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The List of tributaries of Imperial China encompasses all states which engaged in diplomatic and foreign relations with the Chinese.

List of tributaries

A status hierarchy was an explicit element of the tributary system in which Korea and Vietnam were ranked higher than others, including Japan, the Ryukyus, Siam, the Burmese kingdoms and others. All diplomatic and trade missions were construed in the context of a tributary relationship with Imperial China, including:

• Annam

• Brunei

• Burma

• Bhutan

• Cambodia
  • Kingdom of Funan
  • Zhenla

• England

• Indonesia; Malaysia

• Italy

• Japan
  • Wa (Japan)
  • Japanese missions to Sui China (6 tribute missions)
  • Japanese missions to Tang China (16 tribute missions)
  • Japanese missions to Ming China (20 tribute and trade missions)

• Korea
  • Goguryeo (173 tribute missions)
  • Baekje (45 tribute missions)
  • Silla (19 tribute missions)
  • Unified Silla (63 tribute missions in 8th century)
  • Goryeo (Goryeo missions to Imperial China)
  • Joseon Dynasty (Joseon missions to Imperial China)

• Nepal

• Netherlands

• Philippines
  • Sulu

• Portugal

• Ryūkyū Kingdom (Ryukyuan missions to Imperial China)
  • Hokuzan
  • Chūzan (9 tribute missions
  • Nanzan

• Siam

• Tibet

Western Han Dynasty

• Internal vassals (206 BC - ?) - Upon the founding of the dynasty, the first emperor awarded up to one-half of territory of Han as fiefdoms to various relatives, who ruled as princes. These fiefdoms collected their own taxes and established their own laws and were not directly administered by imperial government. Consolidation and centralization by succeeding emperors increased imperial controls, gradually dissolving the princedoms.
• Nanyue (211 BC - 111 BC) - A kingdom situated today's northern Vietnam, and the provinces of Guangdong and Guangxi founded by a former Chinese general, Zhao Tuo. Under Zhao Tuo it paid nominal tribute to Han but his successors lost more and more power. After a coup d'état against the king, Han directly conquered the kingdom and directly administered it from then on.
• Minyue (138 BC - ?) - A baiyue people situated in modern-day Fujian province. After an attack by the Minyue people, Emperor Wu of Han launched a massive expedition, and forced their entire population to relocate within imperial borders.
• Dian Kingdom (109 BC) - A kingdom located in modern day Yunnan province. Brought into subjugation by Emperor Wu of Han, who annexed the kingdom into an imperial commandary but allowed local rulers to remain in power.
• Loulan (108 BC) - Located along the northeastern edge of the Taklamakan Desert in modern-day Xinjiang province. Brought into submission by an imperial expedition dispatched by Emperor Wu of Han.
• Cheshi (108 BC) - City-state in modern-day Turpan. Brought into submission by an imperial expedition dispatched by Emperor Wu of Han.
• Wusun (105 BC - ?) - Central Asian people. Bitter enemies with the Xiongnu, they entered a military alliance with the Han. In 53 BC, the kingdom split into two following a succession dispute. Both continued to recognize Han sovereignty and remained faithful vassals.
• Dayuan (102 BC) - Kingdom located in the Fergana Valley. Hearing tales of their high-quality horses, which would be of great utility in combatting the Xiongnu, Emperor Wu of Han dispatched an expedition to acquire their submission and the horses. The first expedition of 3,000 was woefully undermanned, but the second, numbering 100,000 besieged the capital, bringing them into submission after negotiations. The expedition returned with 10,000 horses along with a promise to pay an annual tribute in horses.
• Xiongnu (53 BC - 10) - A nomadic confederation/empire in Central Asia and modern day Mongolia and extending their control to territories as far as Siberia, western Manchuria, the areas along the Caspian Sea, and modern day Chinese provinces of Inner Mongolia, Gansu and Xinjiang. They entered tributory relations with the Han after several defeats, territorial losses, and internal conflicts. Tributory relationships terminated as a result of diplomatic fumblings during the reign of Wang Mang. Xinjiang passed to Chinese control after their defeat.

Wang Mang interregnum (Xin Dynasty)

During Wang Mang's reign, relations with many of the empire's allies and tributories deteriorated, due in large part to Wang Mang's arrogance and inept diplomacy.

Eastern Han Dynasty

• Southern Xiongnu (50-220) - The Xiongnu split into northern and southern factions. The southern Xiongnu brought themselves into tributory relations with the Han. They were resettled along with large numbers of Chinese immigrants in frontier regions. Economically dependent on Han, they were obliged to provide military services under a tightened tributory system with greater direct imperial supervision.

Southern and Northern Dynasties and Tang Dynasty

The Chinese retaliated against Cham (see Champa, which was raiding the Rinan coast around 430s-440s by seizing Qusu, and then plundering the capital of the Cham around Hue. Around 100,000 jin in gold was the amount of plunder. Linyi then paid 10,000 gold jin, 100,000 silver jin, 300,000 coppter Jin in 445 as tribute to China. The final tribute paid to China from Linyi was 749, among the items where 100 pearl strings, 30 gharuwood jin, baidi, and 20 elephants. (Jin is a unit of measurement).

Song Dynasty

The Song Dynasty received 302 tribute missions from other countries. Vietnamese missions conisted of 45 of them, another 56 were from Champa. More tribute was sent by Champa in order to curry favor from China against Vietnam. Champa brought as tribute Champa rice, a fast growing rice strain, to China, which massively increased Chinese yields of rice.

Ming dynasty

Under the Ming, countries that wanted to have any form of relationship with China, political, economic or otherwise, had to enter the tribute system. As a result, tribute was often paid for opportunistic reasons rather than as a serious gesture of allegiance to the Chinese emperor, and the mere fact that tribute was paid may not be understood in a way that China had political leverage over its tributary. For example, Mongolian chronicles of the 17th century say that the Ming paid tribute to Altan Khan, not the other way around. Also some tribute missions may just have been up by ingenious traders. A number of countries only paid tribute once, as a result of Zheng He's expeditions. As of 1587, in Chinese sources the following countries are listed to have paid tribute to the Ming emperors: The Homgwu Emperor started tributary relations in 1368, emisarries being sent to countries like Korea, Vietnam, Champa, Japan, of which Korea, Vietnam, and Champa sent back tribute in 1369. During Hongwu's rule, Liuch'iu sent 20, Korean sent 20, Champa sent 19, Siam sent 18, and Vietnam sent 14 tribute missions.

• Korea (annually)
• Japan (every 10 years)
• Liuqiu (Ryukyu Islands, every two years since 1368)
• Annam (every three years since 1369)
• Cambodia (Chenla, since 1371)
• Siam (every three years since 1371)
• Champa (every three years since 1369)
• Java (1372, 1381, 1404, 1407, every three years for some time after 1443)
• Pahang (1378, 1414)
• Baihua(?) (1378)
• Palembang (1368, 1371, 1373, 1375, 1377)
• Brunei (1371, 1405, 1408, 1414, 1425)
• Samudra (1383, 1405, 1407, 1431, 1435)
• Chola (1370, 1372, 1403)
• Lanbang(?) (1376, 1403–1435)
• Danba(?) (1377)
• Sulu (1417, 1421)
• Gumala (?) (1420)
• Calicut (1405, 1407, 1409)
• Malacca (1405, 1411, 1412, 1414, 1424, 1434, 1445ff, 1459)
• Borneo (Solo?) (1406)
• Aru (1407)
• Kollam (1407)
• Bengal (1408, 1414, 1438)
• Ceylon (1411, 1412, 1445, 1459)
• Jaunpur (1420)
• Syria (Fulin?, 1371)
• Cochin (1404, 1412)
• Melinde (1414)
• Philippines (1372, 1405, 1576)
• Tieli (?), Zhiloxiashi (?), Marinduque (1405)
• Gulibanzu (Pansur?) (1405)
• Dahui(?) (1405)
• Ormus (1405)
• Coimbatore (1411)
• Cail, Djofar, Maldives, Burma (Yawa), Lambri (Nanwuli, on Sumatra), Kelantan, Qilani(?), Xialabi (Arabia?), Kuchani (?), Wushelatang(?), Aden, Rum, Bengal, Shelaqi(?), Bakoyi(?), Coimbatore, Heigada(?), Lasa(?), Barawa, Mogadishu, Qianlida(?), Kannur (all somewhere between 1403 and 1425)
• Wala (Oirads) (beginning in 1403, annually, with interruptions, since 1458)
• Altan Khan (annually since 1570)
• Doyan(?), Fuyü(?), Taining(?) (1388, twice a year from 1403)
• Jurchens and other tribes in the northeast (irregularly)
• Jienzhou(?) (annually)
• Hami (beginning in 1404, annually from 1465, every five years from 1475)
• Anding(?) (beginning in 1374)
• Handong(?) (?)
• Chijin (another group of Mongols?) (beginning in 1404, every five years since 1563)
• Quxian (1437)
• Herat (1402, 1409, 1437)
• Tamerlane (1387, 1391)
• Hasan(?)
• Halie'er(?)
• Shadiman(?)
• Kashgar
• Hadilan (Khotelan?)
• Sairam
• Saolan (identical to Sairam?)
• Ilbalik and Beshbalik (1391, 1406, 1413, 1418(?), 1437, 1457ff)
• Niekoli (or Miekoli) (?)
• Badakhshan
• Balkh
• Almalik (?)
• Togmak
• Chalish
• Ganshi(?)
• Bukhara(?)
• Pala(?)
• Shiraz
• Nishapur
• Kashmir
• Tabriz
• Guosasü(?)
• Khodjend
• Huotan (identical with Khodjend?)
• Kucha
• Yaxi(?)
• Yarkand
• Jong(?)
• Bai(?)
• Wulun(?)
• Alani
• Hotan (?)
• Yesücheng(?)
• Kuncheng (Kunduz?)
• Shehei(?)
• Baiyin(?)
• Koqie(?)
• Turfan (1430, 1497, 1509, 1510, every 5 years since 1523)
• Karakhodjo (1409, 1430, afterwards together with Turfan)
• Liuchen(?) (1430, afterwards together with Turfan)
• Samarkand (1387, 1389, 1391 etc., after 1523 every five years)
• Rum (after 1524 every five years)
• Arabia (Tienfang, identical to Mecca?) (somewhere between 1426 and 1435, 1517, sometimes between 1522 and 1566)
• Medina (somewhere between 1426 and 1435)
• Hotan 1408
• Zhilo(?), Badakhshan, Andkhui, Isfahan (all somewhere between 1403 and 1424)
• Khorasan (1432)
• Ejijie(?), Hashin(?) (both somewhere between 1522 and 1566)
• A number of Tibetan temples and tribes from the Tibetan border or the southwest.

Much tribute paid consisted of native products, e.g. elephants from Siam, or eunuchs and virgin girls from Korea, Annam, or the Ryukyu Islands. Young Korean virgin girls, and eunuchs were demanded as tribute by the Ming Emperor for the imperial harem. Korean girls age 13 to 25 were recruited to be sent to China.

Qing Dynasty

This list covers states that sent tribute between 1662 and 1875, and were not covered under the Lifanyuan. Therefore, Tibet or the Khalkha are not included, although they did send tribute in the period given:

• Korea (three or four times a year; 435 embassies, 1637-1881)
• Ryukyu (every two years on average, 122 times in total between 1662 and 1875)
• Annam (annually, every three years on average)
• Siam (48 times, most of them after 1780 and before the reign of Rama IV)
• Burma (17 times, most of them in the 19th century)
• Laos (17 times)
• Sulu (1726, 1733, 1743, 1747, 1752, 1753, and 1754)
• Nepal (1732(?), 1792, 1794, 1795, 1823, 1842, and 1865)
• Dzungars (1681, 1685, 1735, 1738, 1742, 1743, 1745, 1746, 1752, and 1753)
• Russia (1676 and 1727)
• Great Britain/United Kingdom (1793, 1795 (no tribute presented), 1805, and 1816)
• Netherlands (1663(?), 1667, 1686, and 1795).
• Portugal (1670, 1678, 1752, and 1753)
• Turpan (1673 and 1686)
• Holy See (1725)
• Kirgiz (1757 and 1758)
• Khanate of Kokand (between 1774–1798)
• Ku er le Beg (1762)

The tribute system did not dissolve in 1875, but tribute embassies got less frequent and regular: twelve more Korean embassies until 1894, one more (abortive one) from Liuqiu in 1877, three more from Annam, and four from Nepal, the last one in 1908.

See also

Template:ChineseText

• China
• Chinese imperialism
• Chinese nationalism
• Foreign relations of Imperial China
• Greater China
• Imperial China (disambiguation)
• List of recipients of tribute from China
• Silk Road
• Sinocentrism
• Sinosphere
• Suzerainty
• Tributary
• Zheng He

Notes

1. Gundry, R. S. "China and her Tributaries," National Review (United Kingdom), No. 17, July 1884, pp. 605-619., p. 605, at Google Books
2. ^ Kang, David C. (2010). East Asia Before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute, p. 59., p. 59, at Google Books
3. ^ "Tribute and Trade", KoreanHistoryProject.org. Retrieved on 30-01-2007.
4. Gundry, "Annam," pp. 613-615., p. 613, at Google Books
5. Gundry, "Burma," pp. 611-613., p. 611, at Google Books
6. ^ Kerr, George. (2000). Okinawa: The History of an Island People, p. 65., p. 65, at Google Books
7. ^ Shambaugh, David L. et al. (2008). International Relations of Asia, p. 54 n15., p. 54, at Google Books citing the 1818 Collected Statutes of the Qing Dynasty (DaQing hui-tien)
8. "Funan". About.com. Retrieved 2007-06-02.
9. "The Kingdom of Funan and Chenla (First to Eighth Century AD)". Archived from the original on 2006-05-03. Retrieved 2007-06-06.
10. Chisholm, Hugh. (1911). The Encyclopædia Britannica, Vol. 15, p. 224, p. 224, at Google Books
11. Yoda, Yoshiie et al. (1996) The Foundations of Japan's Modernization: a Comparison with China's Path, p. 40., p. 40, at Google Books
12. Fogel, Joshua A. (2009). Articulating the Sinosphere: Sino-Japanese Relations in Space and Time, pp. 102-107., p. 102, at Google Books
13. Edwin O. Reischauer (1955). Ennin's travels in T'ang China: Chapter Ⅲ - Kentoshi. ISBN 9788946038141
14. Fogel, p. 27., p. 27, at Google Books; Goodrich, Luther Carrington et al. (1976). Dictionary of Ming biography, 1368-1644, p. 1316., p. 1316, at Google Books; note: the economic benefit of the Sinocentric tribute system was profitable trade. The tally trade (kangō bōeki or kanhe maoyi in Chinese) was a system devised and monitored by the Chinese -- see Nussbaum, Louis Frédéric et al. (2005). Japan Encyclopedia, p. 471.
15. ^ Pratt, Keith L. (1999). Korea: a historical and cultural dictionary. p. 482.
16. Kwak, Tae-Hwan et al. (2003). The Korean peace process and the four powers, p. 100., p. 100, at Google Books; excerpt, "The tributary relations between China and Korea came to an end when China was defeated in the Sino-Japanese war of 1894-1895."
17. ^ Korea Herald. (2004) Korea now, p. 31; excerpt, "The Chinese also insist that even though Goguryeo was part of Chinese domain, Silla and Baekje were states subjected to China's tributary system."
18. Seth, Michael J. (2006). A concise history of Korea, p. 64, p. 64, at Google Books; excerpt, "China found instead that its policy of using trade and cultural exchanges and offering legitimacy and prestige to the Silla monarchy was effective in keeping Silla safely in the tributary system. Indeed, the relationship that was worked out in the late seventh and early eighth centuries can be considered the beginning of the mature tributary relationship that would characterize Sino-Korean interchange most of the time until the late nineteenth century;"
19. ^ Koran History Project, Unified Silla.
20. ^ Kwak, p. 99., p. 99, at Google Books; excerpt, "Korea's tributary relations with China began as early as the fifth century, were regularized during the Goryeo dynasty (918-1392), and became fully institutionalized during the Yi dynasty (1392-1910)."
21. Gundry, "Nepal," pp. 609-610., p. 609, at Google Books
22. The Political Economy of Philippines- China Relations
23. "The Ancient Ryukyus Period/The Sanzan Period"
24. Gundry, "Ryūkyū," pp. 615-616., p. 615, at Google Books
25. ^ Kerr, George. (2000). Okinawa: The History of an Island People, p. 74., p. 74, at Google Books
26. Kerr, p. 66., p. 66, at Google Books
27. Gundry, "Siam," pp. 616-619., p. 616, at Google Books
28. Gundry, "Tibet," pp. 610-611., p. 610, at Google Books
29. ^ page 63 of the book, "MAPPING HISTORY WORLD HISTORY, by Dr. Ian Barnes. ISBN 978-1-84573-323-0
30. Robert S. Wicks (1992). Money, markets, and trade in early Southeast Asia: the development of indigenous monetary systems to AD 1400. SEAP Publications. p. 210. ISBN 0877277109. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
31. Brantly Womack (2006). China and Vietnam: the politics of asymmetry. Cambridge University Press. p. 121. ISBN 0521618347. Retrieved 2010-11-28.
32. Richard Bulliet, Pamela Kyle Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson (2008). The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History: to 1550. Cengage Learning. p. 279. ISBN 0618992383. Retrieved 2010-11-28.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
33. John K. Fairbank and Têng Ssu-yü: On the Ch'ing Tributary System, in: Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 6, no. 2 (1941), p. 137-150
34. John K. Fairbank and Têng Ssu-yü: On the Ch'ing Tributary System, in: Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 6, no. 2 (1941), p. 150ff
35. Edward L. Dreyer (1982). Early Ming China: a political history, 1355-1435. Stanford University Press. p. 116. ISBN 0804711054. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
37. Iain Robertson (2005). Understanding international art markets and management. Routledge. p. 182. ISBN 0415339561. Retrieved 2010-07-04. {{cite book}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
38. By Frederick W. Mote, Denis Twitchett, John King Fairbank (1988). The Cambridge history of China: The Ming dynasty, 1368-1644, Part 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 301. ISBN 0521243327. Retrieved 2010-07-04. {{cite book}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
39. Association for Asian Studies. Ming Biographical History Project Committee, Luther Carrington Goodrich, Chao-ying Fang (1976). Dictionary of Ming biography, 1368-1644. Columbia University Press. p. 1597. ISBN 023103833X. Retrieved 2010-07-04. {{cite book}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
40. Association Denis Crispin Twitchett, John King Fairbank (1978). The Cambridge history of China, Volume 2; Volume 8. Cambridge University Press. p. 284. ISBN 0521243335. Retrieved 2010-07-04.
41. O. Harrassowitz (1991). Journal of Asian history, Volume 25. p. 130. Retrieved 2010-07-04.
42. ^ John K. Fairbank and Têng Ssu-yü: On the Ch'ing Tributary System, in: Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 6, no. 2 (1941), p. 193ff
43. Kang, Jae-un (2006). The land of scholars: two thousand years of Korean Confucianism. Homa & Sekey Books. ISBN 1931907307. Joseon requested to send a tribute "thrice each year" or "four times per year" instead and achieved it.
44. Robinson, Martin; Bender, Andrew (2004). Korea. Lonely Planet. ISBN 1740594495. The tribute taken to Beijing three or four times a year during most of the Joseon period provides an interesting insight into Korean products at this time. {{cite book}}: |first3= missing |last3= (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
45. Kang, David C. (2010). East Asia Before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute, p. 59., p. 59, at Google Books
46. van Braam Houckgeest, Andreas Everardus. (1797). Voyage de l'ambassade de la Compagnie des Indes Orientales hollandaises vers l'empereur de la Chine, dans les années 1794 et 1794; see also 1798 English translation: An authentic account of the embassy of the Dutch East-India company, to the court of the emperor of China, in the years 1974 and 1795, Vol. I.
47. de Guignes, Chrétien-Louis-Joseph (1808). Voyage a Pékin, Manille et l'Ile de France.

References

• van Braam Houckgeest, Andreas Everardus. (1797). Voyage de l'ambassade de la Compagnie des Indes Orientales hollandaises vers l'empereur de la Chine, dans les années 1794 et 1795. Philadelphia: M.L.E. Moreau de Saint-Méry.
• _______________. (1798). An authentic account of the embassy of the Dutch East-India company, to the court of the emperor of China, in the years 1974 and 1795, Vol. I. London : R. Phillips.
• Fairbank, John K. "Tributary Trade and China's Relations with the West", The Far Eastern Quarterly (1942). Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 129–149.
• de Guignes, Chrétien-Louis-Joseph. (1808). Voyage a Pékin, Manille et l'Ile de France. Paris. OCLC 417277650
• Kang, David C. (2010). East Asia Before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute. New York : Columbia University Press. 13-ISBN 9780231153188/10-ISBN 023115318X; 13-ISBN 9780231526746/10-ISBN 0231526741; OCLC 562768984
• Kerr, George H. (1965). Okinawa, the History of an Island People. Rutland, Vermont: C.E. Tuttle Co. OCLC 39242121
• Kwak, Tae-Hwan and Seung-Ho Joo. (2003). The Korean peace process and the four powers. Burlington, Vermont: Ashgate. 10-ISBN 0754636534/13-ISBN 9780754636533; OCLC 156055048
• Korea Herald. (2004) Korea now. Seoul: Korea Herald. ISSN 1739-225X; OCLC 43438924
• Pratt, Keith L., Richard Rutt, and James Hoare. (1999). Korea : a historical and cultural dictionary, Richmond: Curzon Press. 10-ISBN 0700704639/13-ISBN 9780700704637; 10-ISBN 0700704647; 13-ISBN 9780700704644; OCLC 245844259
• Seth, Michael J. (2006). A concise history of Korea: from the neolithic period through the nineteenth century. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. 10-ISBN 0742540049/13-ISBN 9780742540040; 10-ISBN 0742540057/13-ISBN 9780742540057; OCLC 65407346

External links

• Perpetual Happiness, The Ming Emperor Yongle p178-180
• Ming occupation of Vietnam and Lam Son insurrection

• Articles with unsourced statements from January 2007
• Tributaries of Imperial China