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'''Genealogy''' is the study and tracing of ] ]. This involves collecting the names of relatives, both living and deceased, and establishing the relationships between them based on primary, secondary and/or ] or ], thus building up a cohesive ]. Genealogy is sometimes also referred to as '''family history''', although these terms may be used distinctly: the former being the basic study of who is related to whom; the latter involving more "fleshing out" of the life and ] of the individuals involved. '''Genealogy''' is the study and tracing of ] ]. This involves collecting the names of relatives, both living and deceased, and establishing the relationships between them based on lineal and/or collateral relationship through the use of source data and documentation that is without a doubt, concrete, credible, and acceptable for use in all genealogical venues, thus building a cohesive ]. Genealogy is sometimes referred to as '''family history''', although these terms may be used distinctly: the former being the basic study of who is related to whom; the latter involving more "fleshing out" of the life and ] of the individuals involved.


One way to find the family lineage is with the use of the genealogical method. It is a well-established ethnographic technique. The early ] developed symbols that covered the issue of kinship, descent, and marriage. Studying one's genealogy is important in terms of social organization, especially where people live and work with their kin everyday. It plays a very important role in understanding the current social relations and reconstructing the history. Marriage is also looked at because it is important in creating alliances amongst tribes, clans and villages. One way to find the family lineage is with the use of the genealogical method. It is a well-established ethnographic technique. The early ] developed symbols that covered the issue of kinship, descent, and marriage. Studying Ono's genealogy is important in terms of social organization, especially where people live and work with their kin everyday. It plays a very important role in understanding the current social relations and reconstructing the history. The documentation of marriage is also important to establish the relationship of immediate families to their lineal families both ancestral and descendants as is the importance of documented evidence describing the same relationships between immigrants and Native Americans as-well-as the subcultures within the Native American Clans, Tribes, Villages, et al.


In this article, the terms genealogist, researcher, and family historian refer to every participant, from the inexperienced hobbyist to the seasoned professional. In this article, the terms genealogist, researcher, and family historian refer to every participant, from the hobbyist to the seasoned professional.
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==Overview== ==Overview==
Genealogists collect oral histories and preserve family stories to discover ancestors and living relatives. Genealogists also attempt to understand not just where and when people lived but also their lifestyle, biography, and motivations. This often requires — or leads to — knowledge of antique law, old political boundaries, immigration trends, and historical social conditions. Genealogists collect oral histories and preserve family stories to discover ancestors and living relatives. Genealogists also attempt to understand not just where and when people lived but also their lifestyle, biography, and motivations. This often requires — or leads to — knowledge of antique law, old political boundaries, immigration trends, hidden family secrets, and historical social conditions.


Genealogists and family historians often join a ] where novices can learn from more experienced researchers, and everyone benefits from shared knowledge. Genealogists and family historians often join a ] where one might learn from more experienced researchers where everyone benefits from the shared knowledge.


Even an unsuccessful search for ancestors leads to a better understanding of history. The search for living relatives often leads to ], both of distant ] and of disrupted families. Genealogists sometimes help reunite families separated by ], ], ]s and ]. The genealogist can help keep family traditions alive or reveal family secrets. Even an unsuccessful search for ancestors leads to a better understanding of history. The search for living relatives often leads to ], both of distant ] and of disrupted families. Genealogists sometimes help reunite families separated by ], ], ]s and ]. The genealogist can help keep family traditions alive or reveal unknown family secrets.


In its original form, genealogy was mainly concerned with the ] of rulers and nobles, often arguing or demonstrating the legitimacy of claims to wealth and power. The term often overlapped with ], in which the ancestry of royalty was reflected in the quarterings of their ]. Many of the claimed ancestries are considered by modern scholars to be fabrications, especially the claims of kings and emperors who trace their ancestry to gods or the founders of their civilization. For example, the ] chroniclers traced the ancestry of several English kings back to the ] ] (the English version of the ] god ]).<ref>The mythological origin of English kings is related in a number of derivative sources, such as , an article at . In this article one primary source cited is the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle". The following passage appears in the entry for A.D. 449: "Their leaders were two brothers, Hengest and Horsa; who were the sons of Wihtgils; Wihtgils was the son of Witta, Witta of Wecta, Wecta of Woden. From this Woden arose all our royal kindred, and that of the Southumbrians also." In this context "royal kindred" refers to English kings. Reference: , part of . Accessed 2005 Mar 11.</ref> If these descents were true, ] would be a descendant of Woden, via the kings of ]. (see ]). In its original form, genealogy was mainly concerned with the ] of rulers and nobles, often arguing or demonstrating the legitimacy of claims to wealth and power. The term often overlapped with ], in which the ancestry of royalty was reflected in the quarterings of their ]. Many of the claimed ancestries are considered by modern scholars to be fabrications, especially the claims of kings and emperors who trace their ancestry to gods or the founders of their civilization. For example, the ] chroniclers traced the ancestry of several English kings back to the ] ] (the English version of the ] god ]).<ref>The mythological origin of English kings is related in a number of derivative sources, such as , an article at . In this article one primary source cited is the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle". The following passage appears in the entry for A.D. 449: "Their leaders were two brothers, Hengest and Horsa; who were the sons of Wihtgils; Wihtgils was the son of Wicca, Witta of Wecta, Wecta of Women. From this Woden arose all our royal kindred, and that of the Southumbrians also." In this context "royal kindred" refers to English kings. Reference: , part of . Accessed 2005 Mar 11.</ref> If these descents were true, ] would be a descendant of Woden, via the kings of ]. (see ]).


In fiction, it is common to give a character a complicated ] to make his or her background more interesting. A picturesque one is the genealogy for ]. In fiction, it is common to give a character a complicated ] to make his or her background more interesting. A picturesque one is the genealogy for ].


==Modern research== ==Modern research==
Genealogy, an extremely popular hobby, received a big boost in the late ] with the premiere of the television adaptation of ]'s fictionalized account of his family line, '']''. With the advent of the Internet, the number of resources available to genealogists has vastly increased; however, some of these sources must be treated with caution due to issues of accuracy. Genealogy, an extremely popular hobby, received a big boost in the late ] with the premiere of the television adaptation of ]'s fictionalized account of his family line, '']''. With the advent of the Internet; the number of resources available to genealogists has vastly increased; however, some of these sources must be treated with caution due to issues of accuracy and credible foundation.


In addition to particular historical events and places, research efforts can focus on other types of relationships among people such as kinship to a particular group, e.g. a ]; to a particular surname such as in a one-name study (see ), or to a particular person such as ] or ]. In addition to particular historical events and places, research efforts can focus on other types of relationships among people such as kinship to a particular group, e.g. a ]; to a particular surname such as in a one-name study (see ), or to a particular person such as ] or ].
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===Genetic Analysis=== ===Genetic Analysis===
{{main|Genetic genealogy}} {{main|Genetic genealogy}}
With the discovery that a person's ] contains information that has been passed down relatively unchanged from our earliest ancestors, ] is just beginning to be used for genealogical research. There are two DNA types of particular interest. One is the ] which we all possess and which is passed down with only minor mutations through the female line. The other is the ], present only in males, which is passed down with only minor mutations through the male line. With the discovery that a person's ] contains information that has been passed relatively unchanged from our earliest ancestors, ] is just beginning to be used for genealogical research. There are two DNA types of particular interest. One is the ] which we all possess and which is passed with only minor mutations through the female line. The other is the ] which only presents in males. It is passed with only minor mutations through the male line.


A ] allows for two individuals to determine with 99.9% certainty that they are related within a certain time frame, or with 100% certainty that they are not related within a certain time frame. A ] allows for two individuals to determine with 99.9% certainty that they are related within a certain time frame, or with 100% certainty that they are not related within a certain time frame.
Individual ] are being collected in various databases to match people descended from a relatively recent common ancestor, for example see , or . These tests are limited to either the direct male or the direct female line. Individual ] are being collected in various databases to match people descended from a relatively recent common ancestor, for example see , or . These tests are limited to either the direct male or the direct female line.


On a much longer time scale, genetic methods are being used to trace human ] and to determine ] and ] origin. The results can be used to place people within ancient ancestral groups, for example see . Participation in all such projects is, of course, voluntary. On a much longer time scale, genetic methods are being used to trace human ] and to determine ] and ] origin. The results can be used to place people within ancient ancestral groups, for example see . Participation in all such projects is, of course, voluntary.


In a related development, non-genetic mathematical models of ancestry have been devised to determine the approximate year when the ] of all living humans existed. In a related development, non-genetic mathematical models of ancestry have been devised to determine the approximate year when the ] of all living humans existed.


===Sharing data among researchers=== ===Sharing data among researchers===
Data sharing among genealogical researchers has grown to be a major use of the ]. Most ] programs can output information about persons and their relationships in ] format, so it can be shared with other genealogists by ] and ]s, added to an online database such as ], or converted into a family ] using online genealogical tools such as GED2HTML, ], and . Many genealogical software applications also facilitate the sharing of information on CD-ROMs and DVDs made on personal computers. Data sharing among genealogical researchers has grown to be a major use of the ]. Most ] programs can output information about persons and their relationships in ] format, so it can be shared with other genealogists by ] and ]s, added to an online database such as ], or converted into a family ] using online genealogical tools such as GED2HTML, ], and . Many genealogical software applications also facilitate the sharing of information on CD-Roms and DVDs made on personal computers. These internet sources generally provide a foundation for the genealogist's research. It is the documentation throught official sources that determine the accuracy of the research. Without documentation, the genealogical accuracy is considered unfounded and/or fabricated especially when considering the same for application into societies such as the Daughters of the American Revolution, Sons of the American Revolution, The Society of the War of 1812, the GAR, Descendants of Pioneers, et al.


One phenomenon over the last few years has been that of large genealogical databases going online and attracting such large ] that the database's host server collapses, causing service to be quickly suspended while hurried upgrades are made to accommodate the traffic load. This happened with , the ]'s and in ] with the much-anticipated . One phenomenon over the last few years has been that of large genealogical databases going online and attracting such large ] that the database's host server collapses, causing service to be quickly suspended while hurried upgrades are made to accommodate the traffic load. This happened with , the ]'s and in ] with the much-anticipated . Unfortunately, the data base indicated herein is provided with information from the users of the same and generally does not hold any credibly unless accompanied by concrete documentation. It does serve as a starting point for research purposes but again requires the genealogist to do the foot work to establish credibility.


===Organizations=== ===Organizations===
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In more organized settings, volunteers serve both as a resource to enrich data sources and as a means to obtain information from geographically remote or otherwise inaccessible sources. For instance, '''Random Acts of Genealogical Kindness (RAOGK)'''<ref>. Accessed 2005-02-06.</ref> is an organization of more than 4500 researchers who share their time through its . The volunteers have each agreed to field one request per month in their geographical area, and that entitles them to draw upon the time of other group members in similar fashion. A request might take the form of "please check to see if my great-grandfather is buried in the cemetery near where you live" or "please check the May 1952 issues of your local newspaper for my grandfather's obituary", for instance. This group is one of many examples of researchers working on unrelated projects volunteering their time to other individuals on request. In more organized settings, volunteers serve both as a resource to enrich data sources and as a means to obtain information from geographically remote or otherwise inaccessible sources. For instance, '''Random Acts of Genealogical Kindness (RAOGK)'''<ref>. Accessed 2005-02-06.</ref> is an organization of more than 4500 researchers who share their time through its . The volunteers have each agreed to field one request per month in their geographical area, and that entitles them to draw upon the time of other group members in similar fashion. A request might take the form of "please check to see if my great-grandfather is buried in the cemetery near where you live" or "please check the May 1952 issues of your local newspaper for my grandfather's obituary", for instance. This group is one of many examples of researchers working on unrelated projects volunteering their time to other individuals on request.


Another form of volunteerism is '''records transcription'''. Usually this takes the form of manually transcribing information into electronic format for access online. This may be done from paper documents or other sources, such as tombstone inscriptions. Some organizations do the above and more, sometimes scanning out-of-print books to make them accessible for viewing online. One such group is the . This group provides records on a county level with links to affiliated projects run by broader archives and repositories, such as , and the which covers all states in the US. The shows the broad range of individual volunteer efforts. Among more formal volunteer transcription efforts are the databases of the , and the which matches volunteers with transcription opportunities. Another form of volunteerism is '''records transcription'''. Usually this takes the form of manually transcribing information into electronic format for access online. This may be done from paper documents or other sources, such as tombstone inscriptions. Some organizations do the above and more, sometimes scanning out-of-print books to make them accessible for viewing online. One such group is the . This group provides records on a county level with links to affiliated projects run by broader archives and repositories, such as , and the which covers all states in the US. The shows the broad range of individual volunteer efforts. Among more formal volunteer transcription efforts are the databases of the , and the which matches volunteers with transcription opportunities.


is an excellent example of volunteerism. The aim is to transcribe the Civil Registration index of births, marriages and deaths for England and Wales. This information is then provided free of charge. Sister projects include which aims to transcribe all UK census data, and , which is transcribing parish register data. is an excellent example of volunteerism. The aim is to transcribe the Civil Registration index of births, marriages and deaths for England and Wales. This information is then provided free of charge. Sister projects include which aims to transcribe all UK census data, and , which is transcribing parish register data.
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Records of persons who were neither ] nor ] began to be taken by governments in order to keep track of their citizens (In most of Europe, for example, this started to take place in the ]). As more of the population began to be recorded, there were sufficient records to follow a family using the paper trail they left behind. Records of persons who were neither ] nor ] began to be taken by governments in order to keep track of their citizens (In most of Europe, for example, this started to take place in the ]). As more of the population began to be recorded, there were sufficient records to follow a family using the paper trail they left behind.


As each person lived his or her life, major events were usually documented with a license, permit or report which was stored at a local, regional or national office or ]. Genealogists locate these records, wherever they are stored, and extract information to discover family relationships and recreate ]s of persons' lives. As each person lived his or her life, major events were usually documented with a license, permit or report which was stored at a local, regional or national office or ]. Genealogists locate these records, wherever they are stored, and extract information to discover family relationships and recreate [[timelines of persons' lives.


Records that are used in genealogy research include: Records that are used in genealogy research include:

Revision as of 00:19, 15 May 2006

Genealogy is the study and tracing of family pedigrees. This involves collecting the names of relatives, both living and deceased, and establishing the relationships between them based on lineal and/or collateral relationship through the use of source data and documentation that is without a doubt, concrete, credible, and acceptable for use in all genealogical venues, thus building a cohesive family tree. Genealogy is sometimes referred to as family history, although these terms may be used distinctly: the former being the basic study of who is related to whom; the latter involving more "fleshing out" of the life and family histories of the individuals involved.

One way to find the family lineage is with the use of the genealogical method. It is a well-established ethnographic technique. The early ethnographers developed symbols that covered the issue of kinship, descent, and marriage. Studying Ono's genealogy is important in terms of social organization, especially where people live and work with their kin everyday. It plays a very important role in understanding the current social relations and reconstructing the history. The documentation of marriage is also important to establish the relationship of immediate families to their lineal families both ancestral and descendants as is the importance of documented evidence describing the same relationships between immigrants and Native Americans as-well-as the subcultures within the Native American Clans, Tribes, Villages, et al.

In this article, the terms genealogist, researcher, and family historian refer to every participant, from the hobbyist to the seasoned professional. Template:TO Cleft

Template:Wiki books

Overview

Genealogists collect oral histories and preserve family stories to discover ancestors and living relatives. Genealogists also attempt to understand not just where and when people lived but also their lifestyle, biography, and motivations. This often requires — or leads to — knowledge of antique law, old political boundaries, immigration trends, hidden family secrets, and historical social conditions.

Genealogists and family historians often join a Family History Society where one might learn from more experienced researchers where everyone benefits from the shared knowledge.

Even an unsuccessful search for ancestors leads to a better understanding of history. The search for living relatives often leads to family reunions, both of distant cousins and of disrupted families. Genealogists sometimes help reunite families separated by war, immigration, foster homes and adoption. The genealogist can help keep family traditions alive or reveal unknown family secrets.

In its original form, genealogy was mainly concerned with the ancestry of rulers and nobles, often arguing or demonstrating the legitimacy of claims to wealth and power. The term often overlapped with heraldry, in which the ancestry of royalty was reflected in the quarterings of their coat of arms. Many of the claimed ancestries are considered by modern scholars to be fabrications, especially the claims of kings and emperors who trace their ancestry to gods or the founders of their civilization. For example, the Anglo-Saxon chroniclers traced the ancestry of several English kings back to the god Woden (the English version of the Norse god Odin). If these descents were true, Queen Elizabeth II would be a descendant of Woden, via the kings of Wessex. (see euhemerism).

In fiction, it is common to give a character a complicated fictional genealogy to make his or her background more interesting. A picturesque one is the genealogy for Godwulf of Asgard.

Modern research

Genealogy, an extremely popular hobby, received a big boost in the late 1970s with the premiere of the television adaptation of Alex Haley's fictionalized account of his family line, Roots: The Saga of an American Family. With the advent of the Internet; the number of resources available to genealogists has vastly increased; however, some of these sources must be treated with caution due to issues of accuracy and credible foundation.

In addition to particular historical events and places, research efforts can focus on other types of relationships among people such as kinship to a particular group, e.g. a Scottish clan; to a particular surname such as in a one-name study (see Guild of One-Name Studies), or to a particular person such as Winston Churchill or Jesse James.

===LDS collections===

LDS Genealogy Library in Salt Lake City

Theology of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) includes the practice of baptism for the dead, an ordinance where baptism is performed by living people for and on behalf of those who have died. Mormons believe that this practice enables the living to assist their deceased relatives' progress in the next life, should they accept religious ordinances done on their behalf.

In the last century, the LDS Church engaged in a large-scale program of copying all available records of genealogical value onto microfilm. The project entailed the compilation of the International Genealogical Index (IGI). The IGI contains information submitted by Mormon researchers for vicarious ordinances, records obtained from non-Mormon contributors, and data taken from various birth or marriage records that Church members have microfilmed; in all, the IGI contains hundreds of millions of records of individuals who lived between 1500 and 1900, primarily in the United States, Canada and Europe. By making so many resources available, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has helped contribute to the increasing interest in genealogy over the last couple of decades. Information is available free or at a nominal cost. Resources include the Family History Library in Salt Lake City, Utah, and worldwide at Family History Centers near local congregations. FamilySearch, an interactive internet site provides free access to extensive files for personal and family information.

Genetic Analysis

Main article: Genetic genealogy

With the discovery that a person's DNA contains information that has been passed relatively unchanged from our earliest ancestors, analysis of DNA is just beginning to be used for genealogical research. There are two DNA types of particular interest. One is the mitochondrial DNA which we all possess and which is passed with only minor mutations through the female line. The other is the Y-chromosome which only presents in males. It is passed with only minor mutations through the male line.

A genealogical DNA test allows for two individuals to determine with 99.9% certainty that they are related within a certain time frame, or with 100% certainty that they are not related within a certain time frame. Individual genetic test results are being collected in various databases to match people descended from a relatively recent common ancestor, for example see Sorenson Molecular Genealogy Foundation, or Family Tree DNA. These tests are limited to either the direct male or the direct female line.

On a much longer time scale, genetic methods are being used to trace human migratory patterns and to determine biogeographical and ethnic origin. The results can be used to place people within ancient ancestral groups, for example see Geogra Project. Participation in all such projects is, of course, voluntary.

In a related development, non-genetic mathematical models of ancestry have been devised to determine the approximate year when the most recent common ancestor of all living humans existed.

Sharing data among researchers

Data sharing among genealogical researchers has grown to be a major use of the Internet. Most genealogy software programs can output information about persons and their relationships in GEDCOM format, so it can be shared with other genealogists by e-mail and Internet forums, added to an online database such as GeneaNet, or converted into a family web site using online genealogical tools such as GED2HTML, PhpGedView, and Phpmyfamily. Many genealogical software applications also facilitate the sharing of information on CD-Roms and DVDs made on personal computers. These internet sources generally provide a foundation for the genealogist's research. It is the documentation throught official sources that determine the accuracy of the research. Without documentation, the genealogical accuracy is considered unfounded and/or fabricated especially when considering the same for application into societies such as the Daughters of the American Revolution, Sons of the American Revolution, The Society of the War of 1812, the GAR, Descendants of Pioneers, et al.

One phenomenon over the last few years has been that of large genealogical databases going online and attracting such large flash crowds that the database's host server collapses, causing service to be quickly suspended while hurried upgrades are made to accommodate the traffic load. This happened with the Mormons' genealogy database, the Commonwealth War Graves Commission's listing of war graves and in January 2002 with the much-anticipated British census for 1901. Unfortunately, the data base indicated herein is provided with information from the users of the same and generally does not hold any credibly unless accompanied by concrete documentation. It does serve as a starting point for research purposes but again requires the genealogist to do the foot work to establish credibility.

Organizations

Genealogical and historical societies are a great help to researchers piecing together family trees and describing the historical context of family members' lives. Some such societies focus on tracing the lineage of participants in one historical event. Another type of society focuses on a particular geographical area rather than on particular individuals.

Other organizations work as 'Probate researchers' and specialize in locating beneficiaries to estates.

Volunteerism

Volunteer efforts figure prominently in genealogy. These efforts range from the extremely informal to the highly organized.

On the informal side are the many popular and useful message boards and mailing lists regarding particular surnames, regions, and other topics that are maintained on the internet to facilitate queries and responses. RootsWeb.com, and RootsChat.com for example, have hundreds of them. A mailing list subscriber can send a request for help by e-mail to the list address, the mail is immediately distributed to all the subscribers, and anyone who can help will e-mail a reply to the list. On the message boards, this exchange occurs entirely online. Not only can one get an answer very quickly, merely following the conversations is very educational too. These resources are used by experienced and inexperienced researchers alike.

In more organized settings, volunteers serve both as a resource to enrich data sources and as a means to obtain information from geographically remote or otherwise inaccessible sources. For instance, Random Acts of Genealogical Kindness (RAOGK) is an organization of more than 4500 researchers who share their time through its web site. The volunteers have each agreed to field one request per month in their geographical area, and that entitles them to draw upon the time of other group members in similar fashion. A request might take the form of "please check to see if my great-grandfather is buried in the cemetery near where you live" or "please check the May 1952 issues of your local newspaper for my grandfather's obituary", for instance. This group is one of many examples of researchers working on unrelated projects volunteering their time to other individuals on request.

Another form of volunteerism is records transcription. Usually this takes the form of manually transcribing information into electronic format for access online. This may be done from paper documents or other sources, such as tombstone inscriptions. Some organizations do the above and more, sometimes scanning out-of-print books to make them accessible for viewing online. One such group is the Georgia GenWeb project. This group provides records on a county level with links to affiliated projects run by broader archives and repositories, such as Southern Folk, and the American History and Genealogy Project which covers all states in the US. The User Database listing by Rootsweb shows the broad range of individual volunteer efforts. Among more formal volunteer transcription efforts are the databases of the Italian Genealogical Group, and the USGenWeb Census Project which matches volunteers with transcription opportunities.

FreeBMD is an excellent example of volunteerism. The aim is to transcribe the Civil Registration index of births, marriages and deaths for England and Wales. This information is then provided free of charge. Sister projects include FreeCEN which aims to transcribe all UK census data, and FreeREG, which is transcribing parish register data.

Records in genealogical research

Records of persons who were neither royalty nor nobility began to be taken by governments in order to keep track of their citizens (In most of Europe, for example, this started to take place in the 16th century). As more of the population began to be recorded, there were sufficient records to follow a family using the paper trail they left behind.

As each person lived his or her life, major events were usually documented with a license, permit or report which was stored at a local, regional or national office or archive. Genealogists locate these records, wherever they are stored, and extract information to discover family relationships and recreate [[timelines of persons' lives.

Records that are used in genealogy research include:

As a rule, genealogists nearly always start with the present and work backward in time rather than forward. Written records have the property of hindsight in that they only tell where a person might have lived and who their parents are, not where they and their descendants will be living in the future. Two exceptions are when a genealogist might interview living relatives as to who and where their children and grandchildren are, or tries to locate long-lost relatives who may have already traced their families backward to an ancestor they have in common (which is forward in time from his/her point of view).

Reliability of sources

Experience shows that genealogical "facts" can be unreliable. The top five classes of genealogical information — place names, occupations, family names, first names, and dates — differ in their degree of reliability. Additionally, the popularity of the hobby has encouraged a few organizations to exploit it by mass-marketing what most people regard as scam genealogical books and websites.

Source records are generally most accurate for the information they are intended to provide. To illustrate, death registrations or obituaries are more reliable for date and place of death, whereas the age or date of birth indicated can be inaccurate. Therefore, depending on the information extracted, the assessment of the reliability of the same source reference can vary significantly.

Online genealogies must be treated with caution. Many amateur genealogists do not verify source information but rather copy data and treat it as accurate. For instance, a marriage that some online genealogies indicate took place in Manville, Ontario actually took place in Manville, Alberta - no one checked the registration, or even verified if a town by this name ever existed in Ontario, Canada. This is not to say that all such information is wrong, but rather that a researcher is best advised to use this type of source as a guide only, and verify all data with vital records where possible.

Place names

Place names are normally the most accurate because they tend to be long lasting. Nevertheless, place name data may be occasionally inaccurate or confusing. Inaccurate place names in records may be caused by a number of factors. First, place names may be subject to variable spellings by partially literate scribes. Second, small places in neighbouring counties may have the same or substantially similar names. For example, the name Brocton for villages occurs six times in the border area between the English counties of Shropshire and Staffordshire). Third, place names may be confusing or deceptive due to changes in political borders. For instance, county borders in the C17th-C19th England were frequently modified, with outlying and detached areas being reassigned to other counties. Old records may contain references to Middle Age villages that have ceased to exist due to disease or famine. Finally, census returns may simply have recorded inaccurate information.

Individual recollections also provide a source of place names, and sometimes inaccurate place names. The place where someone describes growing up may not be the place of birth or where the records are eventually found. For instance, while an ancestor may recall growing up in one location, records documenting that ancestor may only be found in other locations. There is a good likelihood that the place (parish) of a birth for a girl is the place she marries (unless 'sent abroad' as a servant), and that the place of residence for a man is where he is buried; certainly a neighbouring parish.

Additionally, records may be found in many different locations due to family mobility.

Genealogists may rely on several references for place names: Maps (online), especially detailed maps such as the British Ordnance Survey (OS) maps and OS Old Map website; gazetteers (place name dictionary); census returns; birth, death & marriage records; and historical records such as the Domesday Book.

Occupations

Reported occupations may be semi-accurate. Many unskilled ancestors had a variety of jobs depending on the season and local trade requirements. Occasionally skilled trades pass from father to son. Census returns may contain some embellishment; e.g., from Labourer to Mason, or from journeyman to Master craftsman. Workmen no longer fit for their primary trade often take less glamorous jobs later in life. Names for old or unfamiliar local occupations may cause confusion if poorly legible. For example, an ostler (a keeper of horses) and a hostler (an innkeeper) could easily be confused for one another. Likewise, descriptions of such occupations may also be problematic. The perplexing description "ironer of rabbit burrows" may turn out to describe an ironer (profession) in the Bristol district named Rabbit Burrows. Several trades have regional preferences, for example, shoemaker or cordwainer. Finally, many apparently obscure jobs are part of a larger trade community, such as watchmaking, framework knitting or gunmaking.

Occupational data may be reported in trade directories, census returns, birth, death & marriage records.

Family Names

Family names are simultaneously one of the most important pieces of genealogical information, and a source of significant confusion for researchers.

In most cultures, the name of a person references the family to which he or she belongs. This is called the family name, or surname. It is often also called the last name because, for most speakers of English, the family name comes after the given name (or names). However, this is not the case in other cultures, e.g., Chinese family names precede the given name.

Patronymics are names which allow identification of an individual based on the father's name, e.g., Marga Olafsdottir or Olfa Thorsson. Many cultures used patronymics before surnames were adopted or came into use. The Dutch in New York, for example, used the patronymic system of names until 1687 when the advent of English rule mandated surname usage. See the article "Dutch Patronymics in New York in the 1600s" at Olive Tree Genealogy for a beginner tutorial on the patronymic system.

As with place names, surname and personal name data may be subject to variant spellings. Older records may include greater variation in spelling than modern records. Phonetic spelling may be the only link variantly spelled names; e.g., "Quilter" and "Kieltagh". Records may also include completely different variants of names, such as MORT for MORDECAI.

The transmission of names across generations, marriages and other relationships, and immigrations also causes significant inaccuracy in genealogical data. For instance, children may sometimes take or be given step-parent, foster parent, or adoptive parent names. Women in many cultures have routinely used their spouse's surnames. When a woman remarried, she may have changed her name and the names of her children; only her name; or changed no names. Her birth ("maiden") name may be reflected in her children's middle names; her own middle name; or dropped entirely.

Official records do not capture many kinds of surname changes. For example, fostering, common-law marriage, love affairs, changes in career or location may all result in name changes which are not reflected as such in official records.

Difficulties can also arise when researching family lines with common surnames such as "Smith", or surnames common to a particular geographic area. Many times, an amateur researcher will assume that a person is a direct ancestor based solely on the given/surnames, only to later find out that this person is not related or is a more distant relative.

Surname data may be found in trade directories, census returns, birth, death & marriage records.

First Names

Genealogical data regarding first names is subject to many of the same problems of family names and place names.

Additionally, nicknames for personal names are very common — Beth, Lizzie or Betty is common for Elizabeth, which can be confused with Eliza. Patty has been used as a diminutive form for Martha. There is Amy used for Alice, Nancy/Ann, and Polly used for a number of feminine names including Mary Ann and Elizabeth. While the feminine names are the most confusing, masculine names can also interchange: Jack, John & Jonathan, Joseph & Josiah, Edward & Edwin, etc.

Middle names provide additional information. Middle names may be inherited, or follow naming customs. Middle names may sometimes be treated as part of the family name. For instance, in some Latin cultures, both the mother's family name and the father's family name are used by the children. Official records may record full names in a variety of ways: First, Middle, Last; Last, Middle, First; Last, First Middle; Last, First, M.

Historically, naming conventions existed in some places, where the name given to one's children was dictated by a particular formula. An example is Scotland, where the following convention existed:

  • 1st son - named after paternal grandfather
  • 2nd son - named after maternal grandfather
  • 3rd son - named after father
  • 4th son - named after father's oldest brother
  • 1st daughter - named after maternal grandmother
  • 2nd daughter - named after paternal grandmother
  • 3rd daughter - named after mother
  • 4th daughter - named after mother's oldest sister

If a child died, generally the next child of the same gender that was born was given the same name. Quite often, a list of a particular couple's children will show one or two names repeated, sometimes 3 or 4 times. Although this can be confusing, it can also assist a researcher in discovering the date of death for the previous siblings of the same name.

Personal names go through periods of popularity, so it is not uncommon to find many similarly-named people in a generation, and even similarly-named families; e.g., "William and Mary and their children David, Mary, and John".

Many names may be identified strongly with a particular gender; e.g., William for boys, and Mary for girls. Other names may be ambiguous, e.g., Lee, or have only slightly variant spellings based on gender, e.g., Frances (usually female) and Francis (usually male).

For a search engine designed for researching your family by unique first names, visit "First Name Basis" at Genealogy Today.

Dates

It is wise to exercise extreme caution and skepticism with dates. Accurate dates of birth may be given for modern registrations and in a few church records at baptism. Family Bibles may be a help, but can be written from memory long after the event - beware of the same ink and handwriting for all entries; a sure sign the dates were written at the same time and therefore will be less reliable. Women will commonly reduce their age on marriage, and perhaps those under "full age" may increase their age upon marriage or joining the armed forces. Census returns are notoriously unreliable, particularly when looking for a date for a husband's death - if the woman is at home while the husband is away, she could be given as Head of household or assumed a widow. The 1841 census in the UK is rounded down to the next lower multiple of five years. Dates around birth may be confused between birth and baptism. Some families wait 3-5 years before baptising children, and adult baptisms are not unheard of. Both birth and marriage dates can be adjusted to cover for pre-wedding pregnancies. It is very common for the first child to be born before or within a few months of a marriage and sometimes baptised in the mother's name, later adopting the father's name after the parents' marriage. The father's name can be used even if no marriage has occurred.

In 1752 the date of the new year was changed in England and the American Colonies. Before 1752 the new year started on the 25th March, but in 1752 this was changed to the 1st January. This was part of the transition to the Gregorian calendar from the Julian calendar. Many other European countries had already made the change, and by 1751 there was an 11 day discrepancy between the date in England and the date in other European countries. The date continued to be recorded as usual in 1752 until 2nd September 1752, the following day became 14th September 1752. Dates that were recorded in the older system can be shown by "double dating". For example; Original date: 24th of March 1750; Modern date: 24th March 1751; Double dating: 24th March 1750/51.

For events occurring before 1752 in countries where the Julian calendar was still in use, it is best to use double dating whenever the exact year can be ascertained. When transcribing an original record where the exact year is evident but not expressed, the double date can be written as, for example, "24th March 1750".

One should also be aware that, in those places using the old Julian calendar, the numbering of months also varied. The "1st month" of the year was considered March, the second April, the third May, and so on. Those 24 days in March which fell before the beginning of the year were generally regarded as being part of the first month.

NOTE The foregoing may be true for British genealogical records but does in no way apply to records in other countries. A notable exception is the Nordic countries, especially Sweden, which have very detailed and mostly accurate records in the form of church records from the 18th century onwards.

But there, as in any historical research, a critical review of all information and an assessment of the reliability of each source is required.

The "maximum relationship"

One of the aims in professional genealogy circles has been to determine the maximum degree of separation which currently exists between all people in the world. That is to say, how many generations back is the first common ancestor that the two most distantly related people on earth share.

Latest models, taking into account sexual differentiation, monogamy and realistic migration patterns suggest that the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of all humans probably lived 75-150 generations or 2000-4000 years ago. Moreover, the MRCA is likely to have lived somewhere in Southeast Asia (increasing the likelihood of his or her descendents reaching the remote islands of the Pacific), is equally likely to be a man or woman, and is not characterized by an unusually large number of children. These models also show that while a large group (indeed all humans) share recent common ancestors, a given person is likely to share the vast majority of his or her genes with a very small local group.

Software

Main article: Genealogy software

Genealogy software is computer software used to collect, store, sort, and display genealogical data. At a minimum, genealogy software tends to accommodate basic information about births, marriages, and deaths. Many programs allow for additional biographical information and a host of features.

Certain programs are geared towards specific religions, and will include additional fields relevant to that religion. Other programs focus on certain geographical regions.

Some programs will allow for the import of digital photographs, and sound files. Other programs focus on the ability to generate kinship charts. Some programs are more flexible than others in allowing for the input of same sex marriages and children born out of wedlock.

There is currently a move to incorporate fields for the input of genealogical DNA test results, though this information can be added into the "Notes" field of almost all genealogy software.

Most genealogy software will allow for the export of data in the GEDCOM format, which can then be shared with people using different genealogy software. Certain programs allow the user to restrict what information is shared, usually by removing information about living people for privacy purposes.

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Notes and References

  1. The mythological origin of English kings is related in a number of derivative sources, such as The Scyldings, an article at Ancient Worlds. In this article one primary source cited is the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle". The following passage appears in the entry for A.D. 449: "Their leaders were two brothers, Hengest and Horsa; who were the sons of Wihtgils; Wihtgils was the son of Wicca, Witta of Wecta, Wecta of Women. From this Woden arose all our royal kindred, and that of the Southumbrians also." In this context "royal kindred" refers to English kings. Reference: The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Part 1: A.D. 1 - 748, part of The Online Medieval & Classical Library. Accessed 2005 Mar 11.
  2. Homepage for "Random Acts of Genealogical Kindness". Accessed 2005-02-06.
  • Citation: Windows on Humanity by Conrad Phillip KOTTAK. Chapter 2, page 38.
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