Misplaced Pages

Revision as of 22:58, 20 March 2014

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Succession to Muhammad" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

The Succession to Muhammad concerns the varying aspects of successorship of Muhammad after his death, comprising who might be considered as his successor to lead the Muslims, how that person should be elected, the conditions of legitimacy, and the role of successor. Different answers to these questions have led to several divisions in the Muslim community since the first century of Muslim history; most notable giving rise to Sunnis, Shias and Kharijites.

From a historic viewpoint as recorded, with Muhammad's death in AD 632, disagreement broke out over who should succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar (Umar ibn al-Khattab), a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. While the Twelved Shia argue that this choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali (Ali ibn Abi Talib), his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated his successor. None of Muhammad's sons survived into adulthood, therefore direct hereditary succession was never an option. Later, during the First Fitna and the Second Fitna the community divided into several sects and groups, each of which had its own idea about successorship. Finally, after the Rashidun caliphate turned into Monarchies and Sultanates, while in most of the areas during Muslim history Sunnis have held power and Shiites have emerged as their opposition.

In The Great Arab Conquests, Hugh Kennedy writes:

" When Muhammad died in 632 the whole future of the Islamic project hung in the balance. For a few weeks it was touch and go whether this new community would survive and expand or simply disintegrate into its feuding constituent parts. The future history of much of the world was decided by the actions of a small number of men arguing and debating in Madina. Muhammad had left no generally acknowledged heir. He had made clear that he was the 'seal of the Prophets', the last in the great chain of messengers of God which had begun with Adam. It was quite unclear whether he could have any sort of successor at all. Different groups within the community began to assert their own needs. The ansar of Medina seem to have been happy to accept Islam as a religion but they no longer wished to accept the political authority of the Quraysh: after all, these men had come to them as refugees, had been welcomed into their city and were now lording over it. It was particularly galling that new converts from the Quraysh, men who had vigorously opposed the Prophet when they themselves were fighting for the cause, now seemed to be in very influential positions. They met together in the shelter of the portico of one of their houses and debated, most apparently favouring the idea that the ansar should be independent and in control of their homes town. While the debate rumbled on and ideas were tossed around, other people were moving with speed and efficiency. Before the ansar had come to any firm conclusion, Umar al Khattab had taken the the hand of Abu Bakr and pledged allegiance to him as Khalifat Allah, the deputy of God on earth. After this dramatic gesture, both the Quraysh and the ansar obliged to accept Abu Bakrs leadership. In many ways the elderly Abu Bakr was the perfect choice. No one could dispute his loyalty to the Prophet and he shared with Ali the honour of being the first converts to the new religion. He had been the Prophets companion when he made the dangerous hijra from Mecca to Medina in 622. He also seems to have been tactful and diplomatic, but perhaps his most important quality was his knowledge of the Arab tribes of Arabia, their leaders, their interests and their conflicts. These qualities were to be extremely valuable in the critical two years of his short reign. The spread of Muhammad's influence in the peninsula had largely occurred peacefully: tribes and their leaders had wished to be associated with this new power and some of them had agreed to pay taxes to Medina. Muhammad's death brought all this into question. Many of the leaders who had pledged allegiance felt that this had been a personal contract and that it lapsed with his death. Others felt that they should be allowed to be Muslims without paying the taxes or acknowledge the political authority of Medina. Yet others saw this as an opportunity to challenge the primacy of Medina. Amongst the latter were the numerous tribes of the Banu Hanifa of Yamama in eastern Arabia. They now asserted that they too had a Prophet called Maslama. They boldly suggested that the peninsula should be divided into two zones of influence; the Quraysh could have one and they should have the other. Other tribes in north-east Arabia chose to follow a prophetess called Sajah. The new Islamic leadership decided to take a bold, hardline on these developments. In making this decision, they set in motion events that were to result in the great Arab conquest: if they decided to let other areas of Arabia go and consolidate the new religion around the shrine in Mecca, or if they had decided that it was possible for men to be Muslim without acknowledging the political authority of Medina, or if they had decided not to use military force to assert their authority, the conquests would never have occurred in the way they did."".

From a religious viewpoint, Muslims later split into two groups, Sunni and Shia. Sunnis assert that even though Muhammad never appointed a successor, Abu Bakr was elected first caliph by the Muslim community. The Sunnis recognize the first four caliphs as Muhammad's rightful successors. Shias believe that Muhammad named his successor Ali at Ghadir Khumm and Muslim leadership belonged to him who had been determined by divine order.

The two groups also disagree on Ali's attitude towards Abu Bakr, and the two caliphs who succeeded him: Umar and Uthman ibn Affan. Sunnis and the Zaydis tend to stress Ali's acceptance and support of their rule, while the Twelver Shia claim that he distanced himself from them, and that he was being kept from fulfilling the religious duty that Muhammad had appointed to him. Sunnis maintain that if Ali was the rightful successor as ordained by God, then it would have been his duty as leader of the Muslim nation to make war with these people (Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman) until Ali established the decree. The Twelver Shias contend that Ali did not fight Abu Bakr, Umar or Uthman, because he was foretold by Prophet Muhammad about how the political tide will turn against Ali after his demise and was advised not to wage war against them. The Twelver Shia also say that he did not have the military strength nor the willingness to wage a civil war amongst the Muslims. The Twelver Shia say Ali also believed that he could fulfil his role of Imamate without this fighting.

Zaydis Shia do not agree with the Twelver Shia. Abu Bakr and Ali had very close family ties. After the death of Abu Bakr, Ali raised Abu Bakr's son Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr. Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr was the son of Abu Bakr and was raised by Ali. When Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr was killed by the Ummayads in Egypt Aisha the wife of Muhammad, and the daughter of Abu Bakr, also a renowned scholar of her time, raised and taught her nephew Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr the son of Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr.

Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr's mother was from Ali's family and Qasim's daughter Farwah bint al-Qasim was married to Ali's great grandson Muhammad al-Baqir and was the mother of Jafar al-Sadiq. Therefore Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr was the grandson of Abu Bakr the first caliph whom the Twelved Shia reject and the grandfather of Jafar al-Sadiq, whom the Twelved Shia claim as their Imam.

Then on top of that, Hafsa, the daughter of Abdu'l-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr, Abu Bakr other son, was married to Ali's son Hassan, whom the Twelver Shia also claim as their Imam and Abdu'l-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr's other daughter, Asma was married to Qassim ibn Mohammed ibn Abu Bakr. Qassim and Asma's daughter, Fatima (Um Farwa) was married to Mohammed Al Baqer (whom the Twelver Shia claim as their Imam) and was the mother of Jaafar Al Sadiq (whom the Twelver Shia also claim to be their Imam).

Zaydis, the largest group amongst the Shia before the Safavid Dynasty and currently the second largest group, believe that on the last hour of Zayd ibn Ali (the uncle of Jafar al-Sadiq), he was betrayed by the people in Kufa who said to him: "May God have mercy on you! What do you have to say on the matter of Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab?" Zayd ibn Ali said, "I have not heard anyone in my family renouncing them both nor saying anything but good about them...when they were entrusted with government they behaved justly with the people and acted according to the Qur'an and the Sunnah" They were called Rafida by the followers of Zayd

The differences between the Sunni and Shia amplified after the Safavid invasion of Persia and the subsequent Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam due to the politics between the Safavids and the Ottoman Empire. Until then, out of the Shia's the Zaydis Shia were the majority. The Zaydis were also forced to convert to Twelver Shia. To consolidate their position, the Safavid's also exploited the deep-rooted differences between areas formally under the Persian Sassanid Empire and areas formally under the Byzantine Roman Empire. Differences that existed from the Roman–Persian Wars and the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars. For the first time in the history of Islam, the Safavids also established a hierarchical organization of the Shiite clergy.

Historiography

Most of Islamic history seems to have been primarily transmitted orally until after the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate.

The historical works of later Muslim writers include the traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him (the sira and hadith literature), which provide further information on Muhammad's life. The earliest surviving written sira (biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him) is Sirah Rasul Allah(Life of God's Messenger) by Ibn Ishaq (d. 761 or 767 CE). Although the original work is lost, portions of it survive in the recensions of Ibn Hisham (d. 833 CE) and Al-Tabari (d. 923 CE). Many, but not all, scholars accept the accuracy of these biographies, though their accuracy is unascertainable. Studies by J. Schacht and Goldziher has led scholars to distinguish between the traditions touching legal matters and the purely historical ones. According to William Montgomery Watt, in the legal sphere it would seem that sheer invention could have very well happened. In the historical sphere however, aside from exceptional cases, the material may have been subject to "tendential shaping" rather than being made out of whole cloth.

Modern Western scholars are much less likely than Sunni Islamic scholars to trust the work of the Abbasid historians. Western historians approach the classic Islamic histories with varying degrees of circumspection.

In The Great Arab Conquests, Hugh Kennedy writes: "A characteristic of these anecdotes is what has been described as onomatomania, the obsession with knowing the names of the participants involved in events. The problem for the historians is that these lists frequently contradict each other. Furthermore, there are some examples in which later versions of a story seem to have access to more names than earlier ones do. This is deeply suspicious for modern historical sensibilities. In some cases the names are clearly preserved by the descendants and fellow tribesmen of the participants. In the seventh century it was a matter of considerable practical importance. If your father or grandfather had participated in those first glorious battles, Qudisiya in Iraq or Yarmuk in Syria, you benefited in both money and status. By the mid eighth century these relationships had largely lost their practical value. No one, except the members of the ruling family and sometimes the descendants of the Prophet or Ali, continued to benefit from this system."

Hadith compilations are records of the traditions or sayings of Muhammad. These might be defined as the biography of Muhammad perpetuated by the long memory of his community for their exemplification and obedience. The development of hadith is a vital element during the first three centuries of Islamic history. There had been a common tendency among earlier western scholars against these narrations and reports gathered in later periods; such scholars regarding them as later fabrications. Leone Caetani considered the attribution of historical reports to `Abd Allah ibn `Abbas and Aisha as mostly fictitious while proffering accounts reported without isnad by the early compilers of history like Ibn Ishaq. Wilferd Madelung has rejected the stance of indiscriminately dismissing everything not included in "early sources" and in this approach tendentious alone is no evidence for late origin. He does not reject the narrations which have been complied in later periods; trying to judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures.

The only contemporary source is The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays or Kitab al-Saqifah which was written by Sulaym ibn Qays (death: 75-95 AH (694-714)). This is a collection of hadith and historical reports from 1st century of the Islamic calendar and narrates the events which relate to the succession in detail.

Succession to Muhammad from historical viewpoint

Election of Abu Bakr

After uniting the Arabian tribes into a single Muslim religious polity in the last years of his life, Muhammad's death in 632 was followed by disagreement over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. At a gathering attended by a small group of Muslims at Saqifah a companion of Muhammad named Abu Bakr was nominated for the leadership of the community. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph.

The Twelver Shia View

The Twelver Shia say that the choice of Abu Bakr was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali had been designated his successor by Muhammad himself. However Sunnis allege that Ali accepted the subsequent leadership of Abu Bakr, Omar and Uthman.

According to Wilferd Madelung from the Institute for Ismaili Studies in London, following his election to the caliphate, Abu Bakr and Umar with a few other companions headed to Fatimah's house to obtain homage from Ali and his supporters who had gathered there. Then "Umar saying that he will set the house on fire unless they came out". There is disagreement among the sources about what happened next. Twelver Shi'ite sources narrate that Umar set fire to the door of Fatima's house and then kicked the door open, crushing Fatima who was standing behind the door trying to keep the door shut. This crushing blow caused Mohsin, the son Fatima was pregnant with, to die in her womb and broke her ribs (the same blow later caused Fatima's death as well). This is disputed by Sunni Muslims who believe no such conflict ever occurred. The Twelver Shia say Ali, who was under the Prophet Muhammad's orders not to fight back had to be patient to avoid bloodshed and was captured in chains. The Twelver Shia say when Abu Bakr's selection to the caliphate was presented as a fait accompli, Ali withheld his oaths of allegiance until after the death of Fatimah. The Twelver Shia say that Ali did not actively assert his own right because he did not want to throw the nascent Muslim community into strife.

The Twelver Shia say Fatima was buried in the night by Ali without any of Abu Bakr's supporters present and the location of her grave is still disputed.

The Twelver Shia say Ali himself was firmly convinced of the legitimacy of his claim to the caliphate based on his close kinship with Muhammad, his intimate association and his knowledge of Islam and his merits in serving its cause. The Twelver Shia say that he told Abu Bakr that his delay in pledging allegiance (bay'ah) to Abu Bakr as caliph was based on his belief in his own prior title. The Twelver Shia say that Ali did not change his mind when he finally pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr and then to Umar and to Uthman but had done so for the sake of the unity of Islam, at a time when it was clear that the Muslims had turned away from him.

The Sunni view of the succession

Part of a series on Sunni Islam
Beliefs God Prophets and Messengers Holy books Succession to Muhammad Angels Judgement Day Predestination Sahaba
Five Pillars Declaration of Faith Prayer Charity Fasting Pilgrimage
Rightly-Guided Caliphs Abu Bakr Umar Uthman Ali
Schools of law Hanafi Maliki Shafi'i Hanbali Others Zahiri Awza'i Thawri Laythi Jariri
Schools of theology Ash'arism and Maturidism (Ahl al-Ra'y) Atharism (Ahl al-Hadith) In terms of Ihsan: Sufis (Ahl al-Wijdan wa al-Kashf)
Contemporary movements Barelvi movement Deobandi movement Salafism Wahhabism Ahl-i Hadith Modernism Neo-traditionalism Farahi
Holy sites Mecca Medina Jerusalem
Lists Literature Kutub al-Sittah History Persecution
Islam portal
v t e

Sunni Muslims relate various hadith, or oral traditions, in which Muhammad is said to have recommended shura, elections or consultation, as the best method for making community decisions. In this view of the succession, he did not nominate a successor because he expected that the community themselves would choose the new leader — as was the custom in Arabia at the time. Some Sunnis argue that Muhammad had indicated his reliance upon Abu Bakr as second in command in many ways; he had called upon Abu Bakr to lead prayers and to make rulings in his (Muhammad's) absence. There are some hadiths asserting that Muhammad said that some would be desirous of power but he knew that God (and the Muslims) would make Abu Bakr the next leader. Sunnis point to the fact that the majority of the people accepted Abu-Bakr as their leader as proof that his selection was wise and just.

A narration by Mousa Ibn 'Aoqbah in the book Siyar a`lam al-nubala (Template:Lang-ar) by Al-Dhahabi:

...Then Ali and Al-Zobair said: we see that Abu Bakr is more worthier to be the rightful successor of the prophet than anyone else...

Sunnis do not believe that some one is better than another person due to their their ancestry. They say that the Quran says nothing about only Ali's descendants having the legitimacy to rule. Quran (49:13)

O mankind! We created you from a single (pair) of a male and a female, and made you into nations and tribes, that ye may know each other (not that ye may despise (each other). Verily the most honoured of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous of you. And Allah has full knowledge and is well acquainted (with all things).

Ghadir Khumm

Caliphate خِلافة‎
Main caliphates Rashidun Caliphate Umayyad Caliphate Abbasid Caliphate Ottoman Caliphate
Parallel caliphates Cordoba Caliphate Fatimid Caliphate Almohad Caliphate Sokoto Caliphate Sharifian Caliphate
Islam portal
v t e

The Twelver Shia say there is one hadith in the collection known as the Musnad which affirms that Muhammad made a speech at Ghadir Khumm, in which he said, "Of whomsoever I am the mawla, Ali is his mawla". It is also recorded in books from both sides that Umar ibn Khattab was the first person to congratulate Ali on becoming the successor and took allegiance at his hand among all the others present.

The word 'mawla' has many meanings in Arabic. While the Shi'ites take the meaning 'master' or 'ruler' and believe that Muhammad did not make 120000 people wait in the desert for three days to merely tell them they should befriend Ali, some Sunni scholars say that Muhammad was merely saying that anyone who was his friend should also befriend Ali. This was a response to some Yemeni soldiers who had complained about Ali. A similar incident is described in Ibn Ishaq's Sirah; there Muhammad is reputed to have said, "Do not blame Ali, for he is too scrupulous in the things of God, or the way of God, to be blamed." (Guillaume p. 650). The Sunnis argue that it is a mistake to interpret an expression of friendship and support as the appointment of a successor. The fact that there even was a dispute over the leadership after Muhammad's death is sufficient proof that no one had interpreted his words as a binding appointment.

Other believe that the term "mawla" indeed meant "master" when the Prophet used the word to describe Ali at Ghadir Khumm, but that this was an expression of Ali's spiritual superiority among the Muslims, not a decision by Muhammad regarding succession. These Sunni's also reject as unreasonable the interpretation of the word "mawla" in this instance simply to mean "friend."

The word mawla is discussed in a non-Muslim fashion in a book edited by Monique Bernards and John Nawas called "Patronate and Patronage in Early and Classical Islam". This book sheds light on the word mawla.

On page 25 of Patronate And Patronage in Early And Classical Islam By Monique Bernards, John Nawas

Monique Bernards and John Nawas translate it as follows:

"Mawla may refer to a client, a patron, an agnate (brother, son, father's brother, father' brothers son), an affined kinsman, (brother-in-law, son-in-law), a friend, a supporter, a follower, a drinking companion, a partner, a newly-converted Muslim attached to a Muslim and last but not least an ally. Most of these categories have legal implication. Mawla is commonly translated as "a client".

In another version, Ibn - Abbas narrates that when Muhammad was commanded by Allah to declare Ali's Caliphate (at Ghadir Khumm), he was a bit apprehensive because the people would think that Muhammad is enforcing his family's rule over them. But Allah ordered him that if this task was not executed, divine wrath would be the consequence

But according to the Muwatta by Malik ibn Anas, the oldest book in Islam after the Quran.

" 46.3 Yahya related to me from Malik that he heard that the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said, "I have left two things with you. As long as you hold fast to them, you will not go astray. They are the Book of Allah and the Sunna of His Prophet.".

In the years proceeding Muhammad, Imam Jafar al-Sadiq whose views most Shias follow and Imam Abu Hanifa and Malik ibn Anas whose views most Sunnis follow worked together in Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in Medina. Along with Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr, Muhammad al-Baqir, Zayd ibn Ali and over 70 other leading jurists and scholars . These scholars were taught by Muhammads companions, many of whom settled in Madina. Muwatta by Malik ibn Anas was written as a consensus of the opinion, of these scholars. The Muwatta by Malik ibn Anas quotes 13 hadiths from Imam Jafar al-Sadiq.

There are also other versions of this Hadith that say:

"I leave for you the Quran alone you shall uphold it. Muslim 15/19, nu 1218; ibn Majah 25/84, Abu dawud 11/56..

For this reason Muslims regard the Quran as the most authentic book in Islam. Many of these books were written between 100 and 300 years after Muhammad. There had been oral transmission from generation to generation until then. Muwatta by Malik ibn Anas is the earliest of these books.

The Quran is earliest and the most authentic book in Islam.

The Quran is accepted as the most authentic book in Islam and therefore any other book or text that contradicts with the Quran is not accepted as the truth. All the other books were written decades and in most cases centuries after Muhammad.

Quran, Surat Al-Hujurat :

"O mankind, indeed I have created you from male and female and made you peoples and tribes that you may know one another. Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous of you. Indeed, Allah is Knowing and Acquainted" .

According to the Quran, no race is above another race. Racial inequality is not acceptable according to the Quran.

Everyone is a creation of God and the most noble of you in the sight of God is the most righteous of you.

Therefore, if an off spring of Ali is sinful, some one who is not an off spring of Ali but less sinful is more noble in the sight of God.

There is no concept of the chosen people in the Quran.

On the day of judgment there is also no racial inequality :

"So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it (Quran 99:7)".

And whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it (Quran 99:8)".

Muhammad's last illness

Muhammad asked permission from his wives to spend his last days with Aisha. According to Sunnis, before he died, Muhammad made a gesture of enormous trust in Abubakr by asking him to lead the prayers in the mosque as Imam — a highly visible role virtually always undertaken, when possible, by Muhammad himself. Historically, the Imam of a mosque has always been a leader in his local Muslim community. According to Shia, when Muhammad heard that Abubakr is leading the prayers, he came to the mosque with the help of Ali and Abbas, pulled Abubakr aside with his shirt and led the prayers himself.

The events at Saqifah

The original Medinan Muslims, the Ansar, held a meeting to discuss choosing a new leader among themselves, to rule their part of the community. When the news of the meeting spread, Abu Bakr, Umar, and Abu Ubaidah ibn al Jarrah rushed to the scene. Abu Bakr argued that if the Ansar chose a leader, to lead the Ansar only, the Muslim community would split. The new leader must come from the Quraysh, Muhammad's clan; any other choice would destroy the community. Sa'd ibn Ubadah agreed to this. Abu Bakr suggested to the gathering that the people should choose either Umar or Abu Ubayda, as both were capable men of the Quraysh. Umar immediately grabbed Abu Bakr's hand and gave him bay'ah (declared his allegiance; an Arabian custom) causing the rest of the men at the gathering to also give their bay'ah. Umar later described this process as a falta, a rushed and hasty decision. However, this decision would not have been binding upon the rest of the Muslims unless they themselves chose to give their bay'ah, which all save the supporters of Ali did. According to the Sunni, this is the proof that the decision was the right one.

Ali's attitude towards Abu Bakr and Umar

Sunni accounts say that after a period during which he withdrew from public affairs, Ali eventually decided to cooperate with Abu Bakr and give his public submission. One version of the story is found in an oral tradition collected by Muhammad al-Bukhari. Ali's cooperation is evident from the fact that he assisted all his three predecessors in making official decisions.

Zaydis do not agree with the Twelver Shia. After the death of Abu Bakr, Ali raised Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr. Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr was the son of Abu Bakr and was raised by Ali. When Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr was killed by the Ummayads Aisha the wife of Muhammad, also a renowned scholar of her time, raised and taught her nephew Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr.

Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakrs mother was from Alis family and Qasims daughter Farwah bint al-Qasim was married to Muhammad al-Baqir and was the mother of Jafar al-Sadiq. Therefore Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr was the grand son of Abu Bakr the first caliph and the grand father of Jafar al-Sadiq. Jafar al-Sadiq disapproved of people who said anything bad about his great grand father Abu Bakr the first caliph. Zaydis, the largest group amongst the Shia before the Safavid Dynasty and currently the second largest group, believe that on the last hour of Zayd ibn Ali (the uncle of Jafar al-Sadiq), he was betrayed by the people in Kufa who said to him: "May God have mercy on you! What do you have to say on the matter of Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab?" Zayd ibn Ali said, "I have not heard anyone in my family renouncing them both nor saying anything but good about them...when they were entrusted with government they behaved justly with the people and acted according to the Qur'an and the Sunnah"

Sunni attitude towards Ali

Sunni Muslims consider Ali as one of the prominent companions of Muhammad, among the ten, including Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman, who were informed with the gift of paradise. They also consider Ali among the righteous caliphs and accept the hadiths narrated by him. They reject the Shia view that Ali considered Abu Bakr's succession undeserved.

The Twelver Shia view of the succession

Part of a series on Shia Islam
Beliefs and practices Monotheism Holy Books Prophethood Succession to Muhammad Imamate Ismaili Twelver Zaydi Angels Judgment Day Mourning of Muharram Intercession Clergy The Four Companions Arbaʽeen Pilgrimage
Days of remembrance Ashura Arba'een Mawlid Eid al-Fitr Eid al-Adha Eid al-Ghadir Mourning of Muharram Omar Koshan
History Verse of purification Two weighty things Mubahala Khumm Fatimah's house First Fitna Second Fitna Battle of Karbala Origin Persecution
Branches and sects Ja'fari Akhbari Usuli Shaykhi Zaydi Houthi Isma'ili Musta'li Tayyibi Dawoodi Bohra Progressive Hebtiahs Bohra Atba-i-Malak Bohra Sulaymani Bohra Alavi Bohra Qutbi Bohra Hafizi Nizari Khoja Satpanth Ghulat Alawi Alevi Bektashi Bektashism and folk religion Qizilbash Ishiki Extinct Shi'a sects
Ahl al-Kisa Muhammad Ali Fatima Hasan Husayn
Holy women Fatima Khadija bint Khuwaylid Umm Salama Zaynab bint Ali Umm Kulthum bint Ali Umm al-Banin Fatima bint Hasan Ruqayya bint Husayn Rubab Shahrbanu Fatima bint Musa Hakimah Khātūn Narjis Fatimah bint Asad Umm Farwah bint al-Qasim Ruqayya bint Ali Sayyida Nafisa
[REDACTED] Shia Islam portal
v t e

The Twelver Shia believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone, only God has the prerogative to appoint the successor to his prophet. They believe that God chose Ali to be the successor, infallible and divinely chosen. Thus they say that Muhammad, before his death, appointed Ali as his successor.

Early Shia books

In the early Shia books after the death of Uthman, when Ali was asked by the people in Madina to become the Caliph. Ali said:

"Leave me and seek some one else. We are facing a matter which has (several) faces and colours, which neither hearts can stand nor intelligence can accept. Clouds are hovering over the sky, and faces are not discernible. You should know that if I respond to you I would lead you as I know and would not care about whatever one may say or abuse. If you leave me then I am the same as you are. It is possible I would listen to and obey whomever you make in charge of your affairs. I am better for you as a counsellor than as chief."

According to early Shia books Ali later wrote in a letter "I did not approach the people to get their oath of allegiance but they came to me with their desire to make me their Amir (ruler). I did not extend my hands towards them so that they might swear the oath of allegiance to me but they themselves extended their hands towards me".

Life of Ali

Ali was a leader in battle, and often entrusted with command. He was left in charge of the community at Medina when Muhammad led the Battle of Tabouk. Ali was also his cousin, and the husband of his daughter Fatimah, and the father of his beloved grandchildren Hasan and Husayn. Ali's father was Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib, Muhammad's uncle, foster father, and powerful protector. As a member of Abu Talib's family, Muhammad had in fact played the role of an elder brother and guardian to Ali — and Ali had, as a youth, been among the first to accept Islam. He was now a charismatic defender of the faith in his own right, and it was perhaps inevitable that some in the Muslim community assumed that Ali would claim a leadership position following Muhammad's death. In the end, however, it was Abu Bakr who assumed control of the Muslim community.

The Qur'an

The Shia refer to three verses from sura Al-Ma'ida to make their argument on Qur'anic grounds: 5:55:

Your ally is none but Allah and His Messenger and those who have believed - those who establish prayer and give zakah, and they bow .

5:3,

Prohibited to you are dead animals, blood, the flesh of swine, and that which has been dedicated to other than Allah , and killed by strangling or by a violent blow or by a head-long fall or by the goring of horns, and those from which a wild animal has eaten, except what you slaughter , and those which are sacrificed on stone altars, and that you seek decision through divining arrows. That is grave disobedience. This day those who disbelieve have despaired of your religion; so fear them not, but fear Me. This day I have perfected for you your religion and completed My favor upon you and have approved for you Islam as religion. But whoever is forced by severe hunger with no inclination to sin - then indeed, Allah is Forgiving and Merciful.

5:67. 

And if only they upheld the Torah, the Gospel, and what has been revealed to them from their Lord, they would have consumed from above them and from beneath their feet. Among them are a moderate community, but many of them - evil is that which they do. O Messenger, announce that which has been revealed to you from your Lord, and if you do not, then you have not conveyed His message. And Allah will protect you from the people. Indeed, Allah does not guide the disbelieving people. Say, "O People of the Scripture, you are on nothing until you uphold the Torah, the Gospel, and what has been revealed to you from your Lord." And that which has been revealed to you from your Lord will surely increase many of them in transgression and disbelief. So do not grieve over the disbelieving people.

They say that the verses refer to Ali, and the last two verses were revealed at Ghadir Khumm.

Hadith

The Shia point to a number of hadith that, they believe, show that Muhammad had left specific instructions as to his successor. These hadith have been given names: the pond of Khumm, Safinah, Thaqalayn, Haqq, position, warning, and others.

There are many different versions of these hadith.

The following two hadith are most often referred to by the Shia, when arguing for the explicit appointment of Ali by Muhammad.

Da‘wat dhul-‘Ashīrah - Summoning the Family

Islam began when Muhammad became forty years old. Initially, the mission was kept a secret. Then three years after the advent of Islam, he was ordered to commence the open declaration of his message. This was the occasion when God revealed the verse "And warn your nearest relations,".

When this verse was revealed, Muhammad organized a feast that is known in history as "Summoning the Family — Da‘wat dhul-‘Ashīra". He invited around forty men from the Banu Hashim and asked Ali to make arrangements for the dinner. After having served his guests with food and drinks, when he wanted to speak to them about Islam, Abu Lahab ibn 'Abdul Muttalib forestalled him and said, "Your host has long since bewitched you." All the guests dispersed before Muhammad could present his message to them.

Muhammad then invited them the next day. After the feast, he spoke to them, saying:

O Sons of ‘Abdul-Muttalib! By Allāh, I do not know of any person among the Arabs who has come to his people with better than what I have brought to you. I have brought to you the good of this world and the next, and I have been commanded by the Lord to call you unto Him. Therefore, who amongst you will support me in this matter so that he may be my brother (akhhī), my successor (wasiyyī) and my caliph (khalifatī) among you?

This was the first time that Muhammad openly and publicly called the relations to accept him as the Messenger and Prophet of God, as well as being the first time that he called for a person who would aid him in his mission. At the time, no one but the youngest of them — Ali, stood up and said, "I will be your helper, O Prophet of God."

Muhammad then put his hand on the back of Ali's neck and said:

Inna hadhã akhhí wa wasiyyí wa khalífatí fíkum, fasma‘û lahu wa atí‘û — Verily this is my brother, my successor, and my caliph amongst you; therefore, listen to him and obey.

Ghadir Khumm

In 632 CE, Muhammad made his last pilgrimage to the Kaaba in Mecca. Some early accounts say that after finishing his pilgrimage, on his return to Medina, he and his followers stopped at a spring and waypoint called Ghadir Khumm. Muhammad delivered a speech to his assembled followers, in which the traditions state that Muhammad said:

...for whoever I am his mawla, Ali is his mawla...

According to the Shia, this hadith, the hadith of the pond of Khumm, indicated the intent of Muhammad. They note that the translation of the word mawla as "friend" is highly unlikely and therefore misleading because: a) the word sadeeq is an appropriate, unambiguous and completely accurate translation of the word "friend". b) the connotations of the word mawla nearly always have an implication of a superior-inferior relationship. Hence, mawla can be taken to mean a variety of words in this context, such as master, commander or even slave, but friend is inaccurate. The Shia say that there were 120,000 witnesses to this declaration, including Umar and Abu Bakr.

But according to the Muwatta by Malik ibn Anas, the oldest book in Islam after the Quran.

" 46.3 Yahya related to me from Malik that he heard that the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said, "I have left two things with you. As long as you hold fast to them, you will not go astray. They are the Book of Allah and the Sunna of His Prophet.".

In the years proceeding Muhammad, Imam Jafar al-Sadiq whose views most Shias follow and Imam Abu Hanifa and Malik ibn Anas whose views most Sunnis follow worked together in Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in Medina. Along with Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr, Muhammad al-Baqir, Zayd ibn Ali and over 70 other leading jurists and scholars . These scholars were taught by Muhammads companions, many of whom settled in Madina. Muwatta by Malik ibn Anas was written as a consensus of the opinion, of these scholars. The Muwatta by Malik ibn Anas quotes 13 hadiths from Imam Jafar al-Sadiq.

There are also other versions of this Hadith that say:

"I leave for you the Quran alone you shall uphold it. Muslim 15/19, nu 1218; ibn Majah 25/84, Abu dawud 11/56..

For this reason Muslims regard the Quran as the most authentic book in Islam. Many of these books were written between 100 and 300 years after Muhammad. There had been oral transmission from generation to generation until then. Muwatta by Malik ibn Anas is the earliest of these books.

The Quran is earliest and the most authentic book in Islam.

The Quran is accepted as the most authentic book in Islam and therefore any other book or text that contradicts with the Quran is not accepted as the truth. All the other books were written decades and in most cases centuries after Muhammad.

Quran, Surat Al-Hujurat :

"O mankind, indeed I have created you from male and female and made you peoples and tribes that you may know one another. Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous of you. Indeed, Allah is Knowing and Acquainted" .

According to the Quran, no race is above another race. Racial inequality is not acceptable according to the Quran.

Everyone is a creation of God and the most noble of you in the sight of God is the most righteous of you.

Therefore, if an off spring of Ali is sinful, some one who is not an off spring of Ali but less sinful is more noble in the sight of God.

There is no concept of the chosen people in the Quran.

On the day of judgment there is also no racial inequality :

"So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it (Quran 99:7)".

And whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it (Quran 99:8)".

Muhammad's last illness

Soon after returning from the Farewell Pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill. He was nursed in the apartment of his wife Aisha, the daughter of Abu Bakr.

The Shia claim that most of the prominent men among the Muslims, expecting Muhammad's death and an ensuing struggle for power, disobeyed his orders to join a military expedition bound for Syria. They stayed in Medina, waiting for Muhammad's death and their chance to seize power.

According to `Abd Allah ibn `Abbas (cousin of Muhammad) Book 13 Hadith No. 4016, the dying Muhammad said that he wished to write a letter — or wished to have a letter written — detailing his wishes for his community. According to Sahih Muslim ibn `Abbas narrated that:

Ibn Abbas reported: When Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) was about to leave this world, there were persons (around him) in his house, 'Umar b. al-Kbattab being one of them. Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) said: Come, I may write for you a document; you would not go astray after that. Thereupon Umar said: Verily Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) is deeply afflicted with pain. You have the Qur'an with you. The Book of Allah is sufficient for us. Those who were present in the house differed. Some of them said: Bring him (the writing material) so that Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) may write a document for you and you would never go astray after him And some among them said what 'Umar had (already) said. When they indulged in nonsense and began to dispute in the presence of Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him), he said: Get up (and go away) 'Ubaidullah said: Ibn Abbas used to say: There was a heavy loss, indeed a heavy loss, that, due to their dispute and noise. Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) could not write (or dictate) the document for them.

— Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim

When Muhammad died, Umar denied his death stating rather that he would return back, and threatening to behead anyone who acceded to his death. Abu Bakr, upon his return to Medina, spoke to Umar and only then Umar did admit that Muhammad had died, this all was perceived by the Shia as a ploy on Umar's part to delay the funeral and thus give Abu Bakr (who was outside the city) time to return to Medina.

The events at Saqifah

When Muhammad died, his closest relatives, Ali and Fatimah, took charge of the body. While they were engaged in washing the body and preparing it for burial, a secret meeting, of which Ali and theMuhajirun weren't told, was taking place at Saqifah, which ended with Abu Bakr being chosen as the new leader.

Shī‘at of ‘Alī

According to Wilferd Madelung from the Institute for Ismaili Studies in London just as Ali had refused to give his allegiance (bay'ah) to Abu Bakr, many of the Muslims of Medina had also refused, thus they were known as: "Shī‘at ‘Alī" (the "Party of Ali"). According to Wilferd Madelung from the Institute for Ismaili Studies in London it took six months of threat and pressure to force the refusers to submit to Abu Bakr. However, upon his refusal to give allegiance, Ali had his house surrounded by an armed force led by Abu Bakr and Umar.

According to Wilferd Madelung from the Institute for Ismaili Studies in London

In Madinah, Umar took charge of securing the pledge of allegiance of all residents. He dominated the streets with the help first of the Aslam and then the Abd Al-Ashhal of Aws, who in contrast to the majority of Khazraj, quickly became vigorous champions of the new regime. The sources mention the actual use of force only with respect to Companion Al-Zubayr who had been together with some others of the Muhajirun in the house of Fatimah. Supposedly, Umar threatened to set the house on fire unless they came out and swore allegiance to Abu Bakr.

According to the Twelver Shia, Umar pushed his way into the house; Fatimah, who was pregnant, was crushed behind the door. She miscarried her unborn son, whom the Shia mourn as Muhsin ibn Ali. She had been injured by Umar and soon died. Ali buried her at night, secretly, as he did not wish Abu Bakr or Umar, whom he blamed for her death, to attend her funeral. The Shia thus blame Abu Bakr and Umar for the death of Muhammad's daughter and grandson.

The Succession to Muhammad written by Institute for Ismaili Studies in London's researcher Wilfred Madelung, ex Laudian Professor of Arabic at the University of Oxford, examines the course of events from 632, and the death of Muhammad, through the rise of the Umayyads — and rehabilitates some of the Shia narratives. On the right of Muhammad's household to succeed him, for instance, Madelung observes that:

In the Qur’an, the descendants and close kin of the prophets are their heirs also in respect to kingship (mulk), rule (hukm), wisdom (hikma), the book and the imamate. The Sunnite concept of the true caliphate itself defines it as a succession of the prophet in every respect except his prophethood. Why should Muhammad not be succeeded in it by any of his family like the earlier prophets? If God really wanted to indicate that he should not be succeeded by any of them why did He not let his grandsons and other kin die like his sons? There is thus a good reason to doubt that Muhammad failed to appoint a successor because he realized that the divine design excluded hereditary succession of his family and that he wanted the Muslims to choose their head by Shura. The Qur’an advises the faithful to settle some matters by consultation, but not the succession to prophets. That, according to the Qur’an, is settled by divine election, God usually chooses their successors, whether they become prophets or not from their own kin

Madelung writes on the basis of the hadith of the pond of Khumm Ali later insisted on his religious authority superior to that of Abu Bakr and Umar.

Ali submits for the sake of his followers

According to the Twelver Shia, Ali took pity upon the sufferings of his devoted followers and gave his submission, his bay'ah, to Abu Bakr, only after Fatimah, Ali's wife and daughter of Muhammad who was angry with Abu Bakr when he refused to give her right to the inheritance of the garden of Fadak. It may be because of the sake of unity that he might have helped them in matters of jurisprudence and administration but could never admit his obedience to them.

Other Twelver Shia say that Ali did not give his allegiance, but only refrained from pressing his claims. Whatever happened, superficial unity was restored.

Western academic views

Many contemporary scholars(who?) who have sifted through the early Muslim historical writings are proposing narratives that are closer to the received versions. In most cases, this has meant a swing back towards the Sunni version of events.

See also

• Hadith of the pond of Khumm
• Hadith of the two weighty things
• Hadith of the pen and paper
• Hadith of the Twelve Successors
• Umar at Fatimah's house

References

Footnotes

1. See:
   • Holt 1977, p. 57
   • Lapidus 2002, p. 32
   • Madelung 1997, p. 43
   • Tabatabae 1979, pp. 30–50
2. The Great Arab Conquests By Hugh Kennedy, page 54 to 56
3. The Great Arab Conquests By Hugh Kennedy, page 54 to 56
4. "Sunnite". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 2007-04-11.
5. ^ Diana, Steigerwald. "Ali ibn Abi Talib". Encyclopaedia of Islam and the Muslim world; vol.1. MacMillan. ISBN 0-02-865604-0.
6. Sahih Bukhari 5.57.50
7. Chirri 1982
8. ^ Nahj al-Balagha Sermon 71, Letter 27, Letter 34, Letter 35
9. ^ The waning of the Umayyad caliphate by Tabarī, Carole Hillenbrand, 1989, p37, p38
10. ^ The Encyclopedia of Religion Vol.16, Mircea Eliade, Charles J. Adams, Macmillan, 1987, p243.
11. The Heirs Of The Prophet Muhammad: And The Roots Of The Sunni-Shia Schism By Barnaby Rogerson
12. A consideration of oral transmissions in general with some specific early Islamic reference is given in Jan Vansina's Oral Tradition as History.
13. Reeves 2003, pp. 6–7
14. Robinson 2003, p. xv
15. Donner 1998, p. 132
16. Nigosian 2004, p. 6
17. Watt 1953, p. xv
18. The Great Arab Conquests By Hugh Kennedy, page 18
19. The Great Arab Conquests By Hugh Kennedy, page 18
20. Cragg, Albert Kenneth. "Hadith". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 2008-03-30.
21. Madelung 1997, p. xi, 19, and 20
22. See:
    • Sachedina 1981, pp. 54–55
    • Landolt & Lawson 2005, p. 59
    • Modarressi 2003, pp. 82–88
    • Dakake 2007, p. 270
23. Lapidus 2002, pp. 31–32
24. See:
    • Holt 1977, p. 57
    • Madelung 1997, pp. 23–27, 30–43, and 356–360
25. See:
    • explanation of Nahj al-Balagha, Mohammed Abdah, 3/ 07.
    • the biography of the Imam Ali, 139 - 144.
    • explanation of An-Nawawi, Kitab al-Ḥodod 11\216.
26. Senior Research Fellow at the Institute for Ismaili Studies in London
27. Madelung 1997, p. 43
28. "Ali ibn Abitalib". Encyclopedia Iranica. Retrieved 2007-10-25.
29. See:
    • Madelung 1997, p. 141 and 270
    • Ashraf 2004, pp. 99–100 (2005)
30. Siyar a`lam al-nubala
31. The Event of Ghadir Khumm in the Qur'an, Hadith, History By Mohammad Manzoor Nomani
32. Brill 2005 ISBN 978-9004144804
33. Kanz al-Ummal, Vol 6, Pg. 153
34. Taareekhul Khulafa of Suyuti, pg 114
35. Manazelul Abrar of Badakhshaani, Pg 20
36. Tafseer-e-Durrul Mansoor, Vol 2, Page 298
37. ^
38. ^
39. ^ Understanding Women in Islam: An Indonesian Perspective By Syafiq Hasyim Page 67
40. ^ Classical Islam: A Sourcebook of Religious Literature By Norman Calder, J. Jawid Ahmad Mojaddedi, Andrew Rippin Page 37
41. ^ Judaism and Islam in Practice: A Sourcebook By Jonathan E. Brockopp, Jacob Neusner, Tamara Sonn
42. ^
43. ^
44. ^
45. ^ History of Islamic Law by N. J. Coulson page 103
46. ^ E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936, Volume 5 By Martijn Theodoor Houtsma page 207
47. ^ Moshe Sharon, Studies in Islamic History and Civilization: In Honour of Professor David Ayalon, p.264
48. ^ Al-Muwatta of Imam Malik Ibn Anas:Translated by Aisha Bewley (Book #5, Hadith #5.9.23)(Book #16, Hadith #16.1.1)(Book #17, Hadith #17.24.43)(Book #20, Hadith #20.10.40)(Book #20, Hadith #20.11.44)(Book #20, Hadith #20.32.108)(Book #20, Hadith #20.39.127)(Book #20, Hadith #20.40.132)(Book #20, Hadith #20.49.167) (Book #20, Hadith #20.57.190)(Book #26, Hadith #26.1.2)(Book #29, Hadith #29.5.17)(Book #36, Hadith #36.4.5)
49. ^ Surat Al-Hujurat 49:13
50. ^ Surat An-Nisa' 4:1
51. Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:59:546
52. Nahj ul Balagha Sermon 91
53. Nahj ul Balagha, Letter 54.
54. Quran 5:55
55. Quran 5:3
56. Quran 5:67
57. Chapter VII On the Knowledge of the Imam (Imamology) (part-1):The Meaning of Imam
58. Quran 26:214
59. ^ Sunni sources:
    • at-Tabari, at-Ta’ríkh, vol. 1 (Leiden, 1980 offset of the 1789 edition) pp. 171-173.
    • Ibn al-Athír, al-Kãmil, vol. 5 (Beirut, 1965) pp. 62-63.
    • Abu ’l-Fidã’, al-Mukhtasar fi Ta’ríkhi ’l-Bashar, vol. 1 (Beirut, n.d.) pp. 116-117.
    • al-Khãzin, at-Tafsír, vol. 4 (Cairo, 1955) p. 127.
    • al-Baghawi, at-Tafsír (Ma‘ãlimu ’t-Tanzíl), vol. 6 (Riyadh: Dar Tayyiba, 1993) p. 131.
    • al-Bayhaqi, Dalã’ilu ’n-Nubuwwa, vol. 1 (Cairo, 1969) pp. 428-430.
    • as-Suyuti, ad-Durru ’l-Manthûr, vol. 5 (Beirut, n.d.) p. 97.
    • Muttaqi al-Hindi, Kanzu ’l-‘Ummãl, vol. 15 (Hyderabad, 1968) pp. 100, 113, 115.
    Shia sources:
    • ‘Abdu ’l-Husayn al-Aminí, al-Ghadír, vol. 2 (Beirut, 1967) pp. 278-289.
60. Sahih Muslim, 13:4016
61. Madelung 1997, p. 43, Tabari, I, 1825
62. Ansab Ashraf, by al-Baladhuri in his , v1, pp 582-586; Tarikh Ya'qubi, v2, p116; al-Imamah wal-Siyasah, by Ibn Qutaybah, v1, pp 19-20)
63. Madelung 1997, p. 43. Tabari, I p 1818.
64. Shi'ite Encyclopedia, Chapter 4
65. Senior Research Fellow at the Institute for Ismaili Studies in London
66. Madelung 1997, p. 17
67. Madelung 1997, p. 253
68. Sahih al-Bukhari, 4:53:325

Academic books

• Ashraf, Shahid (1 January 2004), Holy Prophet and Companions (15 Vol Set), Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd, ISBN 978-81-261-1940-0, retrieved 3 January 2013

• Chirri, Mohamad Jawad (1982), The brother of the prophet Mohammad (the Imam Ali): a reconstruction of Islamic history and an extensive research of the Shi-ite Islamic school of thought, Islamic Center of Detroit, retrieved 3 January 2013

• Dakake, Maria Massi (2007), The Charismatic Community: Shiʻite Identity in Early Islam, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-7033-6, retrieved 3 January 2013

• Donner, Fred McGraw (1998), Narratives of Islamic origins: the beginnings of Islamic historical writing, Darwin Press, ISBN 978-0-87850-127-4, retrieved 3 January 2013

• Holt, P. M. (1977), Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-29136-4 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

• Landolt, Hermann; Lawson, Todd (2005), Reason and inspiration in Islam : theology, philosophy and mysticism in Muslim thought : essays in honour of Hermann Landolt, London ; New York: I.B. Tauris, ISBN 978-1-85043-470-2

• Lapidus, Ira (2002), A History of Islamic Societies (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-77933-3

• Madelung, Wilferd (1997), The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-64696-0

• Modarressi, Hossein (2003), Tradition and survival: a bibliographical survey of early Shī'ite literature, Oneworld, ISBN 978-1-85168-331-4, retrieved 3 January 2013

• Nigosian, Solomon Alexander (1 January 2004), Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices, Indiana University Press, ISBN 978-0-253-21627-4, retrieved 3 January 2013

• Reeves, Minou (2003), Muhammad in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making, NYU Press, ISBN 978-0-8147-7564-6

• Robinson, Chase F. (2003), Islamic Historiography, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-62936-5

• Sachedina, Abdulaziz Abdulhussein (1981), Islamic messianism : the idea of Mahdī in twelver Shīʻis, Albany: State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-87395-458-0

• Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn (1979), Shi'ite Islam, Suny press, ISBN 0-87395-272-3 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

• Watt, William Montgomery (1953), Muhammad at Mecca, Clarendon Press, retrieved 3 January 2013

Shia books

• Shi'a Islam (book), by Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei and Hossein Nasr, State University of New York Press, 1979
• Al-Murāja'āt: A Shī'i-Sunni Dialogue by Sayyid 'Abdul-Husayn Sharafud-Dīn al-Mūsawi, 2001, Ansariyan Publications: Qum, Iran.
• Peshawar Nights by Sultanu'l-Wa'izin Shirazi, 2001, Ansariyan Publications: Qum, Iran.
• Ask Those Who Know by Muhammad al-Tijani, 2001, Ansariyan Publications: Qum, Iran.
• To be with the Truthful by Muhammad al-Tijani, 2000, Ansariyan Publications: Qum, Iran.
• The Shi'a: The Real Followers of the Sunnah by Muhammad al-Tijani, 2000, Ansariyan Publications: Qum, Iran.
• Imamate and Leadership by Mujtaba Musavi Lari
• Imamate: the Vicegerency of the Prophet by Rizvi, S. Saeed Akhtar, (Tehran: WOFIS, 1985) pp. 57–60.
• Fara'id al-Simtayn by the Shia scholar Ibrahim b Muhammad b Himaway al Juwayni who died in 1322 AD/ 722 AH. (The Scale of Wisdom by M. Muhammadi Rayshahri)(Al-Tawhid Vol 8,Sāzmān-i Tablīghāt-i Islāmī (Tehran, Iran), p170)

Sunni books

• The Sealed Nectar by Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri, 2002, Darussalam Publications.
• Sahih Al-Bukhari Translated by Dr. Muhammad Muhsin Khan, 1997, Darussalam Publications
• Peshawar Nights the Art of Fictional-Narration by Abu Muhammad al-Afriqi
• The Life of Muhammad by Muhammad Husayn Haykal

External links

Sunni Perspective

• The Sealed Nectar by Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri
• The Life of Muhammad by Muhammad Husayn Haykal
• The Prophet Mohammad and the First Muslim State by Dr. Mohammad Mahmoud Ghali
• Abu Bakr As-Siddeeq by Muhammad Rajih Jad'an
• Companions of the Prophet
• Peshawar Nights the Art of Fictional-Narration by Abu Muhammad al-Afriqi

Shia perspective

• Peshawar Nights by Sultanu'l Wa'izin Shirazi, 2001
• Ghadir
• Succession to Muhammad
• Shī‘a Islam
• Muhammad's successor
• Complete Sermon at Ghadir Khumm. English Version

Caliphal Dynasties

v t e Rashidun Caliphs Abu Bakr Umar Uthman Ali v t e Umayyad dynasty Family tree Media Caliphs of Damascus (661–750) Mu'awiya I Yazid I Mu'awiya II Marwan I Abd al-Malik Al-Walid I Sulayman Umar Yazid II Hisham Al-Walid II Yazid III Ibrahim Marwan II Emirs of Córdoba (756–929) Abd al-Rahman I Hisham I Al-Hakam I Abd ar-Rahman II Muhammad I al-Mundhir Abdullah Abd al-Rahman III Caliphs of Córdoba (929–1031) Abd al-Rahman III Al-Hakam II Hisham II Muhammad II Sulayman Hisham II Sulayman Abd Allah al-Mu'ayti Abd al-Rahman IV Ali ibn Hammud al-Nasir Al-Qasim al-Ma'mun ibn Hammud Yahya ibn Ali al-Mu'tali Al-Qasim al-Ma'mun ibn Hammud Abd al-Rahman V Muhammad III Yahya ibn Ali al-Mu'tali Hisham III indicates Hammudid usurpers v t e Abbasid Caliphs Caliphs of Baghdad (749–1258) al-Saffah al-Mansur al-Mahdi al-Hadi Harun al-Rashid al-Amin Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi al-Ma'mun al-Mu'tasim al-Wathiq al-Mutawakkil al-Muntasir al-Musta'in al-Mu'tazz al-Muhtadi al-Mu'tamid al-Mu'tadid al-Muktafi al-Muqtadir Abdallah ibn al-Mu'tazz al-Qahir al-Radi al-Muttaqi al-Mustakfi al-Muti' al-Ta'i' al-Qadir al-Qa'im al-Muqtadi al-Mustazhir al-Mustarshid al-Rashid al-Muqtafi al-Mustanjid al-Mustadi al-Nasir al-Zahir al-Mustansir I al-Musta'sim (Mongol conquest) Caliphs of Cairo (1261–1517) al-Mustansir II al-Hakim I al-Mustakfi I al-Wathiq I al-Hakim II al-Mu'tadid I al-Mutawakkil I al-Musta'sim al-Mutawakkil I al-Wathiq II al-Musta'sim al-Mutawakkil I al-Musta'in al-Mu'tadid II al-Mustakfi II al-Qa'im al-Mustanjid al-Mutawakkil II al-Mustamsik al-Mutawakkil III al-Mustamsik al-Mutawakkil III (Ottoman conquest) indicates ephemeral caliphs recognized in the city of Baghdad only v t e Fatimid Caliphs al-Mahdi al-Qa'im al-Mansur al-Mu'izz al-Aziz al-Hakim al-Zahir al-Mustansir al-Musta'li al-Amir al-Hafiz al-Zafir al-Fa'iz al-Adid v t e Ottoman sultans / caliphs Dynasty Family tree (detailed) Family tree (simplified) Line of succession Osman I Orhan Murad I Bayezid I Interregnum (İsa Çelebi, Süleyman Çelebi, Musa Çelebi) Mehmed I Mustafa Çelebi Murad II Mehmed II Murad II Mehmed II Bayezid II Cem Sultan Selim I Suleiman I Selim II Murad III Mehmed III Ahmed I Mustafa I Osman II Mustafa I Murad IV Ibrahim Mehmed IV Suleiman II Ahmed II Mustafa II Ahmed III Mahmud I Osman III Mustafa III Abdul Hamid I Selim III Mustafa IV Mahmud II Abdulmejid I Abdulaziz Murad V Abdul Hamid II Mehmed V Mehmed VI Abdulmejid II First Ottoman caliph • Caliph only Category Related templates: Heads of the Osmanoğlu family Valide sultans

• Muhammad
• Schisms in Islam
• Ali
• Shia–Sunni relations
• Abu Bakr