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Tokusatsu (特撮) is Japanese for "special effects." Like special-effects movies from other countries, movies described as Tokusatsu in Japanese generally have science fiction, fantasy, or horror themes but, as in other countries, this is not always the case.

The term "tokusatsu" is a contraction of the Japanese phrase "tokushu satsuei" (特殊撮影), meaning "special photography". In production, the special effects director is given the title of "tokushu gijutsu" (特殊技術), Japanese for "special techniques" or "tokusatsu kantoku" (特撮監督), which is Japanese for "special effects director", the title usually used by English language productions.

Tokusatsu is one of the most popular and representative forms of Japanese entertainment, along with anime and manga, although it is not as widely known in non-Asian countries.

Eiji Tsuburaya

Eiji Tsuburaya (1901-1970) is perhaps the most famous tokusatsu kantoku in Japan. He is responsible for bringing the famous characters of Godzilla and Ultraman to life. While he wasn't the first effects artist, he fought to make special effects in Japanese cinema truly special. When doing movies and TV shows involving giants (be it monsters, superheroes, aliens, etc.), Eiji's techniques usually involved expert miniature work, and the monster is usually either a stuntman in a full monster costume (a process later dubbed "Suitmation") or a marionette-like prop (Mothra, Dogora, etc.). Even with the support of digital effects since the 1990s, Eiji's tokusatsu method has been carried over to this very day, and has become a tradition like kabuki theater.

Some of Eiji's proteges include Teruyoshi Nakano, Sadamasa Arikawa, Nobuo Yajima (who also directed the effects for the majority of superhero shows by Toei), Koichi Takano, Koichi Kawakita and others. They have worked at Toho, Eiji's company Tsuburaya Productions, P Productions and other companies. Yonesaburō Tsukiji, Kazufumi Fujii (who directed the effects for the classic Gamera movies) and Yoshiyuki Kuroda (who directed the tokusatsu for the Daimajin trilogy) used the same techniques over at the Daiei Motion Picture Company (now owned by Kadokawa Shoten).

A new generation of tokusatsu masters include Shinji Higuchi, Eiichi Asada (who have both worked on newer Godzilla and Gamera movies), and Hiroshi Butsuda (who still works on the bulk of Toei's newer superhero shows).

Suitmation technology

Suitmation (スーツメーション, Sūtsumēshon) is the term used in Japan to describe the process in tokusatsu movies & television programs used to portray a monster using suit acting. It is not known exactly where the term originated from; the term may have been termed to differentiate the suit work from Ray Harryhausen's celebrated Dynamation (stop-motion technique. The term was at least used to promote the Godzilla suit from The Return of Godzilla.

Suit material

The monster suits from the classic Godzilla films were made of liquid latex, coated with all sorts of appliances (especially flame-retardant). The suit is thick so that the stuntperson does not get burned. The teeth were originally made from wood; later versions were made from resin. The actor usually sees through small holes in the suit's neck. The head is fitted with mechanisms that move the eyes & mouth (with the battery located somewhere in the costume), and is radio-controlled. Wires operated by overhead crewmen move the tail.

In any case, the suits were very, very grueling, especially in the old days when studios were very hot. The average stuntperson could only last for three minutes before becoming too uncomfortable. Conditions improved when studios became air-conditioned. In Godzilla 2000: Millennium, an oxygen hose was attached to Godzilla's tail, which threaded up to the neck so that the actor could breathe.

For superheroes, Ultraman usually wore a form-fitting latex costume similar to a wet suit. The helmet was made originally from latex, and later, fiberglass. A set of batteries in the suit made the eyes and Colortimer light up. Toei superheroes had various sorts of costume materials, from leather to vinyl to cloth. Starting with Kagaku Sentai Dynaman, the heroes in Sentai wear spandex. Helmets are made of fiberglass, and had clips on the side to lock them into place. Later, helmets had the clips hidden for a smoother look, although knockoff helmets used for promotional work and live appearances do retain the external clips.

Other special effects

Japanese special effects techniques are not restricted to placing people inside suits. The first Godzilla film from 1954 used a wide ranging number of advanced techniques in this area. Besides the Suitmation Godzilla, Eiji Tsuburaya's crew also used various puppet-like props, one was like a hand-puppet, another was basically an early example of an animatronic puppet (from the scene where Godzilla first appeared over a mountain in Oto Island), which shot a smoky spray from its mouth to create the illusion of Godzilla's white-hot radioactive breath. One shot of Godzilla's tail even used a stop-motion process similar to Ray Harryhausen's Dynamation technique (it's said that Tsuburaya wanted to use stop-motion for Godzilla, but Toho couldn't allow it, because it was too expensive and too time-consuming; most Japanese studios had only allowed notoriously tight budgets/production schedules).

Later films use various techniques to bring Godzilla and the other monsters to life. In the 60s, aside from said close-shot puppets, they used mechanical miniatures in distance shots of Godzilla. Since the 80s, they used robotic animatronic Godzilla props to give him a more realistic, lifelike appearance (as is the case with the 20-foot "Cybot Godzilla" in The Return of Godzilla and the "Close-Up Godzilla" in Godzilla Vs. Biollante). They even actually lit up Godzilla's dorsal fins made of fibre reinforced plastic, and in more recent films, they used CG to create that effect.

The same principle applied to superhero shows: some robotic-looking superheroes (like Kikaider and Gavan) used electronic props for close shots.

Computer-generated imagery

Tokusatsu productions have also used computer-generated imagery. Scenes such as Ultraman flying smoothly in the sky, Kamen Rider transforming into animated armor, and Sentai robots combining in one shot have been done with CGI. Computer effects are also used for optical effects such as ray beams, missiles, falling debris and explosions. Other tokusatsu films to use CGI include Crossfire and Casshern (based on Tatsuo Yoshida's 1973 superhero anime series).

City sets

There is a generalized misconception that the minituarised city sets are made of cardboard. However, since the old Godzilla movies, miniature sets were actually made from a thinly cut plaster and wood. The newer films do this as well (only some of the buildings are actually collapsible). Buildings that were not made to be destroyed are made from wood and plastic. Some miniature models are made out of paraffin (this goes for the many tanks and electrical towers that Godzilla melted with his radioactive breath). In movies such as Battle in Outer Space (1959) and The Last War (1960), the miniature sets were made of edible material, the same ingredients as those used to make wafers.

Famous monsters and superheroes

Godzilla, Ultraman and Kamen Rider are considered the three greatest influential model Japanese superheroes to this very day. All three characters have created countless sequels and imitations, few of which rival their popularity (the Super Sentai Series, for example, is an offshoot of the Henshin Hero genre started by Kamen Rider).

Metal Heroes (specifically Space Sheriffs) became a basis for the RoboCop movies. Toho and Daiei are well known companies in the Daikaiju category of tokusatsu. Tsuburaya is the company associated with Ultraman, while Toei is responsible for Sentai series, Metal Heroes and the Kamen Rider series.

Not all of Toei's group of hero shows are classified as "Super Sentai" (Super Sentai shows are exclusively produced by Toei). Toei's non-Super Sentai group heroes include Akumaizer 3, Ninja Captor and Chojin Bibyun. The most notable non-Toei group series is perhaps Toho's Chouseishin series (Super Star God series), which began in 2003 with Chouseishin Gransazer (Super Star God Gransazer), continues in 2004 with Genseishin Justirisers (Phantom Star God JustiRiser), and in 2005 with Chousei Kantai Sazer-X (Super Star Fleet Sazer X). The Chouseishin series is Toho's attempt at competing with Toei's Super Sentai series.

An awkward category of tokusatsu is the Child Hero or Kiddy Hero genre. The most notable of this genre of is Booska and Robocon.

One last category is the Heroine Tokusatsu, which consists of a fighting team composed of females, or an individual female. Examples include Vanny Knights, Dimensional Detective Wecker, and the new live-action version of Sailor Moon, Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon.

Non-traditional Tokusatsu productions

There are tokusatsu movies and TV shows that either don't use conventional special effects, or don't star human actors. These include:

• Shows like Majin Hunter Mitsurugi (1973), in which the monsters and the titular giant knight-like warrior are done with stop-motion effects instead of suitmation.
• Puppet shows like Uchuusen Silica (1960), Ginga Shonen Tai (1963) and Kuchuu Toshi 008 (1969). These shows (the three mentioned were produced by NHK) use the same tokusatsu techniques, but the cast of the show is made up of puppets/marionettes, as opposed to human actors. Similar to the famous Supermarionation shows by Sylvia and Gerry Anderson. A better known show in this category is Go Nagai's X Bomber (1980), shown in England as Star Fleet.
• Similar to the above listed puppet shows, there are also tokusatsu shows that use the same special effects techniques, but the show's cast are anime characters in animated sequences. These shows include Tsuburaya Productions' Dinosaur Expedition Team Bornfree (1976) and Dinosaur War Aizenborg (1977), which were combined into compilation movies like Return of the Dinosaurs and Attack of the Super Monsters, respectively. A more bizarre effort was done for Tsuburaya by Go Nagai; Pro-Wrestling Star Aztekaiser (1976), which looks like a conventional tokusatsu superhero show, except when the title wrestler-superhero Aztekaiser is able to transform the show's live-action dimension into an anime sequence, where he is able to perform wrestling moves against the weekly villain, wrestling moves that are impossible to do in live-action!
• In 1998, Buildup Entertainment, an independent company in Japan, did a direct-to-DVD OVT SF/horror miniseries titled Dark Soldier D, which completely used CGI for the title mobile suit and the monsters, instead of traditional effects.
• In 2005, Jun Awazu and his independent company Studio Magara produced an all-CG animated 25-minute short film called Negadon: The Monster from Mars. While not technically a real tokusatsu, it is nonetheless a tribute to the "Golden Age" of tokusatsu cinema, especially kaiju eiga.

Japanese fan films

As pop-culture fandom in Japan grew in the 1980s, a fan-based group called Daicon Film (now called Gainax) was created by Hideaki Anno, Yoshiyuki Sadamoto, Takami Akai, and Shinji Higuchi. Besides anime sequences, they also produced a series of tokusatsu shorts, usually parodies of monster movies and superhero shows, which has gained much media coverage. These productions include Patriotic Squadron Dai-Nippon (1983), Swift Hero Noutenki (1982), Return of Ultraman (1983) and The Eight-Headed Giant Serpent Strikes Back (1985).

In the turn of the new millennium, comedian Shinpei Hayashiya produced a number of tokusatsu fan films. These include include Godzilla Vs. Seadora and Gamera 4: Truth (2004). In 2005, he completed his upcoming first original effort, Deep Sea Beast Reigo.

Tokusatsu around the world

The tokusatsu technique has been copied around the world, thanks to the popularity of Godzilla films.

Famous examples

• In 1961, England made its own Godzilla-style film, Gorgo, which used the same "suitmation" technique as the Godzilla films.
• That same year, Saga Studios in Denmark made another Godzilla-style giant monster film, Reptilicus. This film's monster was brought to life using a marionette on a miniature set.
• In 1967, South Korea produced its own kaiju movie titled Taekoesu Yonggary.
• In 1975, Shaw Brothers produced a superhero film called The Super Inframan, based on the huge success of Ultraman and Kamen Rider there. The film starred Danny Lee in the title role. Although there were several other similar superhero productions in Hong Kong, The Super Inframan is the first, and considered the best by superhero fans. With help from Japanese SPFX artists under Sadamasa Arikawa, they also produced a Japanese-styled monster movie, The Mighty Peking Man, in 1977.
• The cult popularity of Japanese kaiju and superheroes in America have resulted in a wacky, action-packed program/event called Kaiju Big Battel in 1994. It continues to thrill audiences and fans to this day.

Fan films

• In 2001, Buki X-1 Productions, a French fan-based production company, produced its own series, Jushi Sentai France Five (now called Shin Kenjushi France Five), a tribute to Toei's long running Super Sentai series.
• In 2004, Peter Tatara (with his company Experimental Amateur Hero Productions) produced a low-budget superhero video series called Johnny Robo, which is a tribute/deconstruction/parody of Kamen Rider and the Henshin Hero genre.

Confusion outside Japan

There is a misconception in countries outside Japan (including the United States) that the term tokusatsu refers mainly to Japanese superhero TV shows (including - but not limited to - the Ultra Series, Kamen Rider series and Super Sentai Series). However, the term has always been used in Japan to describe all live action productions, Japanese or otherwise, that feature special effects.

The confusion dates back to the early 1990s, when Ben Dunn created a short-lived fanzine called Sentai: The Journal of Asian S/F & Fantasy. This was one of the few American fanzines in the wake of the Power Rangers craze that covered live-action Japanese fantasies. This magazine proved to be so popular that people began labeling all Japanese live-action superhero shows as "sentai".

United States view

The United States has seen almost every Godzilla and Gamera film, as well as many Japanese kaiju films up to the early 1970s, but mainstream America does not look at these films very favorably.

Even only a handful of Japanese superhero shows such as Ultraman (the most recognized Japanese superhero in America, of course), The Space Giants and Johnny Sokko and His Flying Robot made it there, as well as Spectreman, which was the last major superhero production to be seen in the States, whereas ironically, it was just the beginning (in that exact same period, Kamen Rider, a low-budget TV series, began the "Henshin Craze" in Japan).

Of the American populace, Hawaii (and, to a lesser degree, San Francisco) are more familiar with the superhero shows made since the "Henshin Craze", and these shows were very successful there. Shows like Emergency Command 10-4-10-10 (the first tokusatsu series to be subtitled in English), Rainbowman, Android Kikaider/Jinzo Ningen Kikaida (perhaps the most popular show in Hawaii), Kamen Rider V3 and Secret Squadron Goranger, as well as 1967's Ultra Seven (which, in 1975, became the first Japanese program to be dubbed in English there). The last tokusatsu series to be subtitled in English was 1979's Battle Fever J (the first "Super Sentai" series).

This perception of tokusatsu in America can be chalked down to a few things:

Realism

One of the things that Japanese live-action fantasy is usually criticized for by non-fans in America is that these productions don't look "realistic". In the 1950s, some people criticized the special effects in Godzilla movies, comparing them to Ray Harryhausen's stop-motion techniques (Harryhausen was hurt by this, and instead started making fantasy films). When Star Wars was released in 1977 and made science fiction mainstream, the American public began to forget the past and focus on the future. Even when some Japanese companies use their tried and true techniques for sentimental reasons (combined with Hollywood-style effects), Americans continued to label these films as "cheap", "cheesy" and/or "campy". In fact, many old Japanese special effects fantasies, no matter what regard they were held in Japan, were pretty much considered B-movie material by many Americans who raise themselves on big-budget Hollywood films, nowadays strictly using CGI effects. That perception is also based on watching faded, worn-out fullscreen prints of these classic films.

According to reporter Steve Ryfle, even classic Japanese special effects fantasies were not necessarily trying to look "realistic", they were trying to make something that's colourful and spectacular. These were fantasies. Godzilla is not a "realistic" monster, because he's not a real animal. He is a fantasy creature, basically a god (not unlike the beasts from Chinese and Japanese mythology, like the Chinese dragon). This goes for many of the Japanese kaiju of the type. Rodan, Varan, Mothra, Gamera, etc. These hand-crafted fantasy monsters looked "real" to some fans. Some even say that, unlike stop-motion, these monsters looked very real, because they were filmed real.

Eiji Tsuburaya himself thought that absolute realism was "boring," so he experimented with the many films he did, and his surreal visuals dazzled many audiences, including children and fans. And even if certain techniques didn't work, it still amused him. Some audiences may laugh at these effects shots, or even criticize certain aspects of them, but this was something Eiji never took too seriously. A notable example was one scene in the 1965 film Frankenstein Conquers the World, where the giant monster Baragon attacks an animal farm, and smashes a stable with an obvious puppet of a horse galloping wildly inside. When asked by a Japanese journalist about why he used a horse puppet instead of a real one against a bluescreen, Eiji replied, "Because it's more interesting!" Eiji's "unreal" effects techniques were copied to this day by other Japanese effects artists, who have even added their own touch of realism to suit today's audiences.

Meanwhile, even the equally criticized Japanese live-action superhero shows (aimed mainly at children) achieved what American productions usually could not when making adaptations of comic books: a colourful, fantastic sense of wonder. After the original "campy" 1966 Batman TV series, superhero fans, even the American public, started to take their fantasies for granted, because colour and fantasy became "silly", "stupid" and thus equated with "camp". Thus, superheroes became dark, grim and "realistic." These were no longer the comic-books kids grew up with, they were more "adult" and "cynical." Japanese superheroes, on the other hand, retain that colourful "comic-book" feel. Yes, some of these superheroes are altruistic, like Super Giant, Moonlight Mask, and Ultraman, yet others (of the Henshin variety, for example, like Kamen Rider) take their powers for granted, but the hero still must make do with their powers to help the innocent, even get along with children, who usually idolize these heroes. They have even long before experimented with "grim" and "ironic" concepts that would finally be utilized in American superhero comics by the late 1980s. The villains in these shows included the kind of threats depicted in American comics that American movie & TV adaptations usually exclude; an evil empire, an alien race, a mad scientist and a weekly monster.

Furthermore, it also has to do with conservative budget reasons. Japanese studios, unlike those of Hollywood, are not union-based. Some Japanese studios still allow a notoriously tight budget and schedule, while others are liberally taking a chance on things. Actors/staff are paid a smaller salary, yet they work together like a family.

Violence

As is evident since the 70s, Japanese superhero movies & TV shows became increasingly violent. Even as kid shows in Japan, American audiences were overly concerned over violence in America, and by the 70s, censorship against violence on American children's television had grown more and more strict. This mainly includes Japanese superhero TV productions, many of which were very dark and violent, and had grim and ironic stories. This goes for anime shows as well. Superheroes like Kamen Rider were created surgically by the villains, and turn against them. Superheroes like the title team of Science Ninja Team Gatchaman (an anime series) ruthlessly beat villains to a pulp. Superheroes like Mirrorman chop the monsters' heads off. Shows like Android Kikaider and Robotto Keiji had the monster of the week demonstrating their powers by slaying an innocent victim (an expendable character) at the beginning of each episode (not unlike the victims of the weekly monsters and alien threats featured in Star Trek). Needless to say, even Godzilla movies had followed suit in the same period.

In the 1990s, Power Rangers, the Americanized version of Super Sentai series, made the shows more palatable to American TV standards by removing violence considered excessive, and it differed dramatically from its original version. This is still a highly debated topic even among fans. One particular reason is that some evil kaijin in various tokusatsu are psychotic vicious and unforgiving. Those same monsters that are "adapted" are now depicted as stupid, unintelligent goof-offs to the point that the suit monsters are, to some, "Barney-esque." One victim of this was the warrior Grifforzer (renamed Goldar in Power Rangers). Originally a powerful, threatening figure in his original Japanese incarnation from Kyoryuu Sentai Zyuranger, Goldar became more and more pitiful as the series went on. Gasha Skull from Ninja Sentai Kakuranger, who was adapted as Rito Revolto, was best described as being "mentally unstable", often prone to sudden mood swings and sadistic behavior against friend and foe, while his counterpart was just an idiot only to serve comedic purposes. However, some villains actually transition for the better. Loki, from Gaoranger, was extremely evil, but in Power Rangers Wild Force, Zen-Aku turned out to be a deeper character for a villain. Same went for Ecliptor (who was originally, Yugande from Megaranger) was adapted into a complex villain as well. Villains that included Zen-Aku, Ecliptor, Villamax, Diabolico were coined by the Power Rangers fandom as the noble villain; although on the side of evil, they possess strong ethic which enable them to make bold decisions to help the heroes or oppose their superior or commit acts of heroism.

Lack of cultural identification

Because American audiences did not readily identify with the appearance and culture of east Asian characters, elements were introduced to increase a sense of familiarity. For example, to make the original 1954 Godzilla more palatable to American audiences, actor Raymond Burr was added to help the audience accept the Japanese characters from the original version. In the mid-1960s, Hollywood actors like Nick Adams and Russ Tamblyn actually appeared in some of these films alongside the Japanese actors (thanks to the collaboration between Toho and UPA, best known for their animated movies & TV shows like Mr. Magoo). The Gamera films, aimed at children, started to include Caucasian children alongside the Japanese children to appeal to the American market, upon the success of the first Gamera film there. In order to reach the Australian market and particularly the North American market, Tsuburaya Productions co-produced two Ultraman shows starring a multiracial cast. Tsuburaya has been trying to penetrate the North American market for a long time. Later shows such as Power Rangers were completely Westernized to fit mainstream tastes.

Terminology

Some new terms that came up over the years:

• Original Toku(satsu) - This term refers to the original movies & shows that came from Japan.
  • Examples: Godzilla, Gamera, Ultraman, Kamen Rider, Super Sentai, Metal Heroes, Chouseishin Series

• Toku(satsu) Adapts - This term refers to movies & shows that "Americanize" the original Japanese concept.
  • Examples: Saban's, Disney's Power Rangers, Saban's Masked Rider, VR Troopers, Big Bad Beetleborgs, Superhuman Samurai Syber Squad, etc.
  • American-made remakes of Japanese FX movies may fall into this category. Examples: Godzilla (1998), The Ring (2002), The Grudge (2004)

Note: Movies and series like Godzilla, King of the Monsters, Varan the Unbelievable, King Kong vs Godzilla, and the 4Kids rendition of Ultraman Tiga fit into a sub category of Toku Adapts call "Toku Dubs" by some toku enthusiasts. Godzilla, King of the Monsters, King Kong vs. Godzilla, and Varan the Unvelievable, it in this sub category because, despite adding American Footage, a majority (if not all) of the Japanese actors were still kept, as well as some of the original concepts used in the Japanese versions.

• American Toku(satsu) - Original American movies & shows made in the US (or by US companies) that follow the tokusatsu formula instead of "adapting" Japanese footage. This is confusing to some, because many claim that the Power Rangers series has slowly stopped using the original Japanese footage and began filming new scenes; however, if the Sentai suits, Monster suits, etc. are still being used in the show despite different footage, it is still a "toku adapt" rather than "American Toku."
  • Examples: Steve Wang's Kung Fu Rascals, Kaiju Big Battel, Johnny Robo, Tattooed Teenage Alien Fighters from Beverly Hills, Los Luchadores, The Mystic Knights of Tir Na Nog, Van-Pires, Big Wolf on Campus, Animorphs

References

• Grays, Kevin. Welcome to the Wonderful World of Japanese Fantasy (Markalite Vol. 1, Summer 1990, Kaiju Productions/Pacific Rim Publishing)
• Yoshida, Makoto & Ikeda, Noriyoshi and Ragone, August. The Making of "Godzilla Vs. Biollante" - They Call it "Tokusatsu" (Markalite Vol. 1, Summer 1990, Kaiju Productions/Pacific Rim Publishing)
• Godziszewski, Ed. The Making of Godzilla (G-FAN #12, November/December 1994, Daikaiju Enterprises)
• Ryfle, Steve. Japan's Favorite Mon-Star: The Unauthorized Biography of Godzilla. ECW Press, 1999. ISBN 1-55022-348-8.
• Cassidy, John Paul. The Perception of Tokusatsu in America, 2005 (Blog Essay).
• Suriadikusuma, Aria Wicaksana. Fans Club Tokusatsu Indonesia, 2005.

See also

• Kaiju
• Japanese robots
• Japanese superheroes
• OVT (Original Video Tokusatsu)
• Toei Superheroes
• Tsuburaya Superheroes

External links

• Henshin! Online - Specializes in updates/articles on tokusatsu and anime.
• Sci-Fi Japan - Formed by Keith Aiken and members of Henshin! Online, and covers the same fields of Japanese fantasy.
• Japan Hero - Everything you wanted to know about superheroes in Japan!
• Dans l'univers de la SF japonaise... - French fansite with photos of several Tokusatsu series
• Henshin Hall of Fame - Large information source about Tokusatsu, focused mainly on the Henshin Heroes genre

• Tokusatsu
• Film genres