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|- |-
|1806||] |1806||]
|(Russian) destruction in the time of hostile invasion<ref name=Klier13&35/> |(Russian) destruction in the time of hostile invasion{{sfn|Klier|2004}}
|- |-
|1920||]<ref>]</ref> |1920||]<ref>]</ref>
|...the word is applied to everything from petty outrages to premeditated and carefully organized massacres. No fixed definition is generally understood. |...the word is applied to everything from petty outrages to premeditated and carefully organized massacres. No fixed definition is generally understood.
|- |-
|1920||]<ref name=Morgenthau/> |1920||]{{sfn|Morgenthau|1922}}
|a massacre ordered by the government, or not prevented by it when prevention is possible.{{efn|Józef Piłsudski, Poland's Head of State following World War I, when arguing that no such events had been permitted by his government.<ref name=Morgenthau/>}} |a massacre ordered by the government, or not prevented by it when prevention is possible.{{efn|Józef Piłsudski, Poland's Head of State following World War I, when arguing that no such events had been permitted by his government.{{sfn|Morgenthau|1922}}
|- |-
|1931||]<ref>], 14 November 1931, quoted in The Vanished World of Lithuanian Jews, edited by Alvydas Nikžentaitis, Stefan Schreiner, Darius Staliūnas</ref> |1931||]<ref>], 14 November 1931, quoted in The Vanished World of Lithuanian Jews, edited by Alvydas Nikžentaitis, Stefan Schreiner, Darius Staliūnas</ref>
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|an organized massacre and looting of helpless people, usually with the connivance of officials, specifically, such a massacre of Jews |an organized massacre and looting of helpless people, usually with the connivance of officials, specifically, such a massacre of Jews
|- |-
|1995||Mendes-Flohr and Reinharz<ref name=MFR/> |1995||Mendes-Flohr and Reinharz{{sfn|ref=MFR|1995}}
|In the international lexicon ''pogrom'' is now a technical term designating the type of attack carried out by the non-Jewish population of Russia - and Eastern Europe in general - against the Jews between 1881 and 1921. Rarely did the police or the army intervene; indeed, they often lent their support to the rioters |In the international lexicon ''pogrom'' is now a technical term designating the type of attack carried out by the non-Jewish population of Russia - and Eastern Europe in general - against the Jews between 1881 and 1921. Rarely did the police or the army intervene; indeed, they often lent their support to the rioters
|- |-
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|A pogrom is generally thought of as a cross between a popular riot and a military atrocity, where an unarmed civilian, often urban, population is attacked by either an army unit or peasants from surrounding villages, or a combination of the two... Jews have not been the only group to suffer under this phenomenon, but historically Jews have been frequent victims of such violence. In mainstream usage, the word has come to imply an act of antisemitism. |A pogrom is generally thought of as a cross between a popular riot and a military atrocity, where an unarmed civilian, often urban, population is attacked by either an army unit or peasants from surrounding villages, or a combination of the two... Jews have not been the only group to suffer under this phenomenon, but historically Jews have been frequent victims of such violence. In mainstream usage, the word has come to imply an act of antisemitism.
|- |-
|2001||]<ref name=Horowitz/> |2001||]{{sfn|Horowitz|2001}}
|The pogrom is not so much a complementary species of interethnic violence as it is a subcategory of the ethnic riot. If ''pogrom'' is taken to mean a massacre of helpless people, then it obviously connotes something about the situation of the targets and the outcome of violence. |The pogrom is not so much a complementary species of interethnic violence as it is a subcategory of the ethnic riot. If ''pogrom'' is taken to mean a massacre of helpless people, then it obviously connotes something about the situation of the targets and the outcome of violence.
|- |-
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|An attack on Jews and Jewish property, especially in the Russian Empire. Russian pogroms, which were condoned by the government, were particularly common in the years immediately after the assassination of Alexander II in 1881 and again from 1903 to 1906, though mob persecution of Jews continued until the Russian Revolution (1917). |An attack on Jews and Jewish property, especially in the Russian Empire. Russian pogroms, which were condoned by the government, were particularly common in the years immediately after the assassination of Alexander II in 1881 and again from 1903 to 1906, though mob persecution of Jews continued until the Russian Revolution (1917).
|- |-
|2004||Avraham Greenbaum<ref name=Greenbaum/> |2004||Avraham Greenbaum{{sfn|Greenbaum|2003}}
|...a serious anti-Jewish riot, usually lasting for more than a day and often abetted by the authorities actively or passively |...a serious anti-Jewish riot, usually lasting for more than a day and often abetted by the authorities actively or passively
|- |-
|2004||]<ref name="Engel2"/> |2004||]{{sfn|Engel|2004}}
|Engel states that although there are no "essential defining characteristics of a pogrom", the majority of the incidents "habitually" described as pogroms "took place in divided societies in which ethnicity or religion (or both) served as significant definers of both social boundaries and social rank, ... involved collective violent applications of force by members of what perpetrators believed to be a higher-ranking ethnic or religious group against members of what they considered a lower-ranking or subaltern group, ... appliers of the decisive force tended to interpret the behaviour of victims according to stereotypes commonly applied to the groups to which they belonged, ... perpetrators expressed some complaint about the victims' group, ... a fundamental lack of confidence on the part of those who purveyed decisive violence in the adequacy of the impersonal rule of law to deliver true justice in the event of a heinous wrong." |Engel states that although there are no "essential defining characteristics of a pogrom", the majority of the incidents "habitually" described as pogroms "took place in divided societies in which ethnicity or religion (or both) served as significant definers of both social boundaries and social rank, ... involved collective violent applications of force by members of what perpetrators believed to be a higher-ranking ethnic or religious group against members of what they considered a lower-ranking or subaltern group, ... appliers of the decisive force tended to interpret the behaviour of victims according to stereotypes commonly applied to the groups to which they belonged, ... perpetrators expressed some complaint about the victims' group, ... a fundamental lack of confidence on the part of those who purveyed decisive violence in the adequacy of the impersonal rule of law to deliver true justice in the event of a heinous wrong."
|- |-
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|Russian word meaning 'attack' or 'devastation.' Historically, it designates mob attacks accompanied by pillage and murder that were perpetrated against the Jews of Russia—for example, in 1881–1882 and in 1903 at Kishinev. An important component of a pogrom is the usually silent complicity of the police and other authorities." |Russian word meaning 'attack' or 'devastation.' Historically, it designates mob attacks accompanied by pillage and murder that were perpetrated against the Jews of Russia—for example, in 1881–1882 and in 1903 at Kishinev. An important component of a pogrom is the usually silent complicity of the police and other authorities."
|- |-
|2007||]<ref name=Judaica/> |2007||]{{sfn|Judaica|2007}}
|a Russian word designating an attack, accompanied by destruction, looting of property, murder, and rape, perpetrated by one section of the population against another. In modern Russian history pogroms have been perpetrated against other nations (Armenians, Tatars) or groups of inhabitants (intelligentsia). However, as an international term, the word "pogrom" is employed in many languages to describe specifically the attacks accompanied by looting and bloodshed against the Jews in Russia. The word designates more particularly the attacks carried out by the Christian population against the Jews between 1881 and 1921 while the civil and military authorities remained neutral and occasionally provided their secret or open support. |a Russian word designating an attack, accompanied by destruction, looting of property, murder, and rape, perpetrated by one section of the population against another. In modern Russian history pogroms have been perpetrated against other nations (Armenians, Tatars) or groups of inhabitants (intelligentsia). However, as an international term, the word "pogrom" is employed in many languages to describe specifically the attacks accompanied by looting and bloodshed against the Jews in Russia. The word designates more particularly the attacks carried out by the Christian population against the Jews between 1881 and 1921 while the civil and military authorities remained neutral and occasionally provided their secret or open support.
|- |-
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|A term usually associated with mob attacks against Jewish communities especially in Tsarist Russia before 1917, though embracing numerous additional anti-Jewish persecutions in other countries up to relatively recent times |A term usually associated with mob attacks against Jewish communities especially in Tsarist Russia before 1917, though embracing numerous additional anti-Jewish persecutions in other countries up to relatively recent times
|- |-
|2011||]<ref name="Klier58"/> |2011||]{{sfn|Klier|2011}}
|By the twentieth century, the word "pogrom" had become a generic term in English for all forms of collective violence directed against Jews. The term was especially associated with Eastern Europe and the Russian Empire, the scene of the most serious outbreaks of anti-Jewish violence before the Holocaust. |By the twentieth century, the word "pogrom" had become a generic term in English for all forms of collective violence directed against Jews. The term was especially associated with Eastern Europe and the Russian Empire, the scene of the most serious outbreaks of anti-Jewish violence before the Holocaust.
|- |-
|2011||Wiley-Blackwell<ref name=Wiley/> |2011||Wiley-Blackwell{{sfn|ref=Wiley|2011}}
|Pogroms... were antisemitic disturbances that periodically occurred within the tsarist empire. ... The term pogrom has been applied additionally to the campaign of anti-Jewish violence perpetrated by Nazism...." |Pogroms... were antisemitic disturbances that periodically occurred within the tsarist empire. ... The term pogrom has been applied additionally to the campaign of anti-Jewish violence perpetrated by Nazism...."
|- |-
|2011|| ], Jonathan Dekel-Chen, Natan Meir, ]<ref></ref> |2011|| ], Jonathan Dekel-Chen, Natan Meir, ]{{sfn|ref=Gaunt|2011}}
|What were the Pogroms? Although pogroms could affect any targeted group, in normal usage the word has come to denote an anti-Jewish riot...." from the late 19th century "pogroms, ... can be described as "genocidal behaviour" in that they involved mass murder of significant Jewish groups that were delimited by residence patterns, occupation, wealth or visibility. |What were the Pogroms? Although pogroms could affect any targeted group, in normal usage the word has come to denote an anti-Jewish riot...." from the late 19th century "pogroms, ... can be described as "genocidal behaviour" in that they involved mass murder of significant Jewish groups that were delimited by residence patterns, occupation, wealth or visibility.
|- |-
|2012||] Encyclopedia<ref name=Yivo/> |2012||] Encyclopedia{{sfn|ref=yivo|2012}}
|In general usage, a pogrom is an outbreak of mass violence directed against a minority religious, ethnic, or social group; it usually implies central instigation and control, or at minimum the passivity of local authorities. |In general usage, a pogrom is an outbreak of mass violence directed against a minority religious, ethnic, or social group; it usually implies central instigation and control, or at minimum the passivity of local authorities.
|- |-
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==Notes== ==Notes==
{{notelist}} {{notelist}}
{{reflist}}


{{reflist|2|refs=
<ref name="Engel2"> </ref>

<ref name=Greenbaum> p.373.</ref>

<ref name=Horowitz>], , 2001, p20</ref>

<ref name=Judaica>Encyclopaedia Judaica, Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik (Eds.), MacMillan Reference USA, Detroit, 2007</ref>

<ref name=Klier13&35>, pages 13 and 35 (footnotes)</ref>

<ref name="Klier58">] (2011). ''Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882''. Cambridge University Press. .</ref>

<ref name=Morgenthau>All in a Life-Time, by ], 1922, p371</ref>

<ref name=MFR></ref>

<ref name=Wiley></ref>

<ref name=Yivo></ref>
}}


==References== ==References==
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* {{Citation |last=Roth |first=John K.|authorlink=John K. Roth |year=2005 |chapter=Pogrom |editor-last=Kessler |editor-first=Edward |editor2-last=Wenborn |editor2-first=Neil |title=A Dictionary Of Jewish-Christian Relations |page=346 |edition=illustrated, reprint |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781139447508 |chapterurl=http://books.google.com/books?id=QkI_JNv3rIwC&lpg=PA346&pg=PA346#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{Citation |last=Roth |first=John K.|authorlink=John K. Roth |year=2005 |chapter=Pogrom |editor-last=Kessler |editor-first=Edward |editor2-last=Wenborn |editor2-first=Neil |title=A Dictionary Of Jewish-Christian Relations |page=346 |edition=illustrated, reprint |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781139447508 |chapterurl=http://books.google.com/books?id=QkI_JNv3rIwC&lpg=PA346&pg=PA346#v=onepage&q&f=false}}
* {{Citation |last=Totten |first=Samuel |last2=Bartrop |first2=Paul Robert |year=2008 |chapter=Pogrom |title=Dictionary of Genocide: M-Z |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=9780313346446 |page=}} * {{Citation |last=Totten |first=Samuel |last2=Bartrop |first2=Paul Robert |year=2008 |chapter=Pogrom |title=Dictionary of Genocide: M-Z |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=9780313346446 |page=}}
* {{Citation
| last = Engel
| first = David
| author-link = David Engel (historian)
| chapter = What's in a pogrom?
| editor-last = Dekel-Chen
| editor-first = Jonathan
| editor2-last = Gaunt
| editor2-first = David
| editor3-last = Meir
| editor3-first = Natan
| editor4-last = Bartal
| editor4-first = Israel
| title = Anti-Jewish Violence. Rethinking the Pogrom in East European History
| publisher = Indiana University Press
| publication-date = 2010
| isbn = 9780253004789
| url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AUYQ8JQ-iM0C&pg=PA19
}}
* {{Citation
| ref = Gaunt
| chapter = Introduction
| editor-last = Dekel-Chen
| editor-first = Jonathan
| editor2-last = Gaunt
| editor2-first = David
| editor3-last = Meir
| editor3-first = Natan
| editor4-last = Bartal
| editor4-first = Israel
| title = Anti-Jewish Violence. Rethinking the Pogrom in East European History
| publisher = Indiana University Press
| publication-date = 2010
| isbn = 9780253004789
| url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AUYQ8JQ-iM0C&pg=PA4
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Greenbaum
| first = Avraham
| chapter = Bibliographical Essay
| editor-last = Klier
| editor-first = John
| editor2-last = Lambroza
| editor2-first = Shlomo
| title = Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian History
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| publication-date = 2004
| isbn = 9780521528511
| url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3D7CmSOMfIC&pg=PA373
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Horowitz
| first = Donald
| authorlink = Donald L. Horowitz
| year = 2001
| title = The Deadly Ethnic Riot
| publisher = University of California Press
| page = 20
| url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UwA1aaB2WGgC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA20
| isbn = 9780520224476
}}
* {{Citation
| ref = Judaica
| contribution = Pogroms
| editor-last = Berenbaum
| editor-first = Michael
| editor2-last = Skolnik
| editor2-first = Fred
| title = Encyclopaedia Judaica
| publisher = MacMillan Reference USA
| year = 2007
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Klier
| first = John
| authorlink = John Klier
| year = 2004
| chapter = The pogrom paradigm in Russian history
| editor-last = Klier
| editor-first = John
| editor2-last = Lambroza
| editor2-first = Shlomo
| title = Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian History
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| publication-date = 2004
| isbn = 9780521528511
| url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T3D7CmSOMfIC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA13
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Klier
| first = John
| authorlink = John Klier
| year = 2011
| title = Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881-1882
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| page = 58
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=VfVSNViOsZcC&pg=pa58
| isbn = 9780521895484
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Morgenthau
| first = Henry
| authorlink = Henry Morgenthau, Sr.
| year = 1922
| title = All in a life-time
| publisher = Doubleday, Page and Company
| page = 371
}}
* {{Citation
| ref = MFR
| editor-last = Mendes-Flohr
| editor-first = Paul
| editor2-last = Reinharz
| editor2-first = Jehuda
| title = The Jew in the Modern World
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| publication-date = 1995
| isbn = 9780195074536
| url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0Bu5GnLZCw0C&pg=PA408
}}
* {{Citation
| ref = Wiley
| contribution = Pogroms
| editor-last = Atkin
| editor-first = Nicholas
| editor2-last = Biddiss
| editor2-first = Michael
| editor3-last = Tallett
| editor3-first = Frank
| title = The Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of Modern European History Since 1789
| pages = 512
| publisher = John Wiley & Sons
| year = 2011
| isbn = 9781444390728
| contribution-url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1QyXCTW_MCQC&pg=PA324#v=onepage&q&f=false
}}
* {{Citation
| ref = yivo
| contribution = Pogroms
| editor-last = Hundert
| editor-first = Gershon David
| title = The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe
| volume = 2
| pages = 2448
| publisher = Yale University Press
| year = 2008
| isbn = 9780300119039
| contribution-url = http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Pogroms
}}


] ]

Revision as of 23:35, 27 February 2014

This article appears to be a dictionary definition. Please rewrite it to present the subject from an encyclopedic point of view. (February 2014)

A pogrom is a violent riot aimed at massacre or persecution of an ethnic or religious group, particularly one aimed at Jews.

According to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) the word pogrom entered English from Yiddish which borrowed it from Russian. The OED gives two meanings for the word:

In Russia, Poland, and some other East European countries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries: an organized massacre aimed at the destruction or annihilation of a body or class of people, esp. one conducted against Jewish people. Now hist.

and

gen. An organized, officially tolerated, attack on any community or group. Also fig.

The first recorded use in English by the OED of the first meaning is in 1891 as a borrowed word, and it had become fully Anglicised by 1921. The OED records the first use of the second meaning as 1906 and that it had become fully Anglicised by 1975.

A general dictionary definition may be the one used by academics and other authorities when they describe an incident as a pogrom, or they may either select to use a different definition from a named source, or define the word themselves, to give it a specific meaning:

This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items. (February 2014)
Definition of pogrom, in chronological order
Date Author Definition
1806 Russian Academy (Russian) destruction in the time of hostile invasion
1920 Henry Morgenthau, Sr. ...the word is applied to everything from petty outrages to premeditated and carefully organized massacres. No fixed definition is generally understood.
1920 Józef Piłsudski Józef Piłsudski, Poland's Head of State following World War I, when arguing that no such events had been permitted by his government.
1931 Lietuvos aidas A pogrom is an inhuman, disorderly use of brutal force against other people, citizens of the same state of a different nationality.
1932 Louis Fischer Experience in Czarist Russia, in post-war Poland and Rumania, and more recently in Palestine, has shown that a pogrom is, by definition violence perpetrated with the active assistance, or at least the connivance of, the authorities
1933 Oxford English Dictionary an organized massacre in Russia for the destruction or annihilation of any body or class: in the English newspapers ... chiefly applied to those directed against the Jews
1964 Webster's Dictionary an organized massacre and looting of helpless people, usually with the connivance of officials, specifically, such a massacre of Jews
1995 Mendes-Flohr and Reinharz In the international lexicon pogrom is now a technical term designating the type of attack carried out by the non-Jewish population of Russia - and Eastern Europe in general - against the Jews between 1881 and 1921. Rarely did the police or the army intervene; indeed, they often lent their support to the rioters
1996 Brass When it can be proved that the police and the state authorities more broadly are directly implicated in a "riot" in which one community provides the principal or sole victims
1999 Israel Charny has come to mean specifically the wanton destruction of Russian-Jewish life and property during the years 1881 and 1921, and more generally is available as a word for massacre of any minority group, although it is not often used
1999 Henry Abramson A pogrom is generally thought of as a cross between a popular riot and a military atrocity, where an unarmed civilian, often urban, population is attacked by either an army unit or peasants from surrounding villages, or a combination of the two... Jews have not been the only group to suffer under this phenomenon, but historically Jews have been frequent victims of such violence. In mainstream usage, the word has come to imply an act of antisemitism.
2001 Donald L. Horowitz The pogrom is not so much a complementary species of interethnic violence as it is a subcategory of the ethnic riot. If pogrom is taken to mean a massacre of helpless people, then it obviously connotes something about the situation of the targets and the outcome of violence.
2001 Encyclopedia of Nationalism Mobilized crowd violence (usually officially encouraged) against members of a subordinate cultural group.
2003 Guido Bolaffi Originally used to describe violent and often murderous anti-Jewish persecutions (the most important of which took place in Kishinev) in Russia following the assassination of Tsar Alexander II in 1881, more recently the term 'pogrom', from the Russian pogrom (total destruction, devastation) has also been used to refer to attacks on other groups.
2003 Macmillan Encyclopedia An attack on Jews and Jewish property, especially in the Russian Empire. Russian pogroms, which were condoned by the government, were particularly common in the years immediately after the assassination of Alexander II in 1881 and again from 1903 to 1906, though mob persecution of Jews continued until the Russian Revolution (1917).
2004 Avraham Greenbaum ...a serious anti-Jewish riot, usually lasting for more than a day and often abetted by the authorities actively or passively
2004 David Engel Engel states that although there are no "essential defining characteristics of a pogrom", the majority of the incidents "habitually" described as pogroms "took place in divided societies in which ethnicity or religion (or both) served as significant definers of both social boundaries and social rank, ... involved collective violent applications of force by members of what perpetrators believed to be a higher-ranking ethnic or religious group against members of what they considered a lower-ranking or subaltern group, ... appliers of the decisive force tended to interpret the behaviour of victims according to stereotypes commonly applied to the groups to which they belonged, ... perpetrators expressed some complaint about the victims' group, ... a fundamental lack of confidence on the part of those who purveyed decisive violence in the adequacy of the impersonal rule of law to deliver true justice in the event of a heinous wrong."
2005 John K. Roth In the history of anti-semitism and Jewish-Christian relations, however, pogrom refers to violent attacks on Jewish persons, communities and properties in any part of the world. Provoked by antisemitic charges that Jews, in one way or another, have acted treacherously against the majority population's national, economic or religious interests, pogroms often appear to be spontaneous, but closer scrutiny shows that they are usually condoned, if not organised, by political leaders and governments
2005 Werner Bergmann a unilateral, nongovernmental form of collective violence initiated by the majority population against a largely defenseless ethnic group, and occurring when the majority expect the state to provide them with no assistance in overcoming a (perceived) threat from the minority...
2005 Dictionary of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict Russian word meaning 'attack' or 'devastation.' Historically, it designates mob attacks accompanied by pillage and murder that were perpetrated against the Jews of Russia—for example, in 1881–1882 and in 1903 at Kishinev. An important component of a pogrom is the usually silent complicity of the police and other authorities."
2007 Encyclopedia Judaica a Russian word designating an attack, accompanied by destruction, looting of property, murder, and rape, perpetrated by one section of the population against another. In modern Russian history pogroms have been perpetrated against other nations (Armenians, Tatars) or groups of inhabitants (intelligentsia). However, as an international term, the word "pogrom" is employed in many languages to describe specifically the attacks accompanied by looting and bloodshed against the Jews in Russia. The word designates more particularly the attacks carried out by the Christian population against the Jews between 1881 and 1921 while the civil and military authorities remained neutral and occasionally provided their secret or open support.
2008 Samuel Totten and PaulBartrop A term usually associated with mob attacks against Jewish communities especially in Tsarist Russia before 1917, though embracing numerous additional anti-Jewish persecutions in other countries up to relatively recent times
2011 John Klier By the twentieth century, the word "pogrom" had become a generic term in English for all forms of collective violence directed against Jews. The term was especially associated with Eastern Europe and the Russian Empire, the scene of the most serious outbreaks of anti-Jewish violence before the Holocaust.
2011 Wiley-Blackwell Pogroms... were antisemitic disturbances that periodically occurred within the tsarist empire. ... The term pogrom has been applied additionally to the campaign of anti-Jewish violence perpetrated by Nazism...."
2011 David Gaunt, Jonathan Dekel-Chen, Natan Meir, Israel Bartal What were the Pogroms? Although pogroms could affect any targeted group, in normal usage the word has come to denote an anti-Jewish riot...." from the late 19th century "pogroms, ... can be described as "genocidal behaviour" in that they involved mass murder of significant Jewish groups that were delimited by residence patterns, occupation, wealth or visibility.
2012 Yivo Encyclopedia In general usage, a pogrom is an outbreak of mass violence directed against a minority religious, ethnic, or social group; it usually implies central instigation and control, or at minimum the passivity of local authorities.
2012 Encyclopedia Britannica a mob attack, either approved or condoned by authorities, against the persons and property of a religious, racial, or national minority. The term is usually applied to attacks on Jews in the Russian Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ OED staff 2014, Pogrom.
  2. Klier 2004.
  3. wikisource:Mission of The United States to Poland: Henry Morgenthau, Sr. report
  4. ^ Morgenthau 1922.
  5. Lietuvos aidas, 14 November 1931, quoted in The Vanished World of Lithuanian Jews, edited by Alvydas Nikžentaitis, Stefan Schreiner, Darius Staliūnas
  6. Cunard & Ford 1996, p. 151 quotes from an excerpt from Louis Fischer The Nation
  7. Oxford English Dictionary, 1933
  8. Webster's Third New International Dictionary
  9. 1995.
  10. Brass 1996, p. 26.
  11. Charny 1999, p. 467.
  12. Abramson 1999, p. 109.
  13. Horowitz 2001.
  14. Encyclopedia of Nationalism (2001)
  15. Bolaffi 2003, p. 219.
  16. Macmillan Encyclopedia, 2003
  17. Greenbaum 2003. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGreenbaum2003 (help)
  18. Engel 2004. sfn error: no target: CITEREFEngel2004 (help)
  19. Roth 2005, p. 346.
  20. Bergmann 2005, p. 351.
  21. Faure 2005, Prorom.
  22. Judaica 2007. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJudaica2007 (help)
  23. Totten & Bartrop 2008.
  24. Klier 2011.
  25. ^ 2011. Cite error: The named reference "FOOTNOTE2011" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  26. 2012.
  27. Encyclopædia Britannica editors 2013, Pogrom.


References

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