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| '''''Pomphorhynchus laevis''''' is an endo-parasitic ] worm, with a complex life cycle, that can modify the behaviour of its ], the ] ] '']''.<ref name=" |
'''''Pomphorhynchus laevis''''' is an endo-parasitic ] worm, with a complex life cycle, that can modify the behaviour of its ], the ] ] '']''.<ref name="Bakker 1997">{{cite journal|last=Bakker|first=Theo C.M.|author2=Dominique Mazzi|author3=Sarah Zala|s2cid=85643670|date=June 1997|title=Parasite Induced Changes in Behavior and Color Make ''Gammarus pulex'' More Prone to Fish Predation|journal=Ecology|location=University of Bern, CH-3032 Hinterkappelen, Switzerland|publisher=Ecological Society of America|volume=78|issue=5|pages=1098–1104|doi=10.1890/0012-9658(1997)0782.0.CO;2}}</ref> This species does not contain a digestive tract and relies on the nutrients provided by its host species. | ||
| leading to the accumulation of lead in ''P. laevis'' from the bile of the host species.<ref name="Sures 2005">{{Cite journal|last1=Sures|first1=B.|last2=Thielen|first2=F.|last3=Baska|first3=F.|last4=Messerschmidt|first4=J.|last5=von Bohlen|first5=A.|date=2005|title=The intestinal parasite ''Pomphorhynchus laevis'' as a sensitive accumulation indicator for the platinum group metals Pt, Pd, and Rh|journal=Environmental Research|volume=98|issue=1|pages=83–88|doi=10.1016/j.envres.2004.05.010|pmid=15721887|issn=0013-9351}}</ref> | |||
| ==Life cycle== | ==Life cycle== | ||
| ''Pomphorhynchus laevis'' has a complex life cycle, meaning that it needs multiple ] to complete it. The female releases eggs containing acanthor that are then ingested by an arthropod. The acanthor is then released from the egg and becomes acanthella which penetrate the host's gut wall and transforms into the infective cystacanth stage which presents as a cyst. The larval stages (cystacanths) reside in the hemocoel of, ], its ]. Several fish species can serve as the ], where ''P. laevis'' infect the intestine.<ref name=" |
''Pomphorhynchus laevis'' has a complex life cycle, meaning that it needs multiple ] to complete it. The female releases eggs containing acanthor that are then ingested by an arthropod. The acanthor is then released from the egg and becomes acanthella which penetrate the host's gut wall and transforms into the infective cystacanth stage which presents as a cyst. The larval stages (cystacanths) reside in the hemocoel of, ], its ]. Several fish species can serve as the ], where ''P. laevis'' infect the intestine.<ref name="Thünken 2019">{{cite journal|last1=Thünken|first1=Timo|last2=Baldauf|first2=Sebastian A.|last3=Bersau|first3=Nicole|last4=Frommen|first4=Joachim G.|last5=Bakker|first5=Theo C.M.|date=2019|title=Parasite-induced colour alteration of intermediate hosts increases ingestion by suitable final host species|journal=Behaviour|volume=156|issue=13–14|pages=1329–1348|doi=10.1163/1568539X-00003568|doi-access=free}}</ref> In the fish host, bile is an important resource for the growth of ''P. laevis''.<ref name="Sures 1999">{{cite journal |last1=Sures |first1=Bernd |last2=Siddall |first2=Roy |title=''Pomphorhynchus laevis'': The intestinal acanthocephalan as a lead sink for its fish host, chub (''Leuciscus cephalus'') |journal=Experimental Parasitology |date=1999 |volume=93 |issue=2 |pages=66–72 |doi=10.1006/expr.1999.4437}}</ref> The preferred final hosts of ''Pomphorhynchus laevis'' include the chub, '']'' and barbel, '']'' when in freshwater and the minnow, '']'' when in an isolated body of water.<ref name="Dudiňák 2003">{{Cite journal|last1=Dudiňák|first1=V.|last2=Špakulová|first2=M.|date=2003|title=The life cycle and seasonal changes in the occurrence of ''Pomphorhynchus laevis'' (Palaeacanthocephala, Pomphorhynchidae) in a small isolated lake|journal=Parasite|volume=10|issue=3|pages=257–262|doi=10.1051/parasite/2003103257|pmid=14535165|issn=1252-607X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Immature ''P. laevis'' are mainly found in the proximal part of the digestive tract while mature and developing ''P. laevis'' are found near the first intestinal loop with the posterior third loop of the digestive tract being uninhabitable. <ref name="Dudiňák 2003" /> | ||
| ==Environmental factors== | ==Environmental factors== | ||
| === Lead pollution === | === Lead pollution === | ||
| When chub ('']'', a definitive host of ''Pomphorhynchus laevis'') infected with ''P. laevis'' are exposed to different concentrations of ], the parasite is able to reduce lead concentrations in the host. The normal mechanism of filtering lead for a freshwater fish includes the binding of the lead to steroids contained in the bile of the liver. The bile then travels down the bile duct into the ] where the lead is either absorbed or excreted. The parasite reduces the lead concentration in the bile of the chub once it has travelled to the small intestine by absorbing the metals contained in the bile. The lead being absorbed by ''P. laevis'' leaves less lead in the bile to be reabsorbed by the chub. This results in decreased levels of lead in the bile of the fish as well as in the fish organs.<ref name=" |
When chub ('']'', a definitive host of ''Pomphorhynchus laevis'') infected with ''P. laevis'' are exposed to different concentrations of ], the parasite is able to reduce lead concentrations in the host. The normal mechanism of filtering lead for a freshwater fish includes the binding of the lead to steroids contained in the bile of the liver. The bile then travels down the bile duct into the ] where the lead is either absorbed or excreted. The parasite reduces the lead concentration in the bile of the chub once it has travelled to the small intestine by absorbing the metals contained in the bile. The lead being absorbed by ''P. laevis'' leaves less lead in the bile to be reabsorbed by the chub. This results in decreased levels of lead in the bile of the fish as well as in the fish organs.<ref name="Sures 2005" /> ''P. laevis'' itself builds up high concentrations of lead (1000 times water concentration).<ref name="Sures 1999" /> | ||
| ===Temperature=== | ===Temperature=== | ||
| Line 23: | Line 25: | ||
| == Host manipulation == | == Host manipulation == | ||
| ''Pomphorhynchus laevis'' facilitates its movement between their hosts by altering the behavior and visual appearance of its gammarid intermediate hosts. Infected gammarids are manipulated to develop a preference for fish odours.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baldauf|first=Sebastian A.|author2=Timo Thünken|author3=Joachim G Frommen|author4=Theo C M Bakker|author5=Oliver Heupel|author6=Harald Kullmann|year=2007|title=Infection with an acanthocephalan manipulates an amphipod's reaction to a fish predator's odours|url=http://lib.bioinfo.pl/pmid:17049528|journal=International Journal for Parasitology|location=An der Immenburg 1, D-53121 Bonn, Germany|publisher=University of Bonn, Institute for Evolutionary Biology and Ecology|volume=37|issue=1|pages=61–5|doi=10.1016/j.ijpara.2006.09.003|pmid=17049528}}</ref> At the same time, the parasites itself develops a bright orange colour making it more visible and consequently more likely to be consumed by a subsequent fish host.<ref name=" |
''Pomphorhynchus laevis'' facilitates its movement between their hosts by altering the behavior and visual appearance of its gammarid intermediate hosts. Infected gammarids are manipulated to develop a preference for fish odours.<ref name="Baldauf 2007">{{cite journal|last=Baldauf|first=Sebastian A.|author2=Timo Thünken|author3=Joachim G Frommen|author4=Theo C M Bakker|author5=Oliver Heupel|author6=Harald Kullmann|year=2007|title=Infection with an acanthocephalan manipulates an amphipod's reaction to a fish predator's odours|url=http://lib.bioinfo.pl/pmid:17049528|journal=International Journal for Parasitology|location=An der Immenburg 1, D-53121 Bonn, Germany|publisher=University of Bonn, Institute for Evolutionary Biology and Ecology|volume=37|issue=1|pages=61–5|doi=10.1016/j.ijpara.2006.09.003|pmid=17049528}}</ref> At the same time, the parasites itself develops a bright orange colour making it more visible and consequently more likely to be consumed by a subsequent fish host.<ref name="Bakker 1997" /> This visual manipulation is effective specifically on host species that can serve as suitable hosts as fish species that are not suitable hosts are less attracted.<ref name="Thünken 2019" /> | ||
| ''Pomphorhynchus laevis'' also causes changes in the behavior of ''Gammarus pulex'' when responding to light. Normally, the species ''G. pulex'' show strong photophobic behaviour, meaning they avoid light, which is advantageous to evade predation. When infected with ''P. laevis'', ''G. pulex'' become strongly photophilic and seek out light which increases their chance of predation in turn increasing the likelihood of parasite transmission.<ref name=" |
''Pomphorhynchus laevis'' also causes changes in the behavior of ''Gammarus pulex'' when responding to light. Normally, the species ''G. pulex'' show strong photophobic behaviour, meaning they avoid light, which is advantageous to evade predation. When infected with ''P. laevis'', ''G. pulex'' become strongly photophilic and seek out light which increases their chance of predation in turn increasing the likelihood of parasite transmission.<ref name="Tain 2006">{{Cite journal|last1=Tain|first1=Luke|last2=Perrot-Minnot|first2=Marie-Jeanne|last3=Cézilly|first3=Frank|date=2006|title=Differential influence of Pomphorhynchus laevis (Acanthocephala) on brain serotonergic activity in two congeneric host species|journal=Biology Letters|volume=3|issue=1|pages=69–72|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2006.0583|pmid=17443968|pmc=2373828|issn=1744-9561}}</ref> This alteration in behaviour pertaining to light was found to involve an alteration in ] activity of the brain. The immunoreactivity of the brain to ] was found to be increased by around 40 percent for infected ''G. pulex'' when compared to uninfected ''G. pulex''.<ref name="Tain 2006" /> It is also shown that ''G. pulex'' infected with the cystacanths, the infective larval stage of ''P. laevis,'' are less likely to show behaviours that would normally allow them to avoid predation such as using refuge less frequently, being less likely to cluster together when in the presence of danger, and frequently clinging to things floating in the water.<ref name="Dianne 2014">{{Cite journal|last1=Dianne|first1=Lucile|last2=Perrot-Minnot|first2=Marie-Jeanne|last3=Bauer|first3=Alexandre|last4=Guvenatam|first4=Arnaud|last5=Rigaud|first5=Thierry|date=2014|title=Parasite-induced alteration of plastic response to predation threat: increased refuge use but lower food intake in Gammarus pulex infected with the acanothocephalan Pomphorhynchus laevis|journal=International Journal for Parasitology|volume=44|issue=3–4|pages=211–216|doi=10.1016/j.ijpara.2013.11.001|pmid=24291320|issn=0020-7519}}</ref> When ''G. pulex'' are infected by the non-infective life stage of ''P. laevis,'' there is an increased use of refuge which in turn decreases the risk of predation which is advantageous to the parasite due to them not being able to infect the next host when in this life stage.<ref name="Tain 2006" /> | ||
| ==Biomimetics== | ==Biomimetics== | ||
| This worm swells its ] to press microneedles into the intestinal wall, with a very strong adhesive force. This has inspired a structural skin graft adhesive that sticks strongly but has minimal tissue damage while in place and upon removal.<ref>{{cite journal| date= |
This worm swells its ] to press microneedles into the intestinal wall, with a very strong adhesive force. This has inspired a structural skin graft adhesive that sticks strongly but has minimal tissue damage while in place and upon removal.<ref name="Yun Yang 2013">{{cite journal| date=2013 |author=Seung Yun Yang|title=A bio-inspired swellable microneedle adhesive for mechanical interlocking with tissue|journal=Nature Communications|publisher=Macmillan|location=Massachusetts (mixed)|volume=4|issue=1702|pages=1702|doi=10.1038/ncomms2715|display-authors=etal|pmid=23591869|pmc=3660066|bibcode=2013NatCo...4.1702Y}}</ref> | ||
| ==References== | ==References== | ||
Revision as of 15:16, 6 November 2020
| Pomphorhynchus laevis | |
|---|---|
Scientific classification 
| |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Acanthocephala |
| Class: | Palaeacanthocephala |
| Order: | Echinorhynchida |
| Family: | Pomphorhynchidae |
| Genus: | Pomphorhynchus |
| Species: | P. laevis |
| Binomial name | |
| Pomphorhynchus laevis Müller, 1776 | |
Pomphorhynchus laevis is an endo-parasitic acanthocephalan worm, with a complex life cycle, that can modify the behaviour of its intermediate host, the freshwater amphipod Gammarus pulex. This species does not contain a digestive tract and relies on the nutrients provided by its host species. leading to the accumulation of lead in P. laevis from the bile of the host species.
Life cycle
Pomphorhynchus laevis has a complex life cycle, meaning that it needs multiple host species to complete it. The female releases eggs containing acanthor that are then ingested by an arthropod. The acanthor is then released from the egg and becomes acanthella which penetrate the host's gut wall and transforms into the infective cystacanth stage which presents as a cyst. The larval stages (cystacanths) reside in the hemocoel of, Gammarids, its intermediate host. Several fish species can serve as the definitive host, where P. laevis infect the intestine. In the fish host, bile is an important resource for the growth of P. laevis. The preferred final hosts of Pomphorhynchus laevis include the chub, Leuciscus cephalus and barbel, Barbus barbus when in freshwater and the minnow, Phoxinus phoxinus when in an isolated body of water. Immature P. laevis are mainly found in the proximal part of the digestive tract while mature and developing P. laevis are found near the first intestinal loop with the posterior third loop of the digestive tract being uninhabitable.
Environmental factors
Lead pollution
When chub (Leuciscus cephalus, a definitive host of Pomphorhynchus laevis) infected with P. laevis are exposed to different concentrations of lead, the parasite is able to reduce lead concentrations in the host. The normal mechanism of filtering lead for a freshwater fish includes the binding of the lead to steroids contained in the bile of the liver. The bile then travels down the bile duct into the small intestine where the lead is either absorbed or excreted. The parasite reduces the lead concentration in the bile of the chub once it has travelled to the small intestine by absorbing the metals contained in the bile. The lead being absorbed by P. laevis leaves less lead in the bile to be reabsorbed by the chub. This results in decreased levels of lead in the bile of the fish as well as in the fish organs. P. laevis itself builds up high concentrations of lead (1000 times water concentration).
Temperature
The infection success of acanthors emerging from eggs to Gammarus pulex is not affected by temperature, but developmental rate is increased at warmer temperatures (14 versus 17 °C) . At the same temperatures parasite infection reduces survival of these hosts, but this is not compounded by temperature .
Host manipulation
Pomphorhynchus laevis facilitates its movement between their hosts by altering the behavior and visual appearance of its gammarid intermediate hosts. Infected gammarids are manipulated to develop a preference for fish odours. At the same time, the parasites itself develops a bright orange colour making it more visible and consequently more likely to be consumed by a subsequent fish host. This visual manipulation is effective specifically on host species that can serve as suitable hosts as fish species that are not suitable hosts are less attracted.
Pomphorhynchus laevis also causes changes in the behavior of Gammarus pulex when responding to light. Normally, the species G. pulex show strong photophobic behaviour, meaning they avoid light, which is advantageous to evade predation. When infected with P. laevis, G. pulex become strongly photophilic and seek out light which increases their chance of predation in turn increasing the likelihood of parasite transmission. This alteration in behaviour pertaining to light was found to involve an alteration in serotonergic activity of the brain. The immunoreactivity of the brain to serotonin was found to be increased by around 40 percent for infected G. pulex when compared to uninfected G. pulex. It is also shown that G. pulex infected with the cystacanths, the infective larval stage of P. laevis, are less likely to show behaviours that would normally allow them to avoid predation such as using refuge less frequently, being less likely to cluster together when in the presence of danger, and frequently clinging to things floating in the water. When G. pulex are infected by the non-infective life stage of P. laevis, there is an increased use of refuge which in turn decreases the risk of predation which is advantageous to the parasite due to them not being able to infect the next host when in this life stage.
Biomimetics
This worm swells its proboscis to press microneedles into the intestinal wall, with a very strong adhesive force. This has inspired a structural skin graft adhesive that sticks strongly but has minimal tissue damage while in place and upon removal.
References
- ^ Bakker, Theo C.M.; Dominique Mazzi; Sarah Zala (June 1997). "Parasite Induced Changes in Behavior and Color Make Gammarus pulex More Prone to Fish Predation". Ecology. 78 (5). University of Bern, CH-3032 Hinterkappelen, Switzerland: Ecological Society of America: 1098–1104. doi:10.1890/0012-9658(1997)078[1098:PICIBA]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 85643670.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: location (link) - ^ Sures, B.; Thielen, F.; Baska, F.; Messerschmidt, J.; von Bohlen, A. (2005). "The intestinal parasite Pomphorhynchus laevis as a sensitive accumulation indicator for the platinum group metals Pt, Pd, and Rh". Environmental Research. 98 (1): 83–88. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2004.05.010. ISSN 0013-9351. PMID 15721887.
- ^ Thünken, Timo; Baldauf, Sebastian A.; Bersau, Nicole; Frommen, Joachim G.; Bakker, Theo C.M. (2019). "Parasite-induced colour alteration of intermediate hosts increases ingestion by suitable final host species". Behaviour. 156 (13–14): 1329–1348. doi:10.1163/1568539X-00003568.
- ^ Sures, Bernd; Siddall, Roy (1999). "Pomphorhynchus laevis: The intestinal acanthocephalan as a lead sink for its fish host, chub (Leuciscus cephalus)". Experimental Parasitology. 93 (2): 66–72. doi:10.1006/expr.1999.4437.
- ^ Dudiňák, V.; Špakulová, M. (2003). "The life cycle and seasonal changes in the occurrence of Pomphorhynchus laevis (Palaeacanthocephala, Pomphorhynchidae) in a small isolated lake". Parasite. 10 (3): 257–262. doi:10.1051/parasite/2003103257. ISSN 1252-607X. PMID 14535165.
- ^ Labaude, Sophie; Cézilly, Frank; De Marco, Lila; Rigaud, Thierry (2020). "Increased temperature has no consequence for behavioral manipulation despite effects on both partners in the interaction between a crustacean host and a manipulative parasite". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 11670. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-68577-z.
- Baldauf, Sebastian A.; Timo Thünken; Joachim G Frommen; Theo C M Bakker; Oliver Heupel; Harald Kullmann (2007). "Infection with an acanthocephalan manipulates an amphipod's reaction to a fish predator's odours". International Journal for Parasitology. 37 (1). An der Immenburg 1, D-53121 Bonn, Germany: University of Bonn, Institute for Evolutionary Biology and Ecology: 61–5. doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2006.09.003. PMID 17049528.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: location (link) - ^ Tain, Luke; Perrot-Minnot, Marie-Jeanne; Cézilly, Frank (2006). "Differential influence of Pomphorhynchus laevis (Acanthocephala) on brain serotonergic activity in two congeneric host species". Biology Letters. 3 (1): 69–72. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2006.0583. ISSN 1744-9561. PMC 2373828. PMID 17443968.
- Dianne, Lucile; Perrot-Minnot, Marie-Jeanne; Bauer, Alexandre; Guvenatam, Arnaud; Rigaud, Thierry (2014). "Parasite-induced alteration of plastic response to predation threat: increased refuge use but lower food intake in Gammarus pulex infected with the acanothocephalan Pomphorhynchus laevis". International Journal for Parasitology. 44 (3–4): 211–216. doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2013.11.001. ISSN 0020-7519. PMID 24291320.
- Seung Yun Yang; et al. (2013). "A bio-inspired swellable microneedle adhesive for mechanical interlocking with tissue". Nature Communications. 4 (1702). Massachusetts (mixed): Macmillan: 1702. Bibcode:2013NatCo...4.1702Y. doi:10.1038/ncomms2715. PMC 3660066. PMID 23591869.
| Taxon identifiers | |
|---|---|
| Pomphorhynchus laevis |
|