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| accessdate = 6 June 2009 | accessdate = 6 June 2009
}}</ref> Some oils can be toxic to some domestic animals, with cats being particularly prone.<ref></ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/104063879801000223 |title=Australian Tea Tree (Melaleuca Alternifolia) Oil Poisoning in Three Purebred Cats |year=1998 |last1=Bischoff |first1=K. |last2=Guale |first2=F. |journal=Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=208–10 |pmid=9576358}}</ref> }}</ref> Some oils can be toxic to some domestic animals, with cats being particularly prone.<ref></ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/104063879801000223 |title=Australian Tea Tree (Melaleuca Alternifolia) Oil Poisoning in Three Purebred Cats |year=1998 |last1=Bischoff |first1=K. |last2=Guale |first2=F. |journal=Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=208–10 |pmid=9576358}}</ref>

Lavender oil does not mimic estrogen nor does it enhance the body’s own estrogens. It is therefore not a ‘hormone disruptor’, cannot cause breast growth in young boys (or girls of any age), and is safe to use by anyone at risk for estrogen-dependent cancer. The lack of estrogenic action is the conclusion of a new report, which used a novel form of ‘uterotrophic’ assay.

This measures the effect of a test substance on the uterus of immature or estrogen-deprived female rats over three days. Any estrogenic action causes a rapid and measurable increase in uterine weight. The assay has been in use since the 1930s, was adopted by the OECD in 2007, and is now regarded as the “benchmark animal assay for estrogenic effects” (Politano 2013).

A 2007 report by Henley et al found that both lavender and tea tree oils had a weak in vitro estrogenic action. Lavender was suggested as the cause of three cases of prepubertal gynecomastia (breast growth) in boys, and tea tree was suggested in one case. The report was subsequently criticized on a number of grounds. For example it was pointed out that there was no evidence of either essential oil causing the gynecomastia in any of the four cases, and that in vitro estrogenic findings frequently do not extrapolate to a similar action in warm bodies (see Rebuttals, below).



Since 2007 there have been many warnings about lavender and tea tree oils that relate back to this study. Others, including myself, have suggested that such cautions are unnecessary and premature. The new research, in which considerable quantities of lavender oil were used, found that there was no increase in uterine weight, and so no estrogenic action.

The novel aspect of the uterotrophic assay was that the test substance – lavender oil – was applied to the skin, while the most common method is subcutaneous injection. This was changed in order to mimic the circumstances of the Henley et al 2007 case reports, and it also mimics the use of lavender oil in fragrances and personal care products. Lavender oil was used in two concentrations, 4% and 20% in corn oil. According to Politano et al 2013, these concentrations are respectively more than 6,000 and 30,000 times greater than a conservative estimate of human skin exposure from multiple cosmetic products containing lavender oil. They are also 5,000 and 1,000,000 times greater than the estimated exposure to lavender oil experienced by the Henley et al boys.

These calculations may seem exaggerated, but the massive differences are because in the uterotrophic assay, the lavender oil was applied in Hilltop Chambers patches, which do not allow any evaporation, or loss of essential oil by means other than dermal absorption. Examples of the quantities of fragrant substance absorbed from personal care products are shown below. The amount of fragrance absorbed from a shampoo, for instance, is 200 times less than the amount applied to the head. If amounts of dermally-absorbed lavender oil that are at least 5,000 times greater than any normal human exposure are not estrogenic, then we can be confident that this particular safety issue is not a concern.


Data from Cadby et al 2002
Safety in pregnancy is a broader question than hormonal action alone, since affects on the fetus, or even miscarriage, are theoretically possible with any substance. The question of uterine stimulation and miscarriage was thoroughly investigated here, and there is clearly no risk. As for fetal effects we know that linalool, a major constituent of lavender oil, is not fetotoxic to pregnant rats at an oral dose 1 g/kg/day for 16 days (equivalent to a human oral dose of 60 g, or 2 oz per day, and a total dose of 32 oz). The chances of lavender oil being fetotoxic in the amounts used in personal care products are negligible, considering the small amounts both applied to, and subsequently absorbed by human skin (Cadby et al 2002).

The new research findings represent a major development in our knowledge of lavender oil safety, since the possibility of estrogenic action now looks remote. While no single test should be taken as absolutely conclusive, we can expect the volume of noise about lavender being estrogenic to diminish considerably.

Rebuttals
Dean CJ 2007 Prepubertal gynecomastia linked to lavender and tea tree oils. New England Journal of Medicine 356:2543-2544

Kalyan S 2007 Prepubertal gynecomastia linked to lavender and tea tree oils. New England Journal of Medicine 356:2542-2544

Kemper KJ, Romm AJ, Gardiner P 2007 Prepubertal gynecomastia linked to lavender and tea tree oils. New England Journal of Medicine 356:2541-2542

Kurtz JL 2007 Prepubertal gynecomastia linked to lavender and tea tree oils. New England Journal of Medicine 356:2542-2543

Lawrence BM 2007 Estrogenic activity in lavender and tea tree oils: Part I. Perfumer & Flavorist 32:20-25

Lawrence BM 2007 Estrogenic activity in lavender and tea tree oils: Part II. Perfumer Flavorist 32:14-20

Tisserand R Tea tree and lavender not linked to gynecomastia

Other references
Cadby P A, Troy W R, Vey M G 2002 Consumer exposure to fragrance ingredients: providing estimates for safety evaluation. Regulatory Toxicology & Pharmacology 36: 246-252

Henley DV, Lipson N, Korach KS, Bloch CA 2007 Prebubertal gynecomastia linked to lavender and tea tree oils. New England Journal of Medicine 365(5): 479-485

Politano VT, Lewis EM, Hoberman AM et al 2008 Evaluation of the developmental toxicity of linalool in rats. International Journal of Toxicology 27:183-188

Politano VT, McGinty D, Lewis EM et al 2013 Uterotrophic assay of percutaneous lavender oil in immature female rats. International Journal of Toxicology



Two common oils, ] and ], have been implicated in causing ], an abnormal breast tissue growth, in prepubescent boys, although the report which cites this potential issue is based on observations of only three boys, and two of those boys were significantly above average in weight for their age, thus already prone to gynaecomastia.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa064725 |title=Prepubertal Gynecomastia Linked to Lavender and Tea Tree Oils |year=2007 |last1=Henley |first1=Derek V. |last2=Lipson |first2=Natasha |last3=Korach |first3=Kenneth S. |last4=Bloch |first4=Clifford A. |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=356 |issue=5 |pages=479–85 |pmid=17267908}}</ref> Two common oils, ] and ], have been implicated in causing ], an abnormal breast tissue growth, in prepubescent boys, although the report which cites this potential issue is based on observations of only three boys, and two of those boys were significantly above average in weight for their age, thus already prone to gynaecomastia.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa064725 |title=Prepubertal Gynecomastia Linked to Lavender and Tea Tree Oils |year=2007 |last1=Henley |first1=Derek V. |last2=Lipson |first2=Natasha |last3=Korach |first3=Kenneth S. |last4=Bloch |first4=Clifford A. |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=356 |issue=5 |pages=479–85 |pmid=17267908}}</ref>

Revision as of 23:29, 27 July 2014

Medical intervention
Aromatherapy
A diffuser and a bottle of essential oil.
MeSHD019341
[edit on Wikidata]

Aromatherapy is a form of alternative medicine that uses volatile plant materials, known as essential oils, and other aromatic compounds for the purpose of altering a person's mind, mood, cognitive function or health.

Some essential oils such as tea tree have demonstrated anti-microbial effects, but there is still a lack of clinical evidence demonstrating efficacy against bacterial, fungal, or viral infections. Evidence for the efficacy of aromatherapy in treating medical conditions remains poor, with a particular lack of studies employing rigorous methodology, but some evidence exists that essential oils may have therapeutic potential.

History

Many such oils are described by Dioscorides, along with beliefs of the time regarding their healing properties, in his De Materia Medica, written in the first century. Distilled essential oils have been employed as medicines since the invention of distillation in the eleventh century, when Avicenna isolated essential oils using steam distillation.

The concept of aromatherapy was first mooted by a small number of European scientists and doctors, in about 1907. In 1937, the word first appeared in print in a French book on the subject: Aromathérapie: Les Huiles Essentielles, Hormones Végétales by René-Maurice Gattefossé, a chemist. An English version was published in 1993. In 1910, Gattefossé burned a hand very badly and later claimed he treated it effectively with lavender oil.

A French surgeon, Jean Valnet, pioneered the medicinal uses of essential oils, which he used as antiseptics in the treatment of wounded soldiers during World War II.

Modes of application

The modes of application of aromatherapy include:

  • Aerial diffusion: for environmental fragrancing or aerial disinfection
  • Direct inhalation: for respiratory disinfection, decongestion, expectoration as well as psychological effects
  • Topical applications: for general massage, baths, compresses, therapeutic skin care

Materials

Some of the materials employed include:

Theory

Aromatherapy is the treatment or prevention of disease by use of essential oils. Other stated uses include pain and anxiety reduction, enhancement of energy and short-term memory, relaxation, hair loss prevention, and reduction of eczema-induced itching.

Two basic mechanisms are offered to explain the purported effects. One is the influence of aroma on the brain, especially the limbic system through the olfactory system. The other is the direct pharmacological effects of the essential oils. While precise knowledge of the synergy between the body and aromatic oils is often claimed by aromatherapists, the efficacy of aromatherapy remains unproven. However, some preliminary clinical studies of aromatherapy in combination with other techniques show positive effects. Aromatherapy does not cure conditions, but it is suggested that it helps the body to find a natural way to cure itself and improve immune response.

In the English-speaking world, practitioners tend to emphasize the use of oils in massage . Aromatherapy tends to be regarded as a complementary modality at best and a pseudoscientific fraud at worst.

Choice and purchase

Oils with standardized content of components (marked FCC, for Food Chemical Codex) are required to contain a specified amount of certain aroma chemicals that normally occur in the oil. There is no law that the chemicals cannot be added in synthetic form to meet the criteria established by the FCC for that oil. For instance, lemongrass essential oil must contain 75% aldehyde to meet the FCC profile for that oil, but that aldehyde can come from a chemical refinery instead of from lemongrass. To say that FCC oils are "food grade" makes them seem natural when they are not necessarily so.

Undiluted essential oils suitable for aromatherapy are termed 'therapeutic grade', but there are no established and agreed standards for this category. The market for essential oils is dominated by the food, perfume, cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries, so aromatherapists have little choice but to buy the best of whatever oils are available.

Analysis using gas liquid chromatography (GLC) and mass spectrometry (MS) establishes the quality of essential oils. These techniques are able to measure the levels of components to a few parts per billion. This does not make it possible to determine whether each component is natural or whether a poor oil has been 'improved' by the addition of synthetic aromachemicals, but the latter is often signaled by the minor impurities present. For example, linalool made in plants will be accompanied by a small amount of hydro-linalool, whilst synthetic linalool has traces of dihydro-linalool.

Popular uses

  • Lemon oil is said to be uplifting and to relieve stress. In a Japanese study, lemon essential oil in vapour form has been found to reduce stress in mice. Research at The Ohio State University indicates that Lemon oil aroma may enhance one's mood, and help with relaxation.
  • Thyme oil
  • Peppermint oil is often used to deter ants, by applying a few drops on their trail.
  • Lavender, Jasmine, Chamomile and Peppermint are used for anti-stress, anti-anxiety and as an anti-depressant.
  • Sage oil has been suggested to boost short-term memory performance in many using it as a dietary supplement.

Efficacy

Some benefits that have been linked to aromatherapy, such as relaxation and clarity of mind, may arise from the placebo effect rather than from any actual physiological effect. The consensus among most medical professionals is that while some aromas have demonstrated effects on mood and relaxation and may have related benefits for patients, there is currently insufficient evidence to support the claims made for aromatherapy. Scientific research on the cause and effects of aromatherapy is limited, although in vitro testing has revealed some antibacterial and antiviral effects. There is no evidence of any long-term results from an aromatherapy massage other than the pleasure achieved from a pleasant-smelling massage. A few double blind studies in the field of clinical psychology relating to the treatment of severe dementia have been published. Essential oils have a demonstrated efficacy in dental mouthwash products.

Aromatherapy has been promoted for its ability to fight cancer; however, according to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that aromatherapy is effective in preventing or treating cancer".

Safety concerns

In addition, there are potential safety concerns. Because essential oils are highly concentrated they can irritate the skin when used in undiluted form. Therefore, they are normally diluted with a carrier oil for topical application, such as jojoba oil, olive oil, or coconut oil. Phototoxic reactions may occur with citrus peel oils such as lemon or lime. Also, many essential oils have chemical components that are sensitisers (meaning that they will, after a number of uses, cause reactions on the skin, and more so in the rest of the body). Some of the chemical allergies could even be caused by pesticides, if the original plants are cultivated. Some oils can be toxic to some domestic animals, with cats being particularly prone.

Lavender oil does not mimic estrogen nor does it enhance the body’s own estrogens. It is therefore not a ‘hormone disruptor’, cannot cause breast growth in young boys (or girls of any age), and is safe to use by anyone at risk for estrogen-dependent cancer. The lack of estrogenic action is the conclusion of a new report, which used a novel form of ‘uterotrophic’ assay.

This measures the effect of a test substance on the uterus of immature or estrogen-deprived female rats over three days. Any estrogenic action causes a rapid and measurable increase in uterine weight. The assay has been in use since the 1930s, was adopted by the OECD in 2007, and is now regarded as the “benchmark animal assay for estrogenic effects” (Politano 2013).

A 2007 report by Henley et al found that both lavender and tea tree oils had a weak in vitro estrogenic action. Lavender was suggested as the cause of three cases of prepubertal gynecomastia (breast growth) in boys, and tea tree was suggested in one case. The report was subsequently criticized on a number of grounds. For example it was pointed out that there was no evidence of either essential oil causing the gynecomastia in any of the four cases, and that in vitro estrogenic findings frequently do not extrapolate to a similar action in warm bodies (see Rebuttals, below).


Since 2007 there have been many warnings about lavender and tea tree oils that relate back to this study. Others, including myself, have suggested that such cautions are unnecessary and premature. The new research, in which considerable quantities of lavender oil were used, found that there was no increase in uterine weight, and so no estrogenic action.

The novel aspect of the uterotrophic assay was that the test substance – lavender oil – was applied to the skin, while the most common method is subcutaneous injection. This was changed in order to mimic the circumstances of the Henley et al 2007 case reports, and it also mimics the use of lavender oil in fragrances and personal care products. Lavender oil was used in two concentrations, 4% and 20% in corn oil. According to Politano et al 2013, these concentrations are respectively more than 6,000 and 30,000 times greater than a conservative estimate of human skin exposure from multiple cosmetic products containing lavender oil. They are also 5,000 and 1,000,000 times greater than the estimated exposure to lavender oil experienced by the Henley et al boys.

These calculations may seem exaggerated, but the massive differences are because in the uterotrophic assay, the lavender oil was applied in Hilltop Chambers patches, which do not allow any evaporation, or loss of essential oil by means other than dermal absorption. Examples of the quantities of fragrant substance absorbed from personal care products are shown below. The amount of fragrance absorbed from a shampoo, for instance, is 200 times less than the amount applied to the head. If amounts of dermally-absorbed lavender oil that are at least 5,000 times greater than any normal human exposure are not estrogenic, then we can be confident that this particular safety issue is not a concern.


Data from Cadby et al 2002 Safety in pregnancy is a broader question than hormonal action alone, since affects on the fetus, or even miscarriage, are theoretically possible with any substance. The question of uterine stimulation and miscarriage was thoroughly investigated here, and there is clearly no risk. As for fetal effects we know that linalool, a major constituent of lavender oil, is not fetotoxic to pregnant rats at an oral dose 1 g/kg/day for 16 days (equivalent to a human oral dose of 60 g, or 2 oz per day, and a total dose of 32 oz). The chances of lavender oil being fetotoxic in the amounts used in personal care products are negligible, considering the small amounts both applied to, and subsequently absorbed by human skin (Cadby et al 2002).

The new research findings represent a major development in our knowledge of lavender oil safety, since the possibility of estrogenic action now looks remote. While no single test should be taken as absolutely conclusive, we can expect the volume of noise about lavender being estrogenic to diminish considerably.

Rebuttals Dean CJ 2007 Prepubertal gynecomastia linked to lavender and tea tree oils. New England Journal of Medicine 356:2543-2544

Kalyan S 2007 Prepubertal gynecomastia linked to lavender and tea tree oils. New England Journal of Medicine 356:2542-2544

Kemper KJ, Romm AJ, Gardiner P 2007 Prepubertal gynecomastia linked to lavender and tea tree oils. New England Journal of Medicine 356:2541-2542

Kurtz JL 2007 Prepubertal gynecomastia linked to lavender and tea tree oils. New England Journal of Medicine 356:2542-2543

Lawrence BM 2007 Estrogenic activity in lavender and tea tree oils: Part I. Perfumer & Flavorist 32:20-25

Lawrence BM 2007 Estrogenic activity in lavender and tea tree oils: Part II. Perfumer Flavorist 32:14-20

Tisserand R Tea tree and lavender not linked to gynecomastia

Other references Cadby P A, Troy W R, Vey M G 2002 Consumer exposure to fragrance ingredients: providing estimates for safety evaluation. Regulatory Toxicology & Pharmacology 36: 246-252

Henley DV, Lipson N, Korach KS, Bloch CA 2007 Prebubertal gynecomastia linked to lavender and tea tree oils. New England Journal of Medicine 365(5): 479-485

Politano VT, Lewis EM, Hoberman AM et al 2008 Evaluation of the developmental toxicity of linalool in rats. International Journal of Toxicology 27:183-188

Politano VT, McGinty D, Lewis EM et al 2013 Uterotrophic assay of percutaneous lavender oil in immature female rats. International Journal of Toxicology


Two common oils, lavender and tea tree, have been implicated in causing gynaecomastia, an abnormal breast tissue growth, in prepubescent boys, although the report which cites this potential issue is based on observations of only three boys, and two of those boys were significantly above average in weight for their age, thus already prone to gynaecomastia. A child hormone specialist at the University of Cambridge claimed "... these oils can mimic estrogens" and "people should be a little bit careful about using these products." The study has been criticised on many different levels by many authorities. The Aromatherapy Trade Council of the UK has issued a rebuttal. The Australian Tea Tree Association, a group that promotes the interests of Australian tea tree oil producers, exporters and manufacturers issued a letter that questioned the study and called on the New England Journal of Medicine for a retraction (ATTIA). The New England Journal of Medicine has so far not replied and has not retracted the study.

As with any bioactive substance, an essential oil that may be safe for the general public could still pose hazards for pregnant and lactating women.

While some advocate the ingestion of essential oils for therapeutic purposes, licensed aromatherapy professionals do not recommend self prescription due the highly toxic nature of some essential oils. Some very common oils like Eucalyptus are extremely toxic when taken internally. Doses as low as one teaspoon have been reported to cause clinically significant symptoms and severe poisoning can occur after ingestion of 4 to 5 ml. A few reported cases of toxic reactions like liver damage and seizures have occurred after ingestion of sage, hyssop, thuja, and cedar. Accidental ingestion may happen when oils are not kept out of reach of children.

Oils both ingested and applied to the skin can potentially have negative interaction with conventional medicine. For example, the topical use of methyl salicylate heavy oils like Sweet Birch and Wintergreen may cause hemorrhaging in users taking the anticoagulant Warfarin.

Adulterated oils may also pose problems depending on the type of substance used.

In early 2014, a cat received chemical burns after he spilled the liquid from a reed diffuser.

See also

References

  1. Carson, C. F.; Hammer, K. A.; Riley, T. V. (2006). "Melaleuca alternifolia (Tea Tree) Oil: A Review of Antimicrobial and Other Medicinal Properties". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 19 (1): 50–62. doi:10.1128/CMR.19.1.50-62.2006. PMC 1360273. PMID 16418522.
  2. van der Watt, Gillian; Janca, Aleksandar (August 2008). "Aromatherapy in nursing and mental health care". Contemporary Nurse. 30 (1): 69–75. doi:10.5555/conu.673.30.1.69. PMID 19072192. {{cite journal}}: Check |doi= value (help); Unknown parameter |doi_brokendate= ignored (|doi-broken-date= suggested) (help)
  3. Edris, Amr E. (2007). "Pharmaceutical and therapeutic Potentials of essential oils and their individual volatile constituents: A review". Phytotherapy Research. 21 (4): 308–23. doi:10.1002/ptr.2072. PMID 17199238.
  4. Dioscorides, Pedanius; Goodyer, John (trans.) (1959). Gunther, R.T. (ed.). The Greek Herbal of Dioscorides. New York: Hafner Publishing. OCLC 3570794.
  5. Forbes, R.J. (1970). A short history of the art of distillation. Leiden: E.J. Brill. OCLC 2559231.
  6. Ericksen, Marlene (2000). Healing With Aromatherapy. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 9. ISBN 0-658-00382-8.
  7. Gattefossé, R.-M.; Tisserand, R. (1993). Gattefossé's aromatherapy. Saffron Walden: C.W. Daniel. ISBN 0-85207-236-8.
  8. "Aromatherapy". University of Maryland Medical Center. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  9. Valnet, J.; Tisserand, R. (1990). The practice of aromatherapy: A classic compendium of plant medicines & their healing properties. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press. ISBN 0-89281-398-9.
  10. "Organic Bath Oil". Plaisirs. Retrieved 11 October 2011.
  11. Kingston, Jennifer A. (28 July 2010). "Nostrums: Aromatherapy Rarely Stands Up to Testing". The New York Times. Retrieved 29 December 2010.
  12. Nagourney, Eric (11 March 2008). "Skin Deep: In Competition for your Nose". The New York Times. Retrieved 29 December 2010.
  13. Mathrani, Vandana (17 January 2008). "The Power of Smell".
  14. Prabuseenivasan, Seenivasan; Jayakumar, Manickkam; Ignacimuthu, Savarimuthu (2006). "In vitro antibacterial activity of some plant essential oils". BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 6: 39. doi:10.1186/1472-6882-6-39. PMC 1693916. PMID 17134518.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  15. Kim HJ (June 2007). "향기요법 마사지가 폐경여성의 복부비만과 신체상에 미치는 영향". Taehan Kanho Hakhoe Chi (in Korean). 37 (4): 603–12. PMID 17615482. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  16. Rho, Kook-Hee; Han, Sun-Hee; Kim, Keum-Soon; Lee, Myeong Soo (2006). "Effects of Aromatherapy Massage on Anxiety and Self-Esteem in Korean Elderly Women: A Pilot Study". International Journal of Neuroscience. 116 (12): 1447–55. doi:10.1080/00207450500514268. PMID 17145679.
  17. Barrett, Stephen. "Aromatherapy: Making Dollars out of Scents". Science & Pseudoscience Review in Mental Health. Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice. Retrieved 21 February 2013.
  18. Komiya, Migiwa; Takeuchi, Takashi; Harada, Etsumori (2006). "Lemon oil vapor causes an anti-stress effect via modulating the 5-HT and DA activities in mice". Behavioural Brain Research. 172 (2): 240–9. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2006.05.006. PMID 16780969.
  19. Kiecolt-Glaser, Janice K.; Graham, Jennifer E.; Malarkey, William B.; Porter, Kyle; Lemeshow, Stanley; Glaser, Ronald (2008). "Olfactory influences on mood and autonomic, endocrine, and immune function". Psychoneuroendocrinology. 33 (3): 328–39. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.11.015. PMC 2278291. PMID 18178322. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |laydate= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |laysource= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |laysummary= ignored (help)
  20. Schelz, Zsuzsanna; Molnar, Joseph; Hohmann, Judit (2006). "Antimicrobial and antiplasmid activities of essential oils". Fitoterapia. 77 (4): 279–85. doi:10.1016/j.fitote.2006.03.013. PMID 16690225.
  21. http://www.experience-essential-oils.com/natural-ant-killer.html
  22. Melissa Hantman (11 November 2003). "Spicing Up Your Memory". Psychology Today.
  23. ^ "Aromatherapy". American Cancer Society. November 2008. Retrieved September 2013. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  24. Kalemba, D.; Kunicka, A. (2003). "Antibacterial and Antifungal Properties of Essential Oils". Current Medicinal Chemistry. 10 (10): 813–29. doi:10.2174/0929867033457719. PMID 12678685.
  25. Reichling, Jürgen; Schnitzler, Paul; Suschke, Ulrike; Saller, Reinhard (2009). "Essential Oils of Aromatic Plants with Antibacterial, Antifungal, Antiviral, and Cytotoxic Properties – an Overview". Forschende Komplementärmedizin. 16 (2): 79–80. doi:10.1159/000207196. PMID 19420953.
  26. Soden, Katie; Vincent, Karen; Craske, Stephen; Lucas, Caroline; Ashley, Sue (2004). "A randomized controlled trial of aromatherapy massage in a hospice setting". Palliative Medicine. 18 (2): 87–92. doi:10.1191/0269216304pm874oa. PMID 15046404.
  27. Ballard, Clive G.; O'Brien, John T.; Reichelt, Katharina; Perry, Elaine K. (2002). "Aromatherapy as a Safe and Effective Treatment for the Management of Agitation in Severe Dementia". The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 63 (7): 553–8. doi:10.4088/JCP.v63n0703. PMID 12143909.
  28. Holmes, Clive; Hopkins, Vivienne; Hensford, Christine; MacLaughlin, Vanessa; Wilkinson, David; Rosenvinge, Henry (2002). "Lavender oil as a treatment for agitated behaviour in severe dementia: A placebo controlled study". International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. 17 (4): 305–8. doi:10.1002/gps.593. PMID 11994882.
  29. Stoeken, Judith E.; Paraskevas, Spiros; Van Der Weijden, Godefridus A. (2007). "The Long-Term Effect of a Mouthrinse Containing Essential Oils on Dental Plaque and Gingivitis: A Systematic Review". Journal of Periodontology. 78 (7): 1218–28. doi:10.1902/jop.2007.060269. PMID 17608576.
  30. Grassman, J; Elstner, E F (1973). "Essential Oils". In Caballero, Benjamin; Trugo, Luiz C; Finglas, Paul M (eds.). Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition (2nd ed.). Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-227055-X.
  31. Cather, JC; MacKnet, MR; Menter, MA (2000). "Hyperpigmented macules and streaks". Proceedings. 13 (4). Baylor University Medical Center: 405–6. PMC 1312240. PMID 16389350.
  32. Edwards, J.; Bienvenu, F.E. (1999). Australasian Plant Pathology. 28 (3): 212. doi:10.1071/AP99036. {{cite journal}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  33. Adamovic, D.S.; et al. "Variability of herbicide efficiency and their effect upon yield and quality of peppermint (Mentha X Piperital L.)". Retrieved 6 June 2009. {{cite web}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |first= (help)
  34. The Lavender Cat – Cats and Essential Oil Safety
  35. Bischoff, K.; Guale, F. (1998). "Australian Tea Tree (Melaleuca Alternifolia) Oil Poisoning in Three Purebred Cats". Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation. 10 (2): 208–10. doi:10.1177/104063879801000223. PMID 9576358.
  36. Henley, Derek V.; Lipson, Natasha; Korach, Kenneth S.; Bloch, Clifford A. (2007). "Prepubertal Gynecomastia Linked to Lavender and Tea Tree Oils". New England Journal of Medicine. 356 (5): 479–85. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa064725. PMID 17267908.
  37. "Oils make male breasts develop". BBC News. London. 1 February 2007. Archived from the original on 29 August 2007. Retrieved 9 September 2007. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  38. 'NEITHER LAVENDER OIL NOR TEA TREE OIL CAN BE LINKED TO BREAST GROWTH IN YOUNG BOYS'
  39. 'ATTIA refutes gynecomastia link', Article Date: 21 February 2007
  40. Eucalyptus oil (PIM 031)
  41. Millet, Y.; Jouglard, J.; Steinmetz, M. D.; Tognetti, P.; Joanny, P.; Arditti, J. (1981). "Toxicity of Some Essential Plant Oils. Clinical and Experimental Study". Clinical Toxicology. 18 (12): 1485–98. doi:10.3109/15563658108990357. PMID 7333081.
  42. Spilled Reed Diffuser Harms Cat. Snopes.

External links

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