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Philippine
(proposed)
Geographic distribution	Philippines Northern Sulawesi, Indonesia Eastern Sabah, Malaysia Orchid Island, Taiwan
Linguistic classification	Austronesian Malayo-Polynesian Philippine
Proto-language	Proto-Philippine (disputed)
Subdivisions	Batanic Northern Luzon Central Luzon North Mangyan Umiray Dumaget Greater Central Philippine Ati Kalamian South Mindanao Minahasan Sangiric
Language codes
ISO 639-2 / 5	phi
Glottolog	None
The Philippine languages, per Adelaar and Himmelmann (2005)

In linguistics, the Philippine languages are a proposal by R. David Paul Zorc (1986) and Robert Blust (1991; 2005) that all the languages of the Philippines and northern Sulawesi—except Sama–Bajaw (languages of the "Sea Gypsies") and a few languages of Palawan—form a subfamily of Austronesian languages. Although the Philippines is near the center of Austronesian expansion from Formosa, there is little linguistic diversity among the approximately 150 Philippine languages, suggesting that earlier diversity has been erased by the spread of the ancestor of the modern Philippine languages.

Classification

History and criticism

One of the very first explicit classifications of a "Philippine" grouping based on genetic affiliation was in 1906 by Frank Blake, who placed them as a subdivision of the "Malay branch" within Malayo-Polynesian (MP), which at that time was considered as a family. Blake however encompasses every language within the geographic boundaries of the Philippine archipelago to be under a single group. Formal arguments in support of a specific "Proto-Philippines" were followed by Matthew Charles in 1974, Teodoro Llamzon in 1966 and 1975, and Llamzon and Teresita Martin in 1976. Blust (1991) two decades later updates this based on Zorc's (1986) inclusion of Yami, and the Sangiric, Minahasan, and Gorontalo groups.

The genetic unity of a Philippines group has been rejected particularly by Lawrence Reid. This arose with problems in reconstructing Philippine subgroups within MP (Pawley, 1999; Ross, 2005). In a recent state-of-the art on the classification of Philippine languages, he provides multidisciplinary arguments on the field's methodological and theoretical shortcomings since Conant's description in the early 1900's. This includes Malayo-Polynesian archeology (Spriggs, 2003; 2007; 2011), and Bayesian phylogenetic analyses (Gray et al., 2009) substantiating the multiplicity of historical diffusion and divergence of languages across the archipelago. He suggests that the primary branches under this widely acknowledged Philippine group should instead be promoted as primary branches under Malayo-Polynesian. Malcolm Ross (2005) earlier also noted that the Batanic languages, constituting Yami, Itbayat, and Ivatan, should in fact be considered as a primary MP branch. In an evaluation of the lexical innovations among the Philippine languages, Alexander Smith (2017) regards the evidence for a Philippine subgroup as weak, and concludes that "they may represent more than one primary subgroup or perhaps an innovation-defined linkage". Certain arguments in support of these anlyses are echoed in a recent paper by Marian Klamer (2018), which challenges arguments on the history of Malayo-Polynesian languages throughout Island Southeast Asia as a monolithic phenomenon. Evidences from linguistic reconstructions, archeological findings, and human genetics do not always converge in this locus suggesting multidirectional, complex human dispersal and contact processes at micro levels. It was also suggested that the relationships and development of these languages as far as what is known and unknown should warrant an alternative to the traditional tree-like structure, which is indeed simplistic and insufficient to reflect the histories of the region where Philippine languages are nestled.

Internal classification

The Philippine group is proposed to have originated from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian and ultimately from Proto-Austronesian. There have been several proposals as to the composition within the group, but the most widely accepted groupings today is the consensus classifications by Blust (1991; 2005) and Reid (2017); however, both disagree on the existence of a Philippine group as a single genetic unit.

Zorc (1979)

An earlier classification by Zorc (1979) is presented below. From approximately north to south, a Philippine group according to his analysis of previous reconstructions are divided into two main subgroups, Northern or "Cordilleran" and Southern or "Sulic". Note that the groupings herein no longer reflect widely accepted classifications or naming conventions today. For example South Extension nowadays reflects the widely established Central Luzon, and North Mangyan within Cordilleran is not supported by later reconstructions; the group containing Yami, Ivatan and Itbayat is called "Bashiic" in Zorc (1977) and remains generally accepted.

• Northern Philippines or Cordilleran
  • Pangasinic (includes Ilongot, Kallahan, Ibaloi, Pangasinan)
  • Central Cordilleran (includes Isinai, Kalinga, Bontoc, Balangao, Ifugao)
  • Ilokan (within Ilokano alone)
  • Northern Cordilleran or Banagic (includes Ibanag, Isneg, Gaddang)
  • Yami–Ivatan–Itbayat
  • South Extension (includes Sambal group, Kapampangan)
    • North Mangyan
• Southern Philippines or Sulic
  • Meso-Philippine
    • South Mangyan (includes Hanunuo)
    • Palawan
    • Subanon (dialect cluster)
    • Central Philippine (includes Tagalog, Bikol, Visayan, Mansakan)
  • Manobo (includes Kagayanen, Western Bukidnon, Cotabato Manobo)
  • Danao (includes Maranao, Maguindanao)
  • Celebes Extension (includes Mongondow group)

Blust (1991; 2005)

From approximately north to south, the Philippine languages are divided into 12 subgroups (including unclassified languages):

• Batanic languages (4 languages between Batanes and Formosa)
• Northern Luzon languages (40 languages, including Ilokano and Pangasinan)
• Central Luzon languages (5 languages, including Sambal and Kapampangan)
• Northern Mindoro languages (or North Mangyan; 3 languages)
• Greater Central Philippine languages
  • Southern Mindoro languages (or South Mangyan; 3 languages)
  • Central Philippine languages (40 languages, including Tagalog, Bikol languages and Visayan languages)
  • Palawan languages (3 languages)
  • Subanen languages (6 languages; sometimes considered one dialect cluster)
  • Danao languages (3 languages, including Maguindanao and Maranao)
  • Manobo languages (15 languages)
  • Gorontalo–Mongondow languages (9 languages of Gorontalo and North Sulawesi)
• Ati language
• Manide–Alabat
• Kalamian languages (2 languages of northern Palawan)
• South Mindanao languages (5 languages)
• Sangiric languages (4 languages of Sangir and Talaud Islands)
• Minahasan languages (5 languages of North Sulawesi)
• Unclassified
  • Umiray Dumaget

Vocabulary

Comparison chart between several selected Philippine languages spoken from north to south with Proto-Austronesian first for comparison.

Philippine Negrito languages

The Negrito peoples of the Philippines speak various languages. They have more in common with neighboring languages than with each other, and are listed here merely as an aid to identification.

Lobel (2013)

Lobel (2013) lists the following Black Filipino (i.e., Philippine Negrito) ethnolinguistic groups.

Northern Luzon

• Umiray Dumaget
• Remontado Dumagat
• Alta, Northern
• Alta, Southern
• Arta
• Casiguran Agta
• Nagtipunan Agta
• Dinapigue Agta
• Central Cagayan Agta
• Pahanan (Agta)
• Dupaningan Agta
• Atta (3-4 languages)

(Lobel (2010) lists the following Negrito languages that are spoken on the eastern coast of Luzon Island, listed from north to south.)

• Dupaningan Agta (Northern Luzon branch)
• Pahanan Agta
• Casiguran Agta
• Umiray Dumaget
• Remontado Dumagat
• Inagta Alabat
• Manide (unclassified)
• Inagta Partido
• Inagta Rinconada

Furthermore, Robinson & Lobel (2013) argue that Dupaningan Agta, Pahanan Agta, Casiguran Agta, Nagtipunan Agta, Dinapigue Agta, and Paranan do not belong to the Northern Cordilleran branch, but rather a new branch that they call Northeastern Luzon, which they consider to be a primary branch of the Northern Luzon (Cordilleran) group.

Zambales Mountains

• Ayta Mag-indi
• Ayta Mag-anchi
• Ayta Abellen
• Ayta Ambala
• Ayta Bataan (aka Ayta Magbukun)

Southern Luzon

• Inagta Rinconada
• Inagta Partido
• Manide
• Inagta Alabat (and Inagta Lopez)

Southern Philippines

• Inata (possibly 2 dialects)
• Inati (Inete) (2 dialects?)
• Mamanwa
• Batak (5-8 dialects)
• Iraya (Mangyan)
• Ata/Tigwa/Matigsalug Manobo

Extinct varieties

• Mount Iraya Agta (AKA East Lake Buhi Agta)
• Inagta Alabat
• Dicamay Agta: spoken on the Dicamay River on the western side of the Sierra Madre near Jones, Isabela; reportedly exterminated by Ilokano homesteaders sometime between 1957 and 1974 (Headland 2003:7)
• Villa Viciosa Agta

Reid (1994)

Reid (1994) lists the following Negrito languages.

• North Agta
  • Northern Cagayan
  • Central Cagayan
  • Eastern Cagayan
  • Southern Cagayan
  • Southern Isabela
  • Aurora
• Arta - 12 remaining speakers in Aglipay, Quirino, in 1990
• Alta
  • North Alta - spoken in Aurora Province
  • South Alta (Kabuluen) - spoken in Nueva Ecija and Bulacan Provinces
• Central Agta - spoken in eastern Luzon; includes Umiray
• South Agta
  • Camarines Norte
  • Camarines Sur
• Sinauna
• Ayta - 6 different languages spoken in the Zambales Mountains according to Wimbel (1986):
  • Abelen
  • Aberlen
  • Magganchi
  • Maggindi
  • Ambala
  • Magbeken Ayta

Other Philippine Negrito languages

• Ata Manobo - spoken in Mansalinao, Davao
• Batak - spoken in Palawan
• Inati
• Mamanwa - spoken in Agusan

Ethnologue adds extinct and unclassified Katabaga of southern Luzon.

See also

• Languages of the Philippines
• List of regional languages of the Philippines
• Philippine Negrito languages
• Philippine literature
• Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino
• Visayan Academy of Arts and Letters

Defunct language regulators

• Academia Bicolana
• Sanghiran san Binisaya

Notes

1. Ambiguous relationship with other Northern Philippine groups

2. Ambiguous relationship with other Northern Philippine groups and has possible relationship with South Extension; equivalent to the widely established Batanic or Bashiic branch.

References

1. Zorc, R. David Paul. The genetic relationships of Philippine languages. 1986. In Geraghty, P., Carrington, L. and Wurm, S.A. editors, FOCAL II: Papers from the Fourth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics. C-94:147-173. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1986.
2. ^ Blust, Robert (1991). "The Greater Central Philippines hypothesis". Oceanic Linguistics. 30 (2): 73–129. doi:10.2307/3623084. JSTOR 3623084.
3. Blust, Robert A. (2005). "The linguistic macrohistory of the Philippines". In Liao, Hsiu-Chuan; Rubino, Carl R.Galvez (eds.). Current issues in Philippine linguistics pangaral kay Lawrence A. Reid. 2005: Linguistic Society of the Philippines and SIL Philippines. pp. 31–68.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
4. Adelaar & Himmelmann (2005)
5. ^ Blust, Robert (1991). "The Greater Central Philippines hypothesis". Oceanic Linguistics. 30 (2): 73–129. doi:10.2307/3623084. JSTOR 3623084.
6. Llamzon, Teodoro A. "Proto-Philippine Phonology." In: Archipel, volume 9, 1975. pp. 29-42.
7. Charles, Mathew (1974). "Problems in the Reconstruction of Proto-Philippine Phonology and the Subgrouping of the Philippine Languages". Oceanic Linguistics. 13 (1/2): 457–509. doi:10.2307/3622751. JSTOR 3622751.
8. Llamzon, Teodoro (1966). "The subgrouping of Philippine languages". Philippine Sociological Review. 14 (3): 145–150. JSTOR 23892050.
9. Llamzon, Teodoro; Martin, Teresita (1976). "A subgrouping of 100 Philippine languages". South-East Asian Linguistic Studies. 2: 141–172.
10. Reid, Lawrence. 1982. The demise of Proto-Philippines. In Papers from the Third International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics, Vol. 2: Tracking the travellers, ed. by Amran Halim, Lois Carrington, and Stephen Wurm, 201-216. Pacific Linguistics Series C, No. 75. Canberra: Australian National University.
11. Pawley, Andrew. Eilzabeth Zeitoun; Paul Jen-kuei Li (eds.). "Chasing rainbows: Implications for the rapid dispersal of Austronesian languages for subgrouping and reconstruction". Selected Papers from the Eighth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics. Academia Sinica: 95–138.
12. ^ Ross, Malcolm (2005). "The Batanic Languages in Relation to the Early History of the Malayo-Polynesian Subgroup of Austronesian" (PDF). Journal of Austronesian Studies. 1 (2). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-22. Retrieved 2012-10-15.
13. Spriggs, Matthew (2003). "Chronology of Neolithic transition in Island Southeast Asia and the western Pacific". The Review of Anthropology. 24: 57–80.
14. Spriggs, Matthew (2007). S. Chiu; C. Sand (eds.). "The Neolithic and Austronesian expansion within Island Southeast Asia and into the Pacific". From Southeast Asia to the Pacific. Archeological Perspectives on the Austronesian Expansion and the Lapita Cultural Complex. Academia Sinica: 104–140.
15. Spriggs, Matthew (2011). "Archeology and Austronesian expansion: Where are we now?" (PDF). Antiquity. 85 (328): 510–528. doi:10.1017/s0003598x00067910.
16. Gray, Russell; Drummond, Alexei; Greenhill, Simon (2009). "Language phylogenies reveal expansion pulses and pauses in Pacific settlement". Science. 323 (5913): 479–482. doi:10.1126/science.1166858.
17. Reid, Lawrence. 2017. Revisiting the position of Philippine languages in the Austronesian family. The Br. Andrew Gonzalez FSC (BAG) Distinguished Professorial Chair Lecture, 2017, De La Salle University, Manila.
18. Reid, Lawrence A. 2018. "Modeling the linguistic situation in the Philippines." In Let's Talk about Trees, ed. by Ritsuko Kikusawa and Lawrence A. Reid. Osaka: Senri Ethnological Studies, Minpaku. doi:10.15021/00009006
19. Smith, Alexander D. (2017). "The Western Malayo-Polynesian Problem". Oceanic Linguistics. 56 (2): 435–490. doi:10.1353/ol.2017.0021., p. 479
20. Klamer, Marian (2018). "The dispersal of Austronesian languages in Island South East Asia: Current findings and debates". Language and Linguistics Compass. 13 (e12325): 1–26. doi:10.1111/lnc3.12325.
21. Zorc, R. David Paul (1979). "On the development of contrastive word accent: Pangasinan, a case in point". South-East Asian Linguistic Studies. 3: 241–258.
22. Zorc, David Paul (1977). The Bisayan Dialects of the Philippines: Subgrouping and Reconstruction. Canberra, Australia: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. doi:10.15144/PL-C44. ISBN 0858831570.
23. Lobel, Jason William. 2013. Philippine and North Bornean languages: issues in description, subgrouping, and reconstruction. Ph.D. dissertation. Manoa: University of Hawai'i at Manoa.
24. Lobel, Jason William. 2010. Manide: An Undescribed Philippine Language. Oceanic Linguistics, Vol. 49, no. 2.
25. Robinson, Laura C. and Jason William Lobel (2013). "The Northeastern Luzon Subgroup of Philippine Languages." Oceanic Linguistics 52.1 (2013): 125-168.
26. Reid, Lawrence A. 1994. "Possible Non-Austronesian Lexical Elements in Philippine Negrito Languages." In Oceanic Linguistics, Vol. 33, No. 1 (Jun. 1994), pp. 37-72.
27. Wimbish, John. 1986. The languages of the Zambales mountains: a Philippine lexicostatistic study. In Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of North Dakota Session, vol. 30:133-142.

• K. Alexander Adelaar and Nikolaus Himmelmann, The Austronesian languages of Asia and Madagascar. Routledge, 2005.

Further reading

• Fay Wouk and Malcolm Ross (ed.), The history and typology of western Austronesian voice systems. Australian National University, 2002.
• Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database, 2008.
• Reid, Lawrence A. (2013) "Who Are the Philippine Negritos? Evidence from Language." Human Biology: Vol. 85: Iss. 1, Article 15.
• Zorc, R. David. 1972. Field notes.

External links

• Comparative vocabularies of Philippine and other Austronesian languages
• Cognate sets for Austronesian languages
• R. David Zorc field notes
• Philippine etyma file cards by R. David Zorc

• Philippine languages
• Languages of the Philippines
• Languages of Indonesia
• Languages of Malaysia