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Ayurveda (Devanagari: आयुर्वेद) or Ayurvedic medicine is the most ancient of the six recognized Indian Systems of Medicine to the Indian subcontinent. It is sometimes considered to be a Hindu system of health care because of its origins in the oral advice on living from the Vedic metaphysics (Charaka Samhita). It is used by millions of people in India, Nepal, Sri Lanka and increasingly in the Western world as alternative medicine. It is widely considered to be the oldest continously practiced system of medicine on the planet, dating back to the pre-vedic period of 5000 BC. The oldest Indian texts, Rigveda and Atharva-veda, discuss medicine, and classical Ayurvedic texts of Charak Samhita and Sushruta Samhita were written around 1000 BC.

The word "Ayurveda" is a tatpurusha compound of the word āyus meaning "life," "life principle," or "longevity" and the word veda, which refers to a system of "knowledge" or "wisdom." Thus "Ayurveda" roughly translates as the "wisdom for living" or "knowledge of a long life". According to Charaka Samhita, "life" itself is defined as the "combination of the body, sense organs, mind and soul, the factor responsible for preventing decay and death, which sustains the body over time, and guides the processes of rebirth." The related term of Suddha (pure) medicine refers to classical Ayurvedic medicine. According to this perspective, Ayurveda is concerned with measures to protect "ayus", which includes healthy living along with therapeutic measures that relate to physical, mental, social and spiritual harmony. Ayurveda is also one among the few traditional systems of medicine to contain a sophisticated system of surgery (which is referred to as "salya-chikitsa"(chikitsa=examination)).

Current status

In the early 20th century, Ayurvedic physicians began to organize into professional associations and to promote their case for national recognition and funding. This began to become a reality after Indian independence in 1947. Ayurveda is now a statutory, recognised medical system of health care in India. The Central Council of Indian Medicine (CCIM) governs and recommends policies for the research and development of the system. An Encyclopedia on Ayurveda - Ayushveda.com has been developed to promote the knowledge of Ayurveda worldwide. Elsewhere in the world, ayurveda is an alternative medicine.

In India, practitioners in Ayurveda undergo five and a half years of training including a year of internship in select Ayurveda medical schools wherein they earn the professional doctorate degree of Bachelor of Ayurvedic Medicine and Surgery (BAMS). A Bachelor's degree with a major in Science and a minor in Sanskrit is desirable for candidates interested in taking up the course. Select institutions like the Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, offer higher doctorates and postgraduate training such as MD (Ayurveda) which includes a three-year residency and a dissertation similar to the MD or MS degrees in modern systems of western medicine.

Approximately 80% of the world population uses traditional medicine as their primary health care.

Scientific evidence

As a traditional medicine, many ayurvedic products have not been tested in rigorous scientific studies and clinical trials. The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine states that "most clinical trials of Ayurvedic approaches have been small, had problems with research designs, lacked appropriate control groups, or had other issues that affected how meaningful the results were."

In India, research in Ayurveda is largely undertaken by the statutory body of the Central Government, the Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha (CCRAS), through a national network of research institutes. However, "even staunch advocates of Ayurveda like cardiologist Dr. M.S. Valiathan...admit that 'clinical studies that would satisfy the liberal criteria of WHO World Health Organisation have been alarmingly few from India, in spite of patients crowding in Ayurvedic hospitals"'.

Despite these misgivings, some ayurvedic products, mainly herbs used for phytotherapy, have been tested with promising results. Turmeric has been used in Ayurvedic medicine since 1900 BC, and its derivative curcumin appears to have beneficial properties. Tinspora cordifolia has been tested. Among the medhya rasayanas (intellect rejuvenation), two varieties of sage have been been tested; one improved word recall in young adults, and another improved symptoms in Alzheimer's patients. In some cases Ayurvedic medicine may provide clues to therapeutic compounds. For example, derivatives of snake venom have various therapeutic properties. Many plants used as rasayana (rejuvenation) medications are potent antioxidants. Neem appears to have beneficial pharmacological properties as well.

A systematic review of Ayurveda treatments for rheumatoid arthritis concluded that there was insufficient evidence, as most of the trials were not done properly, and the one high-quality trial showed no benefits. A review of Ayurveda and cardiovascular disease concluded that while the herbal evidence is not yet convincing, the spices are appropriate, some herbs are promising, and yoga is also a promising complementary treatment.

Safety concerns

There is evidence that using some ayurvedic medicine, especially those involving herbs, metals, minerals, or other materials involves potentially serious risks, including toxicity.

A research study published in 2004 in the Journal of the American Medical Association studied the chemistry of ayurvedic compounds and found significant levels of toxic heavy metals such as lead, mercury and arsenic in 20% of Ayurvedic preparations that were made in South Asia for sale around Boston and extrapolated the data to America. The Journal found that, if taken according to the manufacturers' instructions, this 20% of remedies "could result in heavy metal intakes above published regulatory standards" Similar studies have been performed in India, and have confirmed the presence of heavy metals. The main concern of metal toxicity from misuse of ayurvedic medicines are well known. Practitioners of ayurveda assert that "heavy metals are integral to some formulations and have been used for centuries. There is no point of doing trials as they have been used safely and have mention in our ancient texts."

There is a technique of detoxification applied to heavy metals and toxic herbs called samskaras, which is similar to the Chinese pao zhi although the Ayurvedic technique is more complex and may involve prayers as well as physical pharmacy techniques.

The described detoxification is a simple chemical process which involves four successive rounds of boiling the crude Aconitum root in cow's urine (twice) and cow's milk (twice). This process is claimed to chemically modify both toxic and proposed therapeutic components of the root. It also extracts some of these compounds from the root into the boiling solvents, thereby decreasing their concentration in the final product.

Institutions and practitioners

Ayurvedic practitioners have been appointed as Honorary Ayurvedic Physician to the President of India. Every year on the occasion of Dhanvantari jayanti, a prestigious Dhanvantari Award is conferred on a famous personality of Medicine, including Ayurveda. Traditionally Kerala has been the leading state in India that promoted Ayurveda as a medical system, because there existed about 8 families known as 'Ashtavaidyas' who practised ayurveda generation after generation. Even now a few number of these families exist (Pulamanthole Mooss, Thaikkattu mooss,Vayaskara mooss,Olassa mooss,Kuttancheri mooss,Chirattaman mooss,Vellod mooss,& Alathiyur Nambi, Vaidyamadhom,). They taught the ayurveda system of treatment to several people and it spread through them. It led to the establishment of Ayurveda colleges and also inspired research activities in Ayurveda. Now there are many Ayurvedic centers all over Kerala, and, of late, several Ayurveda colleges also have come up. Apart from Ashtavaidyas there had been prominent traditional vaidya families practicing in all the eight branches of Ayurveda with utmost efficacy amongst them the prominent being the descendant of Late Chatharu Nair who was the last word in Ayurveda Pediatrics at the time of his living on whose memmory CNS Ayurveda Chikitsalayam ( Chatharu Nair Smarak) functions in Mezhathur, Kerala.

The National Library of Ayurveda Medicine (NLAM) is attempting a project with the objective of standardizing Ayurveda medicine. The NLAM repository explains in detail the preparation methods of various Ayurveda formulations using standard terms. It gives brief explanation and co-relation of plants, minerals, metals and gemstones (also known as Ratnagarbhas) used as ingredients in Ayurveda medicine. The NLAM digital library / database is being developed per the following guidelines. It has been divided into three active phases of development and is in phase one as of 2008.

In the West, The National Institute Of Ayurvedic Medicine has conducted research in association with the National Cancer Institute.

Practice in the West

Attempts are being made by westerners to export the essence of ayurveda to complement their own medical systems, where steadily biomedicine industry predominates.

As a result of regulations in medical practice in Europe and the America, the most commonly practised Ayurvedic treatments in the west are massage, dietary counseling and herbal advice. The National Ayurvedic Medical Association-USA (NAMA) is one of several groups seeking to set standards for Ayurveda in the West. There are 26 schools in the US and dozens in Europe which are teaching 500-plus hour courses for proficiency as Ayurvedic health practitioners that are then certified but not licensed.

US-based schools of Ayurveda include the following:

Alandi Ashram

Ayurveda Institute, Albuquerque, New Mexico

Blue Lotus Ayurveda

California College of Ayurveda

Chopra Center

Florida Hindu University

Dhanvantari Ayurveda

The Dinacharya Institute, New York, NY

Florida Vedic Institute

Ganesha Institute,

Kanyakumari, Milwaukee, WI

American University of Complementary Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles

Kerala Ayurveda Academy, Seattle

Kripalu School of Ayurveda, Massachusetts

Mount Madonna Institute, California

New Jersey Institute of Ayurveda, Starseed Yoga

National Institute of Ayurvedic Medicine, Brewster, New York

Ojas Ayurveda and Yoga Institute

Prana Yoga and Ayurveda Mandela

Rocky Mountain Institute

Sai Ayurveda College of Miami (Florida)

Tulsi School of Ayurveda

Wise Earth School of Ayurveda

Vedika Global

Several authors have also emerged in the West to elucidate concepts of ayurveda for modern medical practitioners. Vasant D. Lad, BAMS, of The Ayurvedic Institute in New Mexico, is widely acknowledged for his prolific writings and texts for his thousands of students. Other authors include Sebastian Pole, Maya Tiwari, Robert Svoboda, Deepak Chopra, and Hari Sharma. In addition, psychiatrist Frank John Ninivaggi, MD of Yale University School of Medicine has recently (2008) outlined the principles of Ayurveda, specifically for Western health practitioners.

In the United States,the NIH NCCAM expends some of its $123 million budget on ayurvedic medicine research. In addition, the National Institute of Ayurvedic Medicine, established by Dr. Scott Gerson, is an example of a research institute that has carried out research into Ayurvedic practices. Gerson has published part of his work on the antifungal activities of certain Ayurvedic plants in medical journals. Other notable researchers include Dr. Mano Venkatraman at the University of Washington, Seattle.

Entry into the nutraceutical industry

Several pharmaceutical companies and academic institutions in the west have come into conflict with Indian academic institutions and traditional Ayurvedic practitioners over the intellectual property rights of herbal products researched by the western agencies. The Ayurvedic practitioners have known about the efficacy of such products for centuries and so contend that they carry precedence with regards to patent rights on such products.

In December 1993, the University of Mississippi Medical Center had a patent issued to them by US Patents and Trademarks office on the use of turmeric (US Patent No. 5,401,504) for healing. The patent was contested by India's industrial research organization, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (C.S.I.R), on the grounds that traditional Ayurvedic practitioners were already aware of the healing properties of the substance and have been for centuries, making this patent a case of bio-piracy.

After a complex legal battle, the US PTO ruled on August 14,1997 that the patent was invalid because it was not a novel invention, giving the intellectual property rights to the principle back to the traditional practitioners of Ayurveda. R. A. Mashelkar, director-general of the CSIR, was satisfied with the result, saying:

This success will enhance the confidence of the people and help remove fears about India's helplessness on preventing bio-piracy and appropriation of inventions based on traditional knowledge

Vandana Shiva, a global campaigner for a fair and honest Intellectual Property Rights system, says patents on herbal products derived from Neem, Amla, Jar Amla, Anar ("Pomegranate"), Salai, Dudhi ("Calabash"), Gulmendhi, Bagbherenda, Karela, Erand, Rangoon-kibel, Vilayetishisham and Chamkura also need to be revoked.

Seven American and four Japanese firms have filed for grant of patents on formulations containing extracts of the herb Ashwagandha. Fruits, leaves and seeds of the Indian medicinal plant withania somnifera have been traditionally used for the Ayurvedic system as aphrodisiacs, diuretics and for treating memory loss. The Japanese patent applications are related to the use of the herb as a skin ointment and for promoting reproductive fertility. The U.S based company Natreon has also obtained a patent for an Ashwagandha extract.

Another US establishment, the New England Deaconess Hospital, has taken a patent on an Ashwagandha formulation claimed to alleviate symptoms associated with arthritis. It is clear that the Ashwagandha plant is catching the attention of scientists and more patents related to Ashwagandha are being filed or granted by different patent offices since 1996.

Ayurvedic wisdom originated in the main Vedas as a part of way of life - a spiritual connection with spirit and nature. This is most evident reading Atharva Veda. Ayurveda was used to remove obstacles on one’s path to Self-Realization. At some point the medical aspects began to take priority over the spiritual forms of healing (ie, focusing on lifestyle, dharma and moksha. Today, these spiritual aspects of Ayurveda have taken a back seat to the medical focus. As Ayurveda becomes a more commercially viable career, the spiritual aspects may continue to lose ground. Yet there are a growing number of practitioners who practice mainly these spiritual therapies and find better results than limiting their approach to the medical, physical realm.

Ashtanga: Scope and practices

Ashtanga are the eight branches of Ayurveda:

1. Internal medicine - Kayachikitsa
2. Pediatrics - Kaumarabhritya Tantra
3. Psychology/Psychiatry - Bhuta Vidya
4. Ears, eyes, nose and throat - Shalakya tantra
5. Surgery - Shalya Tantra
6. Toxicology - Agada Tantra
7. Rejuvenation - Rasayana Tantra
8. Fertility Therapy - Vajikarana Tantra

(note: Tantra as a Sanskrit term is broadly defined as a system characterized by threads of multiply diverse techniques, methods, and practices used in special ways in order to achieve mental, physical and spiritual change, or knowledge through complex action)

Sapta dhatus

Sapta means seven and the word Dhatu refers to various types of tissues the human body is made of. The word Dhatu in Sanskrit means “that which forms the body”. The root Dha means support and the Dhatus sustain the body.

The seven dhatus mentioned are Rasa, Rakta, Maamsa Medas, Asthi, Majja and Shukra.

Rasa dhatu: The food we consume is digested in the stomach and intestine and forms a semi-fluid. This is called Rasa dhatu. In modern science it is called chyme. This is absorbed into the blood stream and becomes part of the plasma the fluid which can be seen after the cells in the blood settle down at the bottom if blood mixed with an anticoagulant (a substance which prevents blood from clotting) is kept in a tube.

Rakta dhatu: Rakta means blood.

Mamsa dhatu: This refers to muscle tissue. There are three types of muscles in the human body. The skeletal muscles are responsible for movements of joints and are under voluntary control. Smooth muscles are present in internal organs and are not under voluntary control. For example the intestines contain smooth muscles which propel food forward. Cardiac muscle is present only in the heart and is a specialized tissue responsible for pumping of blood.

Medas dhatu: This is the adipose tissue which consists mainly of fat. It is responsible for lubrication.

Ashthi dhatu: This consists of bones and cartilages. Bones give strength to the body.

Majja dhatu: This refers to the bone marrow. It is a spongy substance inside the cavity of bones.

Shukra dhatu: The shukra dhatu is represented by the semen in the male and the ovum in the female. It is responsible for reproduction. But a part of this dhatu transforms itself into ojas.

The word ojas is a Sanskrit word which literally means immunity, energy, vigor etc. It is somewhat an abstract entity and its equivalent in modern medicine is not known. It is the interface between the spiritual and the material dimensions of a human being.

We all know that some people are full of energy, rarely fall sick and have a bright look on their face. On the other hand some people always feel tired, fall sick frequently and look dull. It may not be possible to identify any difference between the two by conducting detailed physiological and biochemical tests.

According to ayurveda the difference is in the level of ojas. Ojas integrates body, mind and spirit together resulting in a unique individual. Ojas is responsible for bala (strength) and vyadhikshamatva (resistance to diseases).

Scriptures describe two types of ojas-Para ojas and Apara ojas. Para ojas is said to be located in the heart and its loss leads to death. Apara ojas is distributed throughout the body.

Tridosha system

The central concept of Ayurvedic medicine is the theory that health exists when there is a balance between three fundamental bodily humours or doshas called Vata, Pitta and Kapha.

• Vata is the dynamic "kinetic" principle necessary to mobilize anything from electron to a galaxy. Air is the representative in an abstract sense.
• Pitta is the thermal, explosive force behind the ability to transform everything. Sun is the representative.
• Kapha is the cohesion that holds everything together with its electro magnetic and gravitational forces.

All Ayurvedic physicians believe that these ancient ideas, based in the knowledge discovered by the Rishis and Munis, exist in harmony with physical reality. These Ayurvedic concepts allow physicians to examine the homeostasis of the whole system. People may be of a predominant dosha or constitution, but all doshas have the basic elements within them.

Disease management

Shamana and Shodhana are the two concepts of disease management in Ayurveda. Shamana means alleviation. Shamana methods mitigate the disease and its symptoms. Shodhana means elimination and Shodhana methods aim at the elimination of the basic cause of disease. There are 5 types of shodana which is well known as panchakarma. Panchakarmas are vamana, virechana, nasya, basti and raktha mokshana. In shamana usually medicines are given internally where as in shodana external treatments are given. Shodana karma have 2 poorvakarma for prepraring the patients body for treatment, ie. snehana and swedana.

Tastes and effects

Ayurveda holds that the tastes of foods or herbs have specific physiological effects. Those tastes that transform after digestion (Vipaka) are more powerful.

• Sweet (Madhura) - Sweet foods nourish, cool, moisten, oil, and increase weight
• Sour (Amla) - Sour foods warm, oil, and increase weight
• Salty (Lavana) - Salty foods warm, dissolve, stimulate, soften, oil, and increase weight
• Bitter (Katu) - Bitter foods cool, dry, purify and decrease weight
• Pungent (Tikta) - Pungent foods warm, dry, stimulate, and decrease weight
• Astringent (Kashaya) - Astringent foods cool, dry, reduce stickiness.
• Hot (Jhala)

Medications

Ayurveda operates on the precept that various materials of vegetable, animal, and mineral origin have some medicinal value. The medicinal properties of these materials have been documented by the practitioners and have been used for centuries to cure illness and/or help maintain good health. Ayurvedic medicaments are made from herbs or mixtures of herbs, either alone or in combination with minerals, metals and other ingredients of animal origin. The metals, animals and minerals are purified by individual processes before being used for medicinal purposes.

Writers and compilers of Ayurvedic literature such as Charaka, Sushruta, Vagabhatta, Bhav Mishra, Shaligram and others have written about the qualities, characteristics and medicinal uses of the herbs, mineral, metals, chemicals, animal parts, cooked food articles, natural foods, fruits etc. Among them, the Bhav Prakash Nighantu, written by Bhav Mishra, is known for its detail .The composition of the Nighantu part (Ayurvedic Materia Medica) of the Bhav Prakash is part of the classical book. The details of the medicinal herbs are given according to the nature, effects, and curative properties as observed by the Ayurvedic practitioners.

Ayurvedic literature has been written by several authors in languages such as Sanskrit, Hindi, Kannada, Tamil, Telugu and more recently, in English.The Shaligram Nighantu was written in Sanskrit. The Banaushadhi Chandrodaya was written in Hindi.The Indian Materia Medica was written in English.

Panchakarma and Ayurvedic massage

Panchakarma (the five therapeutic modalities) is a collection of purification techniques that Ayurveda prescribes for specific conditions and diseases and for periodic cleansing. A course of Pancharkarma typically includes a nutritional adjustments, herbs, pre or co panchakarma therapies (such as oil massages, hot baths, steam or sauna, shirodhara, dehadhara, hot rice massage etc) and one or some of the main therapies (such as vamana - removal of the kapha toxins, virechana - removal of the pitta toxins, vasti - removal of the vata toxins, raktamoksha - removal of the toxins trapped in blood stream, and nasya - removal of toxins trapped in sinuses and cranial area.

Abhyanga - oil application and mardana - massage form the background of a course of therapy. This combination helps heal pain, circulatory problems, residue of stress, disturbed sleep, stiffness and tiredness. Massage therapy can soothe pain, relax stiff muscles, and reduce the swelling that accompanies arthritis. Advocates claim that, with Ayurvedic massage, deep-seated toxins in the joints and tissues are loosened and released into the system for elimination through natural toxin-release processes. There are several different types of Ayurvedic treatments such as panchakarma, marma massage and abhyangam. Ayurvedic massage is especially developed in Sri Lanka and the Indian state of Kerala.

History

Where ayurvedic knowledge ultimately developed is unknown, but oral myths, circumstantial evidence, and several early texts have been used to research its origins. Indigenous Indian medicine is probably as old as the Indus Valley Civilization dating back to 3000 BCE. The meticulously planned cities of Harappa and Mohenjodaro are pointers not only to India’s rich cultural heritage but also to its advanced systems of hygiene and health care. The remains of deer antler and bitumen found in Harappa testify to the existence of a medical practice. It was between 1200 and 700 BCE, that the four sacred Vedas were composed. References to diseases, herbs and herbal cures can be seen in all the four Vedas especially in the Rig Veda. The Atharva Veda has many hymns eulogizing herbs. Many plants were worshipped as deities and invoked by incantations. There were also many Mantras (invocations) to combat jaundice, consumption and hereditary diseases among others. The Atharvan hymns chanted for the cure of diseases were known as Bhaishajyams and those for attaining longevity and prosperity were called Ayushyams. These hymns, especially the Ayushyams are considered to be the foundation for advances in later medicine.

In in inception, the system of Ayurvedic medicine was orally transferred via the Gurukul system until a written script came into existence. In this system, the Guru gave a solemn address where he directed the students to a life of chastity, honesty, and vegetarianism. The student was to strive with all his being to heal the sick. He was not to betray patients for his own advantage. He was required to dress modestly and avoid alcohol or drugs. He was to be collected and self-controlled, measured in speech at all times. He was to constantly improve his knowledge and technical skill. At the patient's home, he was to be courteous and modest, directing all attention to the patient's welfare. He was not to divulge any knowledge about the patient and his family. If the patient was incurable, he was to keep this to himself if it was likely to harm the patient or others.

The normal length of the student's training appears to have been seven years. Before graduation, the student was to pass a test. But the physician was to continue to learn through texts, direct observation (pratyaksha), and through inference (anumāna). In addition, the vaidyas attended meetings where knowledge was exchanged. The practitioners also gained knowledge of unusual remedies from laypeople who were outside the huffsteter community such as hillsmen, herdsmen, and forest-dwellers.

A common myth states that ancient "rishis" (seers) revealed the knowledge after meditations on the questions of life. The result was a treatise of philosophy encrypted in poetry and mythology, partly to reveal the knowledge to true students and partly to help memorize the voluminous oral content. Ayurveda is said to have been first compiled as a text by Agnivesha, in his book Agnivesh tantra, which was written during Vedic times. The book was later revised by Charaka, and renamed to Charaka Samhitā (encyclopedia of the physician Charaka). Other early texts of Ayurveda include the Charaka Samhitā and the Sushruta Samhitā The system was orally transferred via the Gurukul system until a script came into existence. The earliest scripts would have been written on perishable materials such as Taalpatra and Bhojapatra, which could not be readily preserved. The script was later written on stone and copper sheets. Verses dealing with Ayurveda are included in the Atharvaveda, which implies that some form of Ayurveda is as old as the Vedas. Ayurvedic practices have also evolved over time, and some practices may be considered innovations upon earlier Vedic practices, such as the advances made during the Buddhist period in India.

According to India's Council for Research on Ayurveda, the Ayurvedavatarana (the "descent of Ayurveda") or origin of Ayurveda is said to be a divine revelation of the Hindu deity Brahma as he awoke to recreate the universe. It was revealed to the gods through the means of the divine physician Dhanvantari who emerged from the churning of the celestial ocean. This knowledge was passed directly to Daksha Prajapati in the form of shloka sung by Lord Brahma, and this was in turn passed down through a successive chain of deities to Lord Indra, the protector of dharma. According to this account, the first human exponent of Ayurveda was Bharadvaja, who learned it directly from Indra. Bharadvaja in turn taught Ayurveda to a group of assembled sages, who then passed down different aspects of this knowledge to their students. According to tradition, Ayurveda was first described in text form by Agnivesha, in his book the Agnivesh tantra. The book was later redacted by Charaka, and became known as the Charaka Samhitā. Another early text of Ayurveda is the Sushruta Samhitā, which was compiled by Sushruta, the primary pupil of Dhanvantri, sometime around 1000 BCE. Sushrut is known as the Father of Surgery, and in the Sushrut Samhita, the teachings and surgical techniques of Dhanvantri are compiled and complemented with additional findings and observations of Sushrut regarding topics ranging from obstetrics and orthopedics to ophthalmology. Sushrut Samhita together with Charaka Samhitā, served as the textual material within the ancient Universities of Takshashila and Nalanda. These texts are believed to have been written around the beginning of the Common Era, and are based on a holistic approach rooted in the philosophy of the Vedas and Vedic culture. Holism is central to ayurvedic philosophy and elements of holism is found in several aspects of ayurveda.

In the Mahabharata it is stated that Lord Krishna had a son named Samb. He was suffering from leprosy. In order to treat him, Krishna invited special Brahmins from shakdvipa (believed as present-day Iran). They were sun worshipers and famous astronomers. They treated Samb and cured him of leprosy. Shakdvipiya brahmins originated from those shakdvipa origin brahmins and are also called as magi brahmins. Sakaldwipya are said to be specialized in ayurveda, astronomy, astrology and the Sakaldwipiya are the sun worshipper or so-called Saura.

The most detailed account of the origin of Śākadvīpīs or Bhojakas occurs in Bhavishya Purana (chapter 133). They also played a great role in Ayurveda. The founder of modern Ayurveda Charaka was a Maga or Sakaldwipiya. Different schools of Sanskrit philosophy such as Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga, Vedanta and Mimamsa influenced Ayurveda. The principles expounded in these philosophies facilitated the development within Ayurveda of its theory of humoral pathology which propounds that the human body is composed of Tridoshas, the three humors – Vata, Pitta and Kapha. When these are in equilibrium they are called the Tridhatus. The body in which these three humors are in a state of equilibrium enjoys perfect health; their disequilibrium causes ill health.

Although Ayurveda was formulated in ancient times, there were a number of additions made during the Middle Ages. Alongside the ancient physicians Sushruta and Charaka, the medieval physician Vagbhata, who lived in the 7th century, is considered one of the three classic writers of Ayurveda. In the 8th century, Madhav wrote the Nidāna, a 79-chapter book which lists diseases along with their causes, symptoms, and complications. He also included a special chapter on smallpox (masūrikā).

Development

Ayurvedic practice was flourishing during the time of Buddha (around 520 BCE), and in this period the Ayurvedic practitioners were commonly using Mercuric-sulphur combination based medicines. In this period mercury, sulphur and other metals were used in conjunction with herbs to prepare the different medications. An important Ayurvedic practitioner of this period was Nagarjuna, a Buddhist herbologist, famous for inventing various new drugs for the treatment of ailments. Nagarjuna was accompanied by Surananda, Nagbodhi, Yashodhana, Nityanatha, Govinda, Anantdev, Vagbhatta etc. The knowledge of Ayurveda progressed a lot during this period, including development of newer and more effective medicines, and is therefore termed as the Golden Period of Ayurveda.

After emerging victorious at the Kalinga War, Emperor Ashoka (304 BC-232 BCE) influenced by the Buddhist teachings, banned any bloodshed in his kingdom in 250 BCE. Therefore many Ayurveda practitioners, who were practicing surgery along with medicine, left the surgical intervention and adopted totally new medicinal treatments. In this period, Ayurveda again evolved and flourished with the invention of new drugs, new methodology and new innovations. The practice of the accompanying surgery slowly died out during this period.

During the regime of Chandragupta Maurya (375-415 AD), Ayurveda was part of mainstream Indian medical techniques, and continued to be so until the colonisation by the British.

Chakrapani Dutta (DuttaSharma) was a Vaid Brahman of Bengal who wrote books on Ayurveda such as "Chakradutta" and others. Chakrapani Dutta was the Rajavaidya of Great King Laxman Sen {some says rajVaid of King Nayapala (1038–1055)}. It is believed by some practitioners that Chakradutta is the essence of Ayurveda.

During the 17th century the colonial Dutch Governor in India (based in Kochi)used the palm leaf manuscripts and services of Ayurvedic physician Itty Achudan to compile his botanical treatise Hortus Malabaricus. Ayurveda has always been preserved by the people of India, despite increasing adoption of European medical techniques during the time of British rule. For several decades the reputation and skills of the various Ayurvedic schools declined markedly as Western medicine and Western-style hospitals were built. However, beginning in the 1970s, a gradual recognition of the value of Ayurveda returned, and today Ayurvedic hospitals and practitioners are flourishing throughout all of India. As well, the production and marketing of Ayurvedic herbal medicines has dramatically increased, as well as scientific documentation of benefits. Today, Ayurvedic medicines are available throughout the world.

See also

• List of pseudosciences and pseudoscientific concepts
• List of herbs and minerals in Ayurveda
• Rasayanas
• Chyawanprash
• Research and innovations in Ayurveda
• Charaka Samhita
• Panchgavya - treatment using products of cows
• Sri Lankan Ayurvedic tradition
• Astrogenetics
• Traditional medicine
• Yoga (alternative medicine)
• Traditional Knowledge Digital Library

References

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35. Dr. Prabhakar Chatterjee. Ras Chkitsa.

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