Misplaced Pages

Revision as of 04:37, 8 January 2009

This page documents an English Misplaced Pages style guideline. Editors should generally follow it, though exceptions may apply. Substantive edits to this page should reflect consensus. When in doubt, discuss first on this guideline's talk page.

Shortcuts WP:WORDS WP:AVOID

There is no word that should never be used in a Misplaced Pages article, but some words may mark contentious or unclear presentation. Such words can, if misused, convey different meanings than intended. Poorly chosen words may subtly promote a point of view, may be unintentionally pejorative, or may simply be the products of bad style (e.g., clichés).

Sorts of terms to avoid

Words and expressions should be avoided if they

1. are ambiguous, uninformative, or non-specific.
2. are derogatory or offensive.
3. imply that Misplaced Pages itself, rather than the sources, shows support or doubt regarding a viewpoint.
4. are condescending toward the reader.
5. are clichéd.
6. are unnecessarily flattering or positive. See Misplaced Pages:Avoid peacock terms.

Jargon, that is, words and phrases which are not widely understood outside a specific group, or understood differently by different people, should either be avoided or explained where possible; see Misplaced Pages:Explain jargon. Similarly, words that have different meanings in different variants of English should be avoided where possible, and briefly explained where their use is essential.

Choose specific nouns and verbs instead of piling on adjectives and adverbs (in a world of hype, understatement can have more impact than overstatement). On the other hand, words that appear at first to be words to avoid may be acceptable if they are being used accurately and sparingly.

Words that may advance a point of view

Synonyms for say

A point of view may be implied by using loaded synonyms for the verb "to say". Such words are sometimes inserted intentionally to influence the sympathies of the reader, but in many cases, their use is the result of well-intentioned editors looking for a way to avoid using the word said, which they perceive as dull or overused. In contrast, readers will probably not even notice it, the word "said" being nearly invisible. However, attempts to correct the overuse "problem" with colorful synonyms for said probably will be noticed, and may affect the neutrality of the article.

Standard journalistic words are "said" and "stated". When a statement is unproven or subjective, or when a factual assertion is made without contradiction, use a form of the word say or state:

• "Critics of contingent fees say that many lawsuits seem to be brought only to generate fees for lawyers without giving any benefit to the vast majority of clients."

When a statement is mostly factual but its importance may be disputed, consider using argue or dispute instead:

• "Opponents argue that a requirement to carry an identity card at all times can lead to arbitrary requests from the police."

Only use "cite" when someone cites or quotes another. Words like "report" imply authority, and should be used with care. Many other synonyms for "said" have similar problems, discussed below. To avoid using "said" too often, look for creative ways to rephrase the sentence instead:

• "According to Mayor Bimbsly, it is simply a matter of faith."
• "The official reason appeared in a later press release: 'There will not be a trial due to poor response from Asia.'"

Claim

The word "claim" does not always carry opinion, but it can be misused because it often suggests that a speaker is not being truthful. Editors should avoid using it to describe a statement that someone makes about his or her own mindset and should not use "claim" as a way to cast doubt on a speaker's sincerity.

Do not juxtapose a statement of objective fact with a person's subjective "claim" regarding that fact. Similarly, do not use "claim" merely as shorthand to communicate that someone's belief or statement is incorrect. If it is incorrect in fact, be clear about that. If it is ambiguous, be clear about that, too.

Dubious use:

• "Politician Jones has come under fire for his use of racial slurs in a prior career. Jones later issued a statement in which he claimed that he is not a racist."
• "Paranoid schizophrenics typically claim that some people are tracking their movements in an attempt to harm them."
• "Politician Roberts claimed that American women did not have voting rights until 1970."

"Claim" can be appropriate for characterizing both sides of a subjective debate or disagreement. Do not use "claim" for one side and a different verb for the other, as that could imply that one has more merit.

Acceptable use:

• "Scholar Smith claims that absolute truth cannot exist. Philosopher Peters claims that it must exist in order for the universe to function."
• "The only two eyewitnesses disagree about a key element of the crime. Witness Wendy claims that a tall, thin man with dark hair drove the getaway car. Witness Walter claims that the driver was short, pudgy, and blond."

Other definitions of claim, particularly in a legal sense, are widely acceptable.

Acceptable use:

• "According to Microsoft's claim, Apple inflicted $2 million worth of damages on it by infringing its patents."

Point out, note, observe, reveal, expose, report

These words often favor one side in a dispute by giving their arguments extra weight or making them seem more factual or authoritative:

• "Critics of contingent fees point out that many lawsuits generate fees for lawyers without giving any benefit to the vast majority of clients."

At other times, they are used to introduce statements that may indeed be factual, but which opponents may not consider important or relevant:

• "Opponents note that a requirement to carry an identity card at all times can lead to arbitrary requests from the police."

Verbs like reveal and expose can imply that what is reported is not only true, but also was previously being hidden.

Similarly, the verb report can bestow a sense of impartiality or objectivity on an unreliable source, such as a political action committee, a government press agency, or a spoof news source, that may be inappropriate:

• "The Korean Central News Agency reported that North Korea had launched its first satellite into orbit."
• "The Enquirer article reported that the President met with space aliens to discuss the surrender of Earth."

Insist, maintain, protest, contend, feel

These words often make the party appear defensive:

• "Salafis insist that Salafism is not a purely Arabian movement, and regard some clerics and scholars outside Arabia as proto-Salafis or Salafi-influenced."

The word feel can be appropriate for subjective experiences, but it is inappropriate for objective observations and can make the subject seem irrational:

• "Critics feel it is used to dismiss any censure of the United States as irrational."

Admit, confess, deny

The use of these words should be given careful consideration, especially in the context of biographies of living persons, because they can convey an implicit impression of guilt, or suggest that the truth is being hidden or ignored. Their negative use ("he denied", "she did not admit", "he has not confessed") should be avoided except where the factuality of the assertion is verifiable and uncontroversial, or where a legal conviction has been made. Positive constructions using these words, such as "She admitted poor judgment", are usually not problematic.

Dubious use:

• "O. J. Simpson has not admitted any guilt in the murders of Nicole Brown Simpson and Ronald Goldman."
• "Supervisors denied having any prior knowledge of the incidents."
• "Councilman Smith denied the accusations of involvement in bootlegging and moonshining operations."

Acceptable use:

• "Scott Peterson has not confessed any guilt in the murder of his pregnant wife."
• "Smith said of the accusations: 'This deplorable attack on my character is entirely without merit.'"

The last example illustrates the benefit of providing a direct quote.

Other acceptable uses include situations involving unproved or disproved ideas and fringe theories, in which the words are used not to presume guilt, but to note that an assertion is known to be incorrect or without consensus. For example:

• "Apollo Moon landing hoax accusers deny evidence that manned space missions successfully visited the lunar surface."
• "Pope Urban III refused to admit the mobility of Earth as described by the heliocentric models of Copernicus and Galileo."

Words that may introduce bias

So-called, supposed, purported, alleged

These adjectives (and related adverbs) can imply that a given statement or term is inaccurate without being upfront about it. This has a similar effect to scare quotes, and such usage should be avoided. If doubt exists, it should be mentioned explicitly, along with who is doing the doubting and why.

So-called means both "commonly called" and "falsely or incorrectly so named" (Webster's) and it can be difficult to tell the two uses apart. Its use should be restricted to the first meaning, for instance when introducing terminology that may be unfamiliar (although here, italics may be preferable). It should not be used to characterize a specific application of a familiar word.

Supposed and purported, like claim, cast doubt upon an assertion: writing "X is supposedly true" suggests that the author does not believe it. On the other hand, supposed can sometimes denote intent, permission, or prohibition. In such cases, the term will often be neutral, but may be too informal.

Alleged (along with allegedly) can also be misused to cast doubt on statement and should not be used as a routine qualifier: consider alternatives such as apparent, ostensible or reputed. On the other hand, the use of "alleged" as a verb may be appropriate in a legal context, although care is needed particularly concerning allegations against living persons. Always make it clear in the article text (not just the footnotes) who is doing the alleging. In legal cases, this will usually be a prosecutor, state body or plaintiff. In other contexts, consider alternative forms of words such as "X asserted that Y" or "according to X, Y."

Dubious use:

• "The so-called pro-life movement comprises those who believe abortion should be illegal."
• "Those who live near Chernobyl supposedly suffer from elevated disease rates."
• "Feather wool is a type of knitting yarn or cotton that is supposed to resemble wool."
• "The director allegedly said that he would break up the company if he were unable to find a buyer."

Acceptable use:

• "Protons are not elementary, but are composed of smaller particles, the so-called quarks."
• "O.J. Simpson was charged with murder by the State of California after he was alleged to have murdered his ex-wife and a friend of hers in 1994."

However, although, whereas, despite

These words can imply that one alternative is less favored than another. Structures where two alternatives are contrasted are more likely to have this problem than situations where the word is used to emphasize a notable change.

Dubious use implying preference:

• "Some people think Bin Laden is a terrorist. However, others think he is a misunderstood freedom fighter."
• "Homeopathy says that dilute solutions can be therapeutic, although science says this is incorrect."
• "Some people remain convinced that the Scientology Church is a cult, despite others saying that it is not."
• In general, "A asserts Y. However, according to B, Z." favors the latter assertion over the former. Avoid this construction in favor of simply stating: "A asserts Y. Others, including B, believe Z."

Only, just

These words, when used in conjunction with a measurable trait such as time or distance, suggest that the trait being described is unusual or remarkable. Even in cases where the value judgement being made represents a widely held view, it is still inappropriate to lead a reader to agree with that view. In most cases, removing the word only or just will address the problem. If the circumstance is actually exceptional (if an athlete beats a record time, for example), proper attribution should be provided.

Dubious use:

• "At just three years out of law school, Griffin's family requested that Scarborough represent him at his trial."
• "Just five weeks after opening, a short section of the road near Sutton Coldfield was reduced to one lane to allow for repairs."
• "Only five hundred copies of the album were sold."

Words that may imply unsupported links

Adjectives such as "linked", "associated", "affiliated" and "related" can imply a connection between organisations without stating the nature of the connection or discussing the evidence for and against it; this may make the connection seem stronger than supported by the evidence. The same applies to corresponding nouns such as "affiliation" or "relationship".

If the connection is not well known, it should be explained or wikilinked, and it should be clear whether the organizations themselves affirm the association or if a third party is making the association. Statistical associations should not be implied unless they have been demonstrated.

For example, here are two unsupported links.

• "The Al-Qaeda-linked Jemaah Islamiyah..."
• "The Enron-affiliated company..."

Here are more precise claims that state the nature of the connection.

• "Jemaah Islamiyah, which shares upper-level members with Al-Qaeda..."
• "The company, in which Enron owns a 51% stake..."

Words that label

Some words may be used to label a group from an outside perspective, even though these words are used in accordance with a dictionary definition. For example:

• "The Peoples Temple is a cult, which..."
• "The Ku Klux Klan is a racist organization."
• "Pedophilia is a sexual perversion..."

Such terms, even when accurate, often convey to readers an implied viewpoint: that of an outsider looking in and labeling as they see it. The fact that a term is accepted "outside" but not "inside" is a good indicator that it may not be neutral.

There are at least three ways to deal with this: attribute the term to reliable sources, replace the label with information, or use a more neutral term. These three approaches may be illustrated by the three examples as follows:

• "The Peoples Temple is an organization, described as a 'cult' by X, Y, and Z, which..."
• "The Ku Klux Klan is an organization that has advocated white supremacy and anti-Semitism."
• "Pedophilia is a paraphilia..."

Words that editorialize

• WP:EDITORIAL

Do not note what is being noted

Phrases such as it should be noted and it is important to note/know/bear in mind are usually unencyclopedic because they highlight one particular fact as being especially important without attributing it. Instead of "It should be noted that <fact>", simply state "<fact>".

Dubious use:

• "It should be noted that the Vatican claims that the doctrine of indulgences itself has no natural or necessary connection with pecuniary profit, which they claim is evident from the fact that the abundant indulgences of the present day are free from this association."
• "It is important to note that waterboarding and dunking are not the same thing."
• "It is important to bear in mind that <package name> is the most popular instant messaging program in Europe."

Adverbs that editorialize

Adverbs are rare in encyclopedic writing, because they are too easily used to express a point of view without providing a source for it.

Fundamentally, essentially, basically, simply, at heart, inherently

Adverbs such as these tend to imply a preferred viewpoint: the "fundamental nature" of a topic is inherently subjective.

Dubious use:

• "9/11 was fundamentally a battle between Christianity and Islam."
• "Jesus was at heart a millennial type of leader."
• "<politician> was essentially a dictator."
• "Killbits are simply a flag in the Windows Registry."
• "This statement is basically factual."

The related adjective "fundamental" may be used in the sense of "central", as in "Schrödinger's Equation is considered fundamental to quantum physics" or "According to Jones, concerns about the difficulty of invading Japan were fundamental to the decision to drop the A-bomb".

Clearly, actually, obviously, of course

Some adverbs can imply that a matter is without doubt or so obvious that no explanation is necessary, whereas they often express a viewpoint or are plain rhetoric. While stating the obvious often results in a better article, use of these words can be condescending, implying that the reader is too stupid to realize that it is obvious.

Dubious use:

• "Heinrich Himmler was obviously going to be found guilty."
• "The point of Brahms's work has, of course, been lost by critics."
• "The Huron-Manistee National Forests are actually two national forests combined in 1945 for administration purposes."

Naturally

The word "naturally" could be used in either of the above cases as well, and its use should be avoided. However, it is also used when referring to the natural world, and it has a precise technical and qualitative meaning in mathematics. Assertions of naturality in the latter sense may be uncontroversial statements of mathematical consensus, or they may promote a point of view; some judgment is needed to determine which.

Acceptable use:

• "Plutonium may occur naturally."
• "Cultural anthropologists assert that human beings are naturally social."
• "A vector space is naturally isomorphic to its double dual."

Avoid editorial opinion

• WP:OPED
• WP:EDITORIOP

Misplaced Pages should not have a view as to whether a topic or event is amusing, interesting, ironic, (in)significant or (un)fortunate. Avoid using adjectives like these, and their corresponding adverbs, to express an editorial opinion or a personal observation in an article. If others have found something amusing or ironic, etc., then indicate who did so and why, citing sources to support the claim. If a matter is inherently amusing, the reader should not need to be told.

It may be appropriate to use "ironic" in a context such as "Alabama 3 made ironic use of a sample of a Jim Jones speech in their song 'Mao Tse Tung Said'." The ironic intent here is that of the artist.

Similarly, whereas "Unfortunately, Smith could not attend" is an editorial opinion, the alternative phrase "unfortunately for Smith, he could not attend" may be acceptable if it is clear from the context why this was unfortunate. Still, it may be better to avoid the adverb altogether, and simply state "Smith could not attend."

The words "significant" and "significantly" require special care as they make a claim sound authoritative. For example, in "Significantly, Johnson did not cast a vote", the word "significantly" is unsupported, and should be removed unless it can be attributed, as in "Professor Bancroft found it significant that Johnson did not cast a vote", with a citation to support the claim.

In science and medicine the word "significant" means that a statistical test has shown that a result is unlikely to have occurred by chance (see statistical significance). Do not use the word in the colloquial sense when this technical meaning might be implied.

Death and dying

When writing about death, avoid editorializing phrases such as "died tragically", "untimely death", "unfortunate loss", or "horrible death". Everyone's death is sad or tragic to those who love and admire them; few are "timely". To show a death is tragic or sad, provide relevant facts from reliable sources. Whether a death is horrible or not is a subjective question: if the cause of death is notable, describe what happened, citing sources, and let the reader decide.

• WP:EUPHEMISM

Avoid clichés about death, such as "he died doing what he loved" or "his death was the end of an era", and euphemisms such as "passed away", "passed over", or "returned to God". The word "died" is religiously neutral, and neither crude nor vulgar.

Words with multiple meanings

Theories and hypotheses

Do not use theory to mean guess or speculation. Note however, that the verb to theorize may be appropriate for learned speculation.

In the natural sciences and other academic fields, a theory is a coherent explanation of data that fits very well with available knowledge and has passed multiple independent tests, as with Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity, or the modern evolutionary synthesis. Theories are open to constant scrutiny, and observation often reveals their limitations, as with Isaac Newton's theory of gravity, but they remain highly accurate descriptions of observable data within these limitations.

In mathematics, theory is used to refer to a body of knowledge consisting of many theorems about related objects, as with Galois theory or Representation theory. A theorem is a proven result, and a conjecture is a proposed but unproven hypothesis.

In philosophy, the term theory is sometimes used to describe a historically well-established line of thinking, or a class of reasoned philosophical ideas, as with correspondence theory of truth or the consensus theory of truth.

In all cases, a theory is a system of thought used to explain phenomena. For speculations and guesses, use a word such as "hypothesis" or "conjecture" instead.

Religion

Words related to religion can create point of view problems. When is a belief system a "cult" or "sect" rather than a religion? What is "fundamentalism" or "heresy"? When these words are used, they need to be qualified, or supported by reliable secondary sources.

Cult has several different meanings, but usually with negative connotations. Its use should be avoided or attributed: i.e., do not say, "X is a cult", say "Group Y refers to X as a 'cult'" and give references. One exception concerns the technical use of this term in sociology to refer to a small religious group with novel religious beliefs and a high degree of tension with the surrounding society: in that case, it must be clear that a neutral sociological usage is intended. The adjective cultic may be preferable in such cases. A second exception concerns a reference to a particular religious practice, such as "the cult of Demeter at Eleusis" or "the cult of the saints". See cult (religious practice).

Sect likewise has several different meanings, but has fewer negative connotations. Some groups that are described as cults by the media are classified as sects by sociologists. However, the word may or may not imply novelty or tension. It can also imply that the group is part of a larger movement, or a splinter group. Consequently its use can promote a point of view unless its meaning is clearly defined. For novel religions, the term new religious movement may be more appropriate: see list of new religious movements.

Fundamentalism refers to "the tendency to reduce a religion to its most fundamental tenets, based on strict interpretation of core texts." A fundamentalist is not necessarily an extremist. However, the meaning has shifted in popular use to mean "religious fanatic" as well as the original meaning. Consequently, it should primarily be used for groups that are self-described fundamentalists. For groups labeled as fundamentalists by others, the term should be attributed to the source.

Heresy refers to beliefs held by members of a religious group which are in conflict with the orthodox doctrine of the group. It should not be used to refer to external opposition to a religion, and its use should be supported by reliable sources.

Controversy and scandal

A controversy is defined as "a discussion marked especially by the expression of opposing views", but is often used in place of the words scandal and affair, and often by editors with a strong disposition against the article subject. The term should be used carefully and only when it is interchangeable with the words debate or dispute (e.g., the AACS encryption key controversy). When using words such as controversy or conflict, make sure the sources support the existence of a controversy or conflict. Consider using the term incident or other neutral wording when there is no dispute.

The words scandal, affair, and -gate are often used in journalism to describe a controversial episode or in politics to discredit opponents. They typically imply wrongdoing or a point of view. The use of one of these words in an article should be qualified by attributing it to the party that uses it. They should not be used in article titles on current affairs, except in historical cases where the term is widely used by reputable historical sources (e.g., Teapot Dome scandal, Dreyfus affair or Spygate).

Solutions

The word solution should be confined to its use in chemistry, mathematics and problem solving. It should not be used to refer to products, services, software or a combination of these things, since such usage implies that the product or service solves the problem it is intended to solve: the word "solution" should instead be replaced by a concrete descriptive term for the type of product, such as "software".

Dubious use:

• "The company offers web hosting solutions for e-business..."

Acceptable use:

• "A solution of sodium chloride in water..."
• "The solution to the chess problem involves the sacrifice of the knight..."

Myth and legend

Myth has a range of formal meanings in different fields. It can be defined as a story of forgotten or vague origin, basically religious or supernatural in nature, which seeks to explain or rationalise one or more aspects of the world or a society. All myths are, at some stage, actually believed to be true by the peoples of the societies that used or originated the myth.

In less formal contexts, it usually refers to an unreal or imaginary story.

Formal use of the word is commonplace in scholarly works, and Misplaced Pages is no exception. However, except in rare cases (e.g., urban myth), informal use of the word should be avoided, and should not be assumed. Avoid using the word to refer to propaganda or to mean "something that is commonly believed but untrue".

When using "myth" in a sentence in one of its formal senses, be careful to word the sentence to avoid implying that it is being used informally, for instance by establishing the context of sociology or mythology. Furthermore, be consistent; referring to "Christian beliefs" and "Hindu myths" in a similar context may give the impression that the word myth is being used informally.

A legendary person can mean

• a fictitious person about whom legends and myths are written.
• a person who is so celebrated that they have taken on the nature of a legend.

These meanings are easily confused, and so it is best to avoid the word. Use "fictional" to describe a non-existent person.

The phrase "legend has it that..." should likewise be avoided.

Article and section titles

Article and section titles should be chosen, where possible, to avoid implying a viewpoint. For section titles, a compromise may be needed between a neutral and a concise heading, while for article titles, words which should usually be avoided may be part of the title if this is the most common name for the subject of the article. In other cases, choose a descriptive title that does not imply a particular conclusion.

For example, the title "John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy" is inappropriate because it suggests a viewpoint on whether there was such a conspiracy.

The appropriateness of a word may depend on the topic. For instance, the existing article on "Sodomy" is an article about the word itself, both in common and legal use. This is appropriate, whereas it would not be appropriate to use the word in the title of an article about homosexuality.

A non-neutral title can make an article hard to balance. For instance article titles of the form "Criticism of..." should be avoided where possible. For critical reaction to a work, consider instead "Critique of..." or "Reaction to...".

See also

• Misplaced Pages:Avoid peacock terms
• Misplaced Pages:Manual of Style (dates and numbers)
• Misplaced Pages:Avoid weasel words
• Misplaced Pages:Elements of Style improvement project
• Misplaced Pages's NPOV tutorial

• Misplaced Pages style guidelines
• Misplaced Pages how-to
• Misplaced Pages neutral point of view
• General style guidelines