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Folk etymology, in its basic sense, refers to popularly held (and often false) beliefs about the origins of specific words and phrases, especially where these originate in "common-sense" assumptions and the construction of ex post facto narratives rather than serious research (compare folk science, folk psychology etc.). The phenomenon leads to distinct but related usages for the phrase in historical linguistics and in folklore. In the former, the term has long referred to a change in the pronunciation, meaning, or spelling of a word under the influence of such folk beliefs about its origins. Linguists who have specified the meaning of the term "folk" in this case mean by it "amateurs" or "non-linguists." The usage is established, though some writers defend their technical usage against use of the terms in their commensense meaning of "amateur etymology" and some contemporary scholars acknowledge the incorrectness of the term for the phenomenon more precisely described as "morphological re-analysis." Folklorists regularly use the term to refer to belief tales about the origins of a given word or phrase.

Source and influence of false etymologies

Erroneous etymologies can exist for many reasons. Some are reasonable interpretations of the evidence that happen to be false. For a given word there may often have been many serious attempts by scholars to propose etymologies based on the best information available at the time, and these can be later modified or rejected as linguistic scholarship advances. The results of medieval etymology, for example, were plausible given the insights available at the time, but have often been rejected by modern linguists. The etymologies of humanist scholars in the early modern period began to produce more reliable results, but many of their hypotheses have been superseded. Even today, knowledge in the field advances so rapidly that many of the etymologies in contemporary dictionaries are outdated.

Association with urban legends

Some etymologies are part of urban legends, and seem to respond to a general taste for the surprising, counterintuitive and even scandalous. One common example has to do with the phrase rule of thumb, meaning a rough measurement. An urban legend has it that the phrase refers to an old English law under which a man could legally beat his wife with a stick no thicker than his thumb (though no such law ever existed).

In the United States, many of these scandalous legends have had to do with racism and slavery. Common words such as picnic, buck, and crowbar have been alleged to stem from derogatory terms or racist practices. The "discovery" of these alleged etymologies is often believed by those who circulate them to draw attention to racist attitudes embedded in ordinary discourse. On one occasion, the use of the word niggardly led to the resignation of a U.S. public official because it sounded similar to the word nigger, despite the two words being unrelated etymologically.

Folk etymology as a productive force

The term "folk etymology", as referring both to erroneous beliefs about derivation and the consequent changes to words, is derived from the German Volksetymologie. Similar terms are found in other languages, e.g. volksetymologie in Dutch, Afrikaans volksetimologie, Danish folkeetymologi, Swedish folketymologi, and full parallels in non-Germanic languages, e.g. Hungarian népetimológia, French étymologie populaire and Israeli Hebrew etimológya amamít (popular etymology). Examples of alternative names are Italian pseudoetimologia and paretimologia (<paraetimologia), as well as English etymythology. The phenomenon becomes especially interesting when it feeds back into the development of the word and thus becomes a part of the true etymology. Because a population wrongly believes a word to have a certain origin, they begin to pronounce, spell, or otherwise use the word in a manner appropriate to that perceived origin, in a kind of misplaced pedantry. Thus a new standard form of the word appears which has been influenced by the misconception. In such cases it is often said that the form of the word has been "altered by folk etymology". (Less commonly, but found in the etymological sections of the OED, one might read that the word was altered by pseudo-etymology, or false etymology.) Pyles and Algeo give the example of "chester drawers" for "chest of drawers"; similarly, "chaise lounge" for "chaise longue".

The term "folk etymology" is thus used to refer to the change itself, and knowledge of the popular etymology is necessary to understand the (more complex) true etymology of the resulting word. Other misconceptions which leave the word unchanged may of course be ignored, but are generally not called popular etymology.

False etymologies are a consequence of the longstanding interest in putatively original, and therefore normative, meanings of words, a characteristic of logocentrism. Until academic linguistics developed the comparative study of philology and the development of the laws underlying sound changes, the derivation of words was a matter mostly of guess-work, sometimes right but more often wrong, based on superficial resemblances of form and the like. This popular etymology has had a powerful influence on the forms which words take (e.g., crawfish or crayfish, from the French crevis, modern crevisse, or sand-blind, from samblind, i.e. semi-, half-blind), and has frequently been the occasion of homonyms resulting from different etymologies for what appears a single word, with the original meaning(s) reflecting the true etymology and the new meaning(s) reflecting the 'incorrect' popular etymology.

Examples of words modified by folk etymology

In linguistic change caused by folk etymology, the form of a word changes so that it better matches its popular rationalisation. For example:

• Old English sam-blind ('semi-blind' or 'half-blind') became sand-blind (as if "blinded by the sand") when people were no longer able to make sense of the element sam 'half'.
• Old English bryd-guma 'bride-man' became bridegroom after the Old English word guma (cognate with Latin "homo") fell out of use and made the compound semantically obscure.
• The silent s in island is a result of folk etymology. This native Old English word, at one time spelled iland, derives from an Old English compound of īeg or īg + land, but was erroneously believed to be related to "isle", which had come to English via Old French from Latin insula ('island'; cf. Modern Spanish isla). Old English īeg, īg derives from Germanic *aujō = 'object on the water', from earlier Germanic *agwjō, and is akin to Old English ēa = 'water', 'river', from prehistoric Germanic *ahwō. Hence through *ahwō, island is related, not to Latin insula, but rather to Latin aqua 'water'. (For a use of ēa, see the origin of the name of Eton, Berkshire)
• asparagus, which became sparrow-grass.
• butt-naked from the term buck-naked.
• cater-corner became kitty-corner or catty-corner when the original meaning of cater ('four') had become obsolete.
• chaise lounge from chaise longue 'long chair'
• Charterhouse from Chartreuse, the feminine of Chartreux
• Middle English crevis, from Middle French crevice (from Germanic krebiz) became crayfish due to assimilation with fish.
• Causey was modified to causeway to assimilate it with way.
• hangnail from agnail
• lanthorn (as old lanterns were glazed with strips of cows' horn) from lantern
• liquorice, a British variant spelling of licorice, from the supposition that it has something to do with liquid, though the actual origin is Greek glykyrrhiza 'sweet root'
• posthumous, as though related to humus, soil, although it is a specialized sense of Latin postumus, 'last'.
• penthouse from pentice
• shamefaced from shamefast 'caught in shame'

When a back-formation rests on a misunderstanding of the morphology of the original word, it may be regarded as a kind of folk etymology.

In heraldry, canting arms (which may express a name by one or more elements only significant by virtue of the supposed etymology) may reinforce a folk etymology for a noun proper, usually of a place.

The same process sometimes influences the spelling of proper names. The name Antony/Anthony is often spelled with an <h> because of the Elizabethan belief that it is derived from Greek ανθος (flower). In fact it is a Roman family name.

Further examples

See the following articles that discuss folk etymologies for their subjects:

• belfry (architecture)
• blunderbuss
• brass monkey
• Brent Goose
• Caesarean section
• chaise longue
• chav
• craic
• crawfish
• dork
• dormouse
• ducking stool
• fuck
• gringo
• hamburger
• Hoosier
• Jerusalem artichoke
• Jordan almonds
• poll tax
• pumpernickle
• rake-hell
• serviceberry
• sic
• sincere
• tahash
• Welsh rarebit

Other languages

The French verb savoir (to know) was formerly spelled sçavoir, in order to link it with the Latin scire (to know). In fact it is derived from sapere (to be wise).

Late Latin widerdonum (Old French guerdon) was an alteration, due to confusion with Latin donum "gift", of Old High German widarlôn "recompense, reward, pay-back".

Medieval Latin has a word, bachelarius (bachelor), of uncertain origin, referring to a junior knight, and by extension to the holder of a University degree inferior to Master or Doctor. This was later re-spelled baccalaureus to reflect a false derivation from bacca laurea (laurel berry), alluding to the possible laurel crown of a poet or conqueror.

Olisipona (Lisbon) was explained as deriving from the city's supposed foundation by Ulysses (Odysseus), though the settlement certainly antedates any Greek presence.

In Southern Italy in the Greek period there was a city Maloeis (gen. Maloentos), meaning "fruitful". This was rendered in Latin as Maleventum, "ill come" or "ill wind", and renamed Beneventum ("welcome" or "good wind") after the Roman conquest.

The Dutch word for "hammock" is hangmat, ("hanging mat") formed as a folk etymology of Spanish hamaca. A similar story goes for the Swedish word hängmatta, Finnish riippumatto and the German Hängematte.

In the Alexandrian period, and in the Renaissance, many (wrongly) explained the name of the god Kronos as being derived from chronos (time), and interpreted the myth of his swallowing his children as an allegory meaning that Time consumes all things.

The Mandarin word for "crisis", wēijī, is often said to be "composed of two characters, one represent danger, and the other represent opportunity." The character jī, however, does not mean "opportunity," and linguists generally dismiss this folk etymology as fanciful. False etymologies for individual Chinese characters are also common.

The Finnish compound word for "jealous" mustasukkainen literally means "black socked" (musta "black" and sukka "sock"). However, the word is a case of a misunderstood loan translation from Swedish svartsjuk ("black sick"). The Finnish word sukka fit with a close phonological equivalent to the Swedish sjuk

Islambol (Islambol as one of the names of Istanbul used after the Ottoman conquest of 1453)

Acceptance of resulting forms

The question of whether the resulting usage is "correct" or "incorrect" is subjective and is at any rate a separate issue from the question of whether the assumed etymology is correct. When a word changes in form or meaning owing to folk etymology, there is typically resistance to the change on the part of those who are aware of the true etymology. Many words altered through folk etymology survive beyond such resistance however, to the point where they entirely replace the original form in the language. Chaise lounge and Welsh rarebit are still often disparaged, for example, but shamefaced and buttonhole are universally accepted. See prescription and description.

See also

• Backronym
• Back-formation
• Chinese translation of crisis
• Eggcorn
• Johannes Goropius Becanus
• Okay
• Phono-semantic matching
• Pseudoscientific language comparison
• Slang dictionary

Notes

1. ^ Sihler, Andrew L. (2000). Language History: an introduction. John Benjamins. pp. 86–88. ISBN 9789027236975.
2. Sihler, Andrew L. (2000). Language History: an introduction. John Benjamins. p. 20. ISBN 9789027236975.
3. Preston
4. "The frequently encountered interpretation of this technical term of historical linguistics in the sense of a mere amateur etymology is itself a wrong conclusion from the word elements. By folk etymology is known always a specific phenomenon of language change, not a merely false etymology." Medeis, this is your source, so you'll have to supply the rest
5. L. Bauer ]
6. from Snopes.com: "A constant of folk etymologies seems to be that the odder a word sounds to us, the sillier the story we invent to explain its origins...." sv pumpernickel; "I'm not quite sure what to make of this folk etymology..." ("red light district" so-named because railmen left their lanterns at the door of the brothel; hardly morphological re-analysis; note the causalness of the usage, earmark of the established phrase, as linguists usually take it). "Pluck Yew" is aid to be a folk etymology; the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette treats of the folk etymology of "Lord Love a Duck."; “folk etymologies” are explicitly treated as equivalent to “etymological myths” in a course a U-Ontario ;Sir James Fraser equates the two in note 1 p. 91 of his ed’n of Apollodorus (cites C.G. Heyne); David Wilton “Word Myths: Debunking Linguistic Urban Legends”. Oxford UP 2004
7. "clever story" or "pretty fantasy"; S Eisiminger (The Journal of American Folklore Vol. 91, No. 359 (Jan. - Mar., 1978), pp. 582-584;) the narrative associated with a given etymology is called “clever story or pretty fantasy;”
8. World Wide Words etymology of "rule of thumb"
9. Urban Legends reference pages on supposed etymology of picnic
10. Urban Legends reference pages on supposed etymology of buck
11. Urban Legends reference pages on supposed origin of crowbar
12. Article on the etymology of the word niggardly
13. See Zuckermann, Ghil‘ad (2006), "'Etymythological Othering' and the Power of 'Lexical Engineering' in Judaism, Islam and Christianity. A Socio-Philo(sopho)logical Perspective", Explorations in the Sociology of Language and Religion, edited by Tope Omoniyi and Joshua A. Fishman, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 237-258.
14. "The Origins and Development of the English Language", 4th ed., Thomas Pyles and John Algeo, 1993.
15. ""The development of Late Latin liquiritia was in part influenced by Latin liquēre become fluid, in reference to the process of treating the root to obtain its extract." Barnhart, Robert K. (1988). The Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology. H.W. Wilson. p. 593. ISBN 9780824207458.
16. Remarks by President Kennedy at the Convocation of the United Negro College Fund
17. Mair, Victor H. (2005). "danger + opportunity ≠ crisis: How a misunderstanding about Chinese characters has led many astray". PinyinInfo.com. Retrieved 15 January 2009.
18. Zimmer, Benjamin (27 March 2007). "Crisis = danger + opportunity: The plot thickens". Language Log. Retrieved 19 January 2009.
19. http://kirlah-kielet.blogspot.com/2008_05_01_archive.html

References

• Anatoly Liberman (2005). Word Origins ... and How We Know Them: Etymology for Everyone. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195161472.
• Adrian Room (1986). Dictionary of True Etymologies. Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7102-0340-3.
• David Wilton (2004). Word Myths: Debunking Linguistic Urban Legends. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517284-1.
• Ghil'ad Zuckermann (2003). Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan. (Palgrave Studies in Language History and Language Change, Series editor: Charles Jones). ISBN 1-4039-1723-X.

External links

• Folk etymologies (a collection of folk etymologies)
• Richard Lederer, Spook Etymology on the Internet
• Popular fallacies in the attribution of phrase origins
• EtymologyOnLine - both true and folk etymologies- here mainly examples of popular etymologies
• "History Lessened" - Urban Legend site snopes.com debunks some common folk etymologies circulating via email

 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)

• Etymology
• Error
• Language comparison
• Urban legends
• Folklore