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Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is a set of techniques, axioms and beliefs, that adherents use primarily as an approach to personal development. NLP was influenced by the ideas of the New Age era as well as beliefs in human potential. The initial ideas of NLP were developed around 1973 by Richard Bandler, a student, and John Grinder, a professor of linguistics, in association with the social scientist Gregory Bateson. The term "Neuro-linguistic programming" denotes a set of models and principles meant to explore how mind and neurology (neuro), language patterns (linguistic), and the organization of human perception and cognition into systemic patterns (programming) interact to create subjective reality and human behaviors.

NLP practitioners believe that our subjective reality drives beliefs, perceptions and behaviors, and that therefore behavior change, transforming beliefs, and treatment of traumas is possible. Techniques based upon language patterns and body language cues derived from the observations of several therapists, were described by the original developers as "therapeutic magic," with NLP itself described as 'the study of the structure of subjective experience". They are predicated upon the principle that all behaviors (whether functional or dysfunctional) are not random, but have a structure which can be understood

Though NLP is currently promoted within psychotherapy associations , it is criticized as pseudoscientific and for involving exaggerated claims, unethical practices, and mass-marketed psychobabble. NLP is considered by scientists as fraudulent, and as a dubious therapy. Beyerstein, Lilienfeld , and Eisner report that there is concern about NLP contributing to the spread of misconceptions about the mind and brain and NLP techniques being potentially harmful, and are concerned over government and business organizations and the public being duped into adopting NLP.

History and development

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Neuro-linguistic programming was developed jointly by Richard Bandler and John Grinder under the tutelage of anthropologist, social scientist, linguist and cyberneticist Gregory Bateson, at the University of California, Santa Cruz, during the 1960s and 1970s.

Originally a study into how excellent psychotherapists were achieving results they did, it rapidly grew into a field and methodology of its own, based around the skill of modeling as used to identify and confirm aspects of others behaviors and ways of thinking that led them to notability in their field. They took a similar approach to change. It did not matter to them if the client had an understanding for the problem, rather they focused on finding people who had successfully overcome, and how they did it.

The initial three individuals Grinder and Bandler modeled were Fritz Perls (Gestalt Therapy), Virginia Satir (Family therapy) and Milton H. Erickson (Ericksonian Hypnosis). These individuals were considered highly competent in their fields, and the consistent patterns and approaches they appeared to be using, became the basis of NLP. Grinder and Bandler analyzed the speaking patterns, voice tones, word selection, gesticulations, postures, and eye movements of these individuals and related this information to the internal thinking process of each participant. These were the first of what came to be called "modeling" projects. The findings of these projects have been widely used and integrated into many other fields, from health and disability, to law enforcement, to hypnotherapy and coaching.

In the 1960s and 1970s, general semantics influenced several schools of thought, leading to a viable human potential industry and associations with emerging New Age thinking. Human potential seminars, such as Esalen in California began to attract people. Neuro-linguistic programming attracted mostly therapists at first but eventually drew the attention of business people, sales people, artists, and "new-agers" (Hall, 1994). As it expanded, Leslie Cameron-Bandler, Judith DeLozier, Robert Dilts, and David Gordon made further contributions to NLP and the seminars of Bandler and Grinder were transcribed into a book, Frogs into Princes. This became a popular NLP book; demand for seminars increased, which in turn became successful human potential attractions (Dilts, 1991).

Most of the techniques that are commonly grouped together as NLP can be traced back to the early published works of the co-founders and the group of developers that surrounded them in the 1970s. Bandler and Grinder took an immersion approach to learning, and would step into the shoes of successful people in order to learn how they did what they did. They would imitate these people, without an initial concern for understanding. This concept was carried through into their changework.

Their first published model, the meta model was an approach to change based on responding to the syntactic elements in a client's language which gave them information about the limits to their model of the world. Gregory Bateson, who wrote the foreword for the first book on NLP, was impressed with the early work in NLP, and introduced the co-founders to Milton Erickson. Bateson became quite influential in the development of the people behind NLP, and providing many of the intellectual foundations for the field.

The pair became immersed in the world of Milton H. Erickson and were given full access to his work, they developed and published the Milton model based on Erickson's hypnotic language, therapeutic metaphors and other behavioral patterns such as pacing and leading in to build rapport. Erickson and the co-founders shared the idea that conscious attention is limited and thus attempted to engage the willing attention of the unconscious mind through use of metaphor and other hypnotic language patterns. Other concepts and ideas surrounding the conscious and unconscious mind were heavily influenced by Erickson:

He does not translate unconscious communication into conscious form. Whatever the patient says in metaphoric form, Erickson responds in kind. By parables, by interpersonal action, and by directives, he works within the metaphor to bring about change. He seems to feel that the depth and swiftness of that change can be prevented if the person suffers a translation of the communication. (Haley, "Uncommon therapy", 1973 + 1986, p.28)

With the 1980s, Grinder and Bandler fell out, and amidst acrimony and intellectual property lawsuits, NLP started to be developed haphazard by many individuals, some ethically, and some opportunistically, often under multiple confusing brand names. During the 1990s, tentative attempts were made to put NLP on a more formal and better regulated footing, in countries such as the UK. Around 2001, the law suits finally became settled.

Origins of the name

The developers of NLP, Bandler and Grinder, explain NLP follows Korzybski's ideas; that our maps of the world are distorted representations due to neurological functioning and constraints. ( p12). “Information about the world arrives at the receptors of the 5 senses and is then subjected to various neurological transforms (F1) and linguistic transforms (F2) even before our first access to the information, meaning we never experience an objective reality that hasn't been shaped by our language and neurology. (Grinder, 2001, Pgs 127, 171, 222)

In the book "Crazy Therapies", Singer et al state that 'Bandler says the name NLP was “phrased on the fly from several book titles on the floor of his car one night when a policeman asked his occupation.”'

Overview

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Principles

Robert Dilts says that "NLP is theoretically rooted in neurology, psychophysiology, linguistics, cybernetics and communication theory". Other NLP proponents say it is not based on theory, it is based on modeling (and Richard Bandler states that he does not "do theory"). Dilts et al. state that NLP is more interested in what works than what is true. The developers of NLP, Bandler and Grinder, explain NLP follows Korzybski's ideas; that our maps of the world are distorted representations due to neurological functioning and constraints. ( p12). “Information about the world arrives at the receptors of the 5 senses and is then subjected to various neurological transforms (F1) and linguistic transforms (F2) even before our first access to the information, meaning we never experience an objective reality that hasn't been shaped by our language and neurology. (Grinder, 2001, Pgs 127, 171, 222). NLP is sometimes described as an empirical epistemology. That means it is based on personal experience and observation. It is eclectic and focuses on the question of "what works". Druckman & Swets (1988) comment:

The system was developed in answer to particular psychotherapists were so effective with their patients. Rather than explore this question in terms of psychotherapeutic theory and practice, Bandler and Grinder sought to analyze what the therapists were doing at an observational level, categorize it, and apply the categories as a general model of interpersonal influence. NLP seeks to instruct people to observe, make inferences, and respond to others, as did the three original, very effective therapists.

Its adherents believe that it is closer to a technology than a science, and it is often identified as being similar to engineering in that it tries to answer "what works?" rather than "what is true?". They would say that they strive to produce practical models and usable approaches. NLP incorporates a variety of foundational assumptions that precede the presuppositions. These are:

1. There is a mind-body connection
2. The mind is broadly composed of a conscious and a subconscious (or unconscious) component .
3. A person's experience of the world is processed and organized exclusively in terms of the five senses
4. Physiology, sensory representation ("submodality") and emotion comprise internal state .
5. Behavior is the result of systematically ordered sequences of sensory representations ("strategies")
6. All behavior occurs in the context of internal state .
7. Internal state mediates experience and influences or determines behavior .
8. Internal state and strategy — hence behavior — have a discernible and communicable structure .
9. People exhibit their internal state in their language (verbal and non-verbal) .
10. Since behavior and its substrates — internal state and strategy — can be codified, a person's skill can be reproduced in another person
11. Behavior is learned
12. Direct and objective knowledge of the (external) world is not possible (the map is not the territory)

Robert Dilts in Roots of NLP (1983 p61) explains neural functioning in relation to the adding of new connections,Hebbian cell assemblies (Hebbian engrams), causal loops, and digital circuitry. From his observation of the work of scientist Konrad Lorenz, Dilts states that when learning experiences occur in our life, new neural networks are imprinted in our brains recording events and their associated meaning. Basing his conclusions in part on Timothy Leary's 8-Circuit Model of Consciousness, Dilts states that these imprints "established at neurologically critical periods," could be later re imprinted or reprogrammed. (Dilts, 1990, p76,77). Practitioners such as Derks, Singer, and Goldblatt theorize that NLP processes can be explained through the neurological concepts of programming and reprogramming engrams. According to Derks, NLP anchors are conditioned stimuli which work by activating engrams which are proposed "to give a patterned response which has been stabilized at the level of unconscious competence".

There are several beliefs and presuppositions that were published by the NLP developers still taught in NLP training which were designed to bring together some of the patterns shared by the successful therapists and experts in communication. Most of these stem from Bateson or Korzybski's idea that the map is not the territory; multiple descriptions promote choice and flexibility and that people have organised personal resources (states, outcomes, beliefs) effectively in order to change themselves and achieve outcomes. Even a seemingly negative behavior or part is considered in NLP to be attempting to fulfill some positive intention (of which they may not be aware of consciously). These presuppositions may not be true, but it is useful to act as if they are in the change contexts. The last one, for example, assumes that the current behavior exhibited by a person represents the best choice available to them at the time.. All of these methods and techniques (anchoring, representational systems) require superb sensory acuity and calibration skills, considered to be prerequisites to using any of these models. Several of the presuppositions of NLP which relate directly to this, for example from William Ross Ashby, state 'there is no failure', only 'feedback'; an idea which was borrowed from information theory about the importance of feedback loops to learning. Another idea, is that the meaning of communication is the response it produces. These ideas have been described as an Batesonian epistemology . A presupposition (linguistic term) is a background belief that is treated by the NLP practitioner "as if" it were literally true.

These presuppositional beliefs are considered groundbreaking by NLP proponents because of a contradiction with the modern scientific Aristotelian view that reality can be objectively measured . The psychoanalyst view of Herbert Strean (1995) is that the presuppositions upon which NLP are founded are not valid . The other commonly related presuppositional beliefs are derived from the these two fundamental presuppositions . Peter Wrycza, PhD believes the NLP presuppositional beliefs of unlimited resource and the positive intention behind every behaviour to be ultimately spiritual in nature .

Purpose and uses

Neuro-linguistic Programming is an eclectic field, and covers a wide array of aspects of personal development. There is less empirical or experimental support for these methods than comparable approaches, relying anecdotal evidence for its efficacy . Its methods deal with issues ranging from reframing negative beliefs, to dealing with stage fright by reducing simple phobias, and more generally to communications, and motivational products.

The main topics that NLP has been concerned with differs between authors and training providers. The terminology and usage also differs. For example, NLP was in part derived from the work of Milton H. Erickson and subsquently, those who emphasise the therpeutic application often use terminology borrowed from Erickson. They focus on hypnotic phenomena, such as, the use of unconscious communications, therapeutic metaphor, post-hypnotic suggestion, pain control, age regression, and enhanced sensory perception. Some trainers offer techiques for psychotherapy or self-help that promise to reframe negative beliefs, depression, or addiction, at the same time model those who excel in performing business, sports, meditation or even ESP. Generally, NLP says that performance in any activity is highly dependant on the organisation of physiology, breathing, and use of representational systems, and thus state .

NLP as an approach to therapy has been frequently de-emphasized as the primary purpose for NLP. At the same time, others within the NLP community, consider therapy to be a core application, and advocate its importance. NLP and its techniques have been widely adopted for use in motivational seminars, adult education, and management and sales training, often being mixed with pop psychology, as well as other applications outside of mainstream.

Religosity

Sociologist, Stephen J Hunt says that while it may have an "implied religosity"..."it is a technique rather than an organised religion and is used by several different human potential movements.(p.195) Simiarly, David V. Barrett (2001) states that "the brief biographies of NLP Trainers usually give the names of the people they have trained under, this could be seen as similar to new Eastern origin religions tracing themselves back through a progression of gurus"(p.434). Psychologists Beyerstein (1990) and Lilienfeld et al (2001) classify NLP as a "New Age" development or "New Age" therapy mainly because of its lacks empirical support . An overview of the New Age movement by Mary Kelly claims that NLP was involved in the foundation of the New Age ((dubious}}. Furthermore, Dilts claims that John Grinder was influenced by Carlos Castaneda's Don Juan in developing the double hypnotic induction, and perceptual positions (p.143).

Concepts and methods

Representational systems

The representation systems in NLP comprises of behavioral cues that purport to indicate the type and sequence of internal processes. Futher it is claimed that internal processes can be subjectively described in terms of visual, auditory, kinesthetic (less commonly, olfactory and gustatory) representations. .

The early group (Dilts et al. 1980) observed that people tended to give away information about their unconscious processing in the current eye movements patterns, as well as changes in body posture, gestures, fluctuating voice tone, breathing shifts were linked to sensory-based language, "I see that clearly!", "I hear what you are saying" or "let's remain in touch" . This formed the basis of the representational systems model. And in turn allowed them to develop approaches to map the strategies both successful people and clients in therapeutic contexts. For example, the phobia reduction process involves separating (Visual / kinesthetic dissociation) that is supposed to reduce the negative feelings associated to a traumatic event and submodality change work which involved altering representations of memory, for example, size, brightness, movement of internal images, in order to affect a behavioural change. . By being able to notice non-verbal cues that indicate internal processing as well as the type an sequence of the process, they were able to focus on pattern, rather than personal content of client. Other methods for change included anchoring, the process involving elicitation of resourceful memory, in order to bootstrap those for future contexts.

Robert Dilts has presented this model in mnemonic form (BAGEL):

1. Body posture (Head position, and lean)
2. Accessing cues (Changes in tone and tempo of voice)
3. Gestures (Timing, and position of gestures)
4. Eye movements (The direction of and movement of eyes)
5. Language patterns (Sensory specific language, for example, Visual: "to clearly understand" or Kinesthetic: "to grasp a concept")

Additionally, hemispheric differences (Lateralization of brain function) have been used to support representational systems in NLP. For instance, Robert Dilts proposed that eye movements (and sometimes gestures) correspond to visual/auditory/kinesthetic representations and thus to sides of the brain. It is claimed that eye movements to the left correspond with recalled memory, while eye movements to the right indicate construction. Representational systems are then then connected to logic, analysis, and creative, imaginative duality. .

Patterns/rituals

• Circle of Excellence: Standing in an imaginary magic circle, filling it with symbols and archetypes of choice, in order to banish negativity and enhance positive thinking for use in any NLP situation
• Perceptual positions: A situation is considered from different points of view of those involved, typically 1.self, 2.other, 3.a neutral observer, 4. a god's eye view .
• Dilts' Neurological Levels of Learning: Categorisation of information into a hierarchies consisting of environment, behavior, competency, belief/value, identity and or spirituality (purpose) . Sometimes associated with the chakras with spirit linked to the crown chakra.
• The Swish Pattern: Repetitively pushing away negative mental imagery and pulling forward positive imagery using body language and saying "SWISSSHHH" in order to affect a behavior change
• Visual / Kinesthetic dissociation: Imagining floating back and out of the body in order to diss-associate with a negative experience.
• Rapport: Mirroring or copying somebody's body language, and representational language (VAK) in an attempt to gain trust and directly influence their subconscious mind (Bandler et al 1977p10).
• Submodality modification: Deliberately changing the size, brightness, movement of internal images in an attempt to alter the impact of those images

Ecology

In principle, NLP is usually described as a "client-oriented" methodology, in that the client's subjective perception is treated with respect, and to a large degree the client's developing perception of a problem or situation which provides the feedback and basis for guidance within NLP intervention. In business or conflict resolution NLP usually advocates a win-win philosophy. The term "ecology" (borrowed in the sense of "how disparate things co-exist in balance") is used to signify the careful checking needed to ensure that all aspects of a situation are taken into account, such as the well-being of others involved, the ethics of the work done, the beneficial nature of goals sought, any secondary gains affected, and so on.

Modeling

The goal of modeling is to capture a behavior of an expert and transfer it to another person. The NLP theory behind modeling does not state that anyone can be Einstein. Rather, it says that know-how can be separated from the person, documented and transferred experientially, and that the ability to perform the skills can be transferred subject to the modeler's own limits, which can change, and improves with practice. This is often interpreted as a view of "unlimited potential" because a person's ability to change is only limited by the change technology available to that person.

Modeling involves observing in depth, discussing, and imitating and practicing many different aspects of the subject's thoughts, feelings, beliefs and behaviors (i.e., acting "as if" the modeler is the expert) until the modeler can replicate these with some consistency and precision.

Alternate styles

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There is no single definitive system of NLP . Rather, different authors, individual trainers practitioners have develop their own methods, concepts and labels, often branding them as "NLP" :

• John Grinder teaches New Code of NLP
• Richard Bandler himself now teaches his own offshoot of NLP, called DHE (Design Human Engineering)
• Anthony Robbins teaches NAC (Neuro Associative Conditioning)
• Michael Hall teaches Neuro-Semantics
• Tad James teaches NLP under his company, NLP Coaching and developed the visually oriented Time Line Therapy process.

While Tad James and Michael Hall are certainly well-known in the field of NLP, people like Judith DeLozier and Connirae and Stephen Andreas have been much more influential in its development.

Around 1978, NLP practitioner certification was set up as a 20 day program with the aim of training therapists to apply NLP as an adjunct to their professional qualifications. In Europe, the European NLP therapy association has been promoting their training in line with European therapy standards. David V. Barrett (2001) says that in The New Believers: A Survey of Sects, Cults and Alternative Religions NLP is not included as a religion; it is described as a technique or series of techniques, or a process. It is used by some religions, and NLP as a philosophy does exhibit some characteristics which are sometimes found in some religions, but overall the balance comes down against it being labelled as a religion."(p.26) Peter Schütz, Austrian management consultant, and psychotherapist who applies NLP to his profession, outlines the issues with varying length and quality of NLP training, and the difference between the hobbyist courses and full length training, Schütz outlines some criticism of NLP stating it has even been, "labeled in unfavorable political ways (nazilinguistic programming)"

Reception of NLP

NLP been criticized by clinical psychologists, management scholars, linguists, and psychotherapists, concerning ineffectiveness, pseudoscientific explanation of linguistics and neurology, ethically questionable practices, cult-like characteristics, promotion by exaggerated claims, and promises of extraordinary therapeutic results. Some reviews have characterized NLP as mass-marketed psychobabble. Sanghera, a columnist for Financial Times (London, 2005) writes, "critics say NLP is simply a half-baked conflation of pop psychology and pseudoscience that uses jargon to disguise the fact that it is based on a set of banal, if not incorrect, presuppositions".

The claims of NLP founders to have modelled the skills of Milton Erickson have been disputed. Andre Weitzenhoffer, a widely respected authority on hypnotism who knew Erickson personally and collaborated with him, is known for his criticism that modern proponents of Erickson have grossly distorted his work,

'Richard Bandler and John Grinder have offered a much adulterated, and at times fanciful, version of what they perceived Erickson as saying or doing guided by their own personal theorising.' (Weitzenhoffer, The Practice of Hypnotism, 2000: 592-593)

In his detailed discussion of the relative merits of various therapeutic techniques, Weitzenhoffer elsewhere emphasises that, “the neurolinguistic programming notions of Bandler and Grinder have very little substance and no empirical foundations.” (Weitzenhoffer, The Practice of Hypnotism, 2000: 108)

Albert Ellis, the founder of REBT and one of the pioneers of modern cognitive-behavioural therapy, dismissed NLP as a technique to be "avoided" in evidence-based treatment, classifying it as follows: "Techniques that have dubious validity (e.g., neurolinguistic programming)." (Dryden & Ellis, in Dobson, The Handbook of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapies, 2001: 331)

In 1996, a US survey demonstrated that clinical psychologists generally perceive NLP to be one of the psychological therapies of most questionable validity (Starker & Pankratz, 1996, ‘Soundness of treatment: a survey of psychologists’ opinions.’ Psychological Reports 1996;78:288-290).

Lilienfeld states that the The Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice (SRMHP) is concern over the adoption of scientifically unsupported New Age therapies such as NLP (2002). For example, NLP is a government accredited field in Australia and is used or suggested as an approach by a some mental health bodies, including the National Phobics Society of Great Britain , MIND , USU: Student Health and Wellness Center , the British Stammering Association, the Center for Development & Disability at the University of New Mexico Center for autism , and Advocates of Child Abuse Survivors. SRMHP's concern is that "unvalidated or scientifically unsupported mental health practices undermine the general public’s confidence in our professions, they "can lead individuals to forgo effective treatments", they "can be harmful", and they can "eat away at the scientific foundations of our professions" (Lilienfeld 2002).

Claims to science

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Margaret Singer (1996) states that "NLP often associates itself with science in order to raise its own prestige" . Winkin (1990) considers such promotion to be "intellectually fraudulent" and compares NLP's association with Science to astrology's association to astronomy . Singer (1996) states that "none of the NLP developers have done any research to prove their models correct though NLP promoters and advertisers continue to call the originators scientists and use such terms as science, technology and hi-tech psychology in describing NLP"(p.172). CAP, a UK-based advertising body has issued an advisory in relation to "Stop smoking claims by hypnotherapists" that "references to NLP should avoid implying that it is a new science" .

Psycholinguist Willem Levelt states that (translated into English by Pieter Drenth) "NLP is not informed about linguistics literature, it is based on vague insights that were out of date long ago, their linguistics concepts are not properly construed or are mere fabrications, and conclusions are based upon the wrong premises. NLP theory and practice has nothing to do with neuroscientific insights or linguistics, nor with informatics or theories of programming" . Corballis states that "NLP is a thoroughly fake title, designed to give the impression of scientific respectability. NLP has little to do with neurology, linguistics, or even the respectable subdiscipline of neurolinguistics".

NLP has been classed as a pseudoscientific self help development , in the same mold as EST (Landmark Forum) and Dianetics(Scientology). Steve Salerno (2005), in Sham: How the Self-Help Movement Made America Helpless associates NLP with pseudoscience, and has criticized its promotion as self-help. Psychologists such as Margaret Singer and management experts such as Von Bergen (1997) have criticized its use within management and human resources developments. For instance, extraordinary and unsupported claims have been made by some NLP promoters, including claims of the heightening of perception to allow a novice martial artist to beat an expert , and that it is possible to develop photographic memory through the use of NLP .

A list of pseudoscientific therapy characteristics identified within NLP:

• The use of scientific sounding language
• "The absence of connectivity"
• Lack of controlled studies, while relying on testimonial and anecdotal evidence
• "An overuse of ad hoc hypotheses and reversed burden of proof designed to immunize claims from falsification"
• "Emphasis on confirmation rather than refutation (eg reliance on asking how rather than why)"
• "Absence of boundary conditions"
• "Reversed burden of proof (away from those making claim (NLP promoters), and towards those testing the claim (Scientists))".
• "The mantra of holism and eclecticism designed to immunize from verifiable efficacy" (Claiming that NLP is unmeasurable due to too many factors or to simplistically “do what works”).
• Limited peer reviewed literature to support its claims: For example, Eisner states that there has been little peer reviewed literature published between 1990 and 2000, stating that "if such incredible results had truly been achieved why haven't they been documented and presented to the scientific community... ?" (p.209)

Modern neuroscience indicates that NLP's notions of neurology are erroneous and pseudoscientific in regards to: left/right brain hemispheric differences , the association of eye movements or body gestures to brain hemispheres. The idea that people have visual, auditory and kinesthetic learning styles which has little substantative evidence . In the skeptics dictionary, Robert Carroll states that it is impossible to determine a "correct" NLP model. NLP is also based on some of Freud's most flawed and pseudoscientific thinking that has been rejected by the mainstream psychology community for decades.

Scientific analysis

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Early research reviews have generally concluded that NLP has failed to demonstrate its claimed efficacy in controlled studies. Sharpley (1984) review found no support NLP techniques and models, for example, preferred representational system (PRS) and predicate matching. A single critique by Einspruch and Forman (1985) contended that Sharpley (1984) made a number of methodological errors in "a review of research on the preferred representational system". Firstly, researcher’s lack of full understanding of pattern recognition in an experienced NLP context. Secondly, there was an inadequate control of context. Thirdly, unfamiliarity with NLP as an approach to therapy. In addition, there were inadequate definitions of rapport and numerous "logical mistakes" in the research methodology. However, Sharpley (1987) rebutted with additional experimental evidence to further demonstrate his case that NLP was ineffective and in error in both method and model. In 1988 United States National Research Council (a board of 14 prepared scientific experts), report found that "individually, and as a group, these studies fail to provide an empirical base of support for NLP assumptions...or NLP effectiveness. The committee cannot recommend the employment of such an unvalidated technique"; they assert that "instead of being grounded in contemporary, scientifically derived neurological theory, NLP is based on outdated metaphors of brain functioning and is laced with numerous factual errors". Michael Heap (1988), clinical psychologist who had an early interest in NLP, asserts that "the effectiveness of NLP therapy undertaken in authentic clinical contexts of trained practitioners has not yet been properly investigated." and further that "there is not, and never has been, any substance to the conjecture that people represent their world internally in a preferred mode which may be inferred from their choice of predicates and from their eye movements." In addition, Edgar Johnson, technical director of the Army Research Institute heading the NLP focused Project Jedi stated that "Lots of data shows that NLP doesn't work (Squires 1988).

The psychological research almost completely dried up after NLP's failure in those reviews. Efran and Lukens (1990) state that the "original interest in NLP turned to disillusionment after the research and now it is rarely even mentioned in psychotherapy"(p.122). Von Bergen et al (1997) states that "in relation to current understanding of neurology and perception, NLP is in error" and that "NLP does not stand up to scientific scrutiny". Donald Eisner (2000) states that NLP proponents have not "one iota of clinical research supports their claims. Apparently, no peer-reviewed researched has been published in over a decade. Moreover, there has been virtually no comparative research recently that assesses NLP's effectiveness." With no clinical support, journalist Donald Eisner (2000) believes that NLP proponents make grossly misleading claims about its effectiveness. In Brianscams: Neuromythologies of the New Age, Barry Beyerstein states that when propoents of New Age therapies or pseudosciences are challenged, "critics typically encounter anecdotes and user testimonials where there ought to be rigorous pre-and post treatment comparisons". Moreover, Beyerstein states that "bogus therapies can be explained by the placebo effect, social pressure, superficial symptomatic rather than core treatment , and overestimating some apparent successes while ignoring, downplaying, or explaining away failures." Extending from the lack of support for the efficacy of representational systems (PRS) in influencing trainers, Beyerstein asserts that "though it claims neuroscience in its pedigree, NLP's outmoded view of the relationship between cognitive style and brain function ultimately boils down to crude analogies." Margaret Singer cited the NRC research committee who stated that there was no evidence of its claimed effectiveness.. Singer also states that "the process involves pretending that a model works, trying it, then if you don’t get results, discard it and try something else" .

NLP is considered a "dubious therapy" by Dryden (2001) and as a "dubious technique" by Keith Dobson in Handbook of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies (2001) . In Crazy Therapies (1996), Singer (1996) states that "the process involves pretending that a model works, trying it, then if you don’t get results, discard it and try something else". Extending from the lack of support for the efficacy of representational systems (PRS) in influencing trainers, Beyerstein (1990) asserts that "though it claims neuroscience in its pedigree, NLP's outmoded view of the relationship between cognitive style and brain function ultimately boils down to crude analogies."(p.28) Devilly, a professor of psychology considers NLP to be an "alphabet" or "power therapy" similar to Thought Field Therapy or Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing, Emotional Freedom Technique and Traumatic Incident Reduction. According to Eisner, the various claims NLP proponents make have no clinical support and are grossly missleading. Devilly (2005) states that "controlled studies shed such a poor light on NLP and those promoting the intervention made such extreme and changeable claims that researchers found it unwise to test the theory any further"..."NLP is no longer as prevalent as it was in the 1970s or 1980s, but is still practiced in small pockets: The science has come and gone, yet the belief still remains".

Questionable applications

Currently, there is criticism from psychotherapists about the promotion of NLP within psychotherapy associations because of its lack of clinical support . NLP certification for therapists in most countries still does not require professional qualifications .

• Human resources: Human resource experts such as Von Bergen et al (1997) consider NLP to be inappropriate for management and human resource training . NLP has been found to be most ineffective concerning influence/persuasion and modeling of skills . Within management training there have been complaints concerning pressured adoption of fundamental beliefs tantamount to a forced religious conversion.

• Education: Beyerstein states that a method should be supported using controlled studies before it is applied in education.

• Occult and New Age practices: Winkin states that with its promotion with Tai Chi, Meditation, and Dianetics (Scientology), NLP is in the margins of contemporary obscurantism. NLP practitioners sometimes attempt to model spiritual experiences, which inherently, are lacking in scientific support.

Manipulation and ethical concerns

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NLP is sometimes referred to by journalists and researchers as a kind of cult or psychocult. A German educational authority banned the use of NLP in their area and stated that it has a close similarity to Scientology. NLP has also been described by Margaret Singer as a commercial cult, and has been criticised within the business sector for being coercive.

Critics say NLP is adopted as a pretext for applying ritual, authority control, dissociation, reduced rationalization, and social pressure to obtain compliance or to induce dependence. According to Devilly (2005) it is common for pseudoscientific developments to set up a granfalloon in order to promote in-group rituals and jargon, and to attack critics. Ethical concerns of NLP’s encouragement towards manipulation have been raised by exaggerated book titles such as The Unfair Advantage: Sell with NLP and NLP the New Art and Science of Getting What You Want. In contrast, therapy and coaching fields require an ethical code of conduct (eg: Psychotherapy and Counseling Federation of Australia Ethical Guidelines).

In addition, Beyerstein states that "ethical standards bodies and other professional associations state that unless a technique, process, drug, or surgical procedure can meet requirements of clinical tests, it is ethically questionable to offer it to the public, especially if money is to change hands". Salerno has criticised NLP for unethically encouraging the belief in non existent maladies and insecurities by otherwise normal individuals . For example, Salerno highlights a contradiction in Tony Robbins divorce, a proponent of NLP and of marketer of counseling for the "perfect marriage"; this has disenchanted followers of Robbins . Drenth (2003) explains that NLP is driven by economic motives and "manipulation of credulity" of clients, and explains that "often pseudoscientific practices are motivated by loathsome pursuit of gain". Drenth clarifies this with reference to the well known "financial exploitation of the victims of scientology, Avatar and similar movements".

Notes and references

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3. ^ Bandler, Richard & John Grinder (1975). The Structure of Magic I: A Book About Language and Therapy. Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books.
4. ^ Sharpley C.F. (1987). "Research Findings on Neuro-linguistic Programming: Non supportive Data or an Untestable Theory". Communication and Cognition. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1987 Vol. 34, No. 1: 103–107, 105.
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12. Morgan, Dylan A (1993). "Scientific Assessment of NLP (a review of Heap's 1988 conclusions)". Journal of the National Council for Psychotherapy & Hypnotherapy Register. Spring 1993.
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20. ^ Grinder, John & Carmen Bostic St Clair (2001.). Whispering in the Wind. CA: J & C Enterprises. pp. 127, 171, 222, ch.3, Appendix. -. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
21. ^ Dilts & Delozier (2000) The Encyclopedia of Systemic NLP
22. Alder H. (1994) The Right Brain Manager: How to Use the Power of Your Mind to Achieve Personal and Professional Success Piatkus Books ISBN 0-7499-1349-5 p.65))
23. Malloy, T. E., Bostic St Clair, C. & Grinder, J. (2005). "Steps to an ecology of emergence" (PDF). Cybernetics & Human Knowing. Vol. 11, no. 3: 102-119. {{cite journal}}: |volume= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
24. Vaihinger, H. "The Philosophy of "As If." (originally published, 1924)". Routledge, Kegan and Paul Ltd, London, England. -. Retrieved -. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
25. Strean, H. (1995) Psychoanalytic Theory. Kegan Page Publishers
26. Wrycza,P. (1995) Maps Beyond the Mind: NLP and spirituality NLP World Volume 2 No 1 p.62
27. Gorton, Gregg E (2005). Milton Hyland Erickson The American Journal of Psychiatry. Washington. Vol.162, Iss. 7; pg. 1255, 1 pgs
28. Hunt, Stephen J. (2003) Alternative Religions: A Sociological Introduction ISBN 0-7546-3410-8
29. ^ David V. Barrett (2001) The New Believers: A Survey of Sects, Cults and Alternative Religions Available online from Google Books.
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31. Lilienfeld, S.O. (2002). "Our Raison D'etre". The Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice. 1(1): 20.
32. Kelly. M.O (1990). The Fireside Treasury of Light. Simon & Schuster. pp. p.25, 182. ISBN 0-671-68505-8. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
33. American Cancer Society: Neuro-Linguistic Programming
34. ^ Bandler, Richard (1985). . Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books. pp. -. -. {{cite book}}: Check |url= value (help)
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36. Bandler, Richard, John Grinder, Judith Delozier (1977). Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, M.D. Volume II. Cupertino, CA: Meta Publications. pp. p.10, 81, 87. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
37. Ready.R. and Burton.K (2004) NLP for Dummies John Wiley & Sons ISBN 0764570285 p.250
38. ^ The Spirit of NLP, Hall, M. Crown House Publishing, 2001. pp.93-95
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42. ^ Carroll, Robert T. "The Skeptic's Dictionary". . Retrieved 2003. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
43. Peter Schütz () A consumer guide through the multiplicity of NLP certification training: A European perspective
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57. *Bandler, R (1993) Time for a Change ISBN 0-916990-28-1
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Squires, S. (1988) The pentagon's twilight zone. april 17th Washington Post

Further reading

• Andreas, Steve & Charles Faulkner (Eds.) (1996). NLP: the new technology of achievement. New York, NY: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-688-14619-8.
• Bandler, Richard & John Grinder (1975). The Structure of Magic I: A Book About Language and Therapy. Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books. ISBN 0-8314-0044-7.
• Grinder, John & Richard Bandler (1975). The Structure of Magic II: A Book About Communication and Change. Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books. ISBN 0-8314-0049-8.
• Dilts, Robert B & Judith A DeLozier (2000). Encyclopaedia of Systemic Neuro-Linguistic Programming and NLP New Coding. NLP University Press. ISBN 0-9701540-0-3.

See also

Philosophy relevant to NLP

• Empiricism
• Epistemology
• Constructivist epistemology
• Social constructionism
• Subjective character of experience
• Subject-object problem
• List of cognitive biases
• Consensus reality
• Philosophy of perception

Academic subjects relevant to NLP

• Communication
• General Semantics
• Humanistic psychology
• Linguistics
• Transformational grammar
• Conceptual metaphor
• Sapir–Whorf hypothesis

Other topics

• Four stages of competence
• Hypnosis
• Large Group Awareness Training
• Persuasion
• MKULTRA
• Paul McKenna
• Tony Robbins

External links

Associations

• Neuro Linguistic Psychotherapy & Counselling Association - NLPtCA is a Member Organisation of the United Kingdom Council for Psychotherapy (UKCP)
• European Association for NLP therapy
• Professional Guild of NLP
• Global Organisation of NLP
• German Associations

Research

• Article addressing the scientific criticism on NLP research
• Database and review of academic research
• NLP Glossary
• Lee Lady's comments about history and development of NLP

Skeptics

• Criticism from Skeptic's Dictionary

• Human communication
• Mind-body interventions
• Neuro-Linguistic Programming
• Neuro-Linguistic Programming concepts and methods
• Pseudoscience
• Psychotherapy