2): 217–24. PMID 15983918.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
    • Mocroft A, Ledergerber B, Katlama C, Kirk O, Reiss P, d'Arminio Monforte A, Knysz B, Dietrich M, Phillips A, Lundgren J (2003). "Decline in the AIDS and death rates in the EuroSIDA study: an observational study". Lancet. 362 (9377): 22–9. PMID 12853195.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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