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Haplogroup R1a
Possible time of origin	30,000-10,000 years BP
Possible place of origin	proposals include southern Central Asia or Eastern Europe or South Asia
Ancestor	R1
Defining mutations	SRY1532.2 also known as SRY10831.2 has normally been said to define R1a. M17 and M198 define the very dominant sub-clade usually called R1a1. (They always appear together so far.)
Highest frequencies	Parts of Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and South Asia. (Also found in other parts of Eurasia, except East Asia. See detailed data in article.)

Haplogroup R1a is the name given to a major human Y-chromosome haplogroup within R1 (R-M173). In other words, it is one of the major male-lines of all humanity.

It is found at high frequencies in a wide geographic area extending from South Asia to Central and Eastern Europe and Southern Siberia.

R1a is believed to have originated somewhere within this same area in Eurasia, most likely in the area from Eastern Europe to South Asia.

R1a has a relatively close common ancestry with several other major R haplogroup branches, most notably, R1b, the most common male lineage of Western Europe, and R2, found in South and Central Asia.

Basal Subclades

The phylogenetic ("family tree") naming system commonly used for this haplogroup remains inconsistent in different published sources. Although it has not yet used much in published surveys, a more comprehensive survey of the known mutations is listed by ISOGG, and an equivalent tree is given in Underhill et al. (2009).

Prior to 2009 the mutation SRY1532.2 (or SRY10831.2) defined R1a, and this is also how the term R1a is most often used in publications before 2009.

However the term R1a is also now increasingly used to refer to a broader family including not only R-SRY1532.2/SRY10831.2, but also other related R1 (R-M173) lineages which are not in R1b (R-M343) and which also share other several mutations with R-SRY1532.2/SRY10831.2 including M420 (Underhill et al. list). In this newer system, R-SRY1532.2/SRY10831.2 moves from R1a to R1a1.

We can divide what is known of the three levels of the family tree of R1a based on the large survey of Underhill et al. (2009) as follows:

1. R1a* (new nomenclature). (Articles published before the discovery of M420 will not have distinguished these from other R1-M173 lineages.) This is defined as M420 positive but SRY1532.2/SRY10831.2 negative. The authors believe this clade or clades to be rare, and have so far found 1/121 Omanis, 2/150 Iranians, 1/164 in the United Arab Emirates, 3/612 in Turkey.
2. R1a1* (old R1a*) SRY1532.2/SRY10831.2 positive, but M17 and/or M198 negative. Underhill et al. (2009) found 1/51 in Norway, 3/305 in Sweden, 1/57 Greek Macedonians, 1/150 Iranians, 2/734 Ethnic Armenians, 1/141 Kabardians. Sharma et al. (2009) also found 13/57 people tested from the Saharia tribe of Madhya Pradesh, and 2/51 amongst Kashmir Pandits.
3. R1a1 (old nomenclature) or now R1a1a, and is defined in various articles by M17 or M198 (two mutations which always appear together so far. Such lineages make up the dominant majority of all R1a. This clade also has some sub-clades of its own, although a large proportion of R-M17/R-M198 has however not yet been categorized into branches defined by mutations, and is therefore referred to as R1a1* (old nomenclature) or R1a1a* (new nomenclature).

Subclades of R-M17/M198:-

• R1a1c (old nomenclature) or R1a1a3 (defined by M64.2, M87, and M204) is apparently rare, found in 1 of 117 males typed in S. Iran.
• R1a1a6 (new nomenclature, defined by M434) was announced in Underhill et al. (2009). It was found in 14 people from Pakistan to Oman and is likely to reflect a recent mutation that took place in this area.
• R1a1a7 (defined by M458) was announced in Underhill et al. (2009) and is the most largest sub-clade found so far. It is found almost entirely in Europe, with its highest frequencies in Central and Southern Poland. This sub-clade is further subdivided by R1a1a7a (defined by M334).

Distribution of R1a1a (R-M17 or R-M198), the dominant sub-clade of R1a

R1a has been found in high frequency at both the eastern and western ends of its core range, for example in some parts of India and Tajikistan on the one hand, and Poland on the other. Throughout all of these regions, R1a is dominated by the R1a1a (R-M17 or R-M198) sub-clade.

Central and Northern Asia

R1a frequencies vary widely between populations within central and northern parts of Eurasia, but R1a is found in areas including Western China and Eastern Siberia. This big variation is possibly a consequence of population bottlenecks in isolated areas and/or the large movements of Turco-Mongols during the historic period. For example, exceptionally high frequencies of R1a1 (R-M17 or R-M198; 50 to 70%) are found among the Ishkashimis, Khojant Tajiks, Kyrgyzs, and in several peoples of Russia's Altai Republic. Although levels are comparatively low amongst some Turkic-speaking groups (e.g. Turks, Azeris, Kazakhs, Yakuts), levels are very high in certain Turkic- or Mongolic-speaking groups of Northwestern China, such as the Bonan, Dongxiang, Salar, and Uyghurs. R1a lines propogated north-eastward and are scattered amoung certain indigenous Eastern Siberians, including:Kamchatkans and Chukotkans, and peaking in Itel'man at 22%.

South Asia

In South Asia high levels have been observed in some populations. For example, in the eastern and northern parts of India, among the high caste Bengalis from West Bengal like Brahmins and Kshatriyas (72%), Uttar Pradesh Brahmins (67%), Bihar Brahmins (60%), Punjab (47%), and Gujarat (33%) of male lineages have been observed in this lineage. It is also found in relatively high frequencies in several South Indian Dravidian-speaking tribes including the Chenchu and Valmikis of Andhra Pradesh and the Kallar of Tamil Nadu suggesting that M17 is widespread in tribal southern Indians.

South-West Asia

The M17 marker is found in five to ten percent of Middle Eastern men. This is true even in western Iranian populations where Persian, a major Indo-European language with close relatives in high frequency areas in Central and South Asia, is spoken. However, on the Eastern side of Iran, around 35% of men carry the M17 maker. Wells et al. (2001) suggest that the deserts of central Iran acted as "significant barriers to gene flow," and propose two possibilities. First, that the Mesopotamian civilization was densely population relative to immigrating Indo-Iranians; and second, Indo-Iranian languages may have become the predominant language of all Steppe nomads of various ethnic origins. Regueiro et al. (2006), in a study of Iran, noted much higher frequencies in the south than the north and suggested "the lineage may have had an influence on the populations south of the Iranian deserts and where the Dash-e Lut desert would have played a significant role in preventing the expansion of this marker to the north of Iran". The authors suggested that R1a must have originally arrived there prior to any Kurgan/Indo-European expansion into the area, and that the R haplogroup as a whole including R1a may even have roots near Iran.

Europe

In Europe, R1a is found at highest levels among peoples of Eastern European descent (Sorbs, Poles, Russians and Ukranians; 50 to 65%). Levels in Hungarians have been noted between 20 and 60% The Balkans shows lower frequencies, and significant variation between areas, for example >30% in Slovenia, Croatia and Greek Macedonia, but <10% in Albania, Kosovo and parts of Greece.. R1a was present in Europe at least 4600 years ago, as demonstrated by Y-DNA extracted from the remains of three individuals near Eulau, Saxony-Anhalt, Germany, discovered in 2005. The discovery demonstrated the appearance of R1a with Corded Ware culture in Central Europe.

There is a significant presence in peoples of Scandinavian descent. In Iceland, for instance, R1a accounts for nearly a quarter of the local male Y-DNA. Vikings and Normans may have carried the R1a lineage westward; accounting for a small presence in the British Isles.

In Southern Europe R1a is not normally common but it is widespread and found in significant pockets. Scozzari et al. (2001) found significant levels in the Pas Valley in Northern Spain, and also the areas of Venice, and Calabria in Italy.

Origins

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The exact point of origin of the dispersal pattern found today for R1a remains the subject of discussion. Most of this discussion is only concerning the dominant M17/M198 sub-clade, with considerations of the parent clade being more speculative. All forms of R1a presumably originated somewhere in the Eurasian landmass, where they are still most commonly found today. There are two focuses of high frequency of R1a, one in South Asia, near North India, and the other in Eastern Europe, in the area of the Ukraine. On the one hand, the highest frequency level observed in any large population so far has been found in some South Asian groups. On the other hand, until 2009 claims concerning which R1a populations show signs of being oldest varied greatly between different articles, with analyses focused on Asia proposing Asia to be the origin, and articles focused on Europe, arguing the opposite.

In 2009, two large studies of available data, Mirabal et al. (2009), and Underhill et al. (2009), concluded that there are two separate "poles of the expansion" with similar ages, with South Asian R1a older than European R1a. While neither group of authors took a decisive position, both articles felt the data consistent with South Asian origins. Mirabal et al. (2009) felt the data to also be consistent with Central Asian origins, while Underhill et al. (2009) took to be also consistent with Western Asian origins. In any case, the publication of these major articles, both with large panels of co-authors, makes the Asian origins the leading theory as of late 2009.

Central Asian Origin Theories

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Cordaux et al. (2004) argued, citing data from Wells et al. (2001), Semino et al. (2000), and Quintana-Murci et al. (2001) that...

Given the high frequency of R-M17 in central Asia (typically 20%–40% ), its rarity in west Asia and its absence in east Asia , Indian R-M17 Y chromosomes most probably have a central Asian origin .

This position is also considered likely by Mirabal et al. (2009) after their larger analysis of recent data.

Eastern European Origin Theories

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Suggestions have been made which associate the distribution of R1a with several proposed movements of people in history and prehistory in Eastern Europe :-

• End of the Ice Age. The spread from a Ukrainian refugium during the Late Glacial Maximum
• Bronze Age. The spread of Indoeuropean languages and/or Indo-Aryan languages and/or Indo-Iranian languages in the Bronze Age (also associated with the use of horses, and "Kurgan" burials).
• Historical Era. The spread of Slavic languages and migrations in late Classical times.

These three proposals involve very different time periods, but they are not mutually exclusive given that R1a lineages may have been taken part in many different human movements over time in the same geographical region.

End of the Ice Age

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Age estimates of this depth come from papers using the methodology described by Zhivotovsky et al. (2004), the latest such example being Mirabal et al. (2009) and Underhill et al. (2009). Researchers using this estimation method therefore believe any Bronze Age or more recent dispersals affecting modern R1a diversity must be specific to certain sub-clades, such as R-M458.

Bronze Age (Indo Europeans, Indo-Aryans, Kurgans and Horses)

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Theories favoring the second category of these migrations have the additional attraction to some authors that they would seem to link R1a to well-known language dispersals which resulted in the development of the modern Indo-Aryan language family in India, Central Asia, and the Middle East. In particular, this scenario was linked to the "Kurgan hypothesis" concerning these languages, and these accounts were therefore linked to theories that R1a largely dispersed from Europe (or at least the southeastern edge of Europe) and moved subsequently to Asia. Publications taking this position between 2000 and 2008 include Semino et al. (2000), Passarino et al. (2001), Passarino et al. (2002) and Wells (2002).

Such a Bronze Age European origin for R1a1 in at least parts of Asia has also been argued on the basis of a 2009 study of DNA results from Andronovo culture remains in South Siberia. The Y DNA was almost exclusively R1a1 This archaeological culture, has also been genetically studied in Kazakhstan, and is thought to have been a carrier of an Indo-Iranian language (the same family of languages as is commonly associated with R1a in modern India) from the direction of Europe. (In particular it has been noted that their mitochondrial DNA is almost entirely of types associated with Europe, and that this Asian population appears to have had a relatively high level of red and blonde hair and blue eyes.)

Evidence that during and before the Bronze Age R1a was common in European areas to the west of its modern core range, and even west of the Balkans, has come from ancient samples, which appear to show that R1a was common in this region well before Slavic languages are thought to have arrived.

Historic era (Slavic languages): Movements within Europe

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The spread of Slavic peoples and languages might have played a role in further increasing the frequency of R1a1 in parts of Europe, but if so then by all age estimates this would have been on sub-clades of R1a1. So this is not an explanation of the origins and dispersal of R1a1 as a whole.

Luca et al. (2006), looking at SNP and STR markers occurring in the Czech Republic suggested there was evidence for a rapid demographic expansion beginning about 60 to 80 generations ago, which would equate to about 1500 years ago (approx. 500 AD) to 2000 years ago (approx. 1 AD) with a generation time of 25 years. Similar results have been found in Lithuania. Rebala et al. (2007) also detected Y-STR evidence of a recent Slavic expansion from the area of modern Ukraine.

South Asian Origin Theories

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Several other studies suggest R1a lineages may have their origins in North India .

As more data has been collated, an increasing number of studies have found South Asia to have the highest diversity of microsatellite Y-STR variation, making it likely that South Asia is the original point of dispersal of R1a. Studies which have argued this case most strongly include Sengupta et al. (2005), Sahoo et al. (2006), and Sharma et al. (2009). Studies which have concluded that the data is at least consistent with this scenario include Kivisild et al. (2003), Mirabal et al. (2009) and Underhill et all. (2009) harvcoltxt error: no target: CITEREFUnderhill_et_all.2009 (help). The latter two articles, being the most recent and comprehensive, both make the case for Asian origins of R1a the strongest amongst the various possibilities as of late 2009.

A particular interest has been taken in investigating the long-presumed connection between Indo-Aryan origins and higher caste Brahmins. On the other hand, some authors have not accepted this association.

Age estimation techniques play a role in whether authors accept or reject any connection between Indo-Aryan languages, and R1a. In particular, researchers such as Underhill et al. and Mirabal et al., estimate the dispersal of R1a to have started many thousands of years before conventional estimates of the age of this language family, or it's parent, the Indo-European family.

South-West Asian Origin Theories

Semino et al. (2000) proposed that a Middle Eastern origin for R1a should be considered, depending upon the strength of arguments for a Middle Eastern origin for Indo-European languages.

Most recently, Underhill et al. (2009) points out, as did Regueiro et al. (2006), and Kivisild et al. (2003) that the evidence used to argue for South Asian origins of R1a, does not exclude the possibility of a South-West Asian origin:

The most distantly related R1a chromosomes, that is, both R1a* and R1a1* (inset, Figure 1), have been detected at low frequency in Europe, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, Caucasus and Iran (Supplementary Table S1). The highest STR diversity of R1a1a*(xM458) chromosomes are observed outside Europe, in particular in South Asia (Figure 1, Supplementary Table S4), but given the lack of informative SNP markers the ultimate source area of haplogroup R1a dispersals remains yet to be refined.

Popular science

Bryan Sykes in his book Blood of the Isles gives (from his imagination) the populations associated with R1a in Europe the name of Sigurd for a clan patriarch, much as he did for mitochondrial haplogroups in his work The Seven Daughters of Eve.

See also

• Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups
• Genetics and Archaeogenetics of South Asia
• Pole, Hungarian, two good friends
• Y-DNA haplogroups by ethnic groups
• Nordic R1a Y-DNA Project

v t e Phylogenetic tree of human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups
This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (February 2021)
"Y-chromosomal Adam" A00 A0-T  A0 A1  A1a A1b A1b1 BT B CT DE CF D E C F F1  F-Y27277   F3  GHIJK G HIJK IJK H IJ K I   J     LT        K2  I1   I2  J1   J2  L     T  K2e K2d K2c K2b   K2a K2b1    P  K-M2313  S   M     P1   NO1 P1c P1b P1a N O R Q
Y-DNA by population Y-DNA haplogroups of historic people Footnotes Van Oven M, Van Geystelen A, Kayser M, Decorte R, Larmuseau HD (2014). "Seeing the wood for the trees: a minimal reference phylogeny for the human Y chromosome". Human Mutation. 35 (2): 187–91. doi:10.1002/humu.22468. PMID 24166809. S2CID 23291764. International Society of Genetic Genealogy (ISOGG; 2015), Y-DNA Haplogroup Tree 2015. (Access date: 1 February 2015.) Haplogroup A0-T is also known as A-L1085 (and previously as A0'1'2'3'4). Haplogroup A1 is also known as A1'2'3'4. F-Y27277, sometimes known as F2'4, is both the parent clade of F2 and F4 and a child of F-M89. Haplogroup LT (L298/P326) is also known as Haplogroup K1. Between 2002 and 2008, Haplogroup T-M184 was known as "Haplogroup K2". That name has since been re-assigned to K-M526, the sibling of Haplogroup LT. Haplogroup K2b (M1221/P331/PF5911) is also known as Haplogroup MPS. Haplogroup K2b1 (P397/P399) is also known as Haplogroup MS, but has a broader and more complex internal structure. Haplogroup P (P295) is also klnown as K2b2. K-M2313*, which as yet has no phylogenetic name, has been documented in two living individuals, who have ethnic ties to India and South East Asia. In addition, K-Y28299, which appears to be a primary branch of K-M2313, has been found in three living individuals from India. See: Poznik op. cit.; YFull YTree v5.08, 2017, "K-M2335", and; PhyloTree, 2017, "Details of the Y-SNP markers included in the minimal Y tree" (Access date of these pages: 9 December 2017) Haplogroup S, as of 2017, is also known as K2b1a. (Previously the name Haplogroup S was assigned to K2b1a4.) Haplogroup M, as of 2017, is also known as K2b1b. (Previously the name Haplogroup M was assigned to K2b1d.)

Notes

1. Underhill et al. (2009)
2. ISOGG phylogenetic tree
3. Regueiro et al. (2006)
4. ^ Wells et al. (2001)
5. Kharkov et al. (2007)
6. Tambets et al. (2004)
7. Wang et al. (2003)
8. Zhou et al. (2007)
9. Lell et al. (2002)
10. ^ Sharma et al. (2007)
11. Kivisild et al. (2003)
12. "Atlas of the Human Journey - The Genographic Project". The Genographic Project. Retrieved 2009-10-22.
13. Balanovsky et al. (2008)
14. Behar et al. (2003)
15. ^ Semino et al. (2000)
16. Semino et al. (2000) found a level of 60% but a later study, Tambets et al. (2004), found haplogroup R1a Y-DNA in only 20.4% of a sample of 113 Hungarians. Rosser et al.2000 found haplogroup R1a1-SRY1532b in approximately 22% (8/36) of a Hungarian sample. Battaglia et al. (2008) found haplogroup R1a1a-M17 in approximately 57% of a sample of 53 Hungarians.
17. Rosser et al. (2000)
18. Pericic et al. (2005)
19. ^ Haak et al. (2008)
20. The Ysearch number for the Eulau remains is 2C46S.
21. Bowden et al. (2008)
22. Irish Heritage DNA Project, R1 and R1a
23. Passarino et al. (2002)
24. Capelli et al. (2003)
25. Garvey, D. "Y Haplogroup R1a1". Retrieved 2007-04-23.
26. Sharma et al. (2009)
27. Semino et al. (2000) proposed quite early that there may have been two expansions, suggesting that the spread of R1a from a point of origin in Ukraine following the Last Glacial Maximum may have been magnified by the expansion of males from the Kurgan culture. In a study of the Balkans, Pericic et al. (2005) saw evidence for "at least three major episodes of gene flow" adding "possibly massive Slavic migration from A.D. 5th to 7th centuries" as a third.
28. Keyser et al. (2009)
29. Lalueza-Fox et al. (2004)
30. Schilz (2006) harvcoltxt error: no target: CITEREFSchilz2006 (help)
31. Bouakaze et al. (2007)
32. Sengupta et al. (2005)
33. Sahoo et al. (2006)
34. For example Wells et al. (2001), noted that the Indo-European-speaking Sourashtrans, a population from Tamil Nadu in southern India, have a much higher frequency of M17 than their Dravidian-speaking neighbours, the Yadhavas and Kallars, adding to the evidence that M17 is a diagnostic Indo-Iranian marker.
35. For example Saha et al. (2005) examined R1a1 in South Indian tribals and Dravidian population groups more closely, and questioned this concept. Their analyses of the haplogroups "indicated no single origin from any lineage but a result of a conglomeration of different lineages from time to time. The phylogenetic analyses indicate a high degree of population admixture and a greater genetic proximity for the studied population groups when compared with other world populations". Sharma et al. (2009) collated information for 2809 Indians (681 Brahmins, and 2128 Tribals and schedule castes). The results showed "no consistent pattern of the exclusive presence and distribution of Y-haplogroups to distinguish the higher-most caste, Brahmins, from the lower-most ones, schedule castes and tribals". Brahmins from West Bengal showed the highest frequency (72.22%) of Y-haplogroups R1a1* hinting that it may have been a founder lineage for this caste group. The authors found it significant that the Saharia tribe of Madhya Pradesh had not only 28.07% R1a1, but also 22.8% R1a*, out of 57 people, with such a high percentage of R1a* never having been found before. Based on STR variance the estimated age of R1a* in India was 18,478 years, and for R1a1 it was 13,768 years. In its conclusions, the study proposed "the autochthonous origin and tribal links of Indian Brahmins" as well as the origin of R1a1* in the Indian subcontinent. Chaubey et al. draw the same conclusion that both caste and tribal populations are autochthonous to India. (Chaubey G, Metspalu M, Kivisild T. et al., Peopling of South Asia: investigating the caste-tribe continuum in India, Bioessays (Jan 2007)). Sengupta et al. (2005) have confirmed R1a's diverse presence even among Indian tribal and lower castes (the so-called untouchables) and populations not part of the caste system.
36. The authors also refer here to their references 14, Weale et al. (2001), and 41, Regueiro et al. (2006)]

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Projects

• FTDNA R1a Y-chromosome Haplogroup Project
• R1a International Y-DNA Project
• Danish Demes Regional DNA Project: Y-DNA Haplogroup R1a
• British Isles DNA Project

• Human Y-DNA haplogroups
• Human genetic history