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{{Neutrality}}
The ] term '''Kulturkampf''' (literally, "culture struggle") commonly refers to the political clash from ] to ] between the government of the ] under ] ] and the ] under ] ]. In the newly founded German Empire, Bismarck sought to bolster the power of the state and reduce the political and societal influence of the Catholic Church by instituting political control over Church activities. The ] '']'' (see below) marked the beginning of a series of sanctions against Catholicism that Bismarck imposed until ]. As this conflict brought him an ever growing political defeat, he moderated his struggle with Catholic Church and in the wake of Pius IX's death reconciled with the new Pope, ], lifting most sanctions except for the ''Kanzelparagraf'' (which remained in power until 1953), ] and measures against Poles. The ] term '''Kulturkampf''' (literally, "culture struggle", invented by ]) commonly refers to the political clash from ] to ] between the government of the ] under ] ] and the ] under ] ]. In the newly founded German Empire, Bismarck sought to bolster the power of the state and reduce the political and societal influence of the Catholic Church by instituting political control over Church activities. The ] '']'' (see below) marked the beginning of a series of sanctions against Catholicism that Bismarck imposed until ]. As this conflict brought him an ever growing political defeat, he moderated his struggle with Catholic Church and in the wake of Pius IX's death reconciled with the new Pope, ], lifting most sanctions except for the ''Kanzelparagraf'' (which remained in power until 1953) and ].


==Overview==
The German Empire was dominated by ], which was, like most of northern Germany, a ] state. Because the Empire had evolved from the ] ], Bismarck saw the addition of the southern German states (especially Catholic ]) as a threat to the Empire's stability. Tensions were also increased by the ] ] proclamation on ]. There were also significant Catholic minorities such as the ] in Silesia as well as territories taken by Germany during ] and the ] in ]. Moreover, Bismarck had deliberately formed the German Empire against interference from ], a more powerful Catholic country than those mentioned. The German Empire was dominated by ], which was, like most of northern Germany, a ] state. Because the Empire had evolved from the ] ], Bismarck saw the addition of the southern German states (especially Catholic ]) as a threat to the Empire's stability. Tensions were also increased by the ] ] proclamation on ]. There were also significant Catholic minorities such as the ] in eastern parts of Germany and the ] in ]. Moreover, Bismarck had deliberately formed the German Empire against interference from ], a more powerful Catholic country than those mentioned.


Among the measures taken to reduce the influence of the Catholic Church was the addition in ] of § 130a to the German Criminal Code ''(Strafgesetzbuch)'', which threatened clergy who discussed politics from the pulpit with two years of prison; this article was dubbed the ''Kanzelparagraph'' (from the German ''Kanzel'' — "lectern" or "]"). In March 1872 religious schools were forced to undergo official government inspection and in June religious teachers were banned from governements schools. In addition, under the ] administered by ], the state began to closely monitor the education of clergy, created a secular court for cases involving the clergy, and required notification of all clergy employment. In ], the ] were banned (and remained banned in Germany until 1917) and in December the German government broke off diplomatic relations with the ]. In ], ] became mandatory a ''civil'' ceremony, removed from the control of the Church. Among the measures taken to reduce the influence of the Catholic Church was the addition in ] of § 130a to the German Criminal Code ''(Strafgesetzbuch)'', which threatened clergy who discussed politics from the pulpit with two years of prison; this article was dubbed the ''Kanzelparagraph'' (from the German ''Kanzel'' — "lectern" or "]"). In March 1872 religious schools were forced to undergo official government inspection and in June religious teachers were banned from governements schools. In addition, under the ] administered by ], the state began to closely monitor the education of clergy, created a secular court for cases involving the clergy, and required notification of all clergy employment. In ], the ] were banned (and remained banned in Germany until 1917) and in December the German government broke off diplomatic relations with the ]. In ], ] became mandatory a ''civil'' ceremony, removed from the control of the Church.
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A lasting result of ''Kulturkampf'' was a heightened alienation of the craft and the state and the remaining population. Another cleft widened between the ]-oriented Catholics and the Evangelic part of the people. A lasting result of ''Kulturkampf'' was a heightened alienation of the craft and the state and the remaining population. Another cleft widened between the ]-oriented Catholics and the Evangelic part of the people.

⚫ ==See also==
⚫ * ]
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== Connection to Polish territories == == Connection to Polish territories ==


The Kulturkampf is also often seen in contexts related to Poles as Bismarck's simultaneous fight against Polish culture. The attempts of the government at ] the national minorities in the German Empire included unsuccessful efforts intended to weaken the Polish language and culture in favour of the German, which had the result of further inflaming the Polish longing for national independence. Bismarck, in his ], ], speech to the lower house of the Prussian Parliament, emphasized that a principal purpose of ''Kulturkampf'' was to counter the influence of Polish culture in Germany.


==See also==
Kulturkampf was also used by Bismarck against Poles, that he particulary hated. Already in
⚫ * ]
1861 he stated that Poles are like wolves that need to be exterminated in his private correspondence.
⚫ * ]
This attitude resulted in attempts of the government at ] the national minorities in the German Empire which included unsuccessful efforts aimed against Polish population.
⚫ * ]
For Poles, the "Kulturkampf" had become a war against them and their language together with culture. Laws were enacted which enraged the Polish people. Leszno was named Lisso, Chelmno became Kulm, Pila was turned into Schneidemuhl, and Bydgoszcz to Bromberg. Letters addressed to a town of the old Polish name would be "lost" by Post Office. Because of civil registration of births and marriages, German officials arbitrarily Germanize Polish family names. Public meetings were forbidden if Polish was to be used as language.
⚫ * ]
Prussian officials also recognized the value of attacking a sociopolitical problem by education. They hoped that by Germanizing the children in schools they could achieve greater cooperation. Inspectors were always German. Polish language was systematically barred from all schools. Parents, however, retaught lessons in Polish in the privacy of their homes. By 1901, German was the exclusive language, even in religious instruction. Children were punished for praying or speaking in Polish.
⚫ * ]
Bismarck, in his ], ], speech to the lower house of the Prussian Parliament, emphasized that a principal purpose of ''Kulturkampf'' was to counter the influence of Polish culture in Germany.
⚫ * ]
Consequently the Polish national liberation movement grew in strength and contested the effort at ] in the region.
At the Berlin Reichstag, Poland's fifteen deputies led by Albert Korfanty continually deplored this policy of German colonization of Polish land, but they were vastly outnumbered by the German deputies.
Due to persecutions against them, a large number of Poles emmigrated from Germany during Kulturkampf.


==Other uses of term== ==Other uses of term==
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* C. D, Hazen, ''Europe since 1815'', (New York, 1910) * C. D, Hazen, ''Europe since 1815'', (New York, 1910)


⚫ ==See also==
⚫ * ]
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==External links== ==External links==


* long description by the ] * very long description by the ]
* long description
* short description by the ] with links to further articles * short description by the ] with links to further articles
* short description of an encyclopedia by ]
* Kulturkampf in the context of Bismarck's entire domestic policies, by a head of history at Catholic University School in Dublin
* 13-paged essay in ] by a Professor of the ]
*]] *]]
* *
* German and French Kulturkampf
* * speech of ] following its analysis
*
* Speech in the Prussian House of Lords, March 10th 1873




] ]

Revision as of 23:31, 15 November 2005

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The German term Kulturkampf (literally, "culture struggle", invented by Rudolf Virchow) commonly refers to the political clash from 1871 to 1878 between the government of the German Empire under Chancellor Otto von Bismarck and the Catholic Church under Pope Pius IX. In the newly founded German Empire, Bismarck sought to bolster the power of the state and reduce the political and societal influence of the Catholic Church by instituting political control over Church activities. The 1871 Kanzelparagraf (see below) marked the beginning of a series of sanctions against Catholicism that Bismarck imposed until 1875. As this conflict brought him an ever growing political defeat, he moderated his struggle with Catholic Church and in the wake of Pius IX's death reconciled with the new Pope, Leo XIII, lifting most sanctions except for the Kanzelparagraf (which remained in power until 1953) and civil marriage.

Overview

The German Empire was dominated by Prussia, which was, like most of northern Germany, a Protestant state. Because the Empire had evolved from the 1866 North German Confederation, Bismarck saw the addition of the southern German states (especially Catholic Bavaria) as a threat to the Empire's stability. Tensions were also increased by the 1870 Vatican Council proclamation on papal infallibility. There were also significant Catholic minorities such as the Poles in eastern parts of Germany and the French in Alsace-Lorraine. Moreover, Bismarck had deliberately formed the German Empire against interference from Austria, a more powerful Catholic country than those mentioned.

Among the measures taken to reduce the influence of the Catholic Church was the addition in 1871 of § 130a to the German Criminal Code (Strafgesetzbuch), which threatened clergy who discussed politics from the pulpit with two years of prison; this article was dubbed the Kanzelparagraph (from the German Kanzel — "lectern" or "pulpit"). In March 1872 religious schools were forced to undergo official government inspection and in June religious teachers were banned from governements schools. In addition, under the May Laws administered by Adalbert Falk, the state began to closely monitor the education of clergy, created a secular court for cases involving the clergy, and required notification of all clergy employment. In 1872, the Jesuits were banned (and remained banned in Germany until 1917) and in December the German government broke off diplomatic relations with the Vatican. In 1875, marriage became mandatory a civil ceremony, removed from the control of the Church.

Bismarck's attempts to restrict the power of the Catholic Church, represented in politics by the Catholic Centre Party, were not successful. In the 1874 elections, these forces doubled their representation in the parliament. Needed to counter the Social Democratic Party, Bismarck softened his stance, especially with the election of the new pope in 1878.

A lasting result of Kulturkampf was a heightened alienation of the craft and the state and the remaining population. Another cleft widened between the ultramontane-oriented Catholics and the Evangelic part of the people.

See also

Connection to Polish territories

The Kulturkampf is also often seen in contexts related to Poles as Bismarck's simultaneous fight against Polish culture. The attempts of the government at germanisating the national minorities in the German Empire included unsuccessful efforts intended to weaken the Polish language and culture in favour of the German, which had the result of further inflaming the Polish longing for national independence. Bismarck, in his January 28, 1886, speech to the lower house of the Prussian Parliament, emphasized that a principal purpose of Kulturkampf was to counter the influence of Polish culture in Germany.

See also

Other uses of term

The word Kulturkampf has also been used to refer to similar cultural conflicts in other times and places. In the United States, the term Kulturkampf has been used by Patrick Buchanan, among others, to describe what he saw as an analogous conflict starting in the 1960s and continuing to the present between religious social conservatives and secular social liberals. This theme of "culture war" was the basis of Buchanan's fiery keynote speech at the 1992 Republican National Convention, which was seen by political commentators as alienating to many social moderates in the Republican party and as aiding the election of Bill Clinton. The term culture war had by 2004 become commonly used in the United States by both liberals and conservatives.

Publications

  • Hahn, Geschichte des Kulturkampfs in Preussen, (Berlin, 1881)
  • Wiesmann, Geschichte des Kulturkampfs, (Leipzig, 1886)
  • Robinson and Beard, Development of Modern Europe, volume ii, (Boston, 1908)
  • C. D, Hazen, Europe since 1815, (New York, 1910)


External links

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