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| ⚫ | ) were funding the rebel forces.<ref>. Alex Harrowell: 6 August 2007.</ref> Three newspapers in Niger which speculated that ] might be behind the rebel group were threatened with legal action by the Libyan government.<ref> AFP: 31 Aug 2007.</ref> On the other hand, the MNJ statements portray their movement as Niger-wide (as opposed to Tuareg nationalism) and limited to the demand for economic, political and environmental reforms.<ref>. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs - Integrated Regional Information Networks (IRIN): 17 May 2007.</ref> | ||
| {{Infobox Military Conflict | |||
| | conflict =1990s Mali - Niger Tuareg insurgency | |||
| | partof = | |||
| | image = | |||
| | caption = | |||
| | date = 1990-1995 | |||
| | place = Northern ] and ] | |||
| | territory = | |||
| | result = 1995 peace accords | |||
| | status = | |||
| | combatant1 = '''Mali:'''<br />], ] militia<br />'''Niger:'''<br />] | |||
| | combatant2 = '''Mali:'''<br />] (FIAA), <br />] (MPLA),<br />] (MFUA).<br />'''Niger:'''<br /><br />] (FLAA),<br />], (FLT), <br />CRA & ORA coalitions (1994-95) | |||
| | commander1 = | |||
| | commander2 = '''Mali:'''<br />'''Niger:'''<br />], ] | |||
| | strength1 = | |||
| | strength2 = '''Mali:'''<br />7,000+<br />'''Niger:'''<br /> | |||
| | casualties1 = | |||
| | casualties2 = | |||
| | notes = <ref>:<br /> 1990 - 1995 Mali 1 000 Violences ethniques (Tuareg)<br /> | |||
| 1990 - 1997 Niger 1 000 Violences ethniques (Azawad et Toubou)<br /> | |||
| , citing US Gov, gives 7000 Malian rebels integrated into the military in 1995-96.</ref> | |||
| }} | |||
| ] | |||
| The '''Tuareg Rebellion''' was an ] of the ] by various ] groups in ] and ] with the aim of achieving ] or forming their own ]-]. The insurgency occurred in a period following the regional famine of the 1980s and subsequent refugee crisis, and a time of generalised political repression and crisis in both nations. The conflict is one in a series of Tuareg-based insurgencies in the colonial and post-colonial history of these nations. In Niger, it is also referred to as the ''Second'' or ''Third Tuareg Rebellion'', a reference to the pre-independence rebellions of ] of the ] in 1914 (]) and the rising of ] of ] in 1911, who reappeared in Mali in 1916. In fact the nomadic Tuareg confederations have come into sporadic conflict with the sedentary communities of the region ever since they migrated from the ] between the 7th and 14th centuries CE.<ref>See Samuel Decalo. Historical Dictionary of Niger. Scarecrow Press, London and New Jersey (1979). ISBN 0810812290, listings for ''Rebellion'', ''Tuareg'', ''Kaocen Revolt''.</ref> Some (but not all) Tuareg wished for an independent Tuareg Nation to be formed when French Colonialism ended. This combined with dissatisfaction over the new governments led some Tuareg in Northern Mali to rebel in 1963. This rebellion was short-lived as the military response of the new Malian government was swift and harsh.<ref>Lt. Col. Kalifa Keita ''Conflict and conflict resolution in the Sahel'' retrieved 4/11/08 from http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps12312/carlisle-www.army.mil/usassi/ssipubs/pubs98/tuareg/tuareg.pdf</ref> | |||
| Adam Towle and monica crisp made out | |||
| ==Background== | |||
| ] people form a distinct ] in all the ]n countries they inhabit and a majority in many Saharan regions. In many cases, the Tuareg have been marginalised by governments based in the ] or on the ] coast. ] and ]s in ]-] and ]-] killed ] and forced the alteration of traditional migration routes, increasing conflict between neighboring groups. Aid from national governments was often unforthcoming, and many sided against the Tuareg – one notable exception being ]. In both ] and ] large numbers of Tuareg nomads fled to refugee camps in Algeria and Libya. There, militants who blamed their respective national governments for failing to aid communities in need began to commingle and form the future rebel groups. | |||
| Both Mali and Niger, unable to cope economically with famine, and plagued by weak, authoritarian governments, faced dissent in all communities. In Mali, President ], a former military leader who had come to power in a 1968 military coup, was facing growing pressure over poverty, ] restrictions on government spending, drought, and 20 years of one-party rule. On 22 March 1991 he was overthrown in another military coup. | |||
| In Niger, president ], the unelected military successor to 1974 coup leader General ], was facing similar problems.<ref>Myriam Gervais. ''Niger: Regime change, economic crisis, and perpetuation of privilege'', in John Frank Clark, David E. Gardinier, eds.: ''Political Reform in Francophone Africa''. Westview Press (1997). ISBN 0813327865</ref> On 9 February 1990 police suppression of a peaceful student march at ]'s ] killed at least 3. Ongoing student and labor protests began to target the government and army throughout the country. | |||
| ===Niger, 1985-1990=== | |||
| In ]'s far north, drought, economic crisis, and the central government's political weakness came to a head in 1985. That year, a number of Tuareg in ] formed a political opposition group called the ] (FPLN). An armed attack by FPLN members in ] sparked the closing of the borders with Libya and Algeria, and the resettlement of thousands of Tuareg and other nomads away from the area. As economic and political conditions worsened, grievances grew. When aid promised by ]'s government to Tuareg returning from ] failed to materialise, some Tuareg attacked a ] in ] in May 1990, leading to the death of 31, including 25 of the attackers. Initially the rebel's main demand was for the right for their children to learn ] at school, but this soon escalated to a demand for autonomy. Later in May 1990, the ] responded by arresting, torturing, and killing several hundred Tuareg civilians in ], ] and ]. This became known as the ].<ref>for the Tchintabaraden massacre and human rights abuse of the period in Niger, see a summary in ]'s . 8 September 1999. (see below) gives the number of civilians killed as a range between 650 and 1500.</ref> Tuareg outrage sparked the creation of two armed insurgent groups: the ] and the ]. | |||
| ==Mali== | |||
| ===Mali Civil War, 1990-1996=== | |||
| In Mali, the rising began in ] when Tuareg separatists attacked government buildings around ] in ]. The ]'s reprisals led to a full-blown rebellion in which the absence of opportunities for Tuareg in the army was a major complaint. The conflict died down after ] formed a new government and made reparations in ]. Also, Mali created a new self-governing region, the ], and provided for greater Tuareg integration into Malian society. | |||
| In 1994, Tuareg, reputed to have been trained and armed by Libya, attacked Gao, which again led to major Malian Army reprisals and to the creation of the ] ] ] to combat the Tuareg. Mali effectively fell into ]. | |||
| In ], moderates on both sides negotiated a peace settlement. | |||
| Weapons were ceremonially burnt in ] in ] as a symbolic conclusion to the conflict. Aid has since been given to the Tuareg areas of the country and separatism has declined. The situation, however, remained tense with fears that the conflict would be renewed. | |||
| === 1996-2007=== | |||
| Malian Tuareg insurgents have taken part in a long series of peace processes. The 1995 peace deals which ended the First Tuareg Rebellion promised the repatriation of Tuareg communities forced into resettlement camps in the south of the country and opportunities for Malian Tuaregs to join the central government in Bamako. Unlike the Niger ex-combatants who appeared successfully integrated into national life, small numbers of Malian Tuaregs remained restive, complaining of the Kidal region's poverty, some involved in cross-border smuggling and crime, while a splinter faction of the Tuareg ex-combatants rose in 2006. The ]-based Tuareg group '']'' (''Mai 23, 2006 Alliance démocratique pour le changement - ADC)'', led a short, sporadic campaign in the north of Mali from May to July 2006, when they signed another peace deal with the ] government.<ref> Jeune Afrique: 15 July 2007.</ref> After renewing the ceasefire, these forces apparently splintered further in 2007. | |||
| ] | |||
| Attacks in the extreme northeast of Mali began to grow in number and intensity in August 2007, as reports appeared that the ADC splinter group, led by former combatant ] claiming these attacks had formally confederated with the Niger-based MNJ.<ref>. Radio France International, 2 September 2007.</ref> The MNJ has formally denied this, but witnesses of one kidnapping attack in Mali said the rebels had moved back towards the Niger border.<ref></ref> Former Malian rebel leaders, notably the 1990's commander ], denounced the 2007 violence and called on the Bahanga group to cease their attacks and offered to negotiate on behalf of the Bamako government.<ref> Radio France International, 1 September 2007. . Radio France International, 3 September 2007.</ref> Regardless of the connection with the ] of 2007 in Niger, the small size of forces involved in the 2007 Malian violence, and the wide support for the 1995 and 2006 accords among Malian Tuareg leaders, paint a picture of a largely successful peace process. | |||
| ==Niger== | |||
| ===1990 to 1995 peace accord=== | |||
| In Niger, sporadic fighting in the ] of the far north continued from 1990. The tourist center of ], the uranium mining town of ] (largely exploited by the French multinational ]), and the traditional Tuareg trade town of ] were evacuated of foreigners and armed by the ]. Attacks were few, the response was ineffective, but great economic damage was done, rendering the ] largely off-limits to outsiders. | |||
| The two main rebel groups in Niger agreed to a truce in ], just as war flared up again in Mali. The Niger based groups formed two umbrella organisations called the ] (''Organization de Resistance Armee'', ORA), and the ] (''Coordinasion de Resistance Armee'', CRA), and continued a series of negotiations with the government, punctuated by fighting on both sides. The CRA signed an October 1994 accord, but by 1995 was in conflict with the government again. The ORA then negotiated an April 1995 Peace Accord, rejected by the CRA <ref>, Barbara Worley, The Amazigh Voice - Taghect Tamazight Vol. 5, No. 3, June 1996. </ref> Mano Dayak, the CRA negotiator and who leader of Tuareg rebels in the ] region died in a suspicious plane crash in 1995, on his way to meet government officials.<ref>, Barbara Worley, The Amazigh Voice - Taghect Tamazight Vol. 5, No. 3, June 1996.</ref> | |||
| Finally, the government reached peace accords on 15 April 1995 with all Tuareg (and some ]) rebel groups, negotiated in ]. These "Ouagadougou Accords" marked the end of most fighting, with the last armed group signing up in ]. Since the late 1990s, the Tuareg have claimed they lacked attention and resources from the central government. The government agreed to absorb some former rebels into the military and, with French assistance, help others return to a productive civilian life. Controversy has continued to revolve around Tuareg leaders brought into government, with the arrest of the Minister of Tourism ]<ref>, including Ministre Délégué auprès du Ministre du Tourisme et de l'Artisanat, Chargé du Tourisme: M Rhissa Ag Boula.</ref> in 2004 and his July 2005 pardon, on suspicion of involvement in a political murder. Niger's Tuaregs continue to watch closely the development and economic activities of the government, especially in regards the ]' burgeoning tourist trade, and ]'s recovering ] industry. | |||
| ===An uneasy peace: 1995-2007=== | |||
| In the early first decade of the 21st century, sporadic attacks continued to be claimed by Tuareg groups and the ] ], but press accounts suggested these have little support in the larger community. Whatever the feelings of the broader Tuareg community in Niger, 2007 saw a complete break in relations between ex-combatants and the government. A unified force of ex-combatants began attacks against the government and mining interests in the north and repudiated the 1995 accords. This marks the beginning of the ]. | |||
| The ] (''Mouvement des Nigériens pour la justice'', MNJ) is apparently led by ], a former member of the '']'', and ], a former captain in the ] who defected to the rebels in May 2007.<ref> . APA, 24 May 2007.</ref> | |||
| ⚫ | |||
| Niger rebels say their government has failed to honor the ] peace deal, which ended the First Tuareg Rebellion and promised them a bigger share of the region's mineral wealth.<ref>. Phuong Tran, Voice of America: 21 August 2007.</ref> Nigerien Tuareg leaders and some Non Government Organizations have claimed the violence of February 2007 was the culmination of widespread disaffection amongst Tuareg ex-combatants with the slow progress of promised benefits, lack of functioning democratic institutions, and a perceived special status given to foreign mining interests and southern political leaders.<ref>. Agence France Presse: 25 August, 2007.</ref> | Niger rebels say their government has failed to honor the ] peace deal, which ended the First Tuareg Rebellion and promised them a bigger share of the region's mineral wealth.<ref>. Phuong Tran, Voice of America: 21 August 2007.</ref> Nigerien Tuareg leaders and some Non Government Organizations have claimed the violence of February 2007 was the culmination of widespread disaffection amongst Tuareg ex-combatants with the slow progress of promised benefits, lack of functioning democratic institutions, and a perceived special status given to foreign mining interests and southern political leaders.<ref>. Agence France Presse: 25 August, 2007.</ref> | ||
Revision as of 12:55, 12 May 2008
) were funding the rebel forces. Three newspapers in Niger which speculated that Libya might be behind the rebel group were threatened with legal action by the Libyan government. On the other hand, the MNJ statements portray their movement as Niger-wide (as opposed to Tuareg nationalism) and limited to the demand for economic, political and environmental reforms.
Adam Towle and monica crisp made out
Niger rebels say their government has failed to honor the 1995 peace deal, which ended the First Tuareg Rebellion and promised them a bigger share of the region's mineral wealth. Nigerien Tuareg leaders and some Non Government Organizations have claimed the violence of February 2007 was the culmination of widespread disaffection amongst Tuareg ex-combatants with the slow progress of promised benefits, lack of functioning democratic institutions, and a perceived special status given to foreign mining interests and southern political leaders.
Rebel groups
Malian Tuareg Groups
- Arab Islamic Front of Azawad (FIAA), Mali.
- Popular Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MPLA).
- United Movements and Fronts of Azawad (MFUA).
Nigerien Tuareg Groups
- Front for the Liberation of Aïr and Azaouak (FLAA).
- Front for the Liberation of Tamoust, (FLT).
- Mano Dayak, Tuareg Rebel Leader.
See also
References
- Next Up: Northern Niger. Alex Harrowell: 6 August 2007.
- Point Afrique cancels tour flights. AFP: 31 Aug 2007.
- Niger: New Touareg rebel group speaks out. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs - Integrated Regional Information Networks (IRIN): 17 May 2007.
- Rebels in Niger Threaten More Attacks. Phuong Tran, Voice of America: 21 August 2007.
- La crise touareg due à "l'échec" des accords de 1995. Agence France Presse: 25 August, 2007.
For Niger
- Bram Posthumus. Niger: A Long History, a Brief Conflict, an Open Future, in Searching for Peace in Africa, European Centre for Conflict Prevention (1999). ISBN 90-5727-033-1
- Samuel Decalo. Historical Dictionary of Niger. Scarecrow Press, London and New Jersey (1979). ISBN 0810812290
- Jolijn Geels. Niger. Bradt London and Globe Pequot, New York (2006). ISBN 1841621528.
- Full text of the 15 April 1995 Niger peace accords (French). Accord établissant une paix définitive entre le Gouvernement de la République du Niger et l'Organisation de la Résistance Armée (O.R.A.).